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Building Science Concepts and Applications Jens - Pohl 2011
Building Science Concepts and Applications Jens - Pohl 2011
Jens Pohl
Professor of Architecture
College of Architecture and Environmental Design
California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly)
San Luis Obispo, California
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Pohl, Jens.
Building Science : Concepts and Application / Jens Pohl, Professor of Architecture, College of
Architecture and Environmental Design, California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), San Luis
Obispo, California. – First.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-65573-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Buildings–Environmental engineering. I. Title.
TH6021.P64 2011
720'.47–dc22
2010042179
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
This book is published in the following electronic format Wiley Online Library [9781444392333]
1 2011
Contents
8.6 The room cavity ratio 145 11 Noise Control and Insulation 196
8.7 The PSALI concept 145 11.1 Noise control by legislation 196
11.2 Airborne and solid-borne sound 197
9 The Nature of Sound 147 11.3 Airborne noise insulation 198
9.1 What is sound? 147 11.4 Solid-borne noise insulation 208
9.2 Objective units of sound 11.5 Noise insulation in practice 211
measurement 149 11.6 Common noise sources 214
9.3 Addition, deletion, and reduction
of sound pressure levels 151 12 Sustainable Architecture Concepts
9.4 The concept of octave bands 154 and Principles 225
9.5 Subjective units of sound 12.1 Human resistance to change 225
measurement 155 12.2 Discernible trends 227
9.6 How do we hear sound? 157 12.3 Fundamental concepts and
9.7 Hearing conservation in definition of terms 233
the environment 158 12.4 Assessment of high-performance
9.8 Sound-measurement buildings 239
instruments 161 12.5 Energy design strategies 242
12.6 Water conservation strategies 250
10 Room Acoustics 166 12.7 Closed-loop building materials 253
10.1 Reflection and diffraction
of sound 166 References and Further Reading 259
10.2 Absorption of sound 169 Keyword Index 267
10.3 Speech communication 174
10.4 Halls for speech and music 184
Multiple choice questions and answers have been set for Chapters 2 to 11 and are designed to allow
students to test their understanding of the concepts and principles of climate, heat, light, and sound,
as well as their application in the design and construction of buildings.
PowerPoint slides have been prepared for lecturers to accompany Chapters 2 to 12 and are designed
to highlight the underlying fundamental principles pertaining to the environmental aspects of build-
ing science, with some practical examples from the natural and built environment.
Please feel free to use any of these resources with appropriate attribution.
Foreword
The design of buildings and the broader field of consuming, iterative process that commences
environmental design are often described as an with the solution of the individual design fac-
art and a science. Design is an art because of tors more or less in isolation. These individual
both the complexity of the problem-solving and solutions are then tested in terms of their impact
decision-making processes involved, and the on each other, usually requiring major adjust-
innate desire of the designer to produce a solu- ments to be made based on progressively more
tion that is unique and at the same time pleas- clearly defined constraints. This is a cyclic proc-
ing to our human senses. In the first instance, ess that has so far defied rigorous scientific
the complexity of the design process itself is explanation. However, we do have knowledge
not necessarily due to the complexity of any of at least some of the characteristics of this
single issue or factor that must be considered human design activity (Pohl, 2008).
– although some of these certainly demand in-
depth subject-matter knowledge – but rather the • Even though the designer may assign weight-
many interrelationships among those factors. ings to the multiple issues and factors that
For example, placing a window into the appear to impact the design solution, the
external wall of a building for the primary pur- relative importance of these issues and their
pose of providing daylight may well have far- relationships to each other often changes
reaching implications on other areas of the dynamically during the design process. So
overall design solution. The same window will also do the boundaries of the problem space
also allow heat to either enter or escape from and the goals and objectives of the desired
the building and in this way impact the thermal outcome. In other words, under these cir-
balance of the building interior. If located near cumstances decision making is an altogether
an external noise source such as a freeway, the dynamic process in which both the rules that
presence of the window may adversely affect govern the process and the required proper-
speech communication within the space that is ties of the end result are subject to continu-
served by the window. In addition, the exist- ous review, refinement, and amendment.
ence of the window may impact the building • Observation of designers in action has drawn
structure and it may also have privacy and secu- attention to the important role played by
rity implications. experience gained in past similar situations,
Clearly, the designer is faced with a very knowledge acquired in the general course
complex situation where a change in any one of design practice, and expertise contributed
factor of the overall solution can impact a host by persons who have detailed specialist
of other factors and possibly unravel the current knowledge in particular problem areas. The
solution altogether. But why is dealing with dominant emphasis on experience is confir-
such complexity considered an art rather than mation of another fundamental aspect of the
a science? The answer is perhaps surprising decision-making activity. Designers seldom
to the reader. While true and tried methods start from first principles. In most cases, the
exist for solving most of these factors in isola- designer builds on existing solutions from
tion, there are really no such methods avail- previous design situations that are in some
able for producing an optimum overall solution way related to the problem under consid-
that satisfies all of the individual factors. Instead, eration. From this viewpoint, the decision-
the designer typically utilizes a rather time- making activity involves the modification,
vi Foreword
sistent explanation of the nature of light. 1950s and 1960s. Based on existing scientific
Chapter 7 stresses the importance of daylight in premises in physics and other sciences, these
building design, presents the Daylight Factor foundations have gradually become an increas-
design concept and methodology, and con- ingly important component of the education
cludes with a discussion of glare conditions and and training of architects. However, it can be
their avoidance. Artificial lighting is the subject argued that except for some innovations in arti-
of Chapter 8. This chapter delves into the prom- ficial light sources, relatively minor mechanical
inent role that electricity plays in the produc- system improvements, and alternative energy
tion of light by artificial means and compares explorations, little was added to this body of
the efficacy and characteristics of the various knowledge during the concluding years of the
commercially available light sources in terms of twentieth century.
the energy-to-light conversion ratio, lifespan, There are strong indications that this will
available intensity range, color rendition prop- change quite dramatically during the twenty-
erties, and cost. first century, owing to an increased awareness
The various aspects of sound that impact the of the human impact on the ecology of planet
design of the built environment are also divided Earth. Clearly, the sustainability movement will
into three chapters. Chapter 9 discusses the have a major impact on the design and con-
nature of sound as a physical force that sets any struction of the built environment during the
medium through which it travels into vibration. coming decades. For this reason the final section
This chapter lays the foundations for the treat- of this book, Chapter 12, provides an introduc-
ment of sound as an important means of com- tion to ecological design concepts and describes
munication and source of pleasure in Chapter both the objectives that are being established and
10, and as a disruptive disturbance that must be the approaches that are emerging for meeting
controlled in Chapter 11. sustainability targets in building design and
Chapters 2 to 11 are largely historical, because construction during the twenty-first century.
they deal with the concepts and principles of Multiple choice questions and answers for all
building science that were mostly established chapters except Chapters 1 and 12 can be found
during the emergence of this field of architec- on the website
ture in the post-World War II period of the www.wiley.com/go/pohlbuildingscience.
1 Technical Underpinnings in Mathematics
and Physics
The field of building science is based on scientific concepts and principles. This does not mean,
however, that an in-depth knowledge of science and mathematics is necessarily required for the
application of sound building-science principles during the building design process. In most cases an
understanding of the higher-level technical notions involved is sufficient for the designer to make
the necessary decisions during the early design stages, when the conceptual design solution is for-
mulated. However, it is most important that those decisions are sound, so that they can be translated
into detailed solutions during later design stages by consultants with specialized expertise.
Accordingly, the purpose of this book is to describe and explain the underlying concepts and
principles of the thermal, lighting, and acoustic determinants of building design, without delving
into the detailed methods that are applied by engineers and other technical consultants to design
and implement detailed system solutions. Nevertheless, there are some basic mathematical methods
and scientific principles that the reader should be familiar with to easily follow the largely qualita-
tive treatment of the subject matter of the subsequent chapters. The particular mathematical
methods that are briefly reviewed include elementary linear equations and normal distribution
statistics. In respect to Physics the fundamental concepts related to temperature scales and black
body radiation have been selected for explanation in this introductory chapter, because they form
the basis of discussions related to the thermal determinants of building design and artificial light
sources, respectively.
on graph paper with y on the vertical axis and simultaneous equations there must be at least as
x on the horizontal axis, for multiple values of many equations as there are unknowns.
x and y, then the resulting graph would be a
curve. On the other hand a linear equation, by
virtue of its name, will always result in a straight 1.1.2 Simultaneous equations
line when plotted on graph paper. with two unknowns
The general form of a linear equation is A1X1 + A problem that has only two linear variables
A2X2 + A3X3 + … AiXi = C, where A1 to Ai and C can be solved quite easily in Algebra as a set of
are constants and X1 to Xi are variables. The two simultaneous equations. The approach is to
following are examples of linear equations and eliminate one of the two unknowns by utilizing
all of these will result in straight lines when one of the following three alternative methods:
plotted on graph paper: Method A: Elimination by addition or sub-
traction. Multiply one or both of the equations
7x = −16; or 2x − 6y = 8; or x − 3y + 17z = −3.
by a constant and then add or subtract the equa-
There is another very useful rule in Algebra tions to eliminate one of the unknowns. For
that applies to not just linear equations, but to example, solve the following two equations
all equations. for the unknowns x and y: 5x + 2y = 32 and
Rule 3: Whatever operation is applied to one 2x − y = 2.
side of an equation must also be applied to the 5x + 2y = 32 [1]
other side. Restating this rule in a more positive
form: any mathematical operation such as mul- 4x − 2y = 4 [2] multiply equation
tiplication, division, addition, or subtraction [2] by 2
can be applied to an equation as long as it is 9x = 36 add equation [2] to
applied to both sides of the equation. We will equation [1]
use this rule repeatedly in Section 1.1.2 to solve x=4 divide both sides of
equations involving two unknowns. the equation by 9
20 + 2y = 32 substitute for x = 4 in
1.1.1 What are unknown quantities? equation [1]
It is generally considered convenient in Algebra 2y = 12 subtract 20 from both
to categorize equations according to the number sides of the equation
of unknown quantities (or more commonly the y=6 divide both sides of
number of unknowns). This refers simply to the equation by 2
the number of different variables contained in Method B: Elimination by substitution.
the equation. For example: Using one of the equations, find the value of one
unknown in terms of the other, then substitute.
12x − 16 = 0 has 1 unknown
For example, solve the following two equations:
2x + 17y = −66 has 2 unknowns 2x + 4y = 50 and 3x + 5y = 66:
−114x + 212y = 22z + 9 has 3 unknowns 2x + 4y = 50 [1]
A1X1 + A2X2 + has i unknowns 3x + 5y = 66 [2]
A3X3 + … AiXi = C 2x = 50 − 4y subtract 4y from
A set or system of equations that are to be con- both sides of
sidered together for the solution of the same equation [1]
problem are known as simultaneous equations. It x = 25 − 2y divide both sides
is a fundamental and very important rule in by 2 to find x
mathematics that to be able to solve a system of in terms of y
Technical Underpinnings in Mathematics and Physics 3
Table 1.1 Sample of the heights of persons Table 1.2 Frequency distribution table.
(in inches).
Class no. Class limits Class frequency
72 67 65 70 82 76 60 62 68 59
50 78 67 68 68 68 64 80 54 49 1 45.5 to 50.5 2
67 64 71 75 60 70 69 69 65 79 2 50.5 to 55.5 3
67 69 65 69 68 78 59 64 72 72 3 55.5 to 60.5 6
81 76 52 53 56 82 71 68 63 59 4 60.5 to 65.5 8
5 65.5 to 70.5 16
6 70.5 to 75.5 6
7 75.5 to 80.5 6
8 80.5 to 85.5 3
Mean (or Arithmetic Mean) is the average It should be noted that the smaller the class
value of the sample. It is calculated simply by interval, the more accurate the result will be. In
adding the values of all observations and divid- this case, with a class interval (c) of 5, the error
ing by the number of observations. In reference is 0.2 (or 0.3 percent).
to Table 1.1:
Mean (x) = 3360 / 50 = 67.2 IN 1.2.2 The normal distribution curve
The manual calculation of a mean using this We have seen that frequency distributions are
method tends to become tedious if the sample of great value for the statistical analysis of data.
is quite large, as it is in this case. Therefore, for Moreover, there would appear to be consider-
samples that contain more than 30 observations, able merit in the standardization of frequency
it is common practice to draw up a frequency distributions leading, for example, to the tabu-
distribution table with an expanded set of lation of coordinates and so on. In fact, such
columns, as shown in Table 1.3 below. systems have been devised, and one of them
relies on a rather distinctive natural phenome-
where:
non. There are a large number of distributions
t = [group mid-value – assumed Mean (xo)] / that appear to have a symmetrical, bell-shaped
class interval (c); distribution (e.g., the heights, intelligence, and
xo = any assumed Mean (63 in this case); ages of persons) of the type shown in Figure 1.4.
c = the class interval (5 in this case). This unique distribution, which is known as
the Normal Distribution Curve, or the Error
Based on the frequency distribution table, the
true mean (x) of the sample is given as a func-
tion of an assumed mean ( xo) plus a positive or
negative correction factor.
Mean (x) = x o + c [ ∑(ft) ] / [∑ f] [1.1]
Applying equation [1.1] to the sample of heights
shown in Tables 1.1 and 1.3, we calculate the
true mean (x) of the sample to be:
x = 63 + 5 ( 40 / 50)
x = 63 + 4.0
x = 67.0 IN Figure 1.4 The normal distribution curve.
45.5 to 50.5 48 2 −3 −6
50.5 to 55.5 53 3 −2 −6
55.5 to 60.5 58 6 −1 −6
60.5 to 65.5 63 8 0 0
65.5 to 70.5 68 16 +1 +16
70.5 to 75.5 73 6 +2 +12
75.5 to 80.5 78 6 +3 +18
80.5 to 85.5 83 3 +4 +12
∑ f = 50 ∑(ft ) = 40
Technical Underpinnings in Mathematics and Physics 7
45.5 to 50.5 48 2 -3 -6 18
50.5 to 55.5 53 3 -2 -6 12
55.5 to 60.5 58 6 -1 -6 6
60.5 to 65.5 63 8 0 0 0
65.5 to 70.5 68 16 +1 +16 16
70.5 to 75.5 73 6 +2 +12 24
75.5 to 80.5 78 6 +3 +18 54
80.5 to 85.5 83 3 +4 +12 48
H ∑ f = 50 ∑(ft ) = 40 ∑(ft 2 ) = 178
S = 5 [(178 / 50) − ( 40 / 50)2 ]1/2 Let us consider the following sample, contain-
ing measurements of the ultimate compressive
S = 5 [3.56 − (0.8)2 ]1/2 strengths of 10 concrete test cylinders:
S = 5 [3.56 − 0.64]1/ 2
i.e., 2000, 2500, 4000, 1800, 2100, 3000, 2600,
S = 5 [2.92]1/ 2 2000, 2900, and 1900 psi.
S = 5 [1.71]
S = 8.55 IN
x x2
Accordingly, with a Mean of 67.2 in and a Stand-
ard Deviation of 8.55 in, we have now defined 2000 4 000 000
the sample within the following boundaries: 2500 6 250 000
4000 16 000 000
68% of the measured heights will lie in the 1800 3 240 000
range: 2100 4 410 000
3000 9 000 000
(67.2 − 8.55) to (67.2 + 8.55); i.e., 58.7 to 75.8 IN 2600 6 760 000
2000 4 000 000
94% of the measured heights will lie in the 2900 8 410 000
range: 1900 3 610 000
(67.2 − 17.1) to (67.2 + 17.1); i.e., 50.1 to 84.3 IN ∑(x) = 24 800 ∑(x 2 ) = 65 680 000
S = [( ∑(x 2 ) / ∑(f)) - (x)2 ]1/2 [1.3] S = [(65 680 000 / 10) − (2480)2 ]1/ 2
The third method is often used when the sample Obviously, the value of the correction factor
is very small (i.e., less than 10). For example, [ ∑( f ) / ( ∑ f - 1)]1 / 2 is very much influenced by
consider the following measurements taken of the size of the sample (i.e., ∑(f )). For example:
the permanent expansion of six brick panels (in
thousandths of an inch): If the sample size is 6 , then [∑(f )/(∑(f ) − 1)]1/ 2
i.e., 22, 24, 26, 28, 25, and 22 × 10−3 in. = 1.096
If the sample size is 30, then [∑(f )/(∑(f ) − 1)]1/ 2
S = [( ∑(x - x)2 ) / ∑(f)]1/2 [1.4]
= 1.017
where: If the sample size is 100 , then [∑(f )/(∑(f ) − 1)]1/ 2
x = each observation in sample = 1.005
∑f = total number of observations If the sample size is 900 , then [∑(f) /(∑(f ) − 1)]1/ 2
x = Mean of sample (i.e.,
= 1.001
x = (147 / 6) × 10 −3 = 24.5 × 10 −3 IN ).
Accordingly, samples containing 30 or more
S = [((22 − 24.5)2 + (24 − 24.5)2 + (26 − 24.5)2 observations are normally considered to be
+ (28 − 24.5)2 + (25 − 24.5)2 large samples, while samples with fewer than
+ (22 − 24.5)2 )/ 6]1/ 2 × 10 −3 30 observations are always described as small
samples. To summarize: while the Standard
S = [((−2.5)2 + (−0.5)2 + (1.5)2 + (3.5)2 + (0.5)2 Deviation of a small sample (S) is used as
+ (−2.5)2 )/ 6]1/ 2 × 10 −3 the basis for estimating the Standard Deviation
S = [(6.25 + 0.25 + 2.25 + 12.25 + 0.25 + 6.25)/ 6]1/ 2 of the population (σ) utilizing equation [1.5],
the Standard Deviation of a large sample is
× 10 −3 expressed directly as σ and the correction factor
S = [27.5 / 6]1/ 2 × 10 −3 [∑(f )/(∑(f ) − 1)]1/ 2 is not used.
S = [4.58]1/ 2 × 10 −3
S = 2.14 ¥ 10 -3 IN 1.2.5 The coefficient of variation
The Coefficient of Variation (v or V) is a further
The square of the Standard Deviation is referred
measure of the degree of variation or scatter
to as the Variance and is therefore another
within a sample. It is expressed as a percentage
measure of the degree of scatter within a sample.
and provides a simple method of obtaining a
measure of the correlation among a set of experi-
1.2.4 The standard deviation mental results, such as concrete specimens that
of the population are tested to destruction to verify the strength of
the structural concrete members in a building.
Having calculated the Standard Deviation of
a sample with any one of the three methods For a small sample: v = [(S / x ) × 100]% [1.6]
available (i.e., equations [1.2], [1.3] or [1.4] in For a large sample: V = [(σ / x ) × 100]% [1.7]
Section 1.2.3) we are able to predict the Standard
Deviation of the entire population (i.e., all pos- where:
sible observations) from which the sample has S = Standard Deviation of sample
been drawn. If the Standard Deviation of the σ = Standard Deviation of population
sample is S, then the best estimate of the x = Mean of sample for [1.6] and population for
Standard Deviation of the population (σ) is [1.7].
given by:
Naturally, the smaller the value of v or V, the
s = S [∑(f) / ( ∑(f) - 1)]1/2 [1.5] better the correlation will be. At the same time,
10 Building Science: Concepts and Application
following form in terms of the calculated Areas under the Normal Distribution Curve are
Mean (x), the Mean (x’) for which a probabil- frequently needed and are therefore widely
ity is to be determined, and the Standard tabulated (Table 1.4).
Deviation of Means (σm): Let us denote by A(z) the area under the
Normal Distribution curve from 0 to z, where z
± z = ( x − x ′ )/ σ m [1.10] is any number (i.e., z may have a positive, nega-
tive, or zero value). As shown in Figure 1.9,
where:
some Normal Distribution tables give the value
x = the Mean of A(z) for positive values of z in steps of 0.01
x’ = a Mean from z = 0 to z = 0.5, and others give the value
σm = the Standard Deviation of Means. of A(z) from z = 0.5 to z = 1.0, depending on
z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 .5000 .5040 .5080 .5120 .5160 .5199 .5239 .5279 .5319 .5359
0.1 .5398 .5438 .5478 .5517 .5557 .5596 .5636 .5675 .5714 .5753
0.2 .5793 .5832 .5871 .5910 .5948 .5987 .6026 .6064 .6103 .6141
0.3 .6179 .6217 .6255 .6293 .6331 .6368 .6406 .6443 .6480 .6517
0.4 .6554 .6591 .6628 .6664 .6700 .6736 .6772 .6808 .6844 .6879
0.5 .6915 .6950 .6985 .7019 .7054 .7088 .7123 .7157 .7190 .7224
0.6 .7257 .7291 .7324 .7357 .7389 .7422 .7454 .7486 .7517 .7549
0.7 .7580 .7611 .7642 .7673 .7704 .7734 .7764 .7794 .7823 .7852
0.8 .7881 .7910 .7939 .7967 .7995 .8023 .8051 .8078 .8106 .8133
0.9 .8159 .8186 .8212 .8238 .8264 .8289 .8315 .8340 .8365 .8389
1.0 .8413 .8438 .8461 .8485 .8508 .8531 .8554 .8577 .8599 .8621
1.1 .8643 .8665 .8686 .8708 .8729 .8749 .8770 .8790 .8810 .8830
1.2 .8849 .8869 .8888 .8907 .8925 .8944 .8962 .8980 .8997 .9015
1.3 .9032 .9049 .9066 .9082 .9099 .9115 .9131 .9147 .9162 .9177
1.4 .9192 .9207 .9222 .9236 .9251 .9265 .9279 .9292 .9306 .9319
1.5 .9332 .9345 .9357 .9370 .9382 .9394 .9406 .9418 .9429 .9441
1.6 .9452 .9463 .9474 .9484 .9495 .9505 .9515 .9525 .9535 .9545
1.7 .9554 .9564 .9573 .9582 .9591 .9599 .9608 .9616 .9625 .9633
1.8 .9641 .9649 .9656 .9664 .9671 .9678 .9686 .9693 .9699 .9706
1.9 .9713 .9719 .9726 .9732 .9738 .9744 .9750 .9756 .9761 .9767
2.0 .9772 .9778 .9783 .9788 .9793 .9798 .9803 .9808 .9812 .9817
2.1 .9821 .9826 .9830 .9834 .9838 .9842 .9846 .9850 .9854 .9857
2.2 .9861 .9864 .9868 .9871 .9875 .9878 .9881 .9884 .9887 .9890
2.3 .9893 .9896 .9898 .9901 .9904 .9906 .9909 .9911 .9913 .9916
2.4 .9918 .9920 .9922 .9925 .9927 .9929 .9931 .9932 .9934 .9936
2.5 .9938 .9940 .9941 .9943 .9945 .9946 .9948 .9949 .9951 .9952
2.6 .9953 .9955 .9956 .9957 .9959 .9960 .9961 .9962 .9963 .9964
2.7 .9965 .9966 .9967 .9968 .9969 .9970 .9971 .9972 .9973 .9974
2.8 .9974 .9975 .9976 .9977 .9977 .9978 .9979 .9979 .9980 .9981
2.9 .9981 .9982 .9982 .9983 .9984 .9984 .9985 .9985 .9986 .9986
3.0 .9987 .9987 .9987 .9988 .9988 .9989 .9989 .9989 .9990 .9990
3.1 .9990 .9991 .9991 .9991 .9992 .9992 .9992 .9992 .9993 .9993
3.2 .9993 .9993 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9995 .9995 .9995
3.3 .9995 .9995 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9997
3.4 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9998 .9998
3.5 .9998 .9998 .9998 .9998 .9998 .9998 .9998 .9998 .9998 .9998
3.6 .9998 .9998 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999 .9999
12 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Figure 1.9 Normal distribution table formats. Figure 1.10 Confidence limits of the mean
compressive strength of concrete.
whether the area under the curve is measured limits of the Mean compressive strength of all
from the Mean or from the left side. It is readily of the poured concrete deduced from this large
seen that Table 1.4 is of table type (1) in Figure sample of 121 test cylinders.
1.9 and therefore starts with an A(z) value of 0.5 Sample Mean (x ′ ) = 2160 psi
(as opposed to 0.0) in the top left-hand corner
Standard Deviation (σ ) = 252 psi
of the table.
Summarizing, we conclude that equation Step (1): Apply equation [1.8] to determine the
[1.9] is always used to find the probability that Standard Deviation of the Mean (σm).
a single random observation may occur in a σ m = [σ / ∑(f )]1/ 2
population. Equation [1.10] is used to find the
bounds of the Mean of a population. σ m = [252 / 121]1/ 2
s m = 23 psi
1.2.8 Predicting the strength of concrete Step (2): Apply equation [1.10] to determine the
95 percent confidence limits of the Mean
On a large concrete dam construction project, compressive strength of the whole popula-
121 concrete test cylinders were taken and sub- tion (x).
jected to compressive strength tests, with the
± z = (x − x ′ )/σ m
results shown below. What is the probability
that a random test cylinder will have a compres- Transposing equation [1.10] to make (x) the
sive strength of more than 1800 psi? subject of the equation, we obtain:
1.3 Foundational concepts in physics agreement on the volume measure, the gallon,
was not reached until the early nineteenth
The chapters that follow assume some knowl- century. Until then there existed the different
edge of the scientific concepts and principles ale, wine, and corn gallons (Connor, 1987).
that underlie current understanding of the The US adopted the English system of weights
nature of the physical phenomena that we refer and measures, with some specific exceptions.
to as heat, light, and sound, and how these envi- For example, the wine-gallon of 231 cubic inches
ronmental stimuli are perceived by us as human was adopted in preference to the English gallon
beings. Most of these stimuli have been studied of 277 cubic inches. France officially adopted
for centuries as the various specialized fields of the metric system in 1799, with the metre1 as the
science emerged. In the following sections a few unit of length. The metre was defined as one
selected members of this foundational group of ten-millionth part of the quarter of the circum-
scientific principles are briefly explained in lay- ference of the Earth. Later this basis for defining
person terms. We will start with units of meas- a standard metre was replaced by a more exact
urement because they are fundamental to all and observable physical phenomenon,2 as the
scientific and technical endeavors (Cardarelli, metric system became the Système International
1997). (SI) (i.e., le Système International d’Unités) in
1960. Today almost all nations, with the notable
exception of the US, have adopted the SI system
1.3.1 Units of measurement
of units (United Nations, 1955). However, even
Measurement of length and volume became an in the US the scientific community has to all
important early concern as civilization evolved intents and purposes unofficially migrated to
with an increasing focus on agriculture, trade, the SI standard.
specialization, and collective aspirations that SI units of measurement: The SI standard is
led to more and more community endeavors. based on seven categories of unit, from which
The earliest length measurement of major con- many other units are derived.
sequence was most likely the Egyptian cubit,
which was based on the length of the human
arm from the elbow to the finger tips. While this
Category Name Abbreviation
provided a basis for measuring relatively short
lengths such as those associated with plants, Length metre m
animals, and manmade artifacts, two additional Mass kilogram kg
needs soon surfaced. First, as communities Time second s
grew in size and influence the need for stand- Electric current ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
ardization became paramount. By 2500 BC the
Amount of substance mole mol
Egyptians had already seen the need for the Luminous intensity candela cd
establishment of a Master Cubit made of marble.
Second, as the roots of science emerged so also
did the need for the accurate measurement of a
host of additional quantities beyond length, Each of these base units is clearly defined as a
area, volume, and time (Klein, 1975). fraction of some measurable physical phenom-
The national standardization of units of enon. For example, the kilogram is based on the
measurement progressed somewhat more weight of a platinum–iridium cylinder main-
slowly than might have been expected. In tained under constant environmental condi-
England, units of measurement were not effec- tions in Sèvres, France, and the second is defined
tively standardized until the early thirteenth as the length of time taken by 9 192 631 770
century; however, deviations and exceptions periods of vibration of the caesium-133 atom.
continued long thereafter. For example, total SI units that are derived from these base unit
14 Building Science: Concepts and Application
categories include: the farad (F) for electrical Apothecaries’ measures: minim, dram, fluid ounce,
capacitance; the hertz (Hz) for the frequency of and pint.
a periodic vibration such as sound; the joule (J) Apothecaries’ weights: grain, scruple, dram,
for work and energy; the newton (N) for force; ounce, and pound (LB).
the ohm (Ω) for electrical resistance; the pascal
(Pa) for pressure; the volt (V) for electric poten- It should be noted that among the mass units
tial; and the watt (W) for the rate of doing work there are various versions of the ton unit, all of
or power. which are different from the original UK ton. A
In addition, the SI standard utilizes specific standard US ton is equal to 2000 lb instead of
prefixes to serve as convenient multiplication the original 2240 lb, so a US ton or short ton is
factors for increasing or reducing the relative equal to 2000 lb, while a US metric ton is equal
size of these units in multiples of 1000. Com- to 1000 lb, and a US long ton is equal to 2240 lb.
monly used prefixes are K for thousand, M for To make matters even more confusing, a US
million, G for billion, m for thousandth, μ for measurement ton has nothing to do with mass,
millionth, and n for billionth. Therefore, kW but refers to a volume of 70 cf.
stands for kilowatt or 1000 watt, and mm stands Conversion factors that must be applied to
for millimeter or 1000th of a metre. convert one unit of measurement to another are
US system of units: Following the official readily available in the form of published tables.
adoption of the SI metric system of measure- Horvath (1986) has included conversion factors
ment by Britain in 1995, the US stands virtually covering both historical and current units.
alone with its continued use of what was origi- Cardarelli (1997) provides more than 10 000
nally known as the United Kingdom (UK) conversion factors in his more recent publica-
System of Measurements. With only a few spe- tion, which claims to be the most complete set
cific differences, the US system of measure- of tables dealing with unit conversion.
ments is the same as the pre-1995 UK system.
However, whereas in the UK system the base
1.3.2 Temperature scales
measures of yard, pound, and gallon were origi-
and thermometers
nally defined by physical standards, in the US
system these are all now defined by reference Temperature provides a measure of the degree
to the SI metre, kilogram, and litre. The US system of hotness or coolness as perceived by our
recognizes nine distinct categories of units, as human senses. The desire to measure the pre-
follows:3 cise degree of this sensation has led to a rich
history of temperature scales and measurement
Length: inch (IN), foot (FT), yard, furlong, and instruments, the latter commonly referred to as
mile. thermometers.
Area: square inch (SI), square foot (SF), acre, square As might be expected, the various physical
mile or section, and township (i.e., 36 square states of water have served as a convenient set
miles or 36 sections). of reference points up to the present day for
Volume: cubic inch (CI), cubic foot (CF), and cubic defining alternative temperature scales. One of
yard. the earliest records of a temperature scale dates
Capacity (dry): pint, quart, peck, and bushel. back to 170 AD when Galen, in his medical writ-
Capacity (liquid): fluid ounce, gill, pint, quart, and ings, proposed four degrees of heat and four
gallon. degrees of cold on either side of boiling water
Mass: grain, ounce, pound (LB), stone, hundred- and ice. In 1610 Galileo constructed a simple
weight, and ton. apparatus consisting of a glass tube with a bulb
Troy weights: grain, ounce, pennyweight, and at one end and open at the other end. Holding
pound (LB). the tube upright, he placed the open end into a
Technical Underpinnings in Mathematics and Physics 15
container of wine, and extracted a small amount 100° as the freezing point of water. Maintaining
of the trapped air so that the wine would rise Linnaeus’ reversal the name Centigrade was
some distance above the level of the wine con- replaced by Celsius in 1948.4 The conversion of
tainer inside the glass tube. The contraction and Fahrenheit to Celsius degrees and vice versa
expansion of the air above the column of wine proceeds as follows:
with changes in temperature would force the
level of the wine in the glass tube to likewise °C = 5 / 9 (°F − 32) [1.11]
rise and fall, correspondingly. The first attempt °F = 9 / 5 (°C) + 32 [1.12]
to use a liquid, rather than a gas, for recording
temperature is credited to Ferdinand II, Grand There is one other scale that has relevance to
Duke of Tuscany, in 1641. He proposed a device temperature. It is related to the concept of a
that held a quantity of alcohol in a sealed glass thermodynamic temperature. In 1780 the French
container with gradations marked on its stem. physician Jacques Charles (1746–1823) demon-
However, his device failed to reference the scale strated that for the same increase in tempera-
to a fixed point such as the freezing point of ture all gases exhibit the same increase in
water. volume. In other words, the coefficient of ther-
In 1724, the Dutch instrument maker Gabriel mal expansion of all gases is very nearly the
Fahrenheit used mercury as a temperature- same. Using this fact it is possible to devise
measuring medium. Mercury has several a temperature scale that is based on only a
advantages as a thermometric medium. First, it single fixed point, rather than the two fixed
has a relatively large coefficient of thermal points that are necessary for the Fahrenheit
expansion that remains fairly constant (i.e., and Celsius scales. This temperature is referred
linear) over a wide range of temperatures. to as the thermodynamic temperature and is
Second, it retains its liquid form at tempera- now universally accepted as the fundamental
tures well below the freezing point of water measure of temperature. The single fixed point
and well above the boiling point of water. Third, in this temperature scale is an ideal gas pres-
it does not easily separate into bubbles that sure of zero, which is also defined as zero tem-
might adhere to the glass surface as the column perature. The unit of measurement on this
of mercury rises and falls with increasing scale is called the Kelvin, named after Lord
and decreasing temperatures. On his scale, Kelvin (i.e., William Thompson, 1824–1907).
Fahrenheit fixed the boiling and freezing The symbol used is K without the degree (°)
points of water to be 212° and 32°, respectively, symbol. To convert degrees Celsius to Kelvin
providing an even 180 divisions in between. units we simply add 273.
The Fahrenheit temperature scale was adopted
K = °C + 273 [1.13]
as the basis of measuring temperature in
the British system of units, which has now K = 5 / 9 (°F - 32) + 273 [1.14]
become the US system of units. Measurements °C = K - 273 [1.15]
recorded with this scale are referred to as
degrees Fahrenheit (°F). °F = 9 / 5 (K) - 241 [1.16]
In 1745 Carolus Linnaeus of Sweden pro-
posed a temperature scale in which the freezing
1.3.3 Objective and subjective
point of water is fixed as 0° and the boiling
measurements
point of water is fixed at 100°, with 100 divi-
sions in between these two reference points. With very few exceptions, buildings are designed
This reversed the temperature scale that had and constructed to be occupied by human beings.
been proposed a few years earlier by Anders Therefore, in the study of building science we
Celsius, who had set 0° as the boiling point and are concerned as much with how the human
16 Building Science: Concepts and Application
occupants of buildings perceive their environ- Methods that are normally used to collect
ment as we are with the physical nature of the objective data include: measurements taken
environment itself. While the perception of heat, with an instrument; recorded data (e.g., sound,
light, and sound is of course directly related to light, heat, humidity, and air movement); and
the stimuli that are received and processed in the direct, objective measurements of a physical
human cognitive system, the measurement of product, or natural event, phenomenon, or
what was received and what is perceived may object. Such measurements are reproducible and
differ widely. For example, while the amount of factual. However, the methods used for collect-
sound produced by a person speaking on a cell ing subjective data are quite different in nature.
phone in a public place such as a restaurant can They include ranking and rating methods, ques-
be measured objectively with a sound-level tionnaires, and interviews. The interpretation of
meter, the degree of annoyance that this tele- subjective data must be undertaken with a great
phone conversation may cause to nearby cus- deal of caution because they are subject to
tomers depends very much on the sensitivity, human bias (Cushman and Rosenberg, 1991).
current activity and emotional state of each For this reason alone it is considered good prac-
person who is forced to overhear the telephone tice to collect both objective and subjective data
conversation. These individual perceptions are during experiments, surveys, and assessments
subjective reactions. of environmental conditions involving human
Objective information can normally either be subjects.
measured with an instrument, or counted. It is
typically information that is observable and
1.3.4 Stress and strain
factual. Examples include the measurement of
light with a light meter, sound with a sound- The relationship between stress and strain is
level meter, and temperature with a thermom- one of the fundamental concepts in the fields of
eter. If the instrument is true and properly material science and structural engineering.
calibrated, then the measurement of exactly the When a material is subjected to some kind of
same sound should not vary from one sound- external force, then it will in some manner
level meter to another. However, the subjective respond by changing its state. For example, if
perception of that sound may very widely from we walk on a suspended platform, such as the
one person to another, and even for the same concrete floor of a multistory building, then the
person under different circumstances. force applied by our weight will produce a
Both objective and subjective data can be col- physical strain within the concrete material. The
lected in experiments or in assessing some par- resulting strain may result in a visible deflection
ticular aspect of a building environment. For of the floor. Similarly, if we blow air into a
example, based on complaints received about rubber balloon, then the air pressure will result
the stuffiness of a particular building space in a stretching of the balloon material, with the
from the occupants of a new building, it may result that the balloon increases in size. If we
become necessary to conduct a survey of opin- continue to blow air into the balloon, then even-
ions to determine the degree of dissatisfac- tually the strain in the rubber material will
tion. The data collected will likely be based exceed the strength limit of the material and the
on responses to a questionnaire and therefore balloon will burst.
subjective in nature. However, the survey In 1678 the English scientist Robert Hooke
may be followed by a systematic assessment showed by means of a series of experiments that
of actual environmental conditions, including within the elastic range of a material the degree
measurement of the density of occupation, of strain produced is directly proportional to
temperature, relative humidity, and degree of the amount of stress imposed. This relationship
air movement in the space. All of these are has come to be referred to as Hooke’s Law and
objective measurements. is easily verified with a very simple apparatus.
Technical Underpinnings in Mathematics and Physics 17
If we freely suspend a thin metal wire from a Since it is of significance in some aspects of the
nail at some height above the ground and then thermal environment – in particular in respect
progressively load the lower end of the wire to the utilization of solar energy, and also in
with more and more weights, we will observe respect to artificial light sources – it warrants
that the wire will slightly increase in length some explanation. When the temperature of
after each weight has been added. When the any material is raised above the temperature of
increases in weight and length are plotted on its surroundings it will radiate heat to its sur-
graph paper a straight line will be the result, roundings.5 On the other hand, when an object
indicating a linear relationship between the is at a lower temperature than its surroundings,
load (i.e., stress) imposed and the resulting then the surroundings will radiate heat to the
deflection (i.e., strain). object, which will absorb some of the heat and
The relationship between stress (i.e., stimulus) reflect and transmit the remaining heat. A black
and strain (i.e., reaction) applies generally to all body is a theoretical object that absorbs all of the
kinds of situations, although the relationship is radiant energy that falls on it. It is an idealized
not necessarily linear when we move out of the concept, because no such material exists in the
field of material science into the biological real world. The material that comes closest is
domain. For example, in the field of building the graphite form of carbon, which absorbs
lighting increases in illumination level tend to close to 97 percent of the radiation that is inci-
increase the ability to see details. For this reason dent on its surface.
the recommended task illumination level for fine Therefore, an ideal solar collector surface
machine work (e.g., sewing) is much higher than would be a black body. Water at any depth is,
for casual reading. However, if we continue to for practical purposes, considered to act as a
increase the illumination level, then a point will black body and this phenomenon underlies the
eventually be reached when the light level is principle of solar ponds. A solar pond is essen-
so intense that we can no longer see any details. tially a shallow pool of water that may or may
This condition is referred to as disability glare. not have a single glass sheet placed at a small
Similarly, the thermal environment can pro- distance above the water surface for added effi-
duce stresses that will produce physiological ciency. Because of the near black-body charac-
strain in the occupants of buildings. Examples teristics of the water, even without the single
of such strain include an increased heart rate, glazing, the pond acts as a very efficient absorber
the dilation or constriction of blood vessels, and of solar heat radiation.
perspiration or shivering. It is important to note In the case of a standard flat-plate solar col-
that the stress imposed by a building environ- lector, the upper surface of the metal plate is
ment is cumulative. For example, slightly inad- typically provided with a matte black finish.
equate lighting conditions in a building space However, sometimes a more expensive selective
may not by themselves produce any observable surface coating with special heat-absorbing
human discomfort. However, when this condi- characteristics is applied. A selective surface is
tion is coupled with a slightly elevated room a surface finish that has a large solar heat
temperature and perhaps also a moderately absorptance and a small solar emittance.6
excessive level of background noise, the result- A black body is also a radiator of heat if its
ant cumulative strain may exceed the comfort temperature is higher than the temperature of
level of the building occupant by a dispropor- its surroundings. The radiation produced con-
tionately high degree. sists of a continuous spectrum of wavelengths.
In fact, a black body at any temperature will
emit energy at all wavelengths, but to varying
1.3.5 Black-body radiation
amounts. As shown in Figure 1.11, the theoreti-
A black body is a concept in physics that the non- cal energy emission curve is asymptotic7 to the
technical reader is unlikely to be familiar with. X-axis.
18 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Endnotes
7. An asymptotic curve never crosses the axis, but by the red surface. However, a red light will
comes infinitesimally close to that axis. accentuate the redness of a red surface because
8. The term color rendition refers to the appearance of much of the red light will be reflected.
colored surfaces under a light source with a par- 9. As explained in a later chapter on artificial light-
ticular spectral distribution. For example, a red ing, color temperature must not be confused with
surface under a blue light will appear almost the operating temperature of an artificial light
black, because most of the blue light is absorbed source.
2 Principles of Thermal Comfort
Almost all buildings are designed and constructed for the purpose of sheltering and facilitating the
activities of human beings. In most cases these activities are performed within the building itself
and therefore require the designer to carefully consider the thermal comfort needs of the occupants.
One can further argue that if the building occupant is the focus of our attention, then the starting
point for the thermal design of a building should be the human body and its thermal interactions
with the immediate environment.
2.1 Heat transfer between body mal radiation). The intensity of direct solar
and environment radiation can be in excess of 300 BTU/SF per
hour on a horizontal surface. The amount of
The human being is a form of heat engine that surface of the human body exposed to the sun
derives its energy from the combustion of varies with the altitude of the sun and the
food, a process referred to as metabolism. To posture assumed. Generally speaking, for a
achieve comfort under varying climatic condi- standing person the maximum exposure to
tions it is necessary to regulate the amount of radiation in a warm climate will occur between
heat lost from, or gained by, the human body 9 to 10 am in the morning and between 2 to 3
(Figure 2.1). pm in the early afternoon.
From a general viewpoint our body is able to The ground and surrounding objects will
lose heat in three ways: exchange radiant heat with the human body if
their temperatures are at variance with that of
• through outward radiation to colder sur- the body surface. For example, in hot, dry cli-
roundings, such as colder surfaces and a mates the ground and surrounding surfaces
colder sky; may become appreciably warmer than the
• through outward convection or conduction human body, so that the amount of heat gained
to air below skin temperature and by direct by radiation can become critical. Unfortunately,
contact with colder objects (e.g., bare feet on this radiation tends to be of the long-wavelength
a concrete floor); type and is therefore readily absorbed by the
• through evaporation from the respiratory skin. Transfer of heat between the skin and sur-
tract and from skin perspiration. rounding air will occur by convection and con-
When exposed to the external environment the duction, with the rate of transfer depending
human body is involved in heat transfer driven very much on the degree of air movement. The
by infra-red radiation of short wavelength (i.e., latter tends to replace the air next to the skin
solar radiation) and long wavelength (i.e., ther- with fresh air, thereby increasing the amount
of heat lost from the human body if the tem-
Building Science: Concepts and Application. Jens Pohl.
perature of the air is less than that of the
© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. skin. Air movement also increases the amount
Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. of heat lost by evaporation, since it replaces
Principles of Thermal Comfort 21
the saturated air in contact with the skin with quite small. This is because the zone of thermal
fresh air. comfort for the human body is restricted to the
Therefore, to achieve a comfortable thermal temperature range in which the deep body tem-
environment it becomes necessary to regulate perature can be regulated by the control of
the heat lost from the human body by cooling blood flow in the skin and underlying tissue. In
or heating the air directly surrounding the skin medical terms this is referred to as the vaso-
or the surface of the skin. The fact that we have motor control mechanism. Should the tempera-
been able to adjust to a surprisingly wide range ture gradient between the skin and surrounding
of climates (i.e., from the cold, ice-bound Arctic air be negative (i.e., if the air temperature is
regions to the hot and humid tropical rainfor- lower than the body temperature), the vaso-
ests) is largely due to a number of technical motor control mechanism will constrict blood
skills that we have been able to apply in the vessels so that the amount of heat lost from the
construction of shelters and the manufacture of blood is reduced. Conversely, in the case of a
clothing (see Figure 2.2). positive temperature gradient blood vessels
While the shelter must be considered the more will automatically dilate, and so proportionally
important means of environmental control, at increase heat loss from the blood (Figure 2.3).
least from a qualitative point of view clothing The normal deep body temperature of the
provides a highly desirable degree of individual human body is approximately 98.6°F, which is
control within the sheltered environment. kept constant by the vaso-motor control mecha-
nism to within 1 percent in the case of a healthy
person. While virtually any fall in deep body
2.2 Some physiological temperature can have disastrous consequences,
considerations a little more latitude exists on the high side. The
human body can operate with reasonable effi-
The range of temperatures to which the human ciency up to a deep body temperature of about
body can adjust without discomfort is actually 103°F.
22 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Figure 2.3 Vaso-motor control mechanism. Figure 2.4 Human comfort and discomfort.
where:
M = heat produced by metabolism It is an essential requirement of comfort that
E = heat exchanged by evaporation any variations in the amount of storage are
C = heat exchanged by convection made solely to meet involuntary physiological
R = heat exchanged by radiation responses, such as the diurnal temperature
S = storage. rhythm, and that the heat exchange due to
Principles of Thermal Comfort 23
Figure 2.8 Impacts on thermal comfort. Figure 2.9 Hooke’s law applied to the thermal
environment.
Further, it is well known that even individu- Improvement in the means of losing heat
als of the same sex and age vary in their suscep- from the body occurs in the short term, while
tibility to heat. These differences may be reduction in heat production due to greater
attributed to a number of contributing factors efficiency in the performance of work occurs
(see Figure 2.8), as follows. over a longer term. However, it has been
found that when acclimatized subjects are
Diet: There is reason to believe that a high-
given a free choice of temperature, their pref-
calorie diet somewhat reduces heat tolerance
erences vary little from those persons who
generally. The same applies to a very low-
are not acclimatized.
calorie diet.
Efficiency: The mechanical efficiency with When the human body fails to lose heat at the
which a person performs a task appears to be same rate as it is gaining heat, the results can be
one of the most important factors contribut- disastrous and we are said to be suffering from
ing to individual differences of heat toler- heat stress. In this sense stress is an attribute of
ance. In other words, the amount of muscular the environment, and by analogy with Hooke’s
activity bears a direct relationship to indi- law it is the pressure applied (Figure 2.9).
vidual heat tolerance. Strain, though, is an attribute of the occu-
Health: Any disease or infection within the pants of the environment and is related to the
body system will reduce the ability of the physiological deformation resulting from the
body to resist stress. application of the stress. Stresses such as high
Acclimatization: The belief that in tropical or low temperature, glare and noise are usually
countries persons will be satisfied with cumulative, so that even low levels of a number
higher temperatures in a controlled building of these factors, although innocuous in them-
environment than persons living in temper- selves, may give rise to a high level of discom-
ate climates, appears to be quite erroneous. fort when summated.
The role played by acclimatization in heat Even though vaso-motor control provides us
tolerance can be explained in terms of short- with an excellent heat-regulating mechanism
range and long-range conditioning factors. that seldom allows the body temperature to rise
26 Building Science: Concepts and Application
the clothing worn. To date, it has not been pos- Wet-Bulb Temperature: This thermal indicator
sible to combine all six of these parameters into takes into account two factors: namely, tem-
a single index of thermal stress, although there are perature and humidity, while the important
a number of indices that incorporate at least two effects of air movement and radiation are dis-
or three of the parameters (Figure 2.11). regarded. It provides a reasonable measure
Accordingly, comfort zones are established of the physiological effects of hot, humid
mainly on the basis of four of the six parameters environments.
of thermal stress: namely, air temperature, Effective Temperature: The Effective Temper-
humidity, air movement, and rate of work per- ature scale was initially established as a
formed. The question then remains: “Which of series of equal comfort curves, based on
the available indices should be applied to assess experimental data by Houghton and Yaglou
the severity of any particular environment?” (1923). The temperature and humidity in one
Before we can delve into this question more test chamber were adjusted until the degree
deeply it is appropriate to briefly survey the of comfort or discomfort experienced by
principal indices available today. a trained group of observers was judged to
be identical to that experienced in an adja-
Dry-Bulb Temperature: Despite its obvious cent test chamber maintained at a different
shortcomings, since it takes into account only temperature and humidity (Figure 2.12).
one parameter (i.e., temperature), dry-bulb Combinations of dry-bulb and wet-bulb tem-
temperature remains the most important peratures were then plotted on a psychro-
single measure of thermal stress (Figure metric chart to obtain curves of equal comfort.
2.12). Weather forecasts that we hear daily on The intersection of any one of these curves
our radios and see on our television screens with the dew point defined an effective tem-
utilize temperature (i.e., dry-bulb tempera- perature. These early experiments on Effective
ture) as one of the principal indicators of Temperature were followed by further work
tomorrow’s weather conditions. that also took into account such factors as
28 Building Science: Concepts and Application
clothing and muscular activity. Today, effec- of which is maintained by internal electric
tive temperature may be described as an heaters at a constant temperature of 75°F. A
index that provides in a single numerical few years later Bedford (1936, 1951) devised
value a convenient measure of the interre- a monogram to more conveniently deter-
lated effects of temperature, humidity and mine the Equivalent Temperature of an envi-
air movement. Further, by the provision of ronment if the individual thermal parameters
a normal and basic scale, it makes some are known.
allowance for the effect of clothing. In the Globe-Thermometer Temperature: This thermal
mid-1950s it was demonstrated that by the index was introduced in the late 1920s as a
addition of a simple monogram, Effective means of measuring the combined effect of
Temperature can also take into account the air temperature, air movement and mean
rate at which a person is performing work. radiant temperature. Unfortunately, the
Equivalent Temperature: Proposed in the early Globe-Thermometer Temperature index can
1930s, Equivalent Temperature is defined as give misleading measurements under certain
the temperature of a uniform enclosure in thermal conditions. First, in cold climates an
which, in still air, a sizeable black body at increase in air movement will produce a rise
75°F would lose heat at the same rate as in in the temperature reading. Second, when
the environment in question (Figure 2.13). the air and surrounding walls are at the same
Accordingly, equivalent temperature is a temperature the globe-thermometer will con-
measure of the combined effect of the tem- tinue to show that temperature, regardless of
perature and movement of the air and the changes in air movement. For these reasons
temperature of the surroundings. An instru- its use as a measure of thermal stress has
ment called a eupathoscope was invented to been largely abandoned, although it remains
measure Equivalent Temperature. It consists to the present day one of the most successful
of a blackened copper cylinder 22 inches methods of determining the mean radiant
high and 7.5 inches in diameter, the surface temperature of the surroundings of a build-
ing space.
Predicted 4-Hour Sweat Rate (P4SR): This
index was developed at the National Hospital,
London in the late 1940s. Basically, P4SR is in
the form of a monogram that is derived from
experimental data and expresses the stress
imposed by a hot environment in terms of the
amount of sweat secreted by fit, acclimatized,
young men when exposed to the environ-
ment under consideration for a period of four
hours (Figure 2.13).
As such, P4SR represents a considerable
advance over other previous indices, since it
takes into consideration not only the envi-
ronmental parameters of temperature, air
movement and humidity, but also the rate of
energy expended and the clothing worn.
However, P4SR is not suitable as a comfort
index because it applies only when perspira-
tion occurs.
Wet-Bulb Globe-Thermometer Index: This index
Figure 2.13 Less common thermal indices. was devised in the 1950s for the US Army as
Principles of Thermal Comfort 29
garments serve many other purposes besides extremities such as the feet, and the local
thermal comfort (i.e., social convention, fashion, overheating of the heads of occupants by
availability of materials, and so on). Recent radiant heat, are two common sources of
investigations in the Arctic region have demon- discomfort.
strated that in the absence of social convention Density of Occupation will not only have an
the human being is able to adjust by means of effect on air temperature and humidity by
clothing to any reasonable indoor temperature. virtue of the heat and moisture contrib-
Under these circumstances it was found to be uted to the environment by the occupants,
quite useless to define a comfort or preferred but also will strongly influence the subjec-
temperature zone. Obviously a certain amount tive concepts of freshness and stuffiness. As
of latitude exists in the case of protection against our standards of thermal comfort become
cold conditions. In hot climates, people usually more sophisticated, a thermally comfortable
wear the minimum clothing that convention environment will not be acceptable unless
will permit and thus there exists far less latitude it is accompanied by a quality of freshness.
in the adjustment of individual differences by Although it is generally recognized that
means of clothing. freshness is related to coolness, absence of
In general terms, we can define the require- unpleasant odors, slight air movement, and
ments of a comfortable thermal environment, as a psychologically desirable feeling of change,
follows: and that stuffiness is partly defined by a
degree of hotness, the presence of unpleasant
General Thermal Effects of the environment odors, and the absence of air movement, little
attributable to the parameters of air tempera- scientific information has been collected on
ture, relative humidity, and air movement. either of these comfort factors.
According to Bedford, a habitable space Activity of the Occupants may involve muscu-
should be as cool as is possible within the lar activity, which will increase the metabolic
comfort zone; should be subject to adequate rate and therefore the body will produce
air movement, although both monotony and more heat. This additional heat must be dis-
local drafts must be avoided; and should sipated by the body at an increased rate, so
have an ambient relative humidity within the that thermal neutrality is immediately
wide range of 30 to 70 percent. Further we restored. Accordingly, the comfort zone for
can distinguish between two overall thermal persons engaged in heavy physical work is
problems. If a space is too cold, then this is different from that required for office workers
most likely due to a low air temperature, (Figure 2.16).
with or without excessive air movement. On
the other hand, if a space is too hot, then this The approximate rates of heat production for
may be attributable to either of the combina- various degrees of activity have been estab-
tions of high air temperature and high lished on the basis of experiments, as shown
humidity, or insufficient air movement and below:
excessive radiation. sleeping person = 300 BTU/hr.
Local Thermal Effects such as excessive local
sitting person = 400 BTU/hr.
warmth are to be avoided. Undue tempera-
ture gradients that may occur due to differ- typing or writing = 600 BTU/hr.
ences in temperature at different heights of a walking slowly = 800 BTU/hr.
space will cause discomfort, although it is walking briskly = 1200 BTU/hr.
generally accepted that the floor should be at
hand sawing = 1800 BTU/hr.
the highest temperature, with the tempera-
ture gradient gently decreasing toward the medium jogging = 2300 BTU/hr.
ceiling. Excessive loss of heat from body severe exertion = 4800 BTU/hr.
32 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Although acute physiological breakdowns such as heat stroke and heat cramps will normally occur
only at very high temperatures, it has been found that even moderately high temperatures can
appreciably affect the capacity of persons to perform work. Studies conducted after World War II,
involving both laboratory experiments and industrial surveys, have confirmed this beyond any rea-
sonable doubt. Seasonal production statistics collected in heavy and light industries, such as steel
and textile manufacturing plants, have consistently shown that excessive temperature and humidity
will result in reduced output. Although increased temperature seems to have the greatest effect on
the performance of physical work, both high and low temperatures will affect manual dexterity,
concentration, and the occurrence of accidents. For example, the statistics represented graphically
in Figure 3.1 emphasize the effect of high temperatures on the rate of accidents in coalmines in
England during the 1940s.
It is interesting to note that in this work environment temperature also appears to influence the
distribution of accidents in the various age groups. In the coolest mines the accident rate declined
with increasing age, since under reasonably comfortable conditions the greater experience of older
persons will tend to diminish their accident risk. On the other hand, in the hottest mines the rate
of accidents increased sharply for the 35 to 55 age group. This age group is likely to be more easily
fatigued, accompanied by greater loss of concentration and resulting in a higher accident rate.
Figure 3.1 Accident rates in British coal mines Figure 3.2 Limits of barely acceptable thermal
during the 1940s. conditions.
conditions that are considerably better may be cal health of persons, but to date that does not
achieved at little extra cost by the use of certain seem to have been proven medically.
methods of construction. Nevertheless, as a
rule, it is unlikely that completely uncondi-
tioned buildings will provide a comfortable 3.2 Thermal building
thermal environment if the external climatic design strategies
conditions are well outside the comfort zone. It
is therefore necessary not only to establish Both the heat capacity and thermal resistance of
optimum conditions, but also the upper and external walls will have a significant effect on
lower limits beyond which conditions are likely the ability to regulate the internal environment
to produce an unacceptable degree of thermal by building design alone. Depending on the
discomfort. construction of the wall, some of the heat gained
According to studies undertaken in Australia during the day will be absorbed by the wall
(Drysdale, 1967), the upper limit of acceptable material before the wall can pass on heat to the
thermal conditions under hot-dry conditions inside of the building. At night, the heat stored
for persons engaged in sedentary tasks is in the wall will naturally dissipate to the out-
approximately 88°F (Figure 3.2). side before the cooling of the building interior
In hot-humid conditions this upper limit is can commence. Accordingly, an external wall
likely to lie closer to 82°F, owing to the negative capable of absorbing a considerable amount
influence of humidity. The lower threshold is of heat during a hot day will allow the build-
less clearly defined, owing to the latitude pro- ing environment to remain relatively cool.
vided by clothing, but it is probable that air Conversely, during the night the same wall will
temperatures below 60°F will produce definite need to lose much of the stored heat before it
discomfort. It has been argued that repeated can have an appreciable cooling effect on the
exposure to conditions outside these limits is interior. Heavyweight wall construction tends
likely to have detrimental effects on the physi- to produce the required effects, since the heat-
Thermal Control by Building Design 35
storing capacity for most types of walls is pro- to heat flow posed by the construction (i.e., the
portional to the weight per unit surface area of U-value of the wall). Generally speaking, heav-
the wall. This is clearly demonstrated in experi- yweight construction will reduce the ability of
ments performed by Roux and others (1951) in a building environment to follow any but the
South Africa, in which variations in outdoor most considerable changes in outdoor condi-
and indoor air temperatures and heat flows at tions, and then only after an appreciable time
the outside and inside surfaces of the east wall lapse. This property of heavy wall construction
of a test building were plotted for a mild is an advantage in those regions where there
summer day in Pretoria, South Africa (Figure exist sharp differences between day and night
3.3). temperatures (commonly referred to as the
In this example, approximately five times diurnal temperature range). Having been cooled
more heat appears to have entered the outside at night, the wall will be able to absorb consid-
surface of a 9 in. thick, unshaded brick wall than erable heat before the temperature of the inte-
was passed into the interior of the building from rior is raised. If the cool night air can be used to
the inside surface. It should be noted that since accelerate the cooling of the structure and inte-
Pretoria is located in the southern hemisphere rior by the provision of floor and ceiling open-
the sun is inclined to the north, and not the south ings to achieve ventilation at night, perhaps
as is the case in the northern hemisphere. with the addition of a fan, then a very economi-
It can be seen from Figure 3.3 that there is a cal system of natural thermal control can be
time delay between the maximum heat entry achieved.
into the wall and the maximum dissipation of As shown in Figure 3.4, heavyweight con-
this heat into the building environment. This struction is particularly useful in hot-dry
time lapse is related, of course, to the resistance climates, which are characterized by high
temperatures during the day, significantly lower temperature (by losing heat at approximately
temperatures at night, and a relative humidity the same rate as the body is gaining heat), then
that rarely exceeds 30 percent. In such desert- perspiration will set in. However, the ability of
like environments the building envelope per- the body to lose more heat through the conver-
forms the functions of a thermal buffer between sion of the liquid perspiration to gaseous water
the external and internal environments. Small vapor (i.e., the energy used up in the latent heat
windows, and a thermal insulation layer placed of evaporation process) is severely limited,
on the inside surface of the walls, allow the because the humid air is already nearly satu-
building to be virtually sealed off from the heat rated with water vapor. Therefore, the small
of the daytime hours. In addition, the windows amount of moisture that each particle of air can
are recessed deep into the walls so that the soak up from the skin will be multiplied by the
window reveal can act as a sunshading device. movement of many particles across the skin.
A light-reflective external wall finish ensures The result is a slightly accelerated loss of heat
that at least some of the solar radiation is from the body.
reflected back from the envelope. There are several building design implica-
For hot-humid climates, an elongated east– tions of this strategy. First, to facilitate the
west building shape with large openings in the movement of air between the north and south
elongated north and south elevations is in order walls, care must be taken to avoid any physical
(Figure 3.5). obstructions such as intermediate partitions.
The large openings are required to facilitate This virtually mandates a building layout with
air movement across the bodies of the build- single-banked rooms. The typical natural wind
ing’s occupants. As discussed in the previous speeds that are found in hot-humid climates
chapter, if the ambient temperature rises beyond rarely exceed 6 to 8 mph and even a fly wire
the ability of the human vaso-motor control screen can reduce this by as much as 40 percent.
mechanism to maintain a normal deep body Second, since external air is being used to cool
the building interior, clearly the temperature
inside the building will not be lower than the
temperature in the shade of the external air.
Accordingly, thermal insulation in hot-humid
climates is necessary only for those sections of
the building envelope that are exposed to direct
solar radiation – namely, the roof and the east
and west walls. The south wall (in the northern
hemisphere) is easily and effectively shaded
from the sun, and the north wall will not be
subjected to solar radiation. Third, as long as air
movement serves as a primary cooling mecha-
nism, little purpose would be served by provid-
ing a heavyweight construction system. In fact,
massive walls with their attendant heat capacity
would tend to add an undesirable heat source
during prolonged hot spells. Therefore, the pre-
dominant construction solution in hot-humid
climates is lightweight, with homes often raised
at some height above ground level to maximize
air movement (i.e., wind speed is normally
slightly reduced at ground level owing to veg-
Figure 3.5 Design strategies for an (idealized) etation). Finally, since up to 90 percent of the
hot-humid climate. heat transfer through roofs subjected to intense
Thermal Control by Building Design 37
sunshine is by radiation, it is important to utilize solar radiation is reflected back out of the
a highly reflective layer (e.g., aluminum foil) building. Several such double-sided thermal
facing an air space as the first barrier to heat insulation panel systems are commercially
transmission in the roof. As this reflective layer available. They typically consist of two to seven
heats up, it becomes a heat radiator on its own inches thick insulation bats lined on both sides
account. Therefore, several inches of thermal with very thin aluminum foil. It is of course
insulation are normally provided directly on necessary for these double-sided panels to be
the underside of the reflective foil to prevent the installed so that they face an air space on each
transmission of this heat into the building. side. Second, care must be taken to minimize
Cold climates are characterized by low day the infiltration of cold air into the building
and night temperatures, snowfall during winter by sealing doors and windows with weather
in some regions, and a wind-chill factor due to stripping. Third, attention now focuses on the
air movement that can easily lower the per- windows as the least insulated component of
ceived temperature by another 5°F to 10°F the building shell. As will be seen in the next
(Figure 3.6). chapter, double-glazed windows will reduce
Under these adverse thermal conditions, the the outward heat loss to less than half the heat
available design strategies are all aimed at loss through single-glazed windows. Fourth,
minimizing the loss of heat from the building a compact building plan will minimize the
interior to the external environment. First, the ratio of external wall and roof area to internal
building envelope must be well insulated. In floor area. This leaves relatively less external
the case of the roof the insulation layer is surface area from which the building can lose
often provided with reflective foil facing both heat.
upward and downward, so that in winter heat Finally, in cold climates the sun must be
radiated from interior sources is reflected back looked upon as an important natural asset.
into the building, and in summer excessive Advantage can be taken of the difference in alti-
tude of the sun during winter and summer. In
winter the altitude of the sun during the midday
hours may be as much as 40 degrees lower than
in the summer months. This allows horizontal
shading devices on south elevations (north ele-
vations in the southern hemisphere) to be
designed to prevent solar radiation from pene-
trating windows in the summer, and to serve as
a welcome natural source of heating in the
winter (Figure 3.6). However, despite all of
these design measures some form of supple-
mentary, non-natural heating will be required
in virtually all cold climates.
3.3 Importance of
sunshading devices
various types of sunshading devices. This solu- ferent. In fact, when the solar radiation passes
tion may be appropriate to reduce summer heat into the space it is readily absorbed by the
gains and, at the same time, quite inappropriate objects in the space. Naturally, as these objects
for winter conditions. In winter, and perhaps heat up they become heat radiators themselves.
throughout the year in colder climates, the sun However, this radiation is of a longer wave-
is most useful as a heating device. As men- length and therefore cannot pass easily back
tioned in the previous section, since the eleva- through the window glass to the exterior. Most
tion or altitude of the sun is considerably lower of it becomes trapped in the space, causing the
in winter than in summer it is possible to design space to progressively heat up beyond the con-
horizontal sunshading devices on south-facing tribution of the direct solar radiation.
windows to allow some direct solar radiation to There is no doubt that external shading is the
penetrate through windows during the winter, most efficient form of solar protection from
and totally exclude the sun during the summer the point of view of heat control, since the heat
(Figure 3.6). radiation can be completely blocked if necessary.
The heat gain that can be achieved by captur- Unfortunately, it carries with it the disadvan-
ing solar radiation through closed windows in tages of interference with interior daylighting
winter is magnified by the greenhouse effect and natural ventilation. Furthermore, precau-
(Figure 3.7). tions must be taken to ensure that the shad-
The cause of this increased build-up of heat in ing device itself does not become unnecessarily
spaces with large glazed areas is often misun- hot, thereby assisting the transmission of heat
derstood. It is a common misconception that the by direct conduction to the wall or convection
wavelength of the solar radiation changes as it to the air surrounding the window opening
passes through the glazing, and that the result- (Figure 3.8).
ant radiation becomes trapped in the enclosed Accordingly, the device should have a reflec-
space because it cannot easily pass back through tive finish and allow free air flow over its surface
the glass. The correct explanation is quite dif- for cooling purposes.
Figure 3.7 The “greenhouse” effect. Figure 3.8 Sunshading design considerations.
Thermal Control by Building Design 39
Figure 3.16 Algebraic sun path solution. Figure 3.17 The Burnett sun path chart.
Clearly, the algebraic solution is rather labori- sunrise and sunset, and the points of the
ous and is unlikely to be performed by archi- compass. The plan of the building or room
tects. However, it is readily translated into under consideration (drawn to a suitable scale)
computer software code and therefore forms is positioned on the chart as shown in Figure
the basis of several computer-aided design 3.17, so that the hours of the day during which
(CAD) programs that perform sun-path calcula- the sun can penetrate that particular building
tions as part of their shadow- or daylight- space can be read off for any month of the year
rendering capabilities. If the required computer between the boundaries AB and CD. Since the
program is not available, then graphical sun plan diagram cannot provide any information
charts provide a practical alternative. A number about the depth of the room, the second (section)
of solar design charts have been prepared by diagram shows the altitude of the sun for the
various authors in past years, such as the center day of each month in relationship to a
Burnett chart and the Baker–Funaro chart. reference point (Z). The times indicated by the
The Burnett system consists of two diagrams boundaries AB and CD in the first (plan)
that are available in printed form, and may be diagram are drawn on a section diagram (i.e.,
used to solve most sun-penetration problems as GH and EF), so that the sunlight available for
soon as small-scale plans and sections are admission to the room is represented by the
available. month and time curves enclosed between the
The first diagram (upper left in Figure 3.17) boundaries EF and GH.
shows the position of the sun in plan, at differ- A third possibility available to the building
ent times of the day and season. The second designer for determining sun angles is to build
diagram (lower right in Figure 3.17) shows the a small-scale model of a room or entire build-
altitude of the sun and is intended to be used in ing. Such a model can be simply constructed
conjunction with the section of a building or out of cardboard, with the only requirement
room. The plan diagram consists of parts of con- that it be geometrically fairly accurate. Model
centric circles each representing the center day analyses of the sun path are particularly valu-
(i.e., the 15th) of a month, the hours of the day, able for visualizing the impact of the sun path
44 Building Science: Concepts and Application
keep heat out of the building environment ini- • For east and west orientations, where the alti-
tially, than to remove it from the interior by tude of the sun is likely to be low, inclined
mechanical cooling equipment. Accordingly, in vertical louvers are most effective. If the incli-
summer, the protection of windows from solar nation is perpendicular to the critical altitude
radiation is of primary importance, even when of the sun, then the shadow coverage pro-
the actual window area is small. vided by the louvers will be a maximum.
In winter, and particularly in colder climates, • Horizontal shades are effective for the south
the sun can become a useful source of heat, and orientations (or north orientations in the
its inclusion or exclusion must therefore be southern hemisphere), where the altitude of
given careful consideration. The design steps the sun is normally high. However, if these
that should be followed to optimize this aspect shades are inclined at less than 45° to the face
of environmental control are summarized below: of the wall, they are likely to interfere exces-
Step 1: A fundamental decision must be made sively with desirable solar penetration
regarding the type and degree of solar control during the winter months.
required (i.e., reflection, diffusion, part or • Orientations to the east and west of south (or
complete exclusion). north-east and north-west in the southern
Step 2: The building layout and the orientation hemisphere), where the altitude of the sun is
of all elevations must be considered next, considered to be intermediate, will require a
before an attempt is made to settle the sec- combination of horizontal shades and verti-
ondary question of shading. Should all solar cal shades. The latter may be inclined to be
radiation be excluded in summer? How perpendicular to the critical altitude, while
much solar penetration is desirable in winter? the horizontal shades take care of the higher
Step 3: The size and location of window areas altitudes of the sun, for which the vertical
will largely determine the amount of heat shades are ineffective.
transmission through the external walls, and
the amount of cooling and ventilation that
3.7 Achieving air movement naturally
can be provided by non-mechanical air
movement. Consideration should also be
In the absence of temperature and humidity
given at this stage to glare and levels of illu-
control, the only remaining natural means of
mination. Every attempt must be made to
cooling a building environment is by means of
provide at least sufficient daylight for back-
air movement. It is understood, however, that
ground lighting in the majority of building
the exposure of building occupants to air move-
spaces.
ment is most desirable in a hot-humid climate
Step 4: Finally, the selection of suitable shading
where the perspiration mechanism of the
devices will be largely a matter of economics.
human body is assisted by the accelerated
Available means of solar control in the form
passage of air over the skin. In hot-dry climates
of fixed or movable devices, with or without
air movement would normally be restricted to
remote control, must be analyzed in respect
the late afternoon and evening, for the purpose
to capital cost, savings in energy, reliability,
of cooling the building shell from the inside.
and durability.
Research into aspects of natural ventilation
Datta and Chaudri (1964) published a very elab- has been mainly confined to a study of the size,
orate system of charts and graphs that furnish shape, and position of air inlets and outlets in
the required data for the design of numerous building walls, and the geometry of the build-
types of shading device for tropical regions. ing plan in relationship to the air flow produced
Although the charts are rather complicated, by naturally occurring winds. The artificial pro-
they were useful for establishing the following duction of air movement by means of thermal
rules of thumb for practical guidance: currents has been largely abandoned as an
46 Building Science: Concepts and Application
This chapter will examine the exchange of heat between a building and the external environment.
In industrialized countries the energy used to heat buildings in winter, and to a lesser extent cool
buildings in summer since fewer homes have air conditioning facilities, constitutes a significant
portion of the total energy consumption. For example, in the US more than 25% of the total energy
consumption is attributable to buildings. About two-thirds of this energy is used for heating and
cooling purposes. Even today, in the year 2010, more than 80% of this energy is still produced by
fossil fuels, such as oil and coal.
4.1 The need for energy conservation 1979. At the same time, the availability of fuel
oil was becoming increasingly limited owing to
Prior to the energy crisis that was precipitated political and economical factors, while the con-
by the Middle East oil embargo of the early version of coal to a more directly useful form of
1970s, energy was considered to be an inexpen- energy, such as electricity, carried with it the
sive commodity in the US. As a consequence problem of unacceptable levels of pollution.
architects had little opportunity to apply their Faced with this potentially serious situation the
creativity and skills to building designs that uti- US Government mobilized all of its responsible
lized natural means for the heating, cooling, agencies and embarked on a massive program
and lighting of buildings. The impact of an of research and incentives to drastically reduce
abrupt shortage of oil and dramatic escalation the reliance on foreign imports of energy. To a
of the cost of energy was twofold. First, there large extent this program has continued to the
was an immediate call for the conservation of present day and is unlikely to subside to any
energy, and second, the Government sponsored appreciable extent over the foreseeable future.
many concurrent research programs aimed at Three strategies were immediately imple-
devising methods for maximizing the use of mented in the architecture, engineering and
natural sources of energy such as the sun, wind, construction industry as a means of conserving
and daylight in buildings. the world’s dwindling supplies of fossil fuel.
It was noted with alarm by the California Strategy A: Utilize all energy as efficiently as
State Utilities Commission that at the current possible. This strategy placed the emphasis
rate of consumption all of the remaining natural on thermal insulation. Prior to 1970, the
gas would need to be diverted from commercial thermal insulation of buildings had not been
and industrial uses to residential heating by mandatory in states such as California. It was
realized that if by the stroke of a magic wand
Building Science: Concepts and Application. Jens Pohl.
all existing building envelopes in the US
© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. could be provided with the equivalent of
Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. three inches of polyurethane insulation over-
Heat Flow and Thermal Insulation 51
night, then from the next day onward this 4.2 How is heat transferred?
would decrease the total national energy
consumption by more than 10 percent A Heat is a form of energy and is therefore a phys-
second focus was placed on improving the ical quantity that may be measured objectively.
efficiency of heating systems such as electric In the American system of units (i.e., formerly
resistance heaters and fireplaces, and house- the British system, before the United Kingdom
hold appliances such as refrigerators. adopted the metric system of units) heat is
Strategy B: Utilize less energy. The require- expressed in terms of British Thermal Units
ment for energy could be reduced by careful (BTU). One BTU is defined as the amount of
planning, design and construction, as well as heat required to raise the temperature of one
the reevaluation of comfort standards. It was pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit.
realized that an emphasis on daylighting Similarly, in the metric system the Calorie heat
could substantially reduce the need for arti- unit is defined as the amount of heat required
ficial lighting with a consequential reduction to raise the temperature of one kilogram of
in cooling loads. Research showed that it was water by one degree Centigrade. The heat
not unusual for high-rise office buildings in required for this one-degree rise in temperature
colder climates to require cooling in winter, is to a slight extent dependent on the actual
due to the heat produced by artificial lights. temperature of the water, and therefore for
It was estimated that through the provision precise measurements the temperature of the
of more daylight it would be possible to water should be around 60°F (or 15°C).
reduce the average artificial light design Heat may appear in either of two forms,
loads in office buildings by 50 percent (i.e., namely:
from the prevalent 4 watt per square foot to
less than 2 watt per square foot). • Sensible heat, which is associated with a
change of temperature of the substance
Strategy C: Utilize alternative energy sources.
involved. By virtue of its name, changes in
Natural sources such as solar energy, wind,
sensible heat are perceived by the senses.
nuclear power, geothermal energy, and
natural gas were targeted as promising alter- • Latent heat, which is the thermal energy used
during a change of state of a substance while
natives to fossil fuel. Of these, solar energy
the temperature remains unaltered. Latent
immediately assumed a prominent position
heat cannot be perceived by the senses.
as an attractive source of hot water and space
heating for single-family houses. For example, when ice is heated, the heat is
absorbed as sensible heat until the melting point
The need for adequate thermal insulation is reached. At this stage any further addition of
cannot be overstated. Buildings are normally heat will not cause a rise in temperature until
exposed to direct solar radiation and therefore all of the ice has melted. Latent heat is therefore
walls and roof will be subjected to temperatures absorbed to produce a change of state from ice
of 120°F or more. This temperature in the sun is to water. The addition of more heat to the water
also referred to as the sol-air temperature. By will be accompanied by proportionate increases
providing adequate insulation in the building in temperature until boiling point is reached.
shell, the rate at which heat is transferred can Thereafter, latent heat will be absorbed by the
be limited, with subsequent reduction in the water to facilitate a further change of state, until
capital and operating cost of heating and refrig- all of the water has been converted to steam.
eration plants. The major purpose of insulation The concepts of heat and temperature are
then becomes the conservation of heat or cold closely interrelated. In fact, it is very difficult to
within a building environment by maintaining provide a satisfactory definition for either heat
temperature differences between this environ- or temperature without implying the other. To
ment and ambient external conditions. overcome this difficulty, it has been suggested
52 Building Science: Concepts and Application
where:
QC = total heat transfer by conduction
k = thermal conductivity of material
A = contact surface area
t = thickness of material
(T1 − T2) = temperature difference.
Equation [4.1] applies to a homogenous mate-
rial under steady-state temperature conditions,
when a temperature differential (i.e., (T1 − T2))
exists between the two opposite faces of the
material. The assumption of steady-state tem-
perature conditions is a significant and con-
venient one. It implies that all of the heat is
transferred through the material; while in fact
some of the heat is absorbed, thereby raising the
temperature of the material. The amount of heat
Figure 4.1 Heat transfer by conduction. stored in any material is referred to as its heat
capacity and depends mainly on the specific
heat and density of the material (i.e., heat capac-
that the concept of thermal equilibrium might
ity is equal to specific heat multiplied by density).
form a convenient starting point. Accordingly,
for purposes of definition, two bodies are said
to be at the same temperature if they remain in 4.2.2 Convection
thermal equilibrium when brought into contact
with each other, and scales of temperature are Heat is transmitted by convection in fluids and
related to certain measurable physical proper- gases as a result of circulation. For example,
ties such as the volumetric expansion of mercury when air is heated it expands and rises, thus
(e.g., in a thermometer). allowing colder air to take its place. In the case
Heat is said to pass from one system or sub- of buildings, heat transfer by convection takes
stance to another if the two systems are at dif- place at roof and wall surfaces, around heating
ferent temperatures and in contact with each and cooling units, or wherever a material is
other. This heat transfer, which always occurs exposed to air at a different temperature.
from a region of high temperature to a region Consequently, heat loss by convection is a func-
of low temperature, may proceed by conduc- tion of the surface coefficient of heat transfer
tion, convection, radiation, or any combination and depends largely on the degree of air move-
of these. ment, the shape and dimensions of the surface,
and the temperature differential that exists
between the air and the surface (Figure 4.2):
4.2.1 Conduction
QE = SC (T1 - T2 )5 / 4 [4.2]
Thermal conduction is the direct transmission of
heat through a material or between two materi- where:
als in direct contact with each other (Figure 4.1).
QE = total heat transfer by convection
All substances, whether solid, liquid, or gas
SC = coefficient of convective heat transfer
will conduct heat, the rate of transfer depending
Sc = 0.4 for horizontal surface (face up)
on the thermal conductivity of the substance.
Sc = 0.3 for vertical surface
QC = k A (T1 - T2 ) / t [4.1] Sc = 0.2 for horizontal surface (face down).
Heat Flow and Thermal Insulation 53
Figure 4.2 Heat transfer by convection. Figure 4.3 Heat transfer by radiation.
Apart from the operation of hot-air and hot- Ee = factor that takes into account the
water heating systems in buildings, convection emissivities of the surfaces involved
has far-reaching effects on climatic conditions. (dimensionless). If “e1” and “e2” are
Near the equator intense solar radiation will the respective emissivities of two
produce considerable thermal air currents, parallel surfaces, then:
while ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream
Ee = (e1e2 )/(e1 + e2 − 1),
are also largely produced by convection.
Particular values of Ee for specific
situations, such as two square sur-
4.2.3 Radiation
faces at right angles to each other,
Radiant heat transfer is the process of the con- and so on, may be obtained from the
version of heat energy in a substance into ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals,
electro-magnetic radiation, and the subsequent 1989.
reconversion of this radiant energy into heat of (T1 − T2) = temperature difference.
absorption by another substance in its path. The
Generally speaking, light surfaces are better
intensity of radiation emitted by a substance is
reflectors than dark surfaces, although bright
very much dependent on the type of material
metallic surfaces are much more efficient in
and the temperature (Figure 4.3).
reflecting short-wavelength solar radiation than
The net heat radiation between two surfaces
long-wavelength, low-temperature radiation
at different temperatures is given by:
(Figure 4.4). On the other hand the opposite is
QR = Ee A (T14 - T24 ) [4.3] true for white paint.
The reader may feel that there exists an appar-
where:
ent anomaly in relation to the dark skin color
QR = total heat transfer by radiation prevalent among indigenous people in the
A = surface area tropics. One would expect a light-colored skin
54 Building Science: Concepts and Application
to have better reflecting properties and there- als. These parameters may be conveniently
fore provide more protection to the human grouped into three broadly defined categories,
body. In fact, in dark-skinned races, the pigment as shown in Figure 4.5:
is deposited in the superficial layers of the skin
Enclosure factors such as the thermal proper-
and serves as a screen to filter out the poten-
ties of materials of construction, orientation,
tially harmful rays in solar radiation. Ultraviolet
planning, and design specifications.
light is emitted by the sun, and is even more
Climatic factors involving thermal indices such
abundantly reflected from a blue sky. If applied
as temperature, radiation, and air movement.
to the skin suddenly and in large doses, inflam-
Occupancy factors such as the functional use of
mation, whealing, and blistering (i.e., sunburn)
a building space that will establish the
will result. Consequently, pigmentation of the
required comfort conditions and resultant
skin is believed to lessen the possibility of injury
internal heat loads.
from solar radiation.
While all of these parameters may be assigned
numerical values at any particular time, some of
4.3 Steady-state them, in particular the climatic factors, are sub-
heat-transfer assumptions ject to considerable short-term change. Strictly
speaking, therefore, heat transfer through build-
Since the desired thermal building environment ing walls and roofs is of an unsteady character.
is at most times different from ambient atmos- However, to avoid the relatively complex calcu-
pheric conditions, there will exist a tempera- lations that are necessary to determine the time-
ture differential between indoor and outdoor dependent properties of systems of construction,
regions. Accordingly, the amount of heat trans- it is common practice to assume very much sim-
ferred through the building envelope must be plified thermal boundary conditions: namely,
closely related to the heat-exchange parameters that the indoor temperature is constant and that
at the surfaces of the envelope layers (if com- either steady heat flow or periodic heat flow con-
posite) and the thermal properties of the materi- ditions apply.
Heat Flow and Thermal Insulation 55
Figure 4.6 Steady-state assumptions. Figure 4.7 Steady-state heat transfer through the
building envelope.
Although steady-state heat transfer does not the thermal resistance of the material, but also
exist in practice, since the outdoor climate fluc- by that of the two surfaces. It is normal practice
tuates continuously, nevertheless it does to combine these various resistivities into a
provide a reasonable estimate of the heat flow single factor, known as the thermal transmit-
through a building envelope if the following tance or U-value (Figure 4.7).
two conditions are satisfied (Figure 4.6):
Q = U A (T1 - T2 ) [4.4]
Condition 1: When the temperature difference
between the outdoor and indoor environ- where:
ments is large and short-term changes in
outdoor temperature are small. Q = total heat transfer (BTU/HR)
Condition 2: When the thermal capacity of the U = overall thermal transmittance value
building shell is small in comparison with (BTU/SF-HR-°F)
the total heat transferred. A = surface area (SF)
(T1 − T2) = temperature difference (°F).
In practice, heat is transferred through a build-
ing envelope by more than one mode of heat As shown in Figure 4.8, the thermal transmit-
transfer. For example, in the case of prefabri- tance for a composite building wall is the recip-
cated concrete wall panels heat is first transmit- rocal of the sum of the thermal resistances of the
ted from the air on one side of the panel to the external surface, each layer of material, cavity
nearest surface, mainly by convection; then the (if any), and the internal surface. Since the
heat is conducted through the wall panel; and thermal resistance of any material of specified
finally the heat is transferred from the opposite thickness is given by the ratio of the thickness
surface by convection to the surrounding air. (d) to the thermal conductivity (k), the total
Accordingly, the rate of heat transfer through a resistance of “i” layers of a composite element
building component is determined not only by is given by:
56 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Accordingly, the ideal thermal insulation the cells and the conductivity of the enclosing
material is one that has many closed air cells. material.
By virtue of its enclosing surfaces, each of The air cavity in a timber frame or brick
these cells will contribute to the overall cavity wall construction is typically continuous,
thermal resistance of the material. The con- vertically from floor to ceiling and horizontally
tribution will of course not be as much as at least from stud to stud. Some two-thirds of
0.91, but sufficient to provide a closed-cell the heat transfer across this large cavity will
plastic foam material such as polyurethane occur by radiation, to which air will offer little
with a thermal resistance of 6.25 per inch resistance. Accordingly, the insertion of reflec-
thickness. tive foil can lower the conductivity of the air
Density: Light materials have in general a low space in a cavity wall by some 50 percent. With
conductivity and heavier materials are the respect to the optimum thickness of an air
better thermal conductors. Materials of low cavity, it has been established experimentally
density are apt to contain more air between that there is little difference in the thermal con-
the pores or particles, thereby lowering the ductivity of air spaces varying between 0.75
thermal conductivity as long as the pores are inches and six inches. For thicknesses less than
closed and not open. 0.75 inches, the conductivity increased rapidly.
Moisture content: The conductivity of water is
some 25 times greater than that of air. Since
the low thermal conductivity of porous mate- 4.5 Building heat-flow calculations
rials is largely due to the air enclosed by the
pores, the replacement of some of this air by As shown in Figure 4.11, the heat exchange
water must result in an increase in conduc- between a building interior and its exterior
tivity. Particularly, insulating materials such environment is dependent not only on the
as mineral wool are capable of absorbing thermal resistance of the envelope, but also on
large volumes of water, thereby nullifying the heat gain or loss due to air infiltration and
most of their insulating effect.
Temperature: Thermal conductivity tends to
increase as the temperature of the material
increases, and this is more pronounced for
lightweight, porous materials. However,
generally speaking, the effect of temperature
on the conductivity of materials of construc-
tion is negligible over the range of tempera-
tures normally encountered in buildings.
resistance of external = Rmat(1) = 0.79 based on the estimated tightness of the building
brick leaf wall envelope and the external design temperature.
resistance of air cavity = Rcavity = 0.91
Perimeter component: The heat-transfer calcu-
resistance of internal = Rmat(2) = 0.79
lation procedure for the portion of the building
brick leaf wall
that connects to the ground depends on the type
internal surface = Rint = 0.61 of construction employed (Figure 4.14).
resistance In the case of a concrete slab on grade, the
total thermal resistance = Rtotal = 3.27 perimeter component is a direct product of the
of brick cavity wall linear building perimeter, the temperature dif-
U-value = 1/Rtotal = 0.31 ference between the internal and external envi-
ronments, and a modifier that may be obtained
Total heat gain through = Qtotal = 18.4 BTU/
from reference tables such as those provided by
solid brick wall SF-HR
the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (1989).
The impact of the air cavity is considerable, This modifier is based on three parameters, two
leading to a 40 percent reduction in the calcu- of which are rather vague estimates based largely
lated heat gain. However, as discussed earlier, on the expected quality (i.e., materials and work-
it must be remembered that the heat loads cal- manship) of construction: namely, type of wall
culated in this manner will not necessarily construction and degree of insulation. The third
provide an accurate account of conditions in parameter represents an approximate assess-
practice. They are at best only a reasonable esti- ment of the severity of the climate in terms of the
mate of the actual expected heat flows. First, number of Degree Days (to base 65°F).
some of the quantities involved – such as the In the case where the lowest floor of the build-
thermal conductivities of the materials – are not ing is elevated above the ground (i.e., for floors
constant under normal climatic conditions. above grade) the calculation of the estimated
Second, the fundamental assumptions of steady- heat loss (perimeter heat gain is normally not
state conditions are very much an oversimplifi- considered) proceeds in exactly the same manner
cation of the actual nature of these heat-transfer as for the building-envelope component.
parameters.
4.8 The cause and nature passage of moisture through walls, and the pen-
of condensation etration of rain water through openings in the
building envelope, can be effectively controlled
Moisture problems in buildings are normally by means of damp-proof courses. There remains
due to the movement of a mixture of water however, the problem of surface condensation
vapor and air around and through the building and the flow of water vapor through insulation,
shell. The quantity of water vapor in the exter- which may be caused by:
nal atmosphere depends on ambient climatic
conditions, while the quantity in the air inside
• the addition of moisture to the air due to the
occupancy of the building;
a building also depends on the rate of ventila-
tion and the occupancy. The amount of water
• the intentional humidification of air by
mechanical means for reasons of safety,
vapor that can be held by a given volume of air comfort, or industrial expediency;
before saturation occurs (i.e., before the dew
point is reached) increases with higher temper-
• humid air coming into contact with cold
surfaces.
atures (Figure 4.17).
It is no longer a matter of debate that damp- As shown in Figure 4.18, there are fundamen-
ness in buildings can have a negative effect on tally two kinds of condensation in buildings.
the health of the occupants. In particular, damp- Surface condensation will occur whenever the
ness supports the growth of molds that produce temperature of any exposed surface within a
allergic reactions. However, just as importantly, building is below the dew point of the sur-
damp conditions will seriously affect the per- rounding air. According to the nature of the
formance of building materials. It is therefore surface and material, the condensation will be
necessary to control moisture movement, visible in the form of water droplets or absorbed
whether in the form of vapor or liquid, so as to by the material. Commonly affected surfaces
keep the components of a building as dry as are window panes, metal window frames, and
possible. Dampness arising from the upward poorly insulated external walls and ceilings.
Classroom windows: wall, and the roof). For the purpose of this
external surface = Rext = 0.17 limited example we will neglect the heat
resistance transfer due to air infiltration and the perim-
internal surface = Rint = 0.61 eter of the floor slab.
resistance
1/8-IN normal glass = R = 0.02 (or 0.16/IN)
mat
pane Building U-Value Surface Area UA
Classroom roof: Element (A)
external surface = Rext = 0.17 solid wall 0.09 360 + 120 = 480 43
resistance Windows 1.25 360 + 160 = 520 650
internal surface = Rint = 0.61 Roof 0.06 1200 72
resistance Total: 765
3/8-IN built-up = Rmat = 0.33 (or 0.88/IN)
roofing
5-IN polystyrene = Rmat = 19.25 (or 3.85/IN) Step 6: Calculate the total heat loss in the case
½-IN plasterboard = Rmat = 0.45 (or 0.90/IN) of a cold climate, assuming an external tem-
ceiling perature of 50°F and an internal temperature
of 68°F.
Step 1: Adjust the thermal insulation provided
by 3 IN of polystyrene in the solid portions Q cold = 765 × (50 − 68) = −13 770 BTU / HR
of the external walls to allow for timber studs
Step 7: Calculate the total heat gain in the case
at 16-IN centers.
of a hot-humid climate, assuming an external
14.5 + 1.5 16 16 temperature in the shade of 78°F (for walls),
= = = 9.2
14.5 / 11.55 + 1.5 / 3.15 1.26 + 0.48 1.74 a sol-air temperature on the roof of 110°F,
and a desired internal temperature of 80°F.
It is interesting to note that the presence of Then calculate the ventilation rate and wind
the studs reduces the effective thermal insu- speed required to maintain an internal tem-
lation value of the wall by about 20 percent perature of 80°F.
(i.e., 9.2 / 11.55 × 100 = 79.7%)
Step 2: Calculate the U-Value of the solid wall Q wall = 693 × (78 − 80) = −1386 BTU/HR
sections.
Q roof = 72 × (110 − 80) = +2160 BTU/HR
R total = 0.17 + 0.15 + 9.2 + 0.45 + 0.61 = 10.58 Net heat gain (Q hot-humid ) = + 774 BTU/HR
U wall = 1/10.58 = 0.09 Vrate = Q hot-humid/[0.0018 × (78 − 80)]
Step 3: Calculate the U-Value of the window = 774/0.036 = 21500 CF/HR
portions of the walls.
Assuming 160SF of open windows (i.e.,
R total = 0.17 + 0.02 + 0.61 = 0.80 4FT × 40FT = 160SF):
U window = 1/ 0.80 = 1.25
Wspeed = Vrate /[88 × 0.6 × 160]
Step 4: Calculate the U-Value of the roof.
= 21 500 / 8448 = 2.5 MPH
R total = 0.17 + 0.33 + 15.4 + 0.45 + 0.61 = 16.96
Step 8: Calculate the total heat gain in the
U roof = 1/16.96 = 0.06
case of a hot-dry climate, assuming an exter-
Step 5: Determine the total thermal transmit- nal temperature in the shade of 95°F (for
tance of the external portion of the class- walls), a sol-air temperature on the roof of
room’s building envelope (i.e., the west wall, 130°F, and a desired internal temperature of
the south wall, the upper portion of the north 80°F. Then determine whether the building
66 Building Science: Concepts and Application
envelope could function as a heat sink to Calculate the U-Value of the modified solid
buffer the inside of the building from the hot wall sections:
external environment during daytime hours.
R total = 0.17 + 0.27 + 0.45 + 0.61 = 1.50
To increase the heat capacity of the building
envelope, and at the same time reduce the U wall = 1/ 1.50 = 0.67
direct heat flow through the window areas, Calculate the U-Value of the modified window
four constructional modifications will be portions of the walls:
assumed. First, the external timber stud walls
will be replaced by 3-IN thick concrete with R total = 0.17 + 0.02 + 0.91 + 0.02 + 0.61 = 1.73
½-IN drywall on the inside. Second, the U window = 1/ 1.73 = 0.58
timber roof structure will be replaced with a
Calculate the U-Value of the modified roof:
4-IN concrete slab and a ½-IN plasterboard
ceiling. Third, the solid part of the wall on R total = 0.17 + 0.33 + 0.36 + 0.45 + 0.61 = 1.92
the south side will be raised to an 8-FT height, U roof = 1/ 1.92 = 0.52
leaving only a 4-FT high strip of windows
similar to the north wall. Fourth, all of the Determine the total thermal transmittance of
single-glazed windows will be replaced by the external portion of the classroom’s modified
double-glazed windows. building envelope (i.e., the west wall, the south
wall, the upper portion of the north wall, and
Modified walls: the roof). Again, for the purpose of this limited
external surface = Rext = 0.17 example we will neglect the heat transfer due
resistance to air infiltration and the perimeter of the floor
slab.
internal surface = Rint = 0.61
resistance
3-IN concrete = Rmat = 0.27 (or 1.09/IN)
Building U-Value Surface Area UA
½-IN drywall = Rmat = 0.45 (or 0.90/IN) Element (A)
Modified windows:
solid wall 0.67 360 + 320 = 680 456
external surface = Rext = 0.17 Windows 0.58 160 + 160 = 320 186
resistance Roof 0.52 1200 624
internal surface = Rint = 0.61 Total: 1266
resistance
1/8-IN normal = Rmat = 0.02 (or 0.16/IN)
glass pane Total heat gain for an external temperature in
air cavity between = Rcavity = 0.91 the shade of 95°F (for walls), a sol-air tempera-
two sheets of glass ture on the roof of 130°F, and a desired internal
temperature of 80°F is given by:
Modified roof:
external surface = Rext = 0.17 Q wall = 642 × (95 − 80) = +9630 BTU / HR
resistance Q roof = 624 × (130 − 80) = +31 200 BTU / HR
internal surface = Rint = 0.61 Net heat gain (Q hot-dry ) = +40 830 BTU/HR
resistance
For a 10-hour day the external building enve-
3/8-IN built-up = Rmat = 0.33 (or 0.88/IN)
lope will need to be able to absorb at least 408
roofing
300 BTU (i.e., 40 830 × 10). With a weight of 140
4-IN concrete = Rmat = 0.36 (or 1.09/IN) LB/CF for concrete, the heat capacity (Qcapacity)
½-IN plasterboard = Rmat = 0.45 (or 0.90/IN) of the external building shell is approximately
ceiling equal to:
Heat Flow and Thermal Insulation 67
Q capacity = (total concrete mass) × (specific heat) Therefore, the total heat capacity of the concrete
× (temperature difference) portions of the external building shell is some
70 percent greater than the estimated daily heat
Q cap-wall = (680 × 3 /12 × 140) × 0.22 load and, therefore, the building shell will be
× (95 − 80) = 78 540 BTU able to function as an effective buffer between
Q cap-roof = (1200 × 4 /12 × 140) × 0.22 the external and internal environments during
the daytime.
× (130 − 80) = 616 000 BTU
Total heat capacity (Q capacity ) = 694 540 BTU
5 Solar Energy: The Beckoning Opportunity
This chapter will investigate the potential of solar energy as a natural source of energy for buildings.
From the beginning of the energy crisis in the early 1970s solar energy has been heralded as a readily
available source of heat for virtually any application. Closer examination shows that while solar
energy may be a very useful and convenient source of energy for some applications, it is not at all
appropriate for other applications.
Figure 5.1 Solar energy promises. Figure 5.3 Availability of solar energy.
5.2 Two types of solar heat and transport it either in circulating water
collection system or air into the building. This type of solar system
is known as an active or indirect system, since
The simplest way of using solar energy for it consists of components that do not form an
space-heating purposes is to allow the sun to integral part of the building envelope. In view
penetrate directly into the building. In this of the low temperatures required for hot-water
manner, the building acts as a solar collector, services and space heating, most active solar
by absorbing solar radiation when it needs systems incorporate non-concentrating or flat-
heat and rejecting it when no heat is required. plate solar collectors. However, virtually all
Such solar systems are known as passive or active solar systems require a fairly large heat-
direct systems, not because they do not incor- storage facility, a water pump or air fan, pipes
porate any mechanical components (in fact they or ducts, controls, and valves or dampers.
often do), but because they rely totally on the
passive absorption or rejection of solar radia-
tion (Figure 5.4). 5.3 Flat-plate solar collectors
To date, passive solar systems have been
particularly successful in mild climates, not The most important component of an active
subject to prolonged cold winters. It is likely solar system is the collector. Of the many types
that most applications of solar space-heating of solar collector that have been developed in
systems in the single-family residential sector recent years, the flat-plate liquid or air collector
will in time come to rely more and more on has found the widest application.
passive principles. As shown in Figure 5.5, a typical flat-plate
Active solar systems typically utilize one or collector consists of a flat metal, plastic, or
more manufactured collector units, normally rubber absorbing plate that is painted black
located on the south-facing side of an inclined or subjected to a special surface treatment
roof (for the northern hemisphere, and north for maximum absorption of the sun’s heat.
side for the southern hemisphere), to collect Underneath, or in tubes forming an integral
Figure 5.4 Active or passive systems? Figure 5.5 Water and air collectors.
Solar Energy: The Beckoning Opportunity 71
part of the absorber plate, a fluid such as water transfer medium. The liquid typically circu-
or air is circulated to transfer the collected heat lates (i.e., is pumped) in pipes that form an
into the building or storage facility. To mini- integral part of the absorber plate. Problems
mize the heat lost from the collector and circu- associated with liquid flat-plate collectors
lating fluid, the underside and sides of the are related to leakages, corrosion, freezing,
collector are well insulated with a several- and the relatively high cost of the necessary
inches-thick layer of insulating material such as plumbing work.
polyurethane or polystyrene foam. Finally, one • Air flat-plate collectors are also available in
or more layers of glass with interstitial air many forms. All utilize air as the heat-
spaces are placed above the collector plate to transfer medium, which is blown by fans
reduce the outward reflection of heat and take through one or more ducts located under-
advantage of the greenhouse effect. neath the absorber plate. Advantages of
The efficiency of a flat-plate collector (i.e., the air collectors include freedom from freez-
percentage of incident radiation that the unit ing and corrosion, as well as lower mainte-
is capable of collecting) is closely related to nance costs. However, these advantages are
the number of glazing layers provided, as offset by the relatively large duct size and
well as, the temperature difference between the electricity requirements of the fan, necessary
fluid entering and leaving the collector unit for the transfer of the air from the collector
(Figure 5.6). unit to the building interior or heat-storage
Accordingly, collector efficiencies that are facility.
stated independently of the specific tempera-
ture differential under consideration may be The choice between an air or water flat-plate
very misleading. collector will require consideration of the nature
of the intended application, as well as the
• Liquid flat-plate collectors are available in
ambient climatic conditions with respect to the
many variations. Most utilize water with or
likelihood that freezing conditions may occur in
without an anti-freeze solution as the heat-
winter. Water collectors are usually favored for
domestic hot-water services because of the rela-
tively inefficient transfer of heat from air to
water.
On the other hand, hot water from a solar
collector entering a water-storage tank is dif-
fused throughout the water by convection cur-
rents. Accordingly, the temperature of the water
in the tank may not be high enough to be useful
as a hot-water service. For example, on a
summer day the temperature of the water
leaving the solar collector may be as high as
140°F. However, as this water flows into the
storage tank it is quickly diffused throughout
the tank, with the result that the temperature of
the water may not exceed 100°F throughout the
day. Water at 100°F is hardly satisfactory for a
shower. One way of overcoming this problem,
caused by the lack of heat stratification in water,
is to use two storage tanks. The hot water from
the solar collector is pumped directly into a
small tank and from there into the larger tank.
Figure 5.6 Typical collector efficiencies. With this arrangement a small supply of water
72 Building Science: Concepts and Application
at a high temperature (i.e., in the small tank) is 5.4 Solar heat-storage systems
available at most times. The disadvantage of
this arrangement is the additional cost associ- Since solar radiation is not available for all
ated with the requirement for two water tanks hours of the day, it is necessary to store heat
and the associated piping. for later use. In passive solar-heating systems
From an architectural planning viewpoint the the heat capacity of the entire building shell
principal feature that distinguishes between can be used as a convenient storage facility.
solar water and air collectors is the size of the Unfortunately, in the case of active solar systems
associated pipes or ductwork. While small- the heat-storage facility is normally looked
diameter water pipes can be easily hidden from upon as a self-contained unit that must be
sight inside walls and vertical plumbing shafts, accommodated somewhere within, or in the
air ducts are likely to measure at least 6 IN in proximity of, the building. To allow for a storage
the smallest dimension, making them too wide period of one to two days, the required storage
to fit into a normal wall. This leaves the designer unit can be quite large, even for a single-family
with few options other than either to provide residential building. Storage-unit sizes of 100 to
vertical and horizontal casements for the air 200 CF (i.e., 750 to 1500 gallons) for water and
ducts, or to expose the ducts as a special feature 300 to 600 CF (i.e., 20 to 40 TON) for rock are
that contributes to the aesthetic ambience of the not uncommon. Architectural planning prob-
building. In the latter case, the ducts could of lems and the not insignificant cost associated
course be exposed on either the interior or the with heat storage are an incentive for the devel-
exterior of the building envelope. A compara- opment of less bulky storage systems.
tive summary of water and air flat-plate solar As shown in Figure 5.8, the heat capacity of
collectors is presented in Figure 5.7. a material, such as water or rock, is given by the
Figure 5.7 Comparison of water and air collectors Figure 5.8 Heat storage potential of common
and efficiency factors. building materials.
Solar Energy: The Beckoning Opportunity 73
product of the specific heat and the density (in the high solar radiation period of the day,
the container). Although the term rock storage is during a 24 hour cycle. Such systems are more
in common use, it actually refers to stone suitable for inland regions where daytime dew
pebbles that typically vary in size from about points are relatively lower. In two-bed systems
0.75 IN to 3 IN, depending on the particular each bed operates in opposing and alternating
design conditions. Therefore, in the case of rock cycles of 12 hours of adsorption and three hours
storage the effective density is very much of regeneration.
reduced owing to the many air pockets between Currently, water and rock (i.e., pebbles) con-
the adjoining rock particles. In other words, 20 stitute the most popular solar heat-storage
to 30 percent of a rock storage unit may consist materials for active solar systems.
of voids, which have negligible heat capacity
(i.e., the specific heat and density of air are 0.24 Using water: Water is readily available in the
BTU/LB/°F. and 0.075 LB/CF, respectively). quantities required for heat storage; it is
Another approach to reducing the required cheap and it has a high heat capacity of 62
heat-storage volume is to take advantage of the BTU/CF/°F (see Figure 5.8). As a rule of
latent heat that is absorbed by materials during thumb, approximately 1 to 10 gallons of
a change of phase. For example, Glaubers salt water are normally required per square foot
absorbs 100 BTU/LB and paraffin absorbs 65 of solar collector. Water has the advantage of
BTU/LB when they melt at temperatures just not requiring a heat exchanger when used in
above normal room temperature. Although conjunction with liquid flat-plate solar col-
these materials are more expensive and there lectors for a typical residential hot-water
are problems associated with their typically service. Furthermore, the circulation of water
imperfect re-solidification, desiccant beds can uses less energy than the circulation of air
be used effectively in hot-humid climates to with comparable heat content, and piping is
extract moisture from the air stream. The result- conveniently routed to remote places and
ant reduction in relative humidity can result in around sharp bends. On the other hand,
a significant improvement of the thermal water-storage tanks are subject to leakage,
comfort conditions inside the building. freezing, and corrosion, as well as a relatively
A further problem associated with such higher initial installation cost.
systems is that, following passage through the A typical water-storage facility is shown in
desiccant, the temperature of the outlet air conjunction with a liquid flat-plate collector
stream has usually increased by 40°F to 60°F system in Figure 5.9.
(i.e., exhaust temperatures of 100°F are com- The coolest water from the bottom of the
mon), and consequently it must be cooled. tank is pumped through the collector, where
Without such cooling the effectiveness of the it is heated and then returned to the top of
desiccant system is greatly reduced. Possible the tank. The warmest water at the top of the
remedies include the incorporation of a passive tank is circulated directly through baseboard
heat sink in the desiccant system, or the use of radiators or heating panels inside each room.
a sensible cooling system such as heat exchang- Owing to convection currents, the tempera-
ers connected to a roof pond. A cooling system ture difference between any two points in the
that utilizes ambient air may be feasible during water tank is seldom more than 25°F. This is
the nighttime if the temperature consistently a disadvantage, since no appreciable heat
drops to around 80°F. stratification can be maintained in the tank.
One- or two-bed systems are typically used. Using rock: Rock storage is most commonly
One-bed systems are suitable for conditions used in conjunction with active-air solar
where the daytime load is low and beds can be systems. Pebble beds or rock piles normally
regenerated by solar radiation. Otherwise, the require two and one half times the volume of
one-bed system has to be regenerated during an equivalent water-storage tank. The sizes
74 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Assuming an average daily insolation of 2200 the external temperature is above the DD base
BTU/SF, 70 percent of possible sunshine (i.e., temperature. Each degree below the base tem-
allowing for clouds) and a collector efficiency of perature is considered to be one DD. Therefore
40 percent, we obtain on the basis of equation if the mean temperature during the month of
[5.1]: November in a particular region is 56°F, then
this region will have 270 DD for that month (i.e.,
A = 834 × 144 × (120 − 60)/(2200 × 0.70 × 40)
(65°F − 56°F) × 30 days = 270 DD). The calcula-
= 117 = 120 SF (approx.) tion of an actual heating requirement in BTU/
DD is shown in Figure 5.12.
It simply requires the estimated heat loss in
5.6 The degree–day concept BTU/HR-°F to be multiplied in turn by the DD/
day (i.e., 9 DD/day in the above example) and
The Degree–Day (DD) concept serves as a con- by the number of hours during which this heat
venient and useful measure of the severity of a loss is expected to persist on a particular day.
climate. While it is most commonly applied to This calculation tends to lead to conservative
determine heating requirements, it can be results, since it assumes that the estimated heat
equally well applied to cooling requirements in loss (BTU/HR-°F) applies throughout the entire
warmer climates. It is based on the concept that 24-hour period of a day. Nevertheless, it is com-
there exists an equilibrium external tempera- monly accepted as a sufficiently accurate
ture at which no supplementary heating (or measure of the size of a solar collector facility.
cooling) will be required inside a building. For
the same climate this base temperature is likely
to be slightly different for assessing the heating 5.7 Sizing a solar
and cooling requirements. space-heating system
The normal DD base temperature for heating
is 65°F. If another base temperature is chosen, To determine the size of the collector area and
then this is always indicated in the calculations. storage volume required for an active solar
It is assumed that no heating will be required if heating system it is necessary to:
76 Building Science: Concepts and Application
1 Determine the heat loss that will be experi- volume, and the cost involved, storage periods
enced by the building each month. of one to two days are normally considered
2 Establish the amount of solar radiation that adequate. Example applications of equations
can be collected each month. This will depend [5.2] and [5.3] are shown in Figures 5.13 and
on the latitude of the site location, and the 5.14, respectively.
percentage of sunshine, as well as the inclina-
tion and efficiency of the collector.
3 Calculate the percentage of the total heating
requirements that can be catered for by solar
energy each month. The deficit must be sup-
plied by an auxiliary heating facility, or alter-
natively the collector area can be increased.
4 Select the heat-storage medium and deter-
mine the volume of the storage facility.
The approximate solar collector area (A SF)
required to provide P percent of the total heating
requirements for a particular month (QM BTU/
month), is then given by the following formula:
A = 100 QM P /(I E SM ) [5.2]
where:
A = required collector area (SF)
QM = heating requirement (BTU/month)
P = percentage heat requirement supplied by
sun (%)
I = monthly insolation at collector tilt (BTU/ Figure 5.13 Sizing a solar heating system.
SF)
E = collector efficiency (%)
SM = monthly percentage of sunshine (%).
Also, the required heat-storage volume (V CF),
for a storage period of D days, is given by:
V = QD D /(HC (TS - TU )) [5.3]
where:
V = required heat-storage volume (CF)
QD = daily heating requirement (BTU/day)
D = storage period in days
HC = heat capacity of storage material (BTU/
CF-°F)
TS = maximum temperature of heat storage
material (°F); normally 130°F to 160°F
TU = minimum temperature of usable heat (°F);
normally 90°F to 110°F.
Owing to the relatively large volume of stor-
age required, architectural planning problems
encountered in accommodating this storage Figure 5.14 Sizing the heat-storage facility.
Solar Energy: The Beckoning Opportunity 77
and cannot substitute for the application of be very much increased by pressurizing the
equations [5.1], [5.2] and [5.3] in the design of a column interior with a fluid, such as air, water,
specific solar installation. or even sand. The initial structural concept
called for water to be used as the pressurizing
medium. Unfortunately, two attempts to render
5.8 Integrating building structure the column waterproof by inserting a plastic
and heat storage bag inside the column failed. Each time the
plastic bag developed a leak, either before or
An interesting concept for combining the struc- during the filling operation. Therefore, it was
tural support system of a residential building decided to substitute sand for water as the pres-
with the storage requirements of a typical active surizing medium. Although sand is not com-
solar heating system was investigated during monly described as a fluid, it does display a
the mid-1970s in a full-size test building con- number of fluid properties. When a bucket of
structed by students in the School of Architecture dry sand is poured onto the ground, it forms a
and Environmental Design at the California heap with sides sloping at an angle of approxi-
Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), San mately 45°, governed by the friction between
Luis Obispo, California. individual sand grains. This indicates that sand
The building incorporates an innovative, has limited shear strength and therefore trans-
fluid-supported structure, consisting of a central mits a proportion of superimposed vertical
5-FT diameter column fabricated from 18-gauge loads sideways. Accordingly, the sand in the
galvanized steel sheeting and filled with a building column produces pressure on the
mixture of sand and water. It is the dual func- inside surface of the column wall, thereby resist-
tion of the sand–water mixture to support the ing the formation of local buckles (i.e., wrinkles
building loads and to act as a convenient heat or folds) in the column wall. In addition, the
store for solar energy collected at roof level sand has the ability to directly support the verti-
(Figure 5.17). cal load of the building as long as it is contained
Structurally, the column is classified as a thin- by the column wall.
walled cylindrical shell, which is subject to local The column wall is welded at all joints and
buckling (i.e., crinkling or folding of the thin sealed top and bottom with circular mild-steel
column wall) under excessive vertical loads. plates (i.e., 0.25 IN thick). At roof level, eight
The resistance to buckling of such a column can open-web steel joists or trusses are welded to
the top column plate. The trusses are fabricated
from mild-steel angles (i.e., 2 IN by 3 IN by 0.25
IN thick) that cantilever approximately 10 FT
out from the central column.
The suspended floors are approximately 22
FT in diameter and of octagonal shape. Each
floor consists of eight wedge-shaped prefabri-
cated panels constructed with 1-3/4 IN thick
rigid polystyrene foam sheets sandwiched (i.e.,
glued) between two layers of 3/8-IN plywood
sheets. Each floor panel is provided with a
frame of standard 2-IN by 4-IN timber beams
laid flat around the perimeter. Individual panels
were joined by gluing together overlapping
plywood skins. The final panel thickness is 2.25
IN. The floors are suspended from roof level by
Figure 5.17 System diagram of the sand-column means of 16 mild-steel suspension rods, attached
concept. to the radial roof trusses and prestressed to the
Solar Energy: The Beckoning Opportunity 79
footings by means of turnbuckles. The rods are the compounding problem of potentially allow-
of 5/8 IN diameter. ing excessive heat to enter the building spaces
The solar collector consists simply of a 1300 during the summer months.
FT long, ¾-IN diameter, black polyethylene Direct Gain passive solar systems rely largely
hose laid onto the roof surface in the form of a on the greenhouse effect for trapping heat in the
spiral and glazed over with a single layer of building. There are many parts of a building,
translucent tedlar-coated panels. With an esti- such as south-facing windows (Figure 5.19),
mated efficiency of 35 percent, the 330 SF solar
collector is capable of providing 100 percent of
the space-heating requirements in January,
while the central sand column has a heat-storage
capacity of five days.
The principal advantages of this type of fluid-
supported building are related to the ability to
integrate the structural and environmental
functions into one efficient component, thereby
obviating the need to accommodate a separate,
large heat-storage unit. Moreover, the struc-
tural efficiency of the fluid-supported column
itself can lead to additional cost savings, par-
ticularly on sloping sites.
interstitial air space is vented over the top of the the penetration of daylight into those interior
wall into the building space. Note the cold air spaces and also reduces the cross-ventilation
return located at the bottom of the wall to facili- potential. Experience has shown that the
tate the thermosyphoning effect. Sunspace system is prone to more extreme tem-
The principal disadvantages associated with perature swings then the Direct Gain system,
this passive solar system are related to the and to considerable radiant heat losses during
blocking of daylight by the Trombe wall itself, the night.
the slow response to warming in the morning, The Roof Pond system, invented by Harold
the equally slow response to cooling at night, Hay under the name of SkyTherm™, is an
and the difficulties associated with combating ingenious concept (Figure 5.23).
potential overheating with cross-ventilation. It overcomes virtually all of the overheating
However, on the positive side the Trombe wall and temperature swings that characterize the
system provides a high thermal-mass capacity other three passive solar design approaches. Its
in colder climates where the intensity of solar relatively low acceptance to date is not due to
radiation may be limited and the daytime tem- any lack of solar performance, but is related to
peratures are relatively low. an entirely different set of problems. The main-
The characteristics of Sunspace systems tenance requirements related to the need for
(Figure 5.22) are very similar to Direct Gain movable insulation panels, and the ultraviolet
systems. radiation degradation of the clear plastic bags
Differences are related to the nature of the that are required to contain the water on the
sunspace itself, which serves as the primary roof, have proven to be strong deterrents within
heating element of the building. On the one the context of current building practices.
hand, this space can be treated as a greenhouse A solar pond is a fairly shallow pool of water,
with attractive plantings that can greatly often contained in one or more plastic bags,
enhance the character of the building interior. which can serve both as a solar collector and a
On the other hand, the separation of the sun- heat-storage facility. Water at any depth acts as
space from the other building spaces restricts Black Body (i.e., absorbs all incident radiation).
82 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Vision is one of the five physical senses (i.e., touching, tasting, hearing, smelling, and seeing) that
connect us human beings to our environment. It allows us to detect approaching danger, enjoy the
beauty of our surroundings, and communicate in a very personal manner with fellow human beings.
While light is only one component of a building design, it is a very important consideration. In
particular, the maximum utilization of daylight, leading to energy conservation efficiencies, can be
a dominant factor in the layout of spaces and the planning of the building as a whole. The con-
straints that may be imposed on a floor plan, if the optimization of daylight is a primary design
criterion, can be quite severe. For example, most architects would agree that for classrooms to be
adequately served by daylight alone they should receive this light from two opposite sides. This will
require each classroom to have at least two partial external walls (i.e., partial, because both daylight
sources could be highlights above party walls).
6.1 Some historical background transparent only in the presence of some light
source. That was a very clever concept, which
We understand today that vision is made pos- provided a plausible explanation of our inabil-
sible by the interaction of a physical entity ity to see in the dark. According to the theory,
called light and a biological organ called the air is made transparent by the light from the sun
eye, which is sensitive to light and in combina- (or some other source, such as a fire or a candle)
tion with the brain, allows us to see. This under- and this allows us to see, because the colors of
standing was achieved only gradually. the objects in the environment are able to travel
The ancient Greeks thought that vision was to our eyes.
produced by something traveling between an It took another 1,300 years for the under-
object and the beholder. Pythagoras explained standing to emerge that the eye is a detector of
vision as images traveling from objects to the light. This decisive distinction between a physi-
eye. Euclid, some 200 years later, reversed the cal entity and a biological detector, first pro-
travel direction by suggesting that visual rays posed by the Arab scholar Alhazen, set the
travel from the eye to the object. A few years stage in the Middle Ages for the investigation
later Aristotle advocated a more sophisticated of the characteristics of light within a new field
theory. He suggested that apparently transpar- of science, called to this day geometrical optics.
ent substances such as air and water become Knowledge of the rules of geometrical optics
was acquired relatively rapidly and allowed the
design and fabrication of optical devices such
Building Science: Concepts and Application. Jens Pohl. as lenses, microscopes, and telescopes. However,
© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. the question of what light itself is lingered into
Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. the twentieth century.
84 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Figure 6.2 A second inverted prism will recombine • Reflection, which occurs when light strikes a
the spectrum into white light. polished surface and is reflected away from
the surface in such a way that the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
found that a colored object would effectively • Refraction, which occurs when light passes
reflect light of the same color, but absorb light from one transparent or translucent medium
of another color. For example, a blue object to another. In other words, the light appears
would appear blue under blue light, but nearly to bend slightly as it enters the second
black under a red light. Newton correctly con- medium.
cluded that objects have color because of the • Diffraction, according to which light bends
way in which they reflect certain colors of the slightly around corners. For example, if we
spectrum while absorbing the light of other place an opaque object between a light source
colors.3 and a screen, then the light will bend slightly
around the object, resulting in the projection
of a shadow that is smaller than might be
6.3 What is light? expected (Figure 6.3).
• Polarization, which occurs when light passes
The question of what exactly light is turned out through some transparent medium and only
to be a more difficult issue, which was not fully a portion of light appears to be transmit-
resolved until the twentieth century. During the ted. For example, looking through polar-
seventeenth century there had been two pre- ized sunglasses eliminates the glare normally
vailing theories about the nature of light. The seen when light is reflected from a shiny sur-
first theory, advocated by Newton, held light to face, such as the water surface of the ocean
be a flow of particles, while the second theory (Figure 6.4).
postulated light to be a form of wave motion.
There was the obvious need for advocates of Both theories provided quite plausible explana-
either theory to be able to explain the optical tions of the reflection, refraction, and diffraction
phenomena that were known at that time. These phenomena. However, the polarization of light
included: constituted a challenging problem. Newton, as
86 Building Science: Concepts and Application
to be set into vibration. Therefore, while sound energy share is the ability to change from one
cannot exist without a medium made up of par- form to another. For example, when we take a
ticles (i.e., atoms and molecules), light can travel photograph with a non-digital camera light
through a vacuum. energy is converted into chemical energy in the
As shown in Figure 6.4, a light wave can be film of the camera.
characterized as a beam that consists of a bundle
of waves at all angles like the spokes of a bicycle
wheel, so that the plane of each wave is perpen- 6.4 Light viewed as
dicular to the direction of the light beam. When mechanical waves
this bundle of light waves passes through a
Polaroid filter, then all of the light waves in one Although it is now accepted that light consists
plane (i.e., either the vertical or the horizontal of discrete units of energy, it does obey to a
plane) are blocked and only the waves in the limited extent the laws of wave motion. Photons
other plane are transmitted.6 can interfere with each other like the waves
The realization that light is a form of electro- shown in Figure 6.6, in the explanation of
magnetic radiation constituted a major break Young’s experiment. They can also diffract
with the nineteenth-century view in physics around corners, as seen in Figure 6.3, or be
that any phenomenon could and should be polarized (Figure 6.4) like transverse waves. In
explained in mechanical terms. Contrary to this fact, so many of the properties of light can be
prevailing view, Maxwell had shown that phys- quite accurately described in terms of wave
ical objects could influence each other through motion that it has become common practice to
lines of force (i.e., electrical or magnetic field refer to light as electromagnetic waves. While
lines) without being in direct contact with each this oversimplification of the nature of light is
other. However, even the understanding of quite acceptable for the lighting design of build-
light as electromagnetic radiation was insuf- ings, there are properties of light in the realm of
ficient. Not all of the characteristics of light physics that can be explained only by treating
could be described in terms of wave motion. light as a stream of individual energy bundles
Particularly troubling was the large discrep- (i.e., photons).
ancy between the theoretically predicted and The ability of electromagnetic waves to travel
measured emission of light from an object through a vacuum is due to the fact that they
raised to a high temperature. This puzzle was are produced by a vibrating electric charge.
solved at the turn of the twentieth century by However, electric charges also generate mag-
Albert Einstein (1879–1955), building on the netism – hence the term “electromagnetic”. In
earlier work of the German physicist Max other words, electromagnetic waves have both
Planck (1858–1947). Planck had proposed that an electric and a magnetic component. Like
electromagnetic radiation is produced in dis- mechanical waves, they can be characterized in
crete units called photons, rather than as a con- terms of just three attributes (Figure 6.7).
tinuous flow. Einstein used this concept to Amplitude is a measure of the intensity of the
explain the photoelectric effect,7 postulating wave, wavelength is equal to the distance
that light behaves like a wave and also like a between two successive crests (i.e., maxima) or
flow of particles, thereby adding credence to the troughs (i.e., minima), and the number of com-
quantum theory8 of physics that began to plete wavelengths passing a particular point in
emerge at that time. one second is referred to as the frequency.
The photons that light consists of can be While the electromagnetic spectrum ranges
looked upon as discrete bundles of energy. over an enormously large number of wave-
Therefore, light is a form of energy just as heat, lengths, the part of that spectrum that stimulates
electricity, and sound are other forms of energy. the retina of our eyes and is therefore visible
One of the properties that the various forms of to us is a very narrow band of microscopically
88 Building Science: Concepts and Application
energy content, so that high-frequency radia- they remain on full beam. If we were to encoun-
tion will have high energy content and low- ter the same car on the same road during the
frequency radiation will have correspondingly day in bright sunshine, we would be hard
lower energy content. pressed to even recognize whether the car has
As shown in Figure 6.10, the visible spectrum its headlights on full beam or not. Obviously the
or light as we perceive it occupies a very narrow amount of light emitted by the headlights is
band (i.e., 350 to 750 mμ), although it is possible exactly the same during nighttime and daytime.
by means of fluorescence to create perceptible What is different is the background illumina-
light from ultraviolet radiation. We will discuss tion level. During a dark night the headlights of
the latter in some detail in a later chapter dealing a car, particularly if on full beam, will be several
with the creation of light by artificial means. orders of magnitude brighter than the ambient
However, in the study of natural lighting we are illumination level. However, during a bright
concerned only with the visible spectrum of day under a clear sky, even the full-beam head-
electromagnetic radiation as perceived by the lights of a car are unlikely to be much brighter
human eye. than the sunlight reflected from the asphalt
The eye is not a photometer and does not paving of the road. Consequently, the head-
measure absolute physical brightness levels. lights of an oncoming car will appear to be
Objects are perceived through the eyes by virtue much dimmer during the day than at night.
of their brightness and color or, more precisely, The central area of the retina (Figure 6.11),
by the differences in brightness and color. In called the fovea, is covered by cones in an
other words, our eyes measure brightness dif- approximately 2° arc. Cones are required for
ferences. When we drive a car at night on a fine detail and color vision.9 Therefore, the very
two-way road the headlights of an oncoming small fovea region is also the area of greatest
car tend to temporarily blind us. This will be definition. Outside this area we enter into the
particularly the case if the driver of the oncom- para-fovea region, in which the number of rods
ing car forgot to dip his or her headlights and increases. Rods are used in the perception of
90 Building Science: Concepts and Application
The subjective aspects of vision are related Flux is the quantity of light emitted by a light
to the more general concept of sensation and source, irrespective of direction or distribution
stimulus. By sensation we understand a sens- (Figure 6.13). Strictly speaking the units of flux
ing or feeling by a human being, purely on a should be lumen per second, but it is common
subjective basis. For example, when the level practice to neglect the time element. The per-
of illumination in a room is measured with formance of a lamp is stated in terms of the
a light meter, the reading will not be a meas- number of lumen it emits, and its efficiency in
ure of the sensation produced by the light, terms of the number of lumen emitted per watt
but the physical stimulus. Accordingly, the of input energy.
physical stimulus measured in units of physi- Luminous intensity is the property of a source
cal energy gives rise to subjective sensations, to emit light in a given direction, and is meas-
which are related in magnitude to the amount ured in candela, where one candela is approxi-
of stimulation. mately equal to the light emitted by a single
candle10 (Figure 6.14). Light flux (F lumen) from
a point source is related to the luminous inten-
6.5 Measurement units of light sity (I candela) of the source by the expression:
Light flux (F) = luminous intensity (I)
Since the perception of light is related to the
¥ solid angle (W) lm [6.1]
sensitivity of the eye, it is only appropriate that
the units of light should be quite separate from A solid angle is a spherical angle that is sub-
the normal units of power and energy found tended by a surface to the center of a sphere.11
in the thermal, electrical, and mechanical fields. In the case of the luminous intensity of light, the
There are essentially only four characteristics of “surface” is the area illuminated by the light
light that are directly relevant to the lighting source and the “center of the sphere” is the light
design of building spaces: namely, light flux; source itself.
luminous intensity; illumination level (also Luminous intensity is particularly useful for
referred to as illuminance); and luminance. describing the characteristics of artificial light
92 Building Science: Concepts and Application
sources. As shown in Figure 6.14, the distribu- illumination (E) = flux (F) / area (A) = I ¥ W / A
tion of light provided by a luminaire can be = I / D2 lm / SF or fc [6.3]
plotted on a polar diagram as concentric rings
of luminous intensity, measured in candela. If the surface is inclined at some angle θ to the
However, it should be noted that the area direction of the emitted light, then:
depicted on the polar diagram is not a measure
of the amount of light emitted by the lamp, but illumination (E) = I cosq/ D2 lm /SF or fc [6.4]
simply represents the distribution of light. In
other words, a larger area does not indicate that The concept of unit sphere defines the relation-
a given luminaire provides more light than a ship between luminous intensity and illumina-
luminaire with a smaller area. What it does tion level. Imagine a candle flame at the center
indicate is that the available light is spread over of a sphere that has a radius of one foot. The
a larger or smaller area, respectively. amount of light flux falling on any one square
Illumination level or illuminance is the foot of the surface of that sphere is one lumen/
amount of light flux falling on a surface area (A SF or one footcandle. Since the total surface area
SF) and is measured in lumen/SF (lm/SF) or of the sphere is equal to 4π, then the amount of
footcandle (fc).12 Accordingly, illumination (E) light flux generated by the candle is 4π lm or
is given by the formula: 12.57 lm.
illumination (E) = flux (F)/ area (A) Luminance is the intensity per unit area of a
surface seen from a particular direction and is
lm /SF or fc [6.2]
measured in candela/SF or foot Lambert (fL).
As shown in Figure 6.15, illumination decreases The performance of a large light source may be
by the square of the distance for a point source.13 determined by dividing it up into a number of
Therefore, the illumination (E) at a distance (D) elements, each of which could have a different
from a point source of luminous intensity (I) intensity distribution. Accordingly, the concen-
acting through a solid angle (W), is expressed tration of flux emitted in a given direction from
by: the projected area of each of these elements is
Light, Color, and Vision 93
Figure 6.20 Reflectance of common materials. Figure 6.22 Impact of light reflectance.
Figure 6.23 Brightness differences. Figure 6.24 Components of the visual field.
performance. For example, lack of contrast can typically restricted to a very narrow cone that
seriously inhibit our ability to read signs, while may be no larger than a 1° arc. The immediate
excessive contrast in the field of view can cause surround to the task area (i.e., 30° arc), which is
visual discomfort and in extreme cases actually also referred to as the central field, should be
prevent us from seeing details. Methods that less bright than the task area, so that the latter
the lighting designer can use to control bright- will appear to be highlighted. However, the
ness contrasts include: contrast between these two component fields
should not be too great and therefore a 3:1
• Choice of the types of light sources and their
brightness ratio is normally recommended.
locations in a building space. For example, if
Finally, the environmental field, or background
most of the light is directed to the ceiling,
illumination, should be the least bright area. Its
then this will result in a diffuse illumination
boundaries are normally circumscribed within
within the space, because much of the avail-
a 130° arc, with a recommended brightness ratio
able light will have been reflected from the
of 5:1 to the task area. While these recommended
ceiling.
ratios may relate the three component fields to
• Choice of surface finishes (i.e., materials) in
each other to produce a comfortable visual
respect to reflection and transmission prop-
environment, they do not account for the ability
erties (e.g., translucent, opaque, matt, glossy,
of our visual facilities to scale up and down
etc.), color, and texture.
from bright sunlight to minimal nighttime illu-
• Variation of intensity of light from area to
mination and still maintain the same comfort
area, as well as the spectral distribution of
level.
the light source itself.
So what is the mechanism that allows our
Broadly speaking, the visual field can be divided cognitive system to automatically judge that
into three components (Figure 6.24). The task some part of the visual field is brighter or less
area, which is the visual focus for detailed activ- bright than another part of the field, and how
ities such as reading and writing, requires the can we achieve this feat within the enormous
highest level of illumination. However, it is range of brightness that our visual facilities are
Light, Color, and Vision 97
capable of processing? The answer to this ques- about 20 if the adaptation level is 100 fL, and
tion is that our visual facilities will automati- over 140 if the adaptation level should fall to
cally establish an adaptation level in any current 1 fL.
lighting environment. This adaptation level is The notion that what we perceive visually
dynamically modified as the average light depends not only upon the actual intensity of
intensity of the visual environment changes. light (i.e., objective measurement of the amount
The adaptation level serves as a benchmark of light), but also on the state of our visual
for comparing the apparent brightness levels of sensors, conditioned by the current adaptation
objects or surfaces within the visual field. The level, is a fundamental consideration in lighting
word “apparent” is used purposely in this design. It immediately suggests that the pre-
context, because the brightness perceived by the scription of minimum illumination levels for
eyes is not a measure of the actual (i.e., objec- different tasks is inappropriate unless these are
tive) light intensity, but simply a relative and also related to the total amount of light in the
subjective comparison with the current adapta- entire visual field. A rule-of-thumb measure of
tion level. For example, with bright sunshine the adaptation level is the illumination level of
coming directly through a window the shadows the environmental field or background illumi-
within a room will appear very dark. However, nation (Figure 6.24). For this reason the local
if we shield our eyes from the sunlight (i.e., illumination levels recommended for tasks
screen the window with our hand), the same requiring different degrees of visual acuity, in
shadows will appear much lighter. Figure 6.26, are related in each case to suggested
The graph shown in Figure 6.25 represents an background illumination levels.
apparent brightness scale. It allows us to deter- The reason why the ratios between the rec-
mine the apparent brightness of any surface ommended local and background levels are
based on the prevailing adaptation level. For less than the 5:1 discussed earlier (Figure 6.24)
example, a surface with a measured luminance for the lower local illumination levels is that
of 10 fL will have an apparent brightness of at least a minimum amount of background
Figure 6.25 The apparent brightness scale. Figure 6.26 Typical illumination levels.
98 Building Science: Concepts and Application
illumination is necessary for practical reasons those factors. Research studies, involving the
and safety. very small number of persons who have had
The physiological process of light adaptation their sight restored after being blind from birth
is very complex and not fully understood at this or early infancy due to cataracts, showed that
time. It is certainly much more than the contrac- these persons were unable to see their environ-
tion and expansion of the pupils as we make the ment accurately. For example, they had difficul-
transition from one level of brightness to another ties with complex images such as faces. This
that is much brighter or much less bright. This was probably due to the fact that the neurons
involuntary reaction is simply a first-level pro- and synapses in the visual areas of the brain had
tective mechanism that attempts to shield our received little (if any) stimulation during their
eyes from harm. While the eye can adapt to a life. With respect to the role of context, our
brightness range in excess of 100 000, it does so visual experience creates in our memory an
at the expense of visual comfort and perform- expectation of what a certain object or scene
ance. For example, if we look out of a window should look like. Conversely, this same precon-
to the bright sky on a sunny day and then look ditioned expectation can be misleading as, for
back into the room, the interior space will example, in some cases of eyewitness police
appear gloomy and devoid of details until our reports.
eyes have re-adjusted to the much lower bright- Perceptional constancy will manifest itself in
ness of the room. It is important that the light- several ways. Three of these manifestations are
ing designer ensures that the occupants of the of particular interest to the lighting designer.
building are not subjected to lighting conditions
where they have to adapt too quickly over too • Lightness Constancy is our ability to judge the
lightness of a surface to be the same, even
wide a range of brightness. In this respect, of
though the illumination level has changed.
special concern is the interface between the
If we take a sheet of white paper into a win-
exterior and the interior that occurs at any exter-
dowless room fitted with artificial lights and
nal window. Direct view of the sky through a
a dimming device, then the paper will appear
window will expose the eye to a brightness
to be white whether we have the lights on
level that could easily be 100 times the adapta-
full (e.g., providing an illumination level of
tion level inside the room. In fact, glare condi-
100 footcandles) or dimmed down to just a
tions inside buildings occur most commonly at
few footcandles. The reason appears to be
external windows (see Section 6.9).
that the eye is more concerned about the
relative amount of light reflected by the
paper in relationship to other objects in
6.8 Perceptional constancy
the room, than with the actual amount of
light reflected. The fact that the ratio of
Closely related to the phenomena of apparent
reflected light between two surfaces remains
brightness and adaptation level is our ability to
the same under different illumination levels
perceive a visual scene the way we know it
can be proven by the following example.
should be, rather than as it really is. This ability,
Assume a sheet of white paper with a large
which is known as perceptional constancy,
gray square on it.
allows us to perceive an object with little change
even though the actual image on our retina may reflectance of white paper area = 90%(or 0.90)
have changed considerably owing to a different reflectance of gray square area = 30%(or 0.30)
viewing angle, a different orientation of the
object, or a change in the ambient lighting con- If the illumination level is 200 fc, then:
ditions. Research suggests that there are several
factors involved in this complex visual capabil- ratio of light reflected from the two surfaces
ity. Certainly experience and context are two of = (200 × 0.90)/(200 × 0.30) = 1 3
Light, Color, and Vision 99
ally be avoided in buildings, and ratios of 40 : 1 of a bright sky seen through a window. In the
and above are guaranteed to produce glare absence of adequate foresight by the designer,
conditions. this situation can occur when a window is
Disability Glare may also occur when a bright placed in the end-wall of a long corridor.
source of light is indirectly reflected from a Particular care must be taken to avoid this
shiny surface into our eyes. For example, the problem in multi-story hotels, apartments, and
light from a well-shaded lamp may be reflected dormitories. Walking toward such a misplaced
from the glossy pages of a book into the eyes of window the surround of the window will
the reader. This situation produces a veiling appear almost black, since the eyes are unable
condition in the task area and may occur even to adjust to the excessive brightness difference
if the light source is not excessively bright. between the bright sky and the relatively dim
Fortunately, changing the position of the reflect- interior lighting of the corridor.
ing task area and/or the eyes relative to the While the corridor situation described above
light source easily rectifies such reflected glare is an extreme example, this type of direct glare
situations. Normally, we would simply tilt the can occur in any room with an external window
book slightly to overcome a reflected glare con- that provides a view of the sky and therefore
dition while reading. However, reflected glare warrants further discussion.
is sufficiently prevalent for it to influence the As shown in Figure 6.32, there are essentially
choice of paper for newspapers, magazines and three viable approaches for mitigating such
most books. Disability Glare conditions caused by the inter-
With the exception of reflected glare, Dis- face between the interior and exterior lighting
ability Glare is typically not caused by artificial conditions. Since glare is caused by excessive
light sources, since electric lamps rarely gener- brightness differences, any efforts to mitigate
ate sufficient light flux to produce brightness direct glare conditions should be focused on
ratios in excess of 20 : 1. However, a common reducing the brightness ratio. This can of course
source of Disability Glare is the view of a portion be achieved in two ways: by either decreasing
102 Building Science: Concepts and Application
the higher level or increasing the lower level tiplying this measurement by the area of the
of the brightness levels in the visual field. Raising surface. The sum of the resulting values
the interior illumination level near the window divided by the total surface area is the
will increase the consumption of energy and Adaptation Level expressed in foot Lambert
may therefore not be a viable solution in climatic (fL) units (see Figure 6.25).
regions that are blessed with plenty of sunshine • The location of the glare source relative to the
and mostly clear skies. However, in parts of the observer. If the offending light source is
world where skies are typically overcast this located directly in the line of vision, it will
solution approach is not uncommon. It leads to be much more annoying than if it is just
the apparently paradoxical situation where the visible through the corner of the eyes.
artificial lighting requirements during daytime • The luminance of the immediate surround of the
may be greater than at night. glare source. Raising the brightness of the sur-
The more common approach to mitigating round will decrease the brightness ratio. A
direct glare conditions at windows is to reduce simple measure such as a highly reflective
the brightness of the window. Unfortunately, finish (e.g., a white ceiling) may be quite
this approach inevitably also reduces the amount effective in reducing the severity of the glare
of daylight available in the room. Design strate- condition.
gies include exterior shading devices, interior
blinds, and special tinted or anti-glare glass. The It is apparent from the foregoing discussion of
advantage of internal blinds, such as Venetian glare conditions that the reduction of glare
blinds, is that they are adjustable both with requires a reduction in the brightness ratio seen
respect to the angle of the blades and the degree by the eyes. What the reader may have found
to which they cover the window. to be surprising, and even counterintuitive, is
While Disability Glare actually impairs our that we can mitigate excessively bright condi-
immediate visual performance, the effects of tions by adding more light. The fact is that our
Discomfort Glare are annoying, with milder visual performance is affected less by actual
physiological consequences if exposure contin- objectively measured illumination levels than
ues over many hours. Discomfort glare occurs by the perception of these illumination levels as
quite frequently in artificially lit building spaces brightness differences. If we further take into
if light sources are inadequately shielded. The consideration that the eye can detect an enor-
degree of glare is primarily related to the loca- mous range of luminances (i.e., from 0.0001 fL
tion and type of light source, the nature of the to over 100 000 fL: see Figure 6.17), then it is
task, and the luminance of the surrounding perhaps less surprising that the addition of light
visual field. Specifically, Discomfort Glare is can be as effective as the reduction of light in
governed by: reducing glare conditions. This can be demon-
strated experimentally as shown by the Constant
• The luminance of the glare source. The size of Glare Curve in Figure 6.33, which traces the
the glare source, normally an artificial light influence of raising the background luminance
source in the form of a lamp, is also a factor. on glare conditions.
If the light flux is spread over a larger surface The non-linear slope of the Constant Glare
area, then this will tend to increase the Curve in Figure 6.33 provides some insight into
brightness of the immediate surround, the nature of glare. We notice that, for the same
thereby mitigating glare conditions. glare conditions, raising the luminance of the
• The general background illumination level. This background (i.e., raising the Adaptation Level)
may be quantified as the Adaptation Level is much more effective at lower luminance
discussed earlier, which is defined as the levels of the glare source than at higher levels.
average luminance of all surfaces in the In other words, as our eyes become exposed to
visual field. It may be calculated by measur- more and more light, our ability to prevent
ing the luminance of each surface and mul- glare by proportionally increasing the surround
Light, Color, and Vision 103
Endnotes
oscillate back and forth about their mean posi- receptors. The green- and red-sensitive cones are
tions as the wave progresses through the medium. grouped closely within the fovea area, while the
In transverse waves, for example when we create blue-sensitive cones are found mostly in the para-
a wave in a horizontally stretched rope, the up- fovea area. About 65 percent of the cones are red-
and-down movement of the rope is transverse to sensitive, about 33 percent are green-sensitive
the direction of the wave along the rope. Again, and only about 2 percent are blue-sensitive.
the material that makes up the rope does not 10. The light emitted by a single candle is about 12
travel with the wave, but moves up and down lumen. In comparison, the light emitted by a 100-
(vertically) as the wave moves (horizontally) watt incandescent (i.e., filament) lamp is about
along the rope. 1000 lumen.
5. Michael Faraday (1791–1867) discovered that a 11. A solid angle is measured in steridians and is
suspended magnet will revolve around a current- somewhat like an inverted circular pyramid or
bearing wire, and inferred from these experi- cone. The solid angle of the entire surface of a
ments that magnetism is a circular force. He also sphere is equal to 4π steridians.
invented the dynamo and discovered electro- 12. The units of illumination, lumen/square foot
magnetic induction. and footcandle, are numerically equal (i.e., 20 lm/
6. A Polaroid filter is made of special material with SF = 20 fc).
long-chain molecules aligned in the same direc- 13. The Inverse Square Law applies only to a point
tion. If these molecules are aligned vertically, source. For a line source, the illumination
then the filter will block the vertical waves and decreases simply by the linear distance (i.e.,
allow the horizontal waves to pass through. In luminous intensity divided by distance from
other words, the vertical waves are absorbed by the line source), and for an area source the illu-
the vertically aligned long-chain molecules. mination is approximately equal to the luminous
7. When light of a particular color (i.e., frequency) intensity.
illuminates a metal surface, then electrons are 14. Known previously as Imperial units of meas-
emitted at a particular velocity. Increasing the urement, which were used throughout the
intensity of light increases the number of ejected British Commonwealth until these countries
electrons, but not the velocity. At the same time, adopted the metric system of units in the 1960s
different-colored lights of the same intensity and 1970s. Today (2010), the US is the only
cause electrons to be ejected with different veloci- remaining major country that has not adopted
ties. This is referred to as the photoelectric effect. the metric system.
8. The laws of Newtonian physics break down at the 15. The reflectance curve of a material provides the
microscopic subatomic level of electrons, protons, percent reflectance at each wavelength.
neutrons, and quarks. For example, electrons do 16. Named after the eighteenth-century scientist
not rotate around a nucleus like planets rotate Johann Lambert (1728–1777), who discovered
around a sun. Instead they follow the very differ- several laws relating to the transmission of light.
ent laws of quantum physics, such as Heisenberg’s For example: Lambert’s Law of Absorption that
Uncertainty Principle. This law states that the defines the exponential decrease of light passing
more we know about one attribute of the current through an absorbing medium of uniform trans-
state of a subatomic particle, the less we know parency; and, Lambert’s Cosine Law, which
about another attribute. Therefore, if we are 70 states that the brightness of a diffusely radiating
percent sure of the velocity of an electron, we can plane surface is proportional to the cosine of the
be only 30 percent certain of its position at any angle formed by the line of sight and the normal
given point in time. Quantum physics is derived to the surface.
from the term quantum, which is the smallest 17. The fundamental characteristic of the chro-
package of energy that an electron can absorb or maphore is called the extinction factor and is a
give off as it changes its energy level. property of the molecular structure of the dye.
9. Experimental results only fairly recently (1965) 18. From: Adelson, E. H. (2000) Lightness Perception
confirmed that there are three types of cones with and Lightness Illusions, in M. Gazzaniga (ed.) The
different color sensitivities. These correspond New Cognitive Neurosciences, 2nd edn. MIT Press,
approximately to red-, green-, and blue-sensitive Cambridge, MA, pp. 339–51.
7 Daylight Design Principles
In these times of genuine concern about the shortage, cost, and pollution penalty associated with
most fossil fuel sources of energy, we are becoming increasingly aware of those forms of natural
energy that can be readily utilized without the need for any modification. Among these, daylight
should be counted as one of the most generous gifts of nature.
Although the sun is the primary source of daylight, the atmosphere surrounding the Earth diffuses
its light and therefore the whole sky becomes a secondary source of light. For several reasons direct
sunlight is not normally considered to be a suitable source of daylight in buildings. First, it is very
intense, ranging from 6000 to 12 000 footcandles, and therefore cannot be used directly for task
illumination. Second, it is so much brighter than the ambient environmental luminance (i.e.,
Adaptation Level), both inside and external to buildings, that it can easily become a source of severe
glare (i.e., Disability Glare). Third, it is associated with considerable heat energy and although this
may be desirable for the heating of building spaces by natural means, it is an undesirable charac-
teristic in respect to lighting. Accordingly, daylight design is not based on direct sunlight but on
secondary light from the sky, which is defined as a luminous hemisphere with the observer’s horizon
plane as its base.
However, this does not mean that direct sunlight should necessarily be completely excluded from
building interiors. Carefully controlled beams of sunlight can add a highly desirable degree of move-
ment, directional highlighting, variety, and excitement to a space. This is particularly true for cor-
ridors and similar circulation spaces, where the occupants are mostly transitory and not engaged in
detailed visual tasks. Even in spaces where the occupants are seated in relatively fixed locations
undertaking reading and writing tasks, movable window shades and blinds may provide sufficient
control for the intermittent penetration of direct sunlight.
7.1 Variability of daylight the sun, and since the sun moves from sunrise
to sunset the brightness distribution of the sky
It is an important characteristic of daylight illu- will change correspondingly. On the other
mination that it varies constantly during each hand, in the north-western part of Europe the
day and from day to day. The horizontal illu- sky is mostly covered by clouds and therefore
mination on a photoelectric cell exposed on the the overcast sky becomes the principal source
roof of a building but shaded from direct sun- of daylight. The influence of dispersed clouds
light can vary widely, depending not only on in the sky can be readily seen in the typical daily
the time of day but also on the degree of cloud illumination curves shown in Figure 7.1.
cover (if any). A clear sky will be brightest near The upper curve depicts the hourly distribu-
tion of light that we would expect on a clear
day, with perhaps a few isolated cloud whisks
Building Science: Concepts and Application. Jens Pohl.
producing minor fluctuations. However, the
© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. situation will be quite different as soon as major
Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. cloud formations appear in the sky. The lower
106 Building Science: Concepts and Application
curve of Figure 7.1 indicates the significant vari- circumstances, although for a normal high-rise,
ations in daylight availability that will occur city building the answer is normally in the neg-
abruptly as soon as a large cloud either hides ative. In these buildings lighting conditions are
the sun or the bright blue sky. In a few seconds likely to be poor on the lower floors (Figure 7.2)
the available daylight might be reduced by as and in deep rooms.
much as 30 to 50 percent. The reduction in daylight as we move further
What is also clearly seen in Figure 7.1 is that away from the window is by no means linear.
apart from the influence of clouds, the daily For example, as shown by the graph in Figure
daylight distribution follows a slightly skewed 7.2, the difference in illumination level on a
Normal Distribution Curve.1 The reducing illu- horizontal surface at points that are one and
mination levels in the afternoon occur at a two window head-heights distant from a side
slightly slower rate than the progressively window may be more than 60 percent.
increasing illumination levels during the
morning hours.
Since daylight is largely unpredictable, it was 7.2 Quality of daylight and color
argued in the US – prior to the recognition of
an increasing energy shortage and cost in the As discussed previously in Chapter 6, we often
early 1970s – that the internal building environ- speak of light in terms of the visible spectrum,
ment should be lit artificially to ensure good indicating that light consists of a number of
seeing conditions at all times. At the same time, wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.
it was also recognized that apart from any These wavelengths range in color from violet
energy conservation considerations, the charac- through indigo, blue, green, yellow, and orange
teristic variability of daylight might be desira- to red. If all of these wavelengths are present
ble on psychological grounds. then we perceive colorless light. However,
Whether or not it is possible to light a build- should the same light beam fall onto a sur-
ing adequately by daylight will depend on the face that absorbs some wavelengths more than
Daylight Design Principles 107
others, then this surface will appear colored to Over the years a number of different methods
the observer. In other words, the color of a of color specification have been developed to
surface is governed by the selective absorption meet different requirements. For colored sur-
properties of that surface. Some surfaces reflect faces it is normal practice to specify the color in
all wavelengths in the visible spectrum equally relationship to its appearance or rendition
and will therefore appear white, grey, or black under a specified light source. Such a system
(i.e., colorless) to the observer. was devised by Albert Munsell (1858–1918), an
The electromagnetic spectrum of daylight American artist, in 1915. The Munsell Color
varies with the condition of the sky and the Atlas applies to colored surfaces only. Each
direct influence of the sun. The bright blue color color is specified in terms of:
of a clear sky is in stark contrast to the grayish
appearance of an overcast sky. Direct sunlight, • Value, which is a measure of the degree of
dilution with white. The range between
on the other hand, is much warmer in appear-
black (0) and white (10) includes nine grades
ance than either a clear or overcast sky. The color
of gray. Accordingly, if a colored pigment is
spectrum of any light source, whether natural
mixed with a neutral base, the value from 0
or artificial, is often expressed in terms of its
to 10 will indicate the whiteness of the base.
color temperature,2 which defines the distribu-
tion of electromagnetic wavelengths emitted by • Hue describes the actual color, such as red,
yellow, and so on, of the surface. For each
the light source. In other words, as explained
hue there is an example of increasing purity.
in the footnote below, color temperature is
a measure of the color composition of a light • Chroma measures the intensity or saturation
of the color. The hue circle contains the hues
source and has nothing whatsoever to do with
at maximum chroma.
the operating temperature of that light source.
Through our eyes we perceive color as light By reference to Figure 7.3, a color specified as
and therefore evaluate its properties subjec- “R5/2” is a red with a value of 5 and a chroma
tively. The fact that adjectives are used to of 2, while “R3/2” would be a darker red, and
describe different colors emphasizes the diffi-
culty of attempting to specify color in technical
terms. Although the description “apple-green”
does not represent the precise specification of a
particular color, it nevertheless conveys a more
meaningful picture than “Munsell 5GY”. It
might be argued that since light is contained
within a narrow band of the electromagnetic
spectrum, it follows that color can be accurately
specified by wavelength. However, wavelength
does not take into account the brightness or
luminance of the light source and the purity or
saturation (i.e., the extent of dilution with white
light) of the color. For the complete specification
of a color we require values for the following
three color characteristics:
“R5/l0” would be a much stronger red. rimeters are used to match two patches of color.
Although the Munsell system cannot be applied While one part of a divided surface is illumi-
to light sources, it conveniently provides an nated by the source of light under investigation,
approximate indication of the percentage light the other part of the surface is exposed simulta-
reflectance of a surface based on the value of the neously to three standard sources. One source
color. is red, another blue, and the third green. By
approximate light reflectance = adjusting the relative intensities of these colored
light sources, the observer is able to match the
[color value ¥ (color value - 1)]% [7.1] two light patches until they look exactly alike.
Accordingly, “R5/2”, “R4/2”, and “R3/2” have While this seems quite straightforward, there
light reflectances of approximately 20, 12, and 6 are in fact two complicating factors that require
percent, respectively. further explanation. The first of these deals with
In 1931 the Commission Internationale de the notion that two identical visual stimuli may
l’Eclairage (CIE) agreed upon a system of color have different color spectrums. In the above
notation to provide a common basis for all colorimeter example, even though the two
color-Dh. 7, measuring instruments (Figure 7.4). colored light patches may look alike they are
The system is based on the color-matching char- highly unlikely to have the same spectral com-
acteristics of the average eye. To establish ade- position. Even the same observer could produce
quate subjective test data, a number of observers matching colored light patches with different
were asked to make a series of color matches spectral compositions for the same source patch.
using a colorimeter (Figure 7.5). The instrument In other words, different spectral compositions
is very similar to the photometer described in can produce identical color stimuli as perceived
Section 7.4. by the eyes. This phenomenon is referred to
However, whereas the photometer requires as metamerism and forms the basis of all color
the observer to match two patches of light, colo- reproduction techniques.
L0 = L z / 3 [7.6]
To ensure adequate natural light inside The use of a photometer is not recommended
buildings it is the usual procedure to design for building designers who are only from time to
on the basis of an assumed overcast sky. Any time involved in the measurement of light levels.
point in a room that is remote from windows Proper application of this kind of visual instru-
will be directly in line with a section of the ment requires skill and experience. The difficul-
sky near the horizon, and will therefore ties encountered in the design of the required
receive least light when the sky is clouded. control luminance patch, the constant need for
calibration, and individual differences in sensi-
tivity to light of different wavelengths, may lead
7.4 Measurement of daylight to unreliable readings in unskilled hands.
Photoelectric cells convert light into electric-
There are two basic types of instrument used to ity and therefore measure the current or voltage
measure light: namely, visual and photoelectric generated by the incident light radiation.
meters. Visual instruments of photometry, such By far the most common choice for both day-
as the photometer shown in Figure 7.9, rely on light and artificial light measurements is the
the subjective comparison of two patches of selenium photoelectric cell or light meter (Figure
light, one of which can be controlled to match 7.10), in which incident light is converted
the other. directly into electrical energy without the need
Normally the standard light source and the for an additional, external source of electricity.
light source to be measured enter the central The selenium cell consists simply of a crystal-
chamber of the photometer from opposite direc- line selenium plate sandwiched between a
tions, illuminating the two surfaces of a cen- metal plate acting as cathode and a metal contact
tral dividing partition. The observer is able to ring anode. This assembly is normally encased
see both of these illuminated surfaces simul- in a non-conductive housing and soldered
taneously through mirrors, and adjust the dis- rather than clamped, to avoid damage to the
tance of the standard light source from the
partition until the two patches of light match in
brightness.
the average brightness of the section of the sky height, and horizontal displacement from the
seen through the window, divided by the point (P) at which the Daylight Factor is to be
average brightness of the whole sky. The Sky determined.
Factor therefore takes into account the bright-
H / D = [window head height above “P”]
ness of the altitude of the sky visible through
the window. Sky luminance factors (RL) for /[distance of “P ” from window] [7.9]
average altitude angles of portions of the sky
visible through a window are given below. W / D = [window width to one side of “P”] /
[distance of “P ” from window]
Altitude RL Altitude RL [7.10]
angle angle
The distance (D) of point (P) from the window
0° 0.50 50° 1.09 is measured as the perpendicular distance from
10° 0.58 60° 1.17 the window wall.
20° 0.72 70° 1.24 Four different cases of the application of the
30° 0.86 80° 1.27 BRS Sky Component (SC) table are shown in
40° 0.98 90° 1.28
Figures 7.17 to 7.20 below.
Case (1) in Figure 7.17 is the simplest case, in
The transmission loss (TG) for clear glass is which point (P) is at windowsill height and
about 10 percent at normal angles. However, located symmetrically on the center line of the
this percentage will increase at high incident window. Therefore, H is equal to the height of
angles and adjustments will have to be made in the head of the window above sill level (i.e.,
those special cases. The following light trans- 6FT), while the perpendicular distance between
mission ranges for common types of glass used point (P) and the window wall D is 8FT. Since
in buildings are normally applied in Daylight the total width of the window is 15FT and point
Factor calculations: (P) is located exactly opposite the center of the
window, W is 7.5FT. Accordingly the ratios H/D
and W/D are equal to 0.75 and 0.94, respectively.
Glass type Light By extrapolating between H/D ratios of 0.7 and
transmission 0.8 in Table 7.1, these ratios generate a Sky
Component (SC) of approximately 2.5 percent.
Clear glass (single-glazed units) 90–92% However, that accounts for the daylight pro-
Clear glass (double-glazed units) 56–76%
Clear plate and tempered glass 90–92% vided by only half of the window. Since point
Heat-absorbing glass 40–75% (P) is located on the center line of the window,
Glare-reducing glass 12–68% the daylight provided by the entire window
Low-E glass (double-glazed units) 70– 73% will be twice the value obtained for either side,
Low-E glass (triple-glazed units) 55–64% or 5 percent in this case.
Glass blocks 81–85%
Frosted glass 63–76% In case (2), shown in Figure 7.18, point (P) is
Patterned glass 52–92% still on the center line of the window, but 1FT
above sill level. This changes the H/D ratio to
5/8 or 0.63, while the W/D ratio remains at 0.94.
The British Research Station (BRS) has pub- The portion of the window below the plane of
lished a very convenient set of Sky Component point (P) is typically ignored, because an
(SC) tables (Table 7.1 and Figures 7.15 and 7.16) observer stationed at point (P) would normally
for the CIE Standard Overcast Sky that are not be able to see any portion of the sky through
based on simple geometric ratios. that lower portion of the window.7
These ratios take into account the geometry Case (3) in Figure 7.19 illustrates a situation
of a side window in respect to its distance, where point (P) is located below the window-
Table 7.1 The BRS Sky Component SC tables for the CIE Standard Overcast Sky.
∞ 1.3 2.5 3.7 4.9 6.9 8.4 9.6 10.7 11.6 12.2 12.6 13.0 14.2 15.0 90°
5.0 1.2 2.4 3.7 4.8 6.8 8.3 9.4 10.5 11.1 11.7 12.3 12.7 13.7 14.2 79°
4.0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.7 6.7 8.2 9.2 10.3 10.9 11.4 12.0 12.4 13.3 13.7 76°
3.5 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.6 6.6 8.0 9.0 10.1 10.6 11.1 11.8 12.2 12.9 12.9 74°
3.0 1.2 2.3 3.5 4.5 6.4 7.8 8.7 9.8 10.2 10.7 11.3 11.7 12.4 12.7 72°
2.8 1.1 2.3 3.4 4.5 6.3 7.6 8.6 9.6 10.0 10.5 11.1 11.4 12.0 12.3 70°
2.6 1.1 2.2 3.4 4.4 6.2 7.5 8.4 9.3 9.8 10.2 10.8 11.1 11.7 11.9 69°
2.4 1.1 2.2 3.3 4.3 6.0 7.3 8.1 9.1 9.5 10.0 10.4 10.7 11.2 11.5 67°
2.2 1.1 2.1 3.2 4.1 5.8 7.0 7.9 8.7 9.1 9.6 10.0 10.2 10.7 10.9 66°
2.0 1.0 2.0 3.1 4.0 5.6 6.7 7.5 8.3 8.7 9.1 9.5 9.7 10.0 10.3 63°
1.9 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.9 5.4 6.5 7.3 8.1 8.5 8.8 9.2 9.4 9.7 9.9 62°
1.8 0.97 1.9 2.9 3.8 5.3 6.3 7.1 7.8 8.2 8.5 8.8 9.0 9.3 9.5 61°
1.7 0.94 1.8 2.8 3.6 5.1 6.1 6.8 7.5 7.8 8.2 8.5 8.6 8.9 9.1 60°
1.6 0.90 1.7 2.7 3.5 4.9 5.8 6.5 7.2 7.5 7.8 8.1 8.2 8.5 8.6 58°
1.5 0.86 1.6 2.6 3.3 4.6 5.6 6.2 6.8 7.1 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0 8.1 56°
1.4 0.82 1.5 2.4 3.2 4.4 5.2 5.9 6.4 6.7 7.0 7.2 7.3 7.5 7.6 54°
H/D
1.3 0.77 1.4 2.3 2.9 4.1 4.9 5.5 5.9 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.7 6.9 7.0 52°
1.2 0.71 1.3 2.1 2.7 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.4 5.7 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 50°
1.1 0.65 1.1 1.9 2.5 3.4 4.1 4.6 4.9 5.1 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.6 5.7 48°
Angle of obstruction
1.0 0.57 0.99 1.7 2.2 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.7 4.8 5.0 45°
0.9 0.50 0.83 1.5 1.9 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.0 4.1 4.2 42°
0.8 0.42 0.68 1.2 1.6 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 39°
0.7 0.33 0.53 0.97 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.8 35°
0.6 0.24 0.39 0.74 0.98 1.3 1.6 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1 31°
0.5 0.16 0.25 0.52 0.70 0.97 1.10 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 27°
0.4 0.10 0.14 0.34 0.45 0.62 0.75 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.98 22°
0.3 0.06 0.06 0.18 0.26 0.34 0.42 0.47 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.51 0.52 0.53 17°
0.2 0.03 0.02 0.09 0.11 0.14 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.24 11°
0.1 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08 6°_
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 3.0 ∞ 0°
Figure 7.19 Case (3) – reference point below Figure 7.20 Case (4) – reference point not on
windowsill level. center line of window.
sill. The determination of the Sky Component side of the window is 6/8 or 0.75. The W1/D
(SC) in this case requires us to proceed in two ratio is 5/8 or 0.63, since the width of the
stages. First, we calculate the H1/D ratio for a window extending from the perpendicular line
hypothetical window that extends from the that point (P) subtends to the window to the left
actual window head down to the plane of point side of point (P) is 5FT. From Table 7.1 we
(P). In other words, we temporarily assume that extrapolate the SC value for this portion of the
the windowsill is located at the same height window to be approximately 2.0.
above floor level as point (P). Then we calculate However, the width of the portion of the
the H2/D ratio for the portion of the hypothetical window on the right side of the perpendicular
window that extends from the actual window- line between point (P) and the window is 10FT.
sill down to the plane of point (P). The true Sky Therefore the W2/D ratio for this portion of the
Component (SC) is found by subtracting the SC window is 10/8 or 1.25. Using this ratio together
given by Table 7.1 for the H2/D ratio from the with the H/D ratio of 0.75 (which applies to both
SC given by Table 7.1 for the H1/D ratio (i.e., sides of the window) to look up Table 7.1, we
3.9% − 0.1% = 3.8%). Again, since point (P) lies obtain an SC value of approximately 2.8.
on the center line of the window, this SC value Therefore, the Sky Component (SC) for case (4)
is doubled to account for the two sides of the is 4.8% (i.e., 2.0% + 2.8%).
window (i.e., 3.8% + 3.8% = 7.6%). In a more extreme case, where the location of
Case (4) shown in Figure 7.20 is actually more the window is so far to one side of point (P) that
typical than the other three cases, because the the perpendicular line subtended by point (P)
point at which the Sky Component (SC) is to be to the window wall does not lie within the
determined is seldom on the center line of a width of the window, the Sky Component (SC)
window. Under these circumstances the SC is also calculated in two steps. For example, let
value has to be calculated separately for each us assume that the window in Figure 7.20 (i.e.,
side of the window. In Figure 7.20, with point case (4)) is replaced with a much narrower 4FT-
(P) at windowsill height, the H/D ratio for either wide window located 6FT to the right of point
120 Building Science: Concepts and Application
not be compatible with the energy conserva- available inside the building, while the con-
tion objectives of the design solution. trast in brightness between the window and
• Blocking direct sunlight or reducing the sec- surrounding surfaces is little affected.
tion of the sky visible through the windows Further, it is well to remember that one of
by means of blinds, curtains, fins, louvers, or the main functions of a window is to provide
canopies. In the northern hemisphere this is a view. Depending on the exterior brightness
a relatively simple matter if the main and light transmission, these special glasses
windows face south (or north in the south- will, at times, behave like mirrors and there-
ern hemisphere). On the other hand, east fore interfere with the transparency of the
and west elevations may require adjustable window.
vertical sunshading devices, which tend to
be expensive in respect to both initial acqui-
sition cost and maintenance requirements. Endnotes
• The use of roof lights. As shown in Figure
7.24, various configurations with and without 1. The Normal Distribution Curve is a statistical
the provision of sun shading are available. measure of the degree of variation within a related
The principal limitation of roof lights is that set (i.e., population) of data. A steep curve indi-
they are applicable only to single-story build- cates that most of the data values are clustered
ings (or the top floor of multi-story buildings). around the mean (i.e., average) value, which is
located at the center of the curve, while a flatter
• The use of special anti-glare or low-transmis-
curve indicates a wider distribution. The precise
sion glass in combination with light-colored
distribution characteristics of any particular popu-
interior surfaces, especially on the window lation can be calculated mathematically as Standard
wall, to increase the luminance of the build- Deviations from the mean. Setting the area under
ing environment. It should be noted, the Normal Distribution Curve to be equal to 1
however, that the application of low-trans- (i.e., 100 percent of the population), the mean plus
mission glass will result in a substantial or minus one Standard Deviation represents 68
reduction in the amount of natural light percent of the population and the mean plus or
minus 2 Standard Deviations represents 94 per-
cent of the population. Mathematical adjustments
are made in calculating the Standard Deviations
of Normal Distribution Curves that are slightly
skewed, such as in the case of the typical daily
daylight distribution shown in Figure 7.1 above.
2. Contrary to its name, color temperature is not
related to the operating temperature of a light
source. Instead, it is related to the spectral distri-
bution of radiation that is emitted by a full radia-
tor (i.e., a black body) when it is heated to different
temperatures. These temperatures are measured
in degrees Kelvin (K) and referred to as color tem-
peratures. Accordingly, the spectral distribution
of an overcast sky is approximately equivalent to
the spectral distribution of a black body heated to
6400 K. Similarly, the color temperature of direct
sunlight and a clear blue sky are approximately
5500 K and 11 500 K, respectively.
3. Since computer monitors rely on an additive
mixture of the three primary colors (and are there-
fore commonly referred to as RGB monitors), they
Figure 7.24 Roof lighting variations. cannot accurately represent many of the colors in
124 Building Science: Concepts and Application
the chromaticity diagram. The black-line triangle program. The computer program was capable of
shown in Figure 7.6 provides an indication of the calculating two sets of illumination levels at user-
restricted color range that applies to an average specified grid-intersection points. One set was
RGB monitor. based on a Uniform Brightness Sky and the other
4. The CIE supersaturated primary colors do not set was based on the CIE Standard Overcast Sky.
actually exist. In other words, they are notional Except for spaces with windows facing due west,
mathematical constructs that lie outside the the calculated values that were based on overcast
boundaries of the chromaticity diagram. Con- sky conditions invariably correlated significantly
structed as a right-angled triangle, which circum- better with the actual measurements than the
scribes the chromaticity diagram, the two sides of estimates that were based on uniform clear sky
the triangle that form the 90° angle also represent conditions.
the x- and y-axes of the CIE chromaticity diagram. 7. While this is certainly true for the Sky Component
5. Actually a slightly modified form of equation (SC), there may be instances when a highly reflec-
[7.3] (i.e., 53(a) instead of 52(a)) was suggested. tive surface at ground level outside the window
However, the difference between 53(a) and 52(a) (e.g., water or the shiny roof surface of a neigh-
is barely 2 percent. boring building that is located just below the
6. Over a period of several years (1973–1978), small windowsill level) may reflect light through the
groups of students were required to undertake a lower part of the window. In this rather unusual
class assignment in which they chose any interior case the portion below the windowsill level would
space on campus, measured actual light levels at not be ignored, but calculated as an Externally
nine equidistant points within the space at approx- Reflected Component (ERC). As we will see later
imately 9 am, 12 noon, and 4 pm on successive in this section, the ERC is calculated as a Sky
days, and then compared these measurements Component with reduced luminance (i.e., nor-
with predicted values generated by a computer mally 20 percent).
8 Artificial Lighting
It is highly unlikely that daylight alone can satisfy all of the lighting requirements in a building.
Certainly at night there will be a need for artificial light. Also, even during daytime periods when
there might be an abundance of external daylight there is likely to be a need for supplementary
task illumination. This need for supplementary artificial light occurs in particular in office buildings,
where deeper rooms cannot be adequately served by windows in side walls. However, notwithstand-
ing these reasons for some form of artificial lighting, the application of good building design prac-
tices leading to the exploitation of daylighting opportunities is of paramount importance (Figure
8.1).
Artificial light is only the last consideration in a three-tier design approach that commences with
the layout of the floor plan, careful consideration of the orientation and shape of spaces, selection
of the finishes of the larger surfaces such as ceiling and walls, and then seeks ways of introducing
daylight in desirable quantities.
Today, electric light sources constitute the main form of artificial light, although the conversion
of electricity into light is by no means efficient. As shown in Figure 8.2, only 7 percent of the output
produced by a standard filament (i.e., incandescent) lamp is in the form of light, while 93 percent
is heat energy.
Even fluorescent lamps produce almost twice as much heat as the sun. The situation is exacerbated
by the fact that the more efficient electric light sources such as mercury and sodium lamps are mostly
unusable because of poor color-rendition properties.
The problems encountered in artificial lighting are often not the same as those encountered in
natural lighting. Since both the luminance and location of the lighting installation are easily control-
led, it is not a question of providing sufficient light, but one of optimizing the visual environment
in relation to the discrimination of form, color rendition, work performance, physical comfort, and
the emotional well-being of the occupant.
Figure 8.1 Lighting design approach. Figure 8.3 Units of electric power and energy.
(Figure 8.4). In the physics domain of static flowing through a conducting material the poten-
electricity, the energy in joules (J) produced by tial difference (volts) is given by the product of
an electric field is equal to the product of the the current (amperes) and the resistance (ohms).
potential difference in volts (V) and unit charge in As shown in the lower part of Figure 8.4,
coulombs (C). However, for an electric current electric power (watts) can also be expressed as
Artificial Lighting 127
Figure 8.6 Lamp, luminaire, and ballast. Figure 8.7 Black-body radiation spectrum.
Section 1.3.5). A black body consists of an ideal ally exist. It must be stressed again that the
material that absorbs all electromagnetic radia- operating temperature of a lamp is distinct from
tion, including light, falling upon it. If this ideal- its color temperature. In other words, an artifi-
ized black body is heated, it will emit radiation cial light source operating at a temperature of
of a wavelength directly related to the tem- 100°F may produce much more light than one
perature of the body. The quantity of radiation operating at a temperature of 200°F.2 A black-
produced is not the same at all wavelengths, body radiator simply provides a convenient
but rather the radiation spectrum resembles a standard for comparing the radiation spectrum
skewed Normal Distribution Curve, with the emitted by a lamp (i.e., the color-rendition char-
peak of the curve moving to the left as the tem- acteristics of the lamp).
perature of the black body increases. The principal artificial light sources used in
Figure 8.7 shows the distribution of power in buildings today are electrical in nature. They
the spectrum of a black-body radiator. Not only fall into two distinct categories: namely, incan-
are the curves for higher temperatures always descent lamps and discharge lamps (Figure 8.8).
above the curves for lower temperatures, but While there are only two kinds of incandes-
also the peaks (i.e., maxima) of the curves are cent lamp, there are several types of discharge
displaced toward the shorter wavelengths as lamp, subject to the environment within which
the temperature is increased. the electrical discharge takes place. If we are to
However, while it is clearly shown in Figure compare these different artificial light sources,
8.7 that a black body would produce a maximum it is necessary to establish some criteria by
amount of light if it were to be heated to 6000 K, which the characteristics of a light source may
this does not mean that any other material be assessed. Cost, color, and utility would
heated to that temperature will produce a maxi- appear to provide the essential elements for
mum amount of light – or any light at all, for such a comparison.
that matter. We must remember that a black Capital costs and operating costs are deter-
body is an idealized material that does not actu- mined by the luminous efficiency or efficacy
Artificial Lighting 129
Figure 8.10 The incandescent (filament) lamp. Figure 8.11 The halogen regenerative cycle.
temperatures will produce greater efficiency in positing tungsten on the filament. This regen-
incandescent lamps, it is to be expected that erative cycle enables the filament to operate
higher-wattage units with thicker filaments at slightly higher temperatures, with a result-
will be more efficient than lower-wattage lamps. ing increase in efficiency and a service life of
In fact, a single 100-watt filament lamp will up to 2000 hours and little fall-off in lumen
be some 5 lm/W (i.e., 30 percent) more effi- maintenance.
cient than two 50-watt lamps. Accordingly, the There are two further problems associated
design operating temperature of a filament with the large amount of radiation emitted
lamp will be very much a compromise between by filament lamps in the infrared region of
lifespan and efficiency, based on the following the spectrum (Figure 8.10). Not only is up to
approximate relationship: 93 percent of the input energy wasted for pur-
poses of lighting, but the resultant heat radia-
lifespan of lamp = 1 / (luminous efficiency)6 tion may substantially increase the temperature
(HRS) [8.1] of the building environment, in particular when
very high levels of illumination (e.g., hospital
Fortunately, the rate of evaporation of the tung- operating theaters) are required. Furthermore,
sten filament can be reduced by raising the since the color-rendering properties of a lamp
vapor pressure of the gas in the lamp. Most are very much affected by its spectral distri-
commonly the gas used is a mixture of argon bution, incandescent lamps will tend to soften
and nitrogen, although it has been shown that the appearance of colored surfaces by virtue of
halogen gas (i.e., iodine, chlorine, bromine, their predominant infrared radiation. Even
or fluorine) will set up a regenerative cycle though the color-rendering characteristics of
(Figure 8.11). these lamps are by no means true, or similar to
In tungsten–halogen lamps the evaporated daylight, they are commonly accepted as being
tungsten associates with the halogen to form pleasant and flattering.
tungsten-halide vapor, which dissociates when From a more general versatility point of
diffused back to the hot filament, thereby rede- view, incandescent lamps are convenient to
Artificial Lighting 131
to those of the mercury lamp. The most limiting A comparison of mercury vapor, metal-
feature of the sodium lamp is its unique yellow halide, and high-pressure sodium lamps (Figure
radiation, which is responsible for high lumi- 8.18) indicates that all three of these high-
nous efficiency but very poor color rendition. intensity discharge lamps require a ballast to
This is most unfortunate, since the sodium lamp produce the high potential difference that is
has the highest efficacy of all currently available required to produce the initial discharge. While
electric light sources. For this reason it is under- the lifespan of the metal-halide lamp is over
standable that considerable efforts have been 10 000 hours, it is less than half that of the other
made by manufacturers to improve the color- two lamps at more than twice the capital cost.
rendition performance of the sodium lamp.
It was found that the color-rendition proper-
8.2.3 Fluorescent lamps
ties of the sodium lamp can be improved by
operating the lamp at above atmospheric pres- The fluorescent lamp basically utilizes a low-
sure. However, the ability to do so has been pressure mercury discharge. At the low operat-
restricted in the past by the lack of an enclosure ing pressure (i.e., approximately 0.00015 psi)
capable of containing the hot, chemically active more than 95 percent of the radiation emitted is
sodium. This problem has now been overcome outside the visible spectrum in the ultraviolet
by the development of crystalline alumina. region (Figure 8.19). Some 25 percent of this
Accordingly, high-pressure sodium lamps with ultraviolet radiation is reradiated into the visible
crystalline alumina enclosures produce white range by a fluorescent powder (i.e., phosphor)
light at a reduced efficiency of about 110 lm/W coating on the inside of the enclosing tube.
(Figure 8.17). The major difference between the light from
Application of this modified sodium lamp is a fluorescent lamp and from a high-pressure
found in outdoor street lighting and to a lesser mercury lamp is that the former produces a
extent in the lighting of high-bay industrial continuous spectrum. Furthermore, the color-
interiors. rendition properties of the fluorescent lamp
Figure 8.21 Comparison of incandescent and Figure 8.22 Other potential light sources.
fluorescent lamps.
over the incandescent lamp in respect to effi- Light-Emitting Diodes (LED) are still limited,
cacy and lifespan. The only advantages of the they show great promise for the future in terms
incandescent lamp are its simplified operating of lifespan (over 40 000 hours) and efficacies in
environment (i.e., neither a ballast nor any the vicinity of 100 lm/W (see Chapter 12, Section
special electrical circuit is required) and its very 12.5.4).
wide range of wattages. However, the initial Neon lamps, which are used extensively in
acquisition cost of the compact fluorescent lamp advertising, consist of an evacuated glass tube
is still more than five times the cost of an incan- filled with ionized neon gas. By means of a
descent lamp, and almost eight times the cost of transformer capable of increasing the normal
an equivalent fluorescent tube. 115-volt input voltage to around 8000 volts, an
electric current is passed through the ionized
gas in the tube. The essentially red light pro-
8.2.4 Other light sources
duced in this manner may be changed in several
Although light sources based on the discharge ways: by varying the gas pressure; by mixing
principle are likely to retain their dominant the neon gas with helium; or by using colored
position in the marketplace for some time to glass tubing. The efficiency of the neon lamp is
come, there are other sources of light with rather low, in the region of 5 lm/W.
varying application potential (Figure 8.22). Will industry be able to make more headway
Foremost among these are electrolumines- in harnessing the light produced by chemical
cent lamps. While fluorescent lamps produce reactions? Currently the exploitation of chemo-
light indirectly through the excitation of phos- luminescence is limited to flares and glass vials
phors, electroluminescent sources produce light in plastic tubes that provide a green glow for a
directly from electrical energy produced by an few hours when the tube is bent to break the vial.
applied voltage. Although present applications Fiber-optic bundles are capable of transmit-
of electroluminescent lamps in the form of ting light with a somewhat limited efficiency
136 Building Science: Concepts and Application
is directed downward, then shadows will be ceiling and yet provides up to 50 percent
distinct, accentuating the three-dimensional direct lighting. Accordingly, there is little
nature of the objects in the building space. likelihood of any problems arising due to
brightness differences between the back-
Direct luminaire: Practically all of the light is
ground and the task area.
directed downward, resulting in a low verti-
Semi-Indirect luminaire: Similar to the indirect
cal surface illumination (Figure 8.25).
system, except that the shade is translucent,
Direct luminaires are normally used for
thus allowing about one-third of the light to
individually controlled task lighting, in
fall directly into the room (Figure 8.27).
combination with a general background
Nevertheless, the ceiling remains the main
lighting system.
radiating source.
Semi-Direct luminaire: Similar to the direct–
Indirect luminaire: Nearly all the light output
indirect system, although the ceiling light
is directed to the ceiling and upper walls of
component is small. Therefore the room will
the room (Figure 8.27). The ceiling and upper
lack diffuseness, possibly resulting in annoy-
wall sections in effect become a secondary
ing shadows if the number of fixtures per
light source, and if these surfaces have similar
ceiling area is small (Figure 8.25).
reflections, then the room illumination will
Diffuse luminaire: The diffuse system provides
be diffuse and devoid of shadows.
light approximately equally in all directions
(Figure 8.26). The distance between the lumi- When recessed luminaires are used the ceiling
naire and the ceiling should be sufficient to will receive reflected light only, and will there-
avoid excessive ceiling brightness. fore tend to be the darkest part of the room. The
Direct–Indirect luminaire: Provides approxi- resultant brightness ratio between the lumi-
mately equal distribution of light upward naire and ceiling is likely to be high and there-
and downward (Figure 8.26). fore unsatisfactory in any but the smallest
Can be a very successful lighting system, rooms, where the general illumination level is
owing to the fact that it provides a bright expected to be high if the wall and ceiling sur-
Artificial Lighting 139
Figure 8.29 Coves, coffers, and luminous ceilings. Figure 8.30 Valences, cornices, and luminous wall
panels.
However, because of the limitations of arti- of the wall. While the resultant light distri-
ficial light sources the light produced is of bution is still quite diffuse, the reflecting
course far less intense than a normal sky- surfaces extend from the ceiling to the upper
light, particularly under clear sky conditions. portions of the wall(s), thereby accentuat-
Therefore, whereas a single skylight is usu- ing to a greater degree than coves the three-
ally sufficient to light an entire room during dimensional character of the room.
daytime hours, several coffers would be Cornices are formed by moving a valence board
required to provide adequate light during directly to the ceiling, as shown in the mid
nighttime. section of Figure 8.30. As a result, reflected
Luminous Ceilings (bottom section of Figure light is received only from the upper por-
8.29) have become less popular in recent tions of the wall(s). With the ceiling more or
times, owing to the need for energy conser- less in darkness cornice lighting can produce
vation. Also, the diffuse nature of the light an intimate environment that might be suit-
produced by a luminous ceiling tends to able for a restaurant or, in combination with
create a somewhat drab environment that is direct-indirect luminaires, for a lounge or
devoid of shadows unless other directional waiting area (e.g., in a health facility).
sources of light are added. Luminous Wall Panels are sometimes used in
Valences are similar to coves, but with one windowless spaces to provide an impres-
major difference. Like coves they normally sion of window light (bottom section of
run along the entire length of a wall; how- Figure 8.30). Care must be taken to avoid
ever, they are located a foot or two below glare conditions by keeping the brightness
the ceiling and open both at the top and of the wall panel low. This is particularly
at the bottom (top section of Figure 8.30). important because a luminous wall panel is
This means that they are able to reflect light in the direct line of sight of the occupants
both from the ceiling and the upper part of the space.
Artificial Lighting 141
RI = L ¥ W / H (L + W)
RI = [60 × 25]/[(9 − 3) × (60 + 25)] = 3 (approx.)
CU = 0.45 (approx.)
The numerical value of the Coefficient of Utili- Step 3: Calculate the average illumination level
zation is then applied as follows: on the work plane (E) if the flux per single
lamp is 2600 lm and the maintenance factor
CU = [total flux on work plane (FP )] / (M) is 0.8, using equation [8.6]:
[total flux emitted by lamps (FL )] [8.2]
E = [CU ¥ N ¥ FL ¥ M] / A (lm/SF or fc)
FP = [illumination on work plane (E)]
E = [0.45 × (24 × 2) × 2600 × 0.8]/
¥ [area of work plane (A)] [8.4]
(600 × 25) lm/SF or fc
FL = [number of lamps (N)] E = 30 lm/SF or fc
¥ [flux emittedby one lamp (FL )] [8.5]
Two separate examples of the reverse calcula-
tion are shown in Figures 8.35 and 8.36, and
Combining equations [8.2], [8.4], and [8.5] and
below. In the case of the example (below) we
incorporating a maintenance factor (M), we
will determine the number of triple 40W tubular
obtain:
fluorescent lamps required to provide an
average illumination (E) of 25 fc at desk level in
E = [CU ¥ N ¥ FL ¥ M] / A (lm/SF or fc) [8.6] an architectural drawing office 40FT long (L),
20FT wide (W) and 10FT high (H). A suspended
Alternatively, if the illumination on the work pan-shaped fitting will be used, partly open-top
plane (E) is specified, equation [8.6] may be and louvered beneath. Assume the reflection
rewritten in terms of the number of lamps (N) factor of the ceiling to be 50 percent and of the
required, as follows: walls 10 percent. The light flux produced by a
single lamp is 2600 lm and the maintenance
N = [E ¥ A] / [CU ¥ FL ¥ M] [8.7] factor (M) is 0.85.
Artificial Lighting 143
Walls 50 10 50 10 50 10 0
250 W reflectorized mercury 100 0.6 0.54 0.44 0.53 0.44 0.52 0.44 0.43
lamp (100). (fitting for 0.8 0.65 0.55 0.64 0.55 0.63 0.55 0.54
color-corrected mercury lamp)
1.0 0.71 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.68 0.60 0.59
1.25 0.77 0.64 0.76 0.66 0.76 0.66 0.65
1.5 0.82 0.72 0.81 0.71 0.80 0.71 0.70
2.0 0.90 0.80 0.87 0.79 0.86 0.78 0.76
2.5 0.93 0.84 0.90 0.83 0.90 0.82 0.80
3.0 0.96 0.88 0.93 0.87 0.92 0.85 0.83
4.0 0.98 0.92 0.96 0.91 0.94 0.89 0.87
5.0 1.00 0.96 0.99 0.94 0.96 0.92 0.90
Enamel slotted trough, louvred 50 0.6 0.27 0.22 0.26 0.22 0.26 0.22 0.20
(45–55) 0.8 0.32 0.27 0.32 0.27 0.31 0.27 0.25
Shallow ceiling-mounted louvre 1.0 0.35 0.30 0.35 0.30 0.34 0.30 0.29
panel (40–50)… 1.25 0.38 0.32 0.38 0.33 0.38 0.33 0.32
Louvred recessed (module) 1.5 0.41 0.36 0.40 0.35 0.40 0.35 0.34
fitting (40–50)… 2.0 0.45 0.40 0.43 0.39 0.43 0.39 0.38
(fittings for fluorescent lamps) 2.5 0.47 0.42 0.45 0.41 0.45 0.41 0.40
3.0 0.48 0.44 0.46 0.43 0.46 0.42 0.41
4.0 0.49 0.46 0.48 0.45 0.47 0.44 0.43
5.0 0.50 0.48 0.49 0.47 0.48 0.46 0.45
Suspended pan-shaped fitting, 50 0.6 0.32 0.24 0.30 0.24 0.29 0.23 0.21
partly open top, louvred 0.8 0.39 0.31 0.36 0.29 0.35 0.29 0.27
beneath (50) … (fitting for 1.0 0.43 0.35 0.40 0.34 0.38 0.32 0.30
fluorescent lamp) 1.25 0.47 0.39 0.44 0.38 0.42 0.35 0.32
1.5 0.51 0.43 0.47 0.41 0.44 0.38 0.35
2.0 0.56 0.49 0.51 0.46 0.47 0.42 0.38
2.5 0.58 0.52 0.53 0.49 0.49 0.44 0.40
3.0 0.60 0.55 0.55 0.51 0.51 0.46 0.41
4.0 0.63 0.58 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.48 0.43
5.0 0.64 0.60 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.45
Open-end enamel trough (75–85) 0.6 0.36 0.28 0.35 0.28 0.35 0.28 0.27
… 0.8 0.45 0.37 0.44 0.37 0.44 0.37 0.36
Closed-end enamel trough 1.0 0.49 0.40 0.49 0.40 0.48 0.40 0.39
(56–83) … 1.25 0.55 0.46 0.53 0.45 0.52 0.45 0.43
Standard dispersive Industrial 1.5 0.58 0.49 0.57 0.49 0.55 0.49 0.48
Reflector (77) (fitting for 2.0 0.64 0.55 0.61 0.55 0.60 0.54 0.52
filament or fluorescent lamps) 2.5 0.68 0.60 0.65 0.59 0.64 0.58 0.56
3.0 0.70 0.62 0.67 0.61 0.65 0.61 0.59
4.0 0.73 0.67 0.70 0.65 0.67 0.64 0.62
5.0 0.75 0.69 0.73 0.67 0.70 0.67 0.65
144 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Figure 8.33 Calculation of the average illumination Figure 8.35 Number of lamps required for a given
level (E Lm/SF or Fc). illumination level.
Figure 8.34 Looking up the CU value for the Figure 8.36 Looking up the CU value for the
example shown in Figure 8.33. example shown in Figure 8.35.
Step 1: Calculate the Room Index (RI) accord- Step 2: Find the coefficient of utilization (CU)
ing to equation [8.3]: in Table 8.1 if the reflection factors for
the ceiling and walls are 50% and 10%,
RI = L ¥ W / H (L + W) respectively.
RI = [40 × 20]/[(10 − 3) × ( 40 + 20)]
= 1.9 (approx.) CU = 0.46 (approx.)
Artificial Lighting 145
Step 3: Given that the flux (E) per single lamp plementing daylight with artificial light in those
is 2600 lm and incorporating a maintenance building spaces where the daylight level is inad-
factor (M) of 0.85, find the number of triple equate. Particularly, in the case of multi-story
40W units required. Apply equation [8.7]: buildings there is a tendency for ceiling heights
to be low and rooms to be deep, so that the max-
N = [E ¥ A] / [CU ¥ FL ¥ M] imum number of floors can be accommodated
N = [25 × ( 40 × 20)/[0.46 × 2600 × 0.85] within a minimum building height. Moreover,
N = 20 single lamps (or 7 triple 40W units) large windows are likely to lead to conditions of
sky-glare and excessive heat transfer.
At the time, and this was well before energy
became scarce and prohibitively expensive, it
8.6 The room cavity ratio was argued on purely economic grounds that
there were benefits to be found in omitting
Some state and national building energy stand-
windows altogether. However, even though a
ards, such as California Title 24, utilize the
number of fairly successful windowless build-
concept of Room Cavity Ratio (RCR) as a metric
ings were built, the counterargument – that
for determining the allowable artificial lighting
windows are a significant factor in contributing
load in building spaces. Typically, a floor plan
to the physical and psychological well-being of
is divided into areas, then the RCR is calculated
the building occupants – generally prevailed.
for each area, and finally either the maximum
The underlying research into the optimum
allowable wattage per square foot (W/SF), or
means of integrating natural and artificial light
the illumination level in lumen per square foot
was conducted by the British Research Estab-
(lm/SF) or footcandles (fc), is provided from a
lishment. One of the basic assumptions of the
table.
PSALI concept that grew out of this research is
An area is normally defined in terms of its
the notion that daylight should remain the
perimeter enclosure. – for example, any space
dominant feature of a building interior, unless
with 75 percent or more of its perimeter defined
the particular occupancy specifically requires
by either solid or transparent floor-to-ceiling
the exclusion of daylight (e.g., some museums
partitions or walls. The RCR of such an area is
and certain medical facilities). Accordingly,
then calculated with equation [8.8]:
PSALI systems are designed on the principle
that artificial lighting should provide adequate
5 [(light fixture height above task
illumination levels where natural light is inad-
surface) ¥ (area length + area width)] equate and should mitigate the appearance of
RCR =
[(area length) ¥ (area width)] gloom in those parts of a building space that are
[8.8] remote from external windows.
As a rule of thumb, the artificial lighting level
Maximum wattage (or illumination) allowances (EPSALI) that is required in support of a PSALI
will be higher for larger RCR values. For exam- installation may be related to the average value
ple, the allowable wattage for the spray-booth of the Daylight Factor (DFaverage) in the room
area of an aircraft manufacturing plant may be under consideration, as follows:3
2.4 W/SF if the RCR is less or equal to 5, and
3.4 W/SF if the RCR is greater than 5. EPSALI = [ p ¥ DFaverage ¥ (external illumination
level)] / 10 (lm/SF or fc)
[8.9]
8.7 The PSALI concept
It is suggested that the section of the room
The Permanent Supplementary Artificial Light- where this PSALI lighting is required may be
ing of Interiors (PSALI) concept was developed confined to the area where the Daylight Factor
in England in the 1950s for the purpose of sup- is 20 percent or less of that near the window.
146 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Unfortunately, the above relationship cannot total light sources as necessary. It is also impor-
be applied universally. In regions where clear tant to consider the color-rendition properties of
skies are predominant the sky luminance will the artificial light sources. The PSALI installa-
differ markedly with orientation, while the tion should provide light near to the color of
overall luminance range is normally very wide. daylight, while the nighttime light should pref-
For example, the range between an overcast erably be of a warmer color. In fact, it is gener-
and bright sky in England is from about 500 fL ally recognized that the lower the level of
to 4000 fL, while in parts of California the range illumination, the warmer the color of the artifi-
is likely to extend from 800 fL to 8000 fL. It is cial light source should be.
therefore apparent that PSALI installations will
tend to be very expensive in terms of energy
usage and therefore uneconomical in regions Endnotes
where bright skies are a normal occurrence.
Light fittings for PSALI installations are very 1. It is of interest to note that one watt of power is
often of the laylight4 type, louvered to avoid equivalent to about 3 BTU of heat in the American
glare, and some 4FT wide, running along the system of units.
length of the room with the back edge about 2. t should also be noted that the operating tempera-
3FT from the inner wall. It has been suggested ture of a lamp is measured in °F or °C, while its
that the luminance of such laylights should not color temperature is measured in K.
exceed 200 fL, so as to avoid discomfort glare 3. In the original form of equation [8.9] the PSALI
conditions. illumination level is calculated as a function of the
sky luminance (measured in foot Lambert (fL) or
Since the artificial illumination level of a
candela/SF) and not the external illumination level
PSALI installation will invariably be higher
as shown above. However, for a luminous hemi-
during the day than at night, it follows that the sphere the illumination level at the center of the
level of lighting should be reduced as the day- hemisphere is numerically equal to the luminance
light fades. This may be achieved by either pro- of the hemisphere.
viding two separate installations, or by providing 4. A laylight may be described as a large area light
some means of switching out a percentage of the source recessed into the ceiling.
9 The Nature of Sound
Noise is fast becoming one of the more serious pollutants of our environment. At the same time,
controlled sound is one of the most important means of communication, as well as providing a
medium for enjoyment, relaxation, and emotional fulfillment.
In recent years, the level of sensitivity of the average building user has greatly increased, so that
both the control of unwanted sound (or noise) and the enhancement of speech and music have
become important objectives in building design. Unfortunately, the line between noise and desirable
sound cannot always be clearly defined. A sound such as might be produced by a new motor-bike
can be at the same time ecstasy to its teenage owner and most objectionable to his next-door
neighbor. The acoustical design of a building cannot therefore be based wholly on the objective
measurement of sound, but is also greatly influenced by the mental state and expectations of its
occupants.
9.1 What is sound? medium about their mean positions. The parti-
cles themselves oscillate about their normal
Sound is the result of vibrations caused by a positions (Figure 9.2), setting other particles
source that emits pressure fluctuations on a into similar oscillating motion as they collide
spherical front. The form of the vibrations is with their neighbors.
cyclic, with a compression and a rarefaction This kind of oscillating motion is very similar
completing one cycle (Figure 9.1). Furthermore, to the motion of a pendulum and is referred to
these vibrations are in the form of longitudinal in physics as Simple Harmonic Motion.
waves and will therefore require some type of As shown in Figure 9.3, the distance between
medium (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas) to travel two adjacent centers of compression (or centers
through. of rarefaction) is defined as the wavelength (λ
For example, let us consider the sound gener- ft), while the rate at which the vibrations occur
ated by the vibration of a guitar string. There is called the frequency (f cycles per second (cps)
will be a region of relative compression where or hertz). The wavelength and frequency of
the wave front or vibration is carried onto sound are related, so that high-frequency
neighboring particles, followed by a rarefaction sounds have a short wavelength and low-
in the same region as the particles return to their frequency sounds have a long wavelength. The
former equilibrium positions. Accordingly, frequency range to which the human ear
sound waves are propagated not by the mass responds is about 30 cps to 20 000 cps, corre-
movement of the medium, but by the progres- sponding to wavelengths in the vicinity of 37 ft
sive, elastic vibration of the particles of the to 0.02 ft or ¼ in, respectively.
The velocity of sound in a medium is directly
proportional to the modulus of elasticity for
Building Science: Concepts and Application. Jens Pohl. solid materials or the bulk modulus for liquids
© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. and gases, and inversely proportional to the
Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. density of the medium. Therefore, the velocity
148 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Figure 9.5 The logarithmic scale. Figure 9.6 Sound pressure level (SPL).
However, once again mathematics comes to Similarly, the Sound Intensity Level (SIL) can
the rescue. A very wide numerical range can be be calculated as a logarithmic ratio of any
conveniently reduced to a much smaller pro- ambient sound intensity compared with the
portional range by applying the concept of loga- threshold of hearing sound intensity of 10−12
rithms. Expressed logarithmically as powers of watt/m2.
10, the number 10 is equivalent to the logarith-
SIL = 10 log 10 I / IO (dB) [9.2]
mic value of 1, 100 becomes 2, 1000 becomes 3,
and so on (Figure 9.5). We often refer to human hearing as percep-
Therefore, a sound pressure or sound inten- tion on a logarithmic scale. As can be seen in
sity range of 1013 becomes a logarithmic range Figures 9.7 and 9.8, the perception of loudness
of just 13. The logarithmic equivalent of sound corresponds more realistically to a logarithmic
pressure and sound intensity is referred to as scale.
Sound Pressure Level (SPL). The decibel (dB) The difference in SPL between a quiet office
was chosen as the unit of SPL.2 and a busy or noisy office is just 20 dB. The
The SPL of any sound can be calculated as a smallest difference in SPL that is just percepti-
logarithmic ratio based on the threshold of ble is 3 dB, while we require a difference of at
hearing, expressed either in terms of sound least 5 dB for the change in loudness to be
pressure (10−5 Pa) or sound intensity (10−12 watt/ clearly noticeable.
m2), as shown in equations [9.1] and [9.2] below The reader may well ask: What is the dif-
(and Figure 9.6). ference between SPL and SIL? In the field of
building acoustics they are considered to be
SPL = 20 log 10 P / PO (dB) [9.1]
numerically equal.3 For example, if a sound
Thus if the ambient sound pressure at any point pressure of 0.2 Pa is equal to a sound intensity
in a room is 0.002 Pa, then the corresponding of 0.0001 watt/m2, then the following calcu-
SPL can be calculated by applying equation [9.1] lations using equations [9.1] and [9.2] will
as follows: 20 log10 (0.002 / 0.00002) is equal to show that they both produce the same SPL
20 log10 (100) is equal to 40 dB. of 80 dB.
The Nature of Sound 151
L1 = 10 log (I1 / I O )
I1 / I O = antilog (0.1 L1 )
I1 = I O [antilog (0.1 L1 )]
and similarly
I 2 = I O [antilog (0.1 L 2 )]
Figure 9.8 Range of sound intensities and Therefore the composite SPL L, is given by:
equivalent sound intensity levels (SIL).
L = 10 log (I1 + I 2 )/ I O
L = 10 log [antilog (0.1L1 ) + antilog (0.1 L2 )](dB)
[9.3]
152 Building Science: Concepts and Application
As a rule of thumb, the scale shown in Figure Table 9.1 Perception of SPL changes.
9.9 indicates that the sum of two equal SPLs is
Human perception of change in SPLs
always 3 dB higher than the separate levels.4 In
the case of unequal sound pressure levels, we Change in SPL (dB) Human perception
may adopt the general rule that if one level is
more than 9 dB higher than another, the sum 1 dB Imperceptible
may simply be taken as the larger of the sepa- 3 dB Just perceptible
5 dB Clearly noticeable
rate values (e.g., for two levels of 40 dB and
10 dB Major change
50 dB the sum is 50.4 dB, which is close enough
to 50 dB).
As shown in Figure 9.10, the addition of mul-
tiple SPLs can proceed in pairs. Alternatively,
the simple table shown in Figure 9.10 can be machines located in close proximity in a par-
used. Therefore the combined SPL produced by ticular part of a factory. The ambient SPL in that
20 trucks, each emitting 80 dB, would be 93 dB part of the factory, mostly produced by these
(i.e., 80 + 13 = 93 dB). four machines, is 89 dB. Although all four of the
The deletion of SPLs can be dealt with by riveting machines are of the same type, one is
reversing the steps for addition. However, this an older model and consequently generates
task is greatly simplified by reference to the fol- more noise than the other three machines.
lowing two tables: According to recent sound measurements, each
We can see from Table 9.1 that a change in of the new models generates 75 dB, while the
SPL of 3 dB is only just perceptible. The follow- old model generates 87 dB. Is it warranted,
ing example will illustrate the importance of on the basis of noise reduction alone, to replace
this experimentally verified finding. Let us the older riveting machine with a new model?
assume that there are four automatic riveting The difference between the SPL generated
The Nature of Sound 153
Difference in dB Reduction in dB of
between total SPL and the total SPL due
source to be deleted to the deletion
1 dB 7 dB
2 dB 4 dB
3 dB 3 dB
4 to 5 dB 2 dB
6 to 9 dB 1 dB
tion of room acoustics, a more finely grained to 5654 Hz, with close to three-quarters of
one-third octave band analysis may be per- that sound energy being provided by vowels
formed. However, in the same way that the (Figure 9.15).
mid-frequency of an octave band is not the However, it is the relatively high-frequency
arithmetic mean between the lower and upper consonants that are largely responsible for the
boundary frequencies, the mid-frequency of intelligibility of speech. It is interesting to
a third-octave band cannot be determined by compare this with the frequency range of some
simple arithmetic. If we know the mid-frequency common musical instruments (Figure 9.16).
of a particular octave band, such as 63 hz for the
first octave band (i.e., 44 to 89 hz), then the mid-
frequencies of its three one-third octave bands 9.5 Subjective units of
are calculated as follows:
sound measurement
mid-frequency of first third-octave band
The perception of sound, like the perception of
= 62.6 ÷ 21/ 3 = 62.6 ÷ 1.26 = 49.7 or 50 HZ
heat and light, is a subjective mechanism, and
mid-frequency of second third-octave band it is therefore necessary to relate the objective
= 62.6 or 63 HZ measurements of vibration (i.e., sound pres-
mid-frequency of third third-octave band sure, SPL, sound intensity, and SIL) with the
ability of the human ear to distinguish and
= 62.6 × 21/ 3 = 62.6 × 1.26 = 78.9 or 80 HZ
measure the resulting audible sound.
It is interesting to note that virtually all of the The situation is complicated by the fact that
sound energy in speech is contained within the human ear not only varies in its response to
the five octave bands that extend from 177 hz high and low sound pressure differences, but
156 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Figure 9.16 Pitch and frequency. Figure 9.17 Subjective loudness (phon).
also to frequency. For example, if notes of 50 Hz in decibels and subjective loudness levels in phon
and 1000 Hz frequencies are played alternately are identical at that frequency.
at a sound pressure level of 40 dB, then the It can be seen in Figure 9.17 that for the 40-
higher-frequency note will appear to be louder. phon contour, a pure tone of 100 Hz at an SPL
The greatest sensitivity of the ear occurs at of 52 dB will appear equally loud as a tone of
approximately 4000 Hz, but this falls off quite 4000 Hz, at 30 dB. However, the phon scale does
sharply for higher and lower frequencies. It is not provide information in regard to the manner
therefore to be expected that the threshold of in which persons normally rate one sound with
hearing has different SPL values at different fre- another. At times, it would be convenient to be
quencies, because the perceived loudness of a able to specify one sound as being twice or three
sound depends on both its SPL and frequency. times as loud as another. The sone scale has been
At higher SPLs (e.g., above 100 dB) the sensitiv- devised to achieve this aim, by rating the loud-
ity of the ear is much more evenly distributed, ness of sounds in a linear manner. It was sug-
with the result that the threshold of pain tends gested that since a loudness level of about 40
to be fairly constant at about 130 dB to 140 dB phon normally exists in quiet environments,
for the audible frequency range. To allow for this loudness level be equivalent to one sone.
this subjective characteristic of the hearing Accordingly, a noise which is twice as loud
mechanism, a scale of equal loudness levels has would be 2 sone or 49 phon. On the basis that
been devised (Figure 9.17). A pure tone of there exists sufficient correlation between the
1000 Hz frequency has been adopted as a refer- phon scale and the intuitive judgments of large
ence standard and a sound pressure of 0.00002 Pa groups of people, it has been agreed interna-
(i.e., 0 dB SPL) chosen as the zero level of a loud- tionally that a doubling of sound will produce
ness scale of units called the phon scale. Since approximately a 10-phon increase in loudness
1000 Hz serves as the reference frequency, SPLs (Figure 9.18).6
The Nature of Sound 157
Figure 9.18 Subjective loudness (phon). Figure 9.19 The anatomy of the ear and the
biological hearing mechanism.
9.6 How do we hear sound? inner ear. This transducing mechanism is neces-
sary because a gas such as air is compressible
The structure of the human ear has adapted and a liquid is not. The sound vibrations trans-
over millions of years to receive and transmit to mitted through air represent a relatively small
the brain those vibrations that constitute the force acting over a relatively large distance. This
hearing stimulus. Sound pressures set the ear has to be converted in the middle ear to a rela-
drum (Figure 9.19) in vibration and this move- tively large force acting over a very small
ment is transmitted by a system of levers to the distance.
inner ear where nerves are stimulated. The perception of the sound occurs by means
It is therefore apparent that the ear incorpo- of hair cells embedded along the basilar mem-
rates an effective transducing mechanism (i.e., brane, which transversely divides the spiral
the middle ear) for transferring the vibration of wound cochlea bone (Figure 9.20).
air (i.e., the outer ear) to the fluid system sur- Although it is known that the basilar mem-
rounding the hair cells of the hearing nerve (i.e., brane is able to discriminate between frequen-
the inner ear). Owing to its particular shape, the cies, this innate capability is thought to be
outer ear matches over a wide range of frequen- insufficiently accurate to explain the extremely
cies the impedance of the ear drum on the exter- high degree of frequency discrimination achieved
nal air. by a person.7 We must, therefore, assume that the
As shown by the mechanical simulation of the brain interprets the electrical impulses that flow
hearing mechanism depicted in Figure 9.20, the from the nerve endings of the hair cells.
middle ear changes by multiple lever action Hearing sensitivity, particularly at the higher
the relatively large movements of the ear drum frequencies, diminishes with age even in healthy
to smaller movements of greater force, more persons. This aging condition is referred to as
suitable for activating the fluid system of the presbycusis and can reduce the sensitivity of
158 Building Science: Concepts and Application
undertaking tasks requiring a high degree of lead to severe public reaction. It has become
concentration do not appear to be significantly apparent that blatant disregard of the acoustic
affected by moderately high background noise aspects of city and regional planning considera-
levels involving indistinguishable or musical tions may lead to time-consuming and costly
sound. Nevertheless, it is certainly true that political action, if the provocation is directed at
very high noise levels, and in particular certain a sufficiently wide sector of the population.
types of noise, will cause annoyance and, after Such examples have been related in particular
lengthy exposure, permanent hearing damage. to the large-scale expansion of existing airports.
Attempts have been made to classify the pos- The public response tends to escalate in stages
sible effects of noise on man into main groups. with increasing severity, as follows:
Foremost among these are the effects on ana-
Stage 1: Attempts to provide noise barrier or
tomical structures and principal physiological
buffer.
processes, such as the vibration of bodily struc-
Stage 2: Leaving or avoiding the noise field.
tures, damage to the middle ear (i.e., rupture of
Stage 3: Action against the party blamed for the
the tympanic membrane at an SPL of about
noise, progressing in stages:
160 dB), temporary or permanent damage to the
cochlea, and pain due to SPLs in excess of • discussion within localized groups;
135 dB, which may also be accompanied by • complaints to local authorities;
nausea and apparent shifting of the visual field • complaints to State and National
authorities;
(i.e., nystagmus) or loss of orientation. Less
clearly defined are the subjective effects on • public demonstrations;
mental and motor behavior, which may be cat- • threats of legal action;
egorized as follows: • vigorous legal action.
Stage 4: Illegal actions such as sabotage.
Category A – Physical impact leading to inter-
It is incumbent on architects and environmental
ference with the following kinds of activity
planners to take into account the external and
• Speech communication (usually above internal sound environments throughout the
50 dB);
design process, in an effort to avoid the likely
• Working (depending on the kind of work occurrence of noise interference with the activi-
performed);
ties of building occupants. Desirable sound
• Relaxing; environments fall into two main categories;
• Sleeping (usually above 35 dB); namely, those that satisfy existing laws, and
• Reading; those that enable the full enjoyment of work,
• Convalescing; recreation, and sleep. Over the past several
• Traveling. decades an increasing number of national, state,
Category B – Physiological impact leading to
and local government authorities have adopted
the disturbance of attitudes
zoning ordinances in an attempt to shield the
• Annoyance (typically caused by unwanted public from noisy environments. These ordi-
or unnecessary noise);
nances typically specify performance standards
• Fear of bodily injury or economic and for industrial and vehicular traffic noise sources
social loss of status;
and require measurements to be made at the
• Accentuation of nervous stress and boundaries of industrial areas and where high-
disorders.
ways intrude on residential neighborhoods.
In recent years experience has shown that the While the World Health Organization is con-
construction of new or the extension of existing cerned with all threats to health and efficiency,
public complexes that produce a great deal of the International Standards Organization (ISO)
noise (e.g., regional airports and sporting com- and the International Electrotechnical Commis-
plexes) near residential neighborhoods, can sion (IEC) deal respectively with criteria for
160 Building Science: Concepts and Application
hearing conservation, annoyance and speech sure by 50 percent would allow the Hearing
communication, and with instrumentation. Conservation Level to be raised by some 3 dB.
One of the foremost design aims should be to The precise measurement of noise-induced
provide noise levels that will promote efficiency deafness is somewhat complicated by the
and safety, while maintaining good relation- natural loss of sensitivity of the ear that occurs
ships among neighboring communities. The with increasing age. This phenomenon is
fact that sound that is annoying to one person described in medical terms as presbycusis and
may be highly desirable to another (e.g., music) is symptomized in particular by the loss of sen-
further complicates the achievement of this sitivity at higher frequencies. Some years ago,
elusive aim. Over recent years three parameters when television first became available in
have been established for desirable sound Australia, a number of manufacturers received
environments. an inordinate number of complaints from cus-
tomers who had purchased television sets. In
• Hearing conservation: Protection from phys-
each case these complaints were traced back to
ical damage.
the alleged presence of a high-frequency back-
• Satisfactory communication: Sufficiently low
ground sound that allegedly originated from
speech interference level.
the set and disturbed the viewer. The manufac-
• Comfort and enjoyment: Uninhibited con-
turers were puzzled that these complaints came
centration, relaxation, and sleep.
almost exclusively from young people, and that
Early studies of the relationship between deaf- their service inspectors consistently reported
ness and noise were aimed at the prediction of that they were unable to detect the offending
the average hearing loss to be expected after a sound. After a certain amount of confusion it
certain exposure time to a specific noise environ- was found that the complaints had been justi-
ment. The resultant range of hearing loss was fied in as much as the frequency and SPL of the
found to vary widely, depending on the indi- reported sound placed it in a range affected by
vidual susceptibility to hearing damage of the presbycusis.
subject. This led to the establishment of Damage One of the most common detrimental effects
Risk Criteria based on critical noise levels likely of noise is interference with communication.
to cause the onset of hearing damage in average The requirements for unimpeded speech com-
ears. However, since it is not possible to gauge munication are related to the frequency compo-
accurately the threshold of noise-induced deaf- nents and dynamic properties of speech, as well
ness of an individual until some permanent as the background noise level. Research has
hearing loss has occurred, this approach has been undertaken to study the contribution to
now been largely superseded by the formulation intelligibility of small sections of the speech
of Hearing Conservation Criteria. spectrum and the masking effect of background
In general, Hearing Conservation Criteria noise, as a means of predicting the effectiveness
allow SPLs that are some 10 dB below the of communication in a given environment.
Damage Risk Criteria. Investigations in several These studies have shown that the intelligibility
countries have shown that about 85 dB in the of normal conversation is reduced whenever
critical octave frequency bands between 300 Hz the sound pressure level of speech is less than
and 4800 Hz should be chosen as an upper limit 10 dB above the level of ambient, broad-band,
necessary for the protection of persons whose background noise. If we assume the ordinary
hearing is susceptible to damage. In environ- speaking voice to reach a level of about 60 dB at
ments where higher noise levels are likely to a distance of 3 FT, then it is apparent that the
occur, it will be necessary to provide the occu- background noise level in any room to be useful
pants with some form of hearing protection. for discussions should not exceed 50 dB.
There is some evidence to suggest that the dura- During the 1950s the procedure for predict-
tion of exposure is also a significant factor. It ing the effectiveness of communication in the
is generally accepted that a reduction of expo- office environment was considerably simplified
The Nature of Sound 161
1 FT 66 dB 72 dB 78 dB 84 dB
2 FT 60 dB 66 dB 72 dB 78 dB
4 FT 54 dB 60 dB 66 dB 72 dB
6 FT 50 dB 56 dB 62 dB 68 dB
12 FT 44 dB 50 dB 56 dB 62 dB
24 FT 38 dB 44 dB 50 dB 56 dB
taken in the open or between reflecting walls, phone may have been influenced by reflections,
in a reverberation room or anechoic chamber.9 standing waves, or interference patterns.
The purpose of the measurements may be, for
example, to: estimate the danger of hearing
damage; to assess the effectiveness of acoustic Endnotes
remedies; to compare building materials or
systems of construction; or to control legally 1. Expressed in more technical terms, pressure is
prescribed maximum noise levels. In every case equal to force per unit area.
the method of measurement must suit the 2. The decibel unit is named after Alexander Graham
problem, since the mode of application could Bell (1847–1922), the inventor of the telephone.
have considerable influence on the final inter- 3. Strictly speaking, from the point of view of a phys-
pretation of the test results. icist they are not exactly equal.
During the actual reading of the instrument 4. This is readily verified as follows: if L1 = L2 = 40 dB,
scale the observer must be positioned in such a then L1+2 = 10 log10 (10 000 + 10 000) = 43 dB.
5. It should be noted that according to Figure 9.10,
way that he or she does not noticeably disturb
the addition of the fourth car will increase the
the sound field in the vicinity of the micro-
combined SPL generated by four cars by 1 dB (i.e.,
phone. The avoidance of interference due to from 5 dB for three equal sound sources to 6 dB for
reflections from the observer is of particular four equal sound sources) to 81 dB.
importance for the measurement of pure tones 6. In comparison, a doubling of sound energy pro-
and narrow-band noise. This requirement will duces only a 3 dB increase in SPL, which is the
generally be satisfied if the observer is at least objective equivalent of loudness in phon (see
4 FT distant from the microphone at one side of Section 9.3).
a tripod-mounted Sound-Level Meter. The 7. The German physicist Zwicker (1961) has been
German standard DIN 45633 recommends an able to identify some 24 critical sections of the
optimum distance of 3 meters (i.e., 10 FT) basilar membrane with individual frequency per-
ception characteristics.
between the microphone and the observer. This
8. Unfortunately, the acronym for Speech Interference
would normally require the microphone to be
Level (SIL) is identical to the acronym for Sound
connected to the Sound-Level Meter by means Intensity Level (SIL) referred to previously in
of an extension cord. Section 9.2. However, this should not cause too
In the particular case of sound-insulation much confusion since SPL is mostly used in pref-
measurements, if a constant noise source of erence to Sound Intensity Level in the field of
90 dBA exists on one side of a partition and the building acoustics.
Sound-Level Meter reading on the A-network is 9. Reverberation rooms and anechoic chambers are
50 dBA on the other side, then the insulation pro- special acoustic laboratories designed to produce
vided by the partition is calculated to be 40 dBA maximum reflection or absorption, respectively.
(i.e., 90 − 50 = 40 dBA). This is naturally on the Accordingly, in a reverberation room all of the
surfaces are acoustically hard surfaces to maxi-
assumption that the background noise level on
mize the inter-reflection of sound within the room,
the Sound-Level Meter side of the partition is
while in an anechoic chamber the walls and ceil-
less than about 40 dBA (which can be neglected ing are typically sprayed with a highly sound-
because 40 dBA + 50 dBA = 50 dBA). Measure- absorbing finish such as a porous plastic foam. A
ments on both sides of the partition should be similar type of treatment is applied to the floor of
taken for at least three distances from the parti- an anechoic chamber, with the addition of a wire
tion and the average calculated. This procedure mesh screen on top to support light pedestrian
will tend to avoid the possibility that the micro- traffic.
10 Room Acoustics
Sound behaves very much like light in several respects, even though the wavelength of sound is
several orders of magnitude longer than the wavelength of light. As we saw in the previous chapter,
the wavelength of sound ranges from about ¼ IN to 37 FT, compared with less than one ten-thou-
sandth of an inch for light (see Chapter Six).1 Sound can bend around obstructions and if the obstruc-
tion is very much smaller than the wavelength of the sound, then there may be virtually no acoustic
shadow on the other side of the obstruction.
In a simplified manner, the path of sound in an enclosed space can be simulated with light rays
emanating from a point source. Even though the light rays cannot reproduce the spherical progres-
sion of sound, they do provide an accurate indication of how the sound waves will be reflected from
surfaces in their path. While this kind of model analysis falls far short of a comprehensive represen-
tation of the acoustic environment that is likely to be experienced in the space, it does provide valu-
able information at a relatively low level of effort. The required model can be constructed out of
inexpensive cardboard and a commonly available laser pointer can be used as a light source.
Building designers may resort to this kind of model analysis because the bounding surfaces of an
interior space have a profound influence on the quality of sound in that enclosed space. For this
reason, before we can explore the acoustics of building spaces for speech and music we must digress
briefly to consider the principles of sound reflection and diffraction.
When a sound wave strikes the boundary Absorption = (absorbed sound energy)/
surface of an enclosed space part of the sound Coefficient ( ) (incident sound energy)
energy is reflected back into the space, part is
transmitted through the boundary, and part is Transmission = (transmitted sound energy)/
absorbed by conversion to heat within the mate- Coefficient ( ) (incident sound energy)
rial (Figure 10.1).
However, the Absorption Coefficient is often
This relationship between reflected, transmit-
considered to include the Transmission Coeffi-
ted, and absorbed sound is very conveniently
cient when we are concerned simply with the
expressed in terms of numerical coefficients as
proportion of sound that remains in the space.
either percentages or fractions (i.e., decimal
Under these circumstances the distinction
values) of one whole, as follows:
between absorption and transmission is of little
consequence. Similarly, when we are concerned
Building Science: Concepts and Application. Jens Pohl. with the transmission of noise from one space
© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. to another we typically do not distinguish
Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. between reflected and absorbed sound, since
Room Acoustics 167
below the floor above or below the roof, with a of the particular sound. We might say that the
large air cavity in between, they also have the air in the space has its own resonance, and
properties of a panel absorber. when the sound wave emerges from the aper-
Manufacturers normally quote the absorp- ture it is forced to vibrate. This causes air to
tion characteristics of acoustical tiles in terms of surge in and out of the aperture, resulting in the
the Noise Reduction Coefficient discussed at absorption of sound energy due to friction.
the beginning of Section 10.2. This is an average
fRES = [(2165 ¥ area of neck)/((neck volume)
value, since the Noise Reduction Coefficient is
based on four frequencies within the range of ¥ (air space volume))1 2 ] cps [10.3]
250 to 2000 Hz or cps (i.e., 250, 500, 1000, and It is normal practice to further impede the
2000 cps). movement of the vibrating air by the addition
of some porous material to the neck, or by
10.2.4 Volume absorbers loosely filling the air space with fibrous mate-
rial. This brings us to an interesting point:
A further category of absorption is provided by namely, resonators can also act as stores for
perforated or slotted panels backed by porous energy rather than just dissipaters. This phe-
materials, according to the Helmholtz principle. nomenon, which occurs when the viscosity of
Absorption devices based on this principle are air in the aperture is sufficiently large, has been
commonly referred to as volume absorbers. developed by Parkin and Morgan (1965) as a
As shown in Figure 10.10, the incident sound means of prolonging the reverberation time for
waves are forced through a narrow opening frequency groups in the Royal Festival Hall,
into a larger space containing air. The latter is London.
set into vibration if the natural period of vibra- The most common application of volume
tion in this space is the same as the frequency absorbers in buildings is in the form of walls
constructed with slotted hollow concrete blocks,
also referred to as acoustical blocks (Figures 10.11
and 10.12).
Owing to the thickness of the wall of the con-
crete block, the slotted opening becomes the
neck of a Helmholtz resonator, while the hollow
portion of the block serves as the large air space.
The addition of a septum inside the larger air
space, as shown in Figure 10.11, essentially
creates two resonant frequencies. The rear
cavity will absorb the lower-frequency sound
and the front cavity will absorb the higher-
frequency sound.
loudness) is the major cause of annoyance. bility ratio using syllables, words, and sen-
Noisiness seems to increase at a greater rate tences. A speaker would constitute a source and
than loudness, whenever the pitch of a sound is communicate a predetermined list of sounds,
raised or the complexity of the spectrum is while a number of listeners would attempt to
increased. Furthermore, the reaction to noisi- write down the sounds as they heard them. The
ness is time-dependent. It has been demon- intelligibility ratio was then defined as the per-
strated that annoyance levels are higher if centage of syllables correctly recognized by the
unwanted sound persists beyond 200 millisec- listeners. Word and sentence intelligibility can
onds. Owing to the fact that individuals vary in be measured similarly, although in these cases
their reaction to noise, we are forced to assess scores are likely to be higher because of the
these subjective reactions on a statistical basis. inherent redundancies of normal speech.
In regard to interference with speech or
music, it has been found that individual varia-
10.3.2 Background noise
tion is not great and it is therefore possible to
predict with reasonable accuracy the effect of The concept of Speech Interference Level (abbre-
ambient noise. However, when it is a question viated to SIL in Tables 10.1, 10.2, and 10.5, and
of annoyance, we are unfortunately faced with in Figure 10.13) was briefly discussed previ-
a wide range of responses. Nevertheless, it is ously, in Section 9.7.
highly desirable – and indeed possible – to
make some estimate of the response of a group
of persons to a particular background noise Table 10.1 Maximum background noise levels (i.e.,
level. SIL) for reliable speech communication (according
The criterion of Speech Interference Level is to Beranek).
widely used to specify the permissible levels of
Distance Speaker ’s voice level
background noise that will not interfere with between
speech communication. Background noise will speaker Normal Raised Loud Shouting
increase our threshold of hearing and as a result and listener
we may be able to distinguish only a few of
1 FT 66 dB 72 dB 78 dB 84 dB
the sounds necessary for satisfactory speech
2 FT 60 dB 66 dB 72 dB 78 dB
intelligibility. The energy of the various speech 4 FT 54 dB 60 dB 66 dB 72 dB
sounds is distributed over a frequency range of 6 FT 50 dB 56 dB 62 dB 68 dB
below 100 cps to above 10 000 cps. Fortunately, 12 FT 44 dB 50 dB 56 dB 62 dB
a complete frequency range is not required for 24 FT 38 dB 44 dB 50 dB 56 dB
reliable intelligibility, and it can be shown that
a high percentage of the information in speech
is contained in the frequency range from 200 cps
Table 10.2 Maximum background noise levels (i.e.,
to 6000 cps. Indeed, measurement and calcula- SIL) for reliable speech communication (according
tion may be simplified even further by using a to Furrer).
three-octave band analysis. The bands normally
chosen are 600–1200 cps, 1200–2400 cps, and Noise criteria Maximum speech
2400–4800 cps. The average of the sound levels curve (NCA) intelligibility distance
in these three bands is described as the Speech Normal voice Raised voice
Interference Level.
However, it should be pointed out that Speech 40 NCA 23 FT 40 FT
Interference Levels were developed as a simpli- 45 NCA 13 FT 25 FT
fication of the more complex method of assess- 50 NCA 7 FT 12 FT
55 NCA 4 FT 7 FT
ing articulation (ANSI, 1969, 1989). Early 60 NCA 2 FT 4 FT
researchers in this field measured the intelligi-
Room Acoustics 177
Noise measurements made for the purpose of continuous noise and applies to situations
judging the acceptability of the noise in an office where almost complete silence is required (e.g.,
environment in comparison with these sug- concert halls). Criterion B may be accepted as a
gested criteria should be made with the office compromise if Criterion A is unattainable and
in normal operation, but with no one talking at also applies to broadcasting studios, opera
the particular work station or conference table houses, and larger theaters. Criterion C applies
where the noise is being measured. The equiva- to classrooms, music rooms, conference rooms,
lent background noise in an unoccupied office and assembly halls, while Criterion D refers to
space should be between 5 and 10 nc units courtrooms and churches.
lower.
Beranek’s recommendations for maximum
10.3.3 Masking sound principles
allowable background noise levels have been
generally followed to the present day, even Masking is concerned with the effect of one
though individual acoustic engineers may have noise on another. It is a common experience to
presented their own suggestions in slightly dif- have one sound completely drowned out when
ferent forms. For example, on the basis of the another, louder noise occurs. For example,
NCA version of the NC curves the Swiss acous- during the early hours of the evening the normal
tic engineer Willi Furrer (1964) recommended domestic refrigerator motor may not be heard,
the noise ratings for speech intelligibility shown because of the usual background noise level
in Table 10.2. occurring at that time. However, late at night
The English acoustic engineers Parkin and when there is much less background noise,
Humphreys (1958) proposed four criteria for the motor noise of the same refrigerator will
permissible noise levels in rooms used for become relatively louder and possibly annoy-
speech and music. Even though they decided to ing. Actually the noise level produced by the
present their recommendations on the basis of motor is the same in the two instances; however,
octave bands, the relationship to Noise Criteria the apparent noise level is louder at night
Curves and therefore the influence of Beranek because there is less background or masking
is evident. These maximum recommended noise present. Similarly, speech that may be per-
noise levels (Table 10.3) refer to intruding noise, fectly intelligible in a relatively quiet sound
assumed to be of a meaningless nature. Criterion environment will become less intelligible as the
A is fairly close to the threshold of hearing for background noise level becomes louder until,
ultimately, complete masking will take place.
While it is possible to determine directly the
amount of noise reduction (i.e., attenuation)
Table 10.3 Maximum background noise levels for required of a particular wall separating a noisy
various occupancies recommended by Parkin and and quiet sound environment, this applies only
Humphreys.
when there is no other noise in the receiving
Frequency Criterion room. Obviously, if there is some other noise
(octave band in present, then the intruding noise will be par-
cps or Hz) A B C D tially masked. It is therefore possible to influ-
ence the Speech Interference Level of a particular
37 to 75 cps 53 54 57 60
75 to 150 cps 38 43 47 51
acoustic environment through an artificially
150 to 300 cps 28 35 39 43 produced sound blanket (i.e., background sound).
300 to 600 cps 18 28 32 37 The masking of one tone by another was
600 to 1200 cps 12 23 28 32 described in the early 1900s by Wegel and Lane
1200 to 2400 cps 11 20 25 30 (1924). It was observed that the masking of
2400 to 4800 cps 10 17 22 28
4800 to 9600 cps 22 22 22 27
one pure tone by another is most apparent
when the two tones are of approximately the
Room Acoustics 179
Figure 10.14 Masking effect of a pure tone. Figure 10.15 Masking effect of a narrow band.
same frequency. On the basis of their experi- there is also a discrepancy of some 15 dB in
ments dealing with monaural listening, Wegel the masking threshold. Bryan and Parbrook’s
and Lane made certain predictions as to the experimental results are generally in good
manner in which pure tones will mask speech agreement with those of Egan and Hake.
communication. The typical masking effect of a Hempstock (in Jones et al., 1967) draws atten-
pure tone at a frequency of 400 cps is shown in tion to the critical band principle, which may be
Figure 10.14. applied when the masking stimulus is less than
The number on each curve refers to the sound 50 dB above the threshold of audibility. The
level above the level of the masking tone. On critical band is here defined as the width of a
studying these curves, it is readily appreciated band of uniform noise that contains the same
that the masking effect of a pure tone is greatest power as a tone at its masked threshold. By
near the frequency of the total component, masking a pure tone with noise of increasing
falling off steeply on either side. As a means of bandwidth, while keeping the central frequency
comparison, curves of masking versus fre- of this noise similar to that of the pure tone, it
quency for masking by a narrow band are is possible to determine variations in the degree
shown in Figure 10.15, based on the research of of masking. However, a stage is reached at
Egan and Hake (1950). Clearly, these curves are which the degree of masking remains unaltered
quite similar to the curves shown in Figure with any further increase in bandwidth. Hence
10.14 apart from the elimination of the sharp a critical bandwidth may be found for the spe-
dips, which are known to be caused by beats. cific frequency of the pure tone being masked.
In 1959 Bryan and Parbrook (1959, 1960)
published results of their own experiments on
10.3.4 Artificial sound blankets
masking sound and compared these with the
earlier publications of Egan and Hake (1950) Experience has shown that high levels of intrud-
and Wegel and Lane (1924). By interpolating ing noise can result in substantial physiological
the shift in the masked threshold for the har- stress in the occupants of a building space.
monics of a masking tone of frequency 400 cps, However, it must be recognized that the result-
they found some divergence between the results ant stress situation can be amplified or reduced
of these two research groups. Not only are by the state of mind, motivation, occupation,
the slopes of the masking curves different, but and degree of familiarization of each individual
180 Building Science: Concepts and Application
have two objectives. First, to provide speech factor essential to the efficient functioning of
privacy in those places and at times when dis- school buildings.
cussions are likely to deal with confidential Traditional practices for the design of school
business or personnel matters, and second, to buildings called for the architect to separately
reduce the degree of annoyance produced by plan the acoustical environment of classrooms
intruding noise. However, in principle, it may individually. Under these circumstances it is
be argued that the introduction of additional possible to meet the speech privacy require-
noise into an environment that already suffers ments of each classroom through sound insula-
from noise pollution should be avoided. tion. The background noise levels in unoccupied
Therefore, the application of masking sound is schoolrooms can be held to a range of 35 to
normally reserved for situations where ortho- 40 dBA for ordinary classrooms and as low as
dox methods of sound insulation are likely to 25 dBA for language rooms, music rooms, and
be very expensive or inadequate. In these situ- special classrooms (Knudsen and Harris, 1962).
ations, the sound-conditioning system provides To achieve these low background noise levels
a diffuse, nondescript background sound free the architect has to rely heavily on:
from any distinctly annoying tones, tuned to
provide the maximum masking effect at the • Building layout: Special attention must be
paid to site planning in relationship to exter-
lowest possible volume. It is common practice
nal noise centers. Adequate siting, grading,
to gradually increase the volume from entrance
and landscaping may contribute considera-
foyer to main office and provide for similar
bly to noise attenuation. Similarly, within
adjustments in various sections of the office
the school building, classrooms can be
space (Pickwell, 1970).
arranged in a manner that will minimize the
sound insulation requirements.
10.3.5 Open-plan school buildings • Noise insulation: By avoiding direct air-
paths and applying proven noise-reduction
During the 1950s there was considerable inter-
solutions such as massive wall construction,
est in the application of artificial masking sound
internal background noise could be held to
systems to overcome inherent speech interfer-
stringent levels such as 40 dBA for speech
ence problems in open-plan building designs.
communication rooms and 45 dBA for music
In particular, masking sound was seen as a
rooms (Knudsen and Harris, 1962; Doelle,
means of achieving an acceptable level of acous-
1965).
tic privacy in open-plan school buildings. We
will examine this proposition in some detail. However, these building design and construc-
One of the objectives of the designer of an tion measures are not compatible with the
educational building complex, such as a school, notion of open-plan school buildings – a notion
is to arrange the internal spaces in a manner that desires spaces to be integrated into visually
that will allow the curriculum to be effectively undivided large units without permanent enclo-
developed and delivered. Within the total sures and continuing through curtains, folding
enclosed space, it will therefore be necessary to doors, glazed screens, or other forms of remov-
arrange a number of smaller group areas, each able partitioning. In other words, the realization
intended to develop a subsection of the curricu- of open-plan design objectives presents the
lum at specific times. The most skillful division architect with acoustical problems of severe
into group areas will be that which allows full complexity. Every school activity is a potential
use of every space for the greatest part of each noise source. During the 1950s and 1960s a
day. However, because of the importance of small number of open-plan school buildings
maintaining favorable hearing conditions at all were constructed in the US. Even though these
times in learning situations, acoustics has long schools were judged to be reasonably accepta-
been considered a fundamental environmental ble from a noise-control point of view, such
182 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Table 10.4 Average and extreme noise levels If we assume a continuous masking sound to
generated in typical school spaces. have a spectrum typical of school activities, then
School area Mean Extreme
in relation to the level of the masking noise the
noise level noise level threshold of audibility will be raised by pro-
portional amounts for each octave band. For
Laboratories 70 to 75 dB 85 dB example, suppose a noise of 70 dBA in the 600 to
Recitation areas 60 to 65 dB 75 dB 1200 cps octave band is to be reduced to practical
Activity areas 65 to 70 dB 90 dB
inaudibility in an adjoining room. In the absence
Individual instruction 50 to 55 dB 70 dB
Band practice 70 to 75 dB 95 dB of any masking in the second room, the required
Group singing practice 65 to 70 dB 85 dB reduction will be about 59 dBA to 11 dBA (where
Indoor play areas 80 to 85 dB 95 dB 11 dBA is the threshold of hearing). However, if
Cafeteria 75 to 80 dB 90 dB a masking noise level of y dBA in the 600 to
Outdoor playgrounds 75 to 80 dB 85 dB
1200 cps octave band is present in the second
External street traffic 80 to 85 dB 105 dB
room, the amount by which the threshold of
audibility is raised in this octave band may be
calculated as x dBA. The numerical value of x is
school designs have not been favored in more
dependent on the spectrum and level. For
recent years. The reasons may be more related
example, if y is equal to 35 dBA, then the thresh-
to a need for standard modular classroom units
old of audibility will be raised to about:
to meet the demands of rapid expansion within
economic constraints, than to the failure of 11 dBA + 35 dBA = 46 dBA
open-plan concepts due to lack of noise control.
The required sound attenuation of the wall sep-
The noise levels listed in Table 10.4 serve as a
arating the two adjoining rooms is likewise
guide to the average and extreme intensity
reduced to approximately 23 dBA.
ranges that may be expected in typical school
In the absence of any objective measure avail-
building spaces (Caudill, 1954).
able to determine the annoyance caused by
Movable partitions are intrinsically poor
noise, Ingerslev (among others) suggested a cri-
sound attenuators and any endeavor to increase
terion based on acceptable noise levels (Ingerslev,
their sound attenuation performance is accom-
1952). This criterion assumes the existence of a
panied by a substantial cost factor. Furthermore,
background noise level due to occupancy. In an
when large spaces are subdivided into tempo-
area where approximately 20 to 30 students are
rary cells, we must allow for pedestrian access
present, the background noise level (while no
and ventilation openings, thus creating direct
special activity is taking place) due to move-
air-paths and thereby nullifying a high percent-
ment, breathing, and so on, will be approxi-
age of expensive insulation treatment. The
mately 50 dB (or 48 dBA). It is further suggested
general noise levels within a school building
by Ingerslev that noise of a level 20 dB (or
that are listed in Table 10.4 may be broken
18 dBA) below the background noise level will
down into three main noise groups (Knudsen
be inaudible if the two noise levels have the
and Harris, 1962), as follows:
same spectrum. Accordingly, in reference to the
• Speech noise, characterized primarily by the previous example, intruding noise from an
three-octave frequency band ranging from adjoining area is unlikely to cause any annoy-
600 to 4800 cps. ance if its level is 30 dBA or less.
• Impact noise, consisting mostly of low- These conditions may be further illustrated
frequency sound generated by footsteps, by reference to Figure 10.18, where one large
foot shuffling, scraping of furniture, and school space is subdivided into a number of
dropping of objects. smaller group-activity areas.
• Mechanical noise, generated by mechanical Allowing for the various activities specified
and electrical services, and external vehicu- to take place in areas A, B, C, D, and E, the noise
lar traffic. level that will intrude into anyone of these areas
Room Acoustics 183
Table 10.5 Suggested maximum SIL values for open-plan schools employing masking sound.
30 dB Very quiet room suitable for lecturing and music Large hall Auditorium
involving large groups of students.
35 dB Quiet room with normal voice communication up to 30 ft Library
possible. Reading room
40 dB Satisfactory for discussions involving up to 12 students. Interview room Staffroom
Normal voice communication up to 12 ft possible.
45 dB Normal voice communication up to 6 ft and raised voice Small group instruction
communication up to 12 ft.
50 dB Satisfactory for discussions involving up to 6 students. Individual study and instruction
55 dB Unsatisfactory for discussions involving more than 4 Laboratory
students. Normal voice communication up to 3 ft and Art studio
raised voice communication up to 6 ft.
10.4 Halls for speech and music listener, y is the distance (ft) between the sound
source and the reflecting surface, and z is the
The design of larger halls (i.e., auditoria) for distance (ft) between the reflecting surface and
speech and music is a complex undertaking. It the listener, then:
requires the designer to balance several factors
+ − 55 (FT) [10.6]
that influence the clarity of speech and the
quality of music, respectively. Both the direct The limit suggested by equation [10.6] may be
sound and the sound that reaches the audience extended in practice, depending on the loss of
after it has been reflected from the enclosing intelligibility that might be tolerated or even
surfaces of the hall need to be considered. desirable. For example, in the case of a church
However, the reflected sound must reach the where speech is likely to be slow and well artic-
listener within a critical time window, other- ulated this upper limit could be extended to
wise it may interfere with the next direct sound 60 ft. Also, the blending of one sound into the
instead of reinforcing the previous direct sound next sound may be called for in the case of
from which the reflections originated. romantic music.
Sound travels about 55 ft in 0.05 sec, a time To obtain good sound reinforcement for
interval that the human ear can barely detect. speech communication, reflections should pref-
Therefore, for perfect sound reinforcement the erably come from two directions so that any
first reflection or echo should reach the listener directional effect is either eliminated or very
within 0.05 sec of the direct sound. Also, all sub- much reduced. Furthermore, if wall- or ceiling-
sequent reflections of the same direct sound mounted reflectors are used to provide this
should be sufficiently weak (i.e., much lower reinforcement it is important that they should
SPL than the direct sound) so as not to be be of large enough dimensions. As discussed
audible above the next direct sound. This time- previously in Section 10.1, to be effective the
based relationship between a direct sound and length and width dimensions of the reflecting
its first reinforcing reflection can be expressed surface should be five times the wavelength of
in a simple geometric equation that governs the the sound. In the case of speech this would
dimensions of a hall in which the communicat- suggest that the walls of the hall should be at
ing sound is not reinforced by electronic means least 11 ft high (i.e., the wavelength for a sound
(see also Figure 10.21 later). If x is the direct frequency of 500 cps is 2.2 ft, and 5 times 2.2 ft
distance (ft) between the sound source and the is equal to 11 ft).
Room Acoustics 185
Figure 10.21 Auditorium size limits. Figure 10.22 The Haas effect.
measurement of sound to the subjective percep- depend on the frequency of the tone. At low
tion of sound, in an effort to protect persons frequencies smaller changes in frequency
from noises that are potentially harmful or can be detected (i.e., about 0.3 percent), while
annoying and to optimize the enjoyment of below 20 dB the ear loses its ability to detect
sounds (e.g., music) produced for entertain- changes in frequency altogether.
ment purposes. • Similarly, the ability to detect a change in
The acoustic performance of an auditorium loudness depends on both the frequency and
(Figure 10.21) – particularly one used primarily SPL. The maximum sensitivity to a change
for musical entertainment, such as a concert in sound pressure level occurs at a frequency
hall – is naturally a function of the auditory of around 4000 cps, when a change of only
perception and mental processes of the indi- 0.5 dB can be detected.
vidual members of the audience. These aspects • If two similar sounds from different sources
fall under the subject matter area of psycho- are separated in time by less than 35 milli-
acoustics and include the following: seconds they will appear to the listener to be
coming from the source of the first sound.
• The average adult under 40 years of age is This is known as the Haas effect (Figure
conscious of sounds ranging in frequency 10.22).
from about 30 cps (i.e., wavelength of 37 ft) • If a sound is followed by an identical sound
to 15 000 cps (i.e., wavelength of 1 in), if the more than 50 msec later, intelligibility is
sound pressure level is sufficiently high. reduced. This would correspond to a differ-
Persons above this age tend to be less sensi- ence in path length between a direct and a
tive to higher frequencies (i.e., the SPL may reflected sound of more than 55 ft.
need to be raised by 10 dB or more for the • When a sound undergoes a continuous
higher frequencies to be heard). change for more than 0.8 sec a listener will
• The change in frequency of a pure tone that find it difficult to ascertain the precise nature
can be barely detected by a person will of the change.
Room Acoustics 187
• Tones that are of very short duration (i.e., Time, relates the total absorption in the room (A
less than 10 msec) are perceived simply as sabins) to the volume of the space (V CF) for a
clicks without any apparent pitch.6 On the sound decay of 60 dB in the following formula:
other hand, if a note lasts longer than
100 msec there tends to be no improvement Reverberation Time (RT) = [(k ¥ V )/A] (sec)
[10.7]
in pitch quality.
• After 0.5 sec a tone attains a maximum loud- Therefore, if a sound of 90 dB is created in a
ness. Beyond this point time fatigue occurs, previously quiet room, then the time taken for
with the result that the tone appears less loud. this sound to die down to 30 dB after the source
• It appears that a tone becomes less distinct has ceased is the Reverberation Time of that
after a duration of 0.15 sec. At the same time room. In equation 10.7:
SPLs in excess of 90 dB tend to overload the
ear and produce distortion. k = a constant (0.05 if volume V and area A are
in CF and FT-sabin, respectively; or
0.16 if V and A are in metric units (i.e.,
10.4.3 The concept of reverberation time cm and m-sabin)).
In a previous section we discussed at length the A = the total absorption in sabins, which is
ability of surfaces to absorb and reflect incident found by multiplying each individual
sound. It is logical that in a room successive area by its Absorption Coefficient and
reflections from the bounding surfaces will con- summating these into one numerical
tinuously reduce the sound energy until the value:
sound can no longer be heard (Figure 10.23). A = ( × a)
Toward the end of the nineteenth century
Wallace Sabine established a measure of the where: α are the Absorption Coefficients cor-
rate of decay of sound in a finite room. This responding to the individual surface areas a.
measure, which is referred to as Reverberation Reverberation Time provides a measure of
the liveliness or noise sensitivity of a room. A
correct Reverberation Time will ensure that
sounds do not persist in a room to an extent that
would interfere with intelligibility. For a given
room volume, a short Reverberation Time cor-
responds to high absorption power, while a
long Reverberation Time corresponds to small
(total) absorption power. Since the total inten-
sity of the reverberant sound produced by a
continuous source is inversely proportional to
the total absorption, a 50 percent reduction in
Reverberation Time will require a doubling of
the total absorption power, and hence the rever-
berant sound level will be decreased by 3 dB.
During the twentieth century, Reverberation
Time emerged as an important acoustic crite-
rion not only for speech communication, but
also for concert halls. Although there has
been some disagreement regarding the rela-
tive significance of auditorium size and type
of performance in determining an optimum
Figure 10.23 Impact of absorption on Reverberation Time in any given situation, it is
reverberation in a hall. still generally agreed that Reverberation Time
188 Building Science: Concepts and Application
the Reverberation Times calculated above all significantly shorter reverberation time for the
assume a capacity audience. A closer examina- empty hall. The dependence of reverberation
tion of the Absorption Coefficients listed in time on audience absorption suggests a need to
Figure 10.24 for occupied and empty seats allow for variable audiences. This can be at least
shows that these vary considerably. As might partly achieved by ensuring that each individual
be expected, they are consistently lower for the unoccupied seat provides approximately the
empty seats (i.e., 62 percent lower at 125 cps, 72 same absorption as a seated person. The desired
percent at 500 cps, and 69 percent at 2000 cps). effect may be further increased by perforating
For the sake of comparison the Reverberation the underside of the seats (i.e., the underside
Times of the half empty lecture hall are calcu- would provide maximum absorption when the
lated to be: seat is empty, if the seats are collapsible).
Strictly speaking, the concept of Reverberation
RT125 = [(0.05 × 54000)/ 2921 = 0.92 sec
Time proposed by Sabine is based on assump-
RT500 = [(0.05 × 54000)/ 2884] = 0.94 sec tions that are unlikely to be achieved in practice.
RT2000 = [(0.05 × 54000)/ 3676] = 0.73 sec These assumptions include: uniform intensity
of sound throughout the hall, and equally
Furrer (1964) has demonstrated the significance
absorbent surfaces and reflections at all angles.
of audience absorption by means of acoustical
Nevertheless, the agreement between theory
tests conducted in the Musiksaal at Basel in
and practice has been generally considered to
Switzerland.
be satisfactory.
From the graphs shown in Figure 10.25 it
appears that prior to renovation, at a frequency
of 1000 cps, the reverberation time of the empty 10.4.4 Concert halls
hall with wooden seats was some three times
For the evaluation of musical perception, it is of
longer than when fully occupied. At the same
particular interest to refer to existing concert
time, the provision of upholstery produced a
halls for at least two reasons. First, since there
are a substantial number of halls well known
for their superior acoustics, and second, because
some halls are known to have played an impor-
tant part in the history of music. In the past
there have been strong ties between individual
composers and particular halls. The relation-
ship that is known to have existed between
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) and St.
Thomas Church in Leipzig, Germany is but one
example.
According to surveys the Reverberation Time
of concert halls that are known to have good
acoustics is close to 1.8 sec (Parkin et al., 1952;
Beranek, 1962, 1966). For example:
Beethoven Halle, Bonn (Germany) 1.8 sec
Symphony Hall, Boston (US) 1.8 sec
Musiksaal, Basel (Switzerland) 1.7 sec
On the basis of systematic investigations it has
been generally agreed that the optimum rever-
Figure 10.25 Impact of absorption on beration time for average and large halls (i.e.,
reverberation time. 70 000 cf to 485 000 cf) is independent of the
190 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Table 10.6 Framework for rating concert halls (according to Beranek, 1962).
included in the committee’s selection of final- design and finishes, the addition of the Drama
ists. Saarinen persuaded the committee that if and Studio Theaters, the structural solution of
they wanted Sydney to have a landmark Opera the expansive glass walls at the front of the
House, then this innovative design of sail-like shells, and the enclosure of the podium down
concrete shells would serve magnificently. The to the water level. Apart from the addition of
committee accepted his recommendation and in the two theaters, which completely changed the
1955 announced the Utzon design as the win- layout of the floor plan, Utzon’s entire interior
ning entry. Subsequently, Jørn Utzon arrived in acoustic design concept was replaced by a dif-
Australia in 1957 to take up residence in Sydney ferent solution, which includes 21 very large,
and complete the final design drawings and torus-shaped, circular acrylic reflectors that are
commence construction. suspended from an enormous circular ceiling
The initial cost estimate for the design and some 82 FT above the stage. Vernon Jordan of
construction of the Opera House was (AU) $7 the German firm V. L. and N. V. Jordan served
million. However, this was a political cost esti- as the acoustical consultant (Jordan, 1973). The
mate based on what the current state govern- measured Reverberation Times of the Concert
ment felt to be acceptable to the public, rather Hall recorded after the completion of construc-
than a true estimate of actual costs. The corre- tion are just over 2 sec (Table 10.7).
spondingly dubious construction time for the It is interesting to note that owing to the unu-
entire project was announced as five years, with sually high ceiling, the volume per audience
a targeted completion date of January 1963. In seat is also much higher than the 100 to 130 cf/
fact, the final cost was (AU) $102 million and seat normally recommended. For this hall it is
the Sydney Opera House was formally com- 324 cf/seat.
pleted 10 years after that original deadline, in
October 1973. From the very start the building Endnotes
became an icon of controversy, with various
public groups in strong opposition or support 1. The wavelength of the visible portion of the elec-
of the entire venture. Increasing cost estimates, tromagnetic spectrum (i.e., light) extends from
as well as design and construction delays, about 450 to 750 millimicrons, which is equivalent
fueled the controversy. With a change of state to a range of 0.00011 to 0.00019 IN.
government in 1965, the relationship between 2. The horizontal force is given by the formula:
architect and client deteriorated to the point Force = [(wind speed)2/400]. Therefore, a wind
where the government refused to honor a speed of 50 mph will produce a horizontal force of
progress payment of architectural fees; Utzon more than 6 LB/SF. For a 30 FT high wall this
equates to nearly 200 LB/FT.
consequently resigned and returned to Denmark
3. Standing waves can occur between two parallel
in 1966 (Duek-Cohen, 1967; Baume, 1967).
walls in a building space when the distance
Thereafter, the design and construction of the between these walls is some exact multiple of the
Opera House was completed by a government wavelength of the ambient sound. Accordingly,
appointed triad of three Australian architects9 the walls of rectangular rooms for music are typi-
(Hall, 1973; Drew, 2000). cally slightly offset from 90°. For a detailed treat-
The significant changes to the design after the ment of standing waves see Mehta et al., 1999
resignation of Utzon were related to the interior (pp. 383–392) and Louden, 1971 (pp. 101–104).
Room Acoustics 195
4. NC curves are based on the linear measure of 7. The Bass Ratio is a ratio of Reverberation Times
Sound Pressure Level (SPL), while NCA curves (RT) as follows:
are based on the A-weighted scale that makes
some allowance for the reduced sensitivity of
(RT125 + RT250 )/(RT500 + RT1000 ).
the human ear at lower sound frequencies. (see 8. It can be shown that the acoustic power of low-
Section 9.8). frequency noise varies as the sixth power of the
5. The reader will remember that SPLs in decibels air velocity.
cannot be added by simple arithmetic. The addi- 9. The New South Wales Government appointed
tion of two equal SPLs produces an increase in Peter Hall as principal design architect, David
SPL of approximately 3 dB. Littlemore as construction supervisor, Lionel
6. Pitch is the subjectively perceived frequency of a Todd as chief of documentation, and E. H. Farmer
sound. The actual objectively measured frequency ex officio in his capacity as the State Architect of
may differ owing to overtones in the sound. New South Wales, Australia.
11 Noise Control and Insulation
The control of noise in the external environment and inside buildings is at least as important to the
quality of life as the design of building spaces for the enjoyment of music and the promotion of
good speech communication conditions. So what is noise as opposed to sound? By definition any
sound that is annoying, distracting and generally unwanted is commonly referred to as noise. The
term unwanted appears to be of particular significance in determining whether a particular sound
is perceived to be tolerable or annoying. For example, persons are usually not annoyed by noise
originating from their own activities, but may be greatly annoyed if a similar noise is produced by
the apparently unnecessary activities of others.
11.1 Noise control by legislation nism, but with the more complicated and less
precise aspects of annoyance. It is now gener-
In the years following World War II the average ally recognized that:
noise level in highly industrialized countries
grew at an alarming rate. During the period
• Persons are unlikely to be annoyed by noise
originating from their own activities.
from 1935 to 1955, Knudsen (1955) estimated a
yearly increase in the average noise level of one
• It is possible for individuals to become
accustomed to certain noises.
decibel, which indicates an approximate dou-
bling of loudness in about one decade. To coun-
• Annoyance is a function of the sound pres-
sure level, as well as the frequency spectrum
teract this trend many local, state, and national of the noise.
government authorities around the world felt
compelled to take some action. As a first step,
• There are some noises (e.g., such as those
that produce fear or that disturb sleep) to
particularly at the national level, the responsi- which persons are unable to adapt even after
ble government agencies recognized the need prolonged exposure (Nickson, 1966).
for an assessment of the nature and extent of the
problem. This led to the funding of several The matter is further complicated by the highly
research studies and field surveys aimed at pro- subjective nature of individual reactions to
viding a basis for legislation to control the crea- noise. Not only do individuals exhibit differ-
tion and mitigation of noise (Aldersey-Williams, ent tolerances and conditioning abilities, but
1960; Piess et al., 1962; Karplus and Bonvallet, their reactions also vary with the particular
1953; HMSO, 1963). circumstances. At times it is indeed difficult
In the built environment we are normally to assess whether the reaction produced has
concerned not with noise sources that may pro- been activated by physiological or psychologi-
duce permanent damage to the hearing mecha- cal stimuli.
Unexpected impulsive sounds may increase
the pulse rate and cause muscular contractions.
Building Science: Concepts and Application. Jens Pohl.
Accordingly, on the basis of the definition of
© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. health stipulated by the World Health Organ-
Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ization, namely, “… health is a state of complete
Noise Control and Insulation 197
noise in excess of 6 dB (Lawrence, 1968). absorbed), then surely 95 percent of the sound
However, in the case of marginal noise prob- will also not be transmitted. Let us test this
lems affecting speech communication this hypothesis. If 95 percent of the sound is
improvement may be adequate. absorbed, then the Transmission Coefficient for
In Chapter 10 (Section 10.1) we discussed this material at that frequency is:
the relationships that exist among the Coeffi-
Transmission Coefficient ( ) = (1 – 0.95)
cients of Absorption (α), Transmission ( ), and
= 0.05 (or 5 x 10−2)
Reflection (ρ). In all cases a value of 1 indicates
complete effectiveness (i.e., full absorption, Substituting in equation [11.1], we obtain:
transmission, and reflection), while a value of
0 implies total ineffectiveness (e.g., an open Transmission Loss (TL) = 10 log (1/ 0.05)
window is presumed to provide full absorption = 10 log (20) = 13 dB
and absolutely no insulation or reflection. Since
The reason why the hypothesis is wrong is
values of the Transmission Coefficient ( ) for
because the Absorption Coefficient (α) is a
common building elements such as walls and
linear measure, while the Transmission Coeffi-
floors tend to be very small (i.e., between 10−2
cient ( ) is a logarithmic measure. For a more
and 10−8) and therefore rather awkward to use,
practical example, let us consider heavy curtain
the sound-insulation capabilities of a barrier are
fabric (18 oz), shown in Table 10.5 (Chapter 10)
normally measured on a logarithmic scale in
to have an Absorption Coefficient of 0.55 at
terms of Transmission Loss (TL) values.
a frequency of 500 cps. The Transmission Coef-
Transmission Loss (TL) = 10 log (1 / ) [11.1] ficient at that frequency is:
If we know the Transmission Coefficient of a Transmission Coefficient ( ) = (1 – 0.55)
material, then we can calculate the theoretical = 0.45 (or 4.5 x 10−1)
TL value. For example, a ¼ in thick glass
window pane has a Transmission Coefficient of Substituting in equation [11.1], we obtain:
0.00078 (i.e., 7.8 × 10−4). Therefore, applying Transmission Loss (TL) = 10 log (1/ 0.45)
equation [11.1] the TL value becomes:
= 10 log (2.2) = 3.4 dB
Transmission Loss (TL) = 10 log (1/0.00078)
These two examples foreshadow another impor-
= 10 log (1, 282) = 31 dB tant principle of sound insulation that will be
Similarly, we can extrapolate equation [11.1] to discussed in more detail later. A good sound
calculate the Transmission Coefficient that will barrier must be devoid of air paths, because air
result in a given TL value. For example, a desired is a good conductor of sound. This is incompat-
TL of 30 dB should give us a required TL value ible with the characteristics of a sound-
that is very close to that of the ¼ in thick glass absorption material that depends on porosity in
pane used in the previous calculation. the form of open air pockets and cul-de-sac
pores for its absorption capabilities (i.e., to
30 = 10 log (1 / ) convert sound vibration through friction into
log (1 / ) = 30 / 10 heat).
(1 / ) = 103 Before delving into sound insulation in more
detail the reader should be aware that airborne
= 10−3 = 0.001 (which is close to 0.00078)
sound can be significantly reinforced by solid
Why is a good sound-absorption material not components.
also a good sound-insulation material? If, for As shown in Figure 11.3, the sound produced
example, a material has an Absorption Coef- by a tuning fork is greatly amplified when the
ficient of 0.95 at a particular frequency (i.e., at tuning fork is placed on a solid element such
that frequency 95 percent of the sound will be as a table. In a similar manner the strings of a
200 Building Science: Concepts and Application
Figure 11.4 Effect of thickness on a single-leaf Figure 11.6 Effect of mass on a single-leaf panel.
panel.
Figure 11.7 The impact of stiffness on the TL value Figure 11.8 The impact of openings on the TL
of a single-leaf panel. value of any sound barrier.
an idealized angle of 90° (i.e., perpendicular) to ically ventilated) buildings is to close off the
the panel surface. return-air duct and measure the reduction in
Taking these factors into consideration, the the supply air velocity. In the case of partial
theoretical TL value for each doubling of enclosures (i.e., partial height partitions), the
density, thickness, or frequency, reduces by at noise insulation provided is mainly governed
least 20 percent to 5 dB in practice. If the sound by reflecting surfaces nearby. Accordingly, the
barrier is totally sealed so that there are no provision of absorptive material on large, hori-
direct air paths, then stiffness is the factor that zontal overhead surfaces will generally amelio-
contributes most to this discrepancy between rate conditions (Mariner and Park, 1956; Bishop,
theory and practice. 1957). In summary, the following guidelines
However, as shown in Figure 11.8, the pres- should be kept in mind by the building designer:
ence of any direct air paths will drastically
reduce the effectiveness of any sound barrier. If • Generally, the heavier a wall the more effec-
a barrier contains more than 10 percent of open- tive its sound insulation capabilities will be.
ings, its overall TL value will be equivalent to • Stiffness reduces the sound-insulation capa-
no more than about 10 dB, regardless of the bilities of a barrier. Lead is the most effective
insulation value of the solid portion of the sound-insulation material, because it is very
barrier. This has become a serious problem in dense and limp at the same time. However,
commercial buildings, where it is very difficult lead is so limp that it cannot support its own
to eliminate flanking paths around or over the weight in most structural configurations.
top of modular partitions. Naturally, continua- Also it is potentially toxic (e.g., from han-
tion of such partitions above the ceiling would dling of lead sheets during construction) and
interfere with ventilation. A simple method of expensive. Therefore, it is typically used
checking the adequacy of seals around full- only as a hidden layer in the highest-quality
height partitions in air-conditioned (or mechan- modular partitions and doors.
Noise Control and Insulation 203
• If a sound barrier has an acoustically weak the total wall area the impact is quite dramatic,
element, then its overall TL value is likely to with an additional 25 percent reduction in the
be close to the TL value of the weak element. overall TL value.
• The smallest air path, such as a badly fitting Most manufacturers quote TL values of struc-
door or even a large keyhole, will transmit tural walls and partitions as an average of the
sound to a disproportionate degree directly reduction in decibels of a diffuse sound field
through the barrier. passing through the partition, mounted in a
• When a sound barrier contains different specified manner, for nine frequencies (i.e., 125,
components such as windows and doors, 175, 250, 350, 500, 700, 1000, 2000, and 4000 cps).
then the effective TL value of the barrier is
not directly proportional to the relative areas
of the components (as would be the case for
thermal insulation). The effective sound
insulation of a barrier consisting of two dif-
ferent components can be determined by
reference to a table that relates the difference
in TL values of the two components to the
percentage area of the smaller component
(Table 11.1).
Figure 11.10 Sound insulation impact of a poorly Figure 11.11 Impact of resonance.
fitted door.
These tabulated values are normally based on ness. Although the effects of stiffness and
laboratory tests using very massive side walls mass both vary with frequency, they are
and may therefore not be realized in practice opposed to each other and tend to cancel
(Harris, 1957). In Figure 11.2 are shown two each other out (Day et al., 1969). It is there-
adjacent rooms. Noise created in room A will fore apparent that the ideal barrier mate-
reach a listener in room B mainly by a direct rial is one that is heavy, limp, and highly
sound path, but also by a number of indirect damped.
sound paths. These secondary paths may Coincidence Effect: The incidence of sound
decrease the sound insulation of an installed pressures on the surface of a barrier will set
partition by up to 10 dB. Similarly, if transmis- the barrier in vibration, producing bending
sion loss values are given as the average for a waves. Although the velocity of sound in air
range of frequencies, it is important to ensure is constant for all frequencies, the velocity of
that the frequency range is sufficiently wide. induced bending waves in solids increases
There are two important aspects of the rela- with higher frequencies. Naturally, at some
tionship between the mass and sound- particular frequency, the velocity of bending
transmission loss of a partition that require waves in a given barrier will coincide with
further explanation. the velocity of sound in air. This is known as
the Critical Frequency and gives rise to a more
Resonance: If a barrier is forced to vibrate at its
efficient transmission of sound.
natural frequency, the amplitude of the
vibration is likely to be very large. Under As shown in Figure 11.12, a significant reduc-
these conditions the TL of a partition will be tion in sound insulation occurs at frequencies
sharply reduced (Figure 11.11). above the Critical Frequency, which suggests
Resonance occurs often at very low fre- that for partition walls the Critical Frequency
quencies and is largely controlled by stiff- should be as high as possible.
Noise Control and Insulation 205
of a double-leaf barrier can never be completely provided by tie wires in a brick cavity wall
decoupled. Even if all direct ties and common may be sufficient to negate the required
footings are eliminated, the transmission loss of isolation.
a double-leaf barrier still falls short of the pre- • Above 50 dB transmission loss: The method
dicted value. Normal 2 in wide cavities, which of support of the entire room enclosure (i.e.,
are very effective for heat-insulation purposes, the perimeter linking) assumes major impor-
might provide no more than a 2 dB increase in tance, so that some form of discontinuous
sound insulation. The following explanation construction is normally required.
applies.
The sound-transmission loss provided by a
At low frequencies the air in the cavity loosely
single window pane follows the same laws dis-
couples the two leaves, very much like a coil
cussed in Section 11.3.1 for single-leaf barriers
spring, giving rise to a resonant frequency that
(i.e., mass and stiffness). However, while the
is determined by the mass of the leaves and the
assumption of random incidence of sound is
width of the cavity. Thus, during resonance the
reasonable in the case of an internal wall, it does
transmission-loss value of the barrier is sharply
not apply to external windows. Vehicular traffic
reduced and it is therefore necessary to ensure
and other outdoor noise sources normally
that the resonant frequency is very low (i.e.,
produce a predominant angle of incidence.
below 100 cps.). In practice this means that if the
Accordingly, TL values provided by manufac-
two leaves are of low mass, the cavity will need
turers for window units are often given for dif-
to be fairly wide. At frequencies above the reso-
ferent angles, such as 0° (i.e., normal), 45°, and
nant frequency, the insulation of the cavity
70°. Double glazing conforms to the sound-
barrier will increase more rapidly than that of a
insulation pattern of a cavity partition. Therefore,
solid barrier, although at about 250 cps the
in order to ensure a low resonance frequency,
danger of cavity resonance arises (Day et al.,
the small mass of the two sheets of glass will
1969). This problem can be overcome by partly
need to be supplemented by a wide cavity (i.e.,
filling the cavity with sound absorbent material,
9 in or preferably wider). A further increase in
such as fiberglass, flexible plastic foam, or
transmission loss of around 5 dB may be
mineral wool. Absorbent cavity infill has been
obtained in the frequency range of 400 cps to
found to be most effective in lightweight con-
3200 cps by lining the frame surrounding the
struction, with an expected increase in trans-
cavity with absorbent material.
mission loss of around 5 dB.
To calculate the effective sound-transmission
From a general point of view the following
loss of a composite wall (e.g., glass and solid) it
three categories of sound insulation barrier,
is necessary to determine the Transmission
based on the amount of sound transmission loss
Coefficient ( ) for each section using equation
required, need to be considered by building
[11.1], as follows:
designers:
Transmission Loss (TL) = 10 log (1 / ) [11.1]
• Below 40 dB transmission loss: The two Rewriting equation 11.1 in terms of , we obtain:
leaves of a multi-leaf barrier may be con-
nected by common studs or other framing. = 1 / [antilog (TL / 10)]
Although the use of absorbent infill in the In the case of a solid, 9 in, single-leaf brick wall
cavity is advisable, it could be reduced to a with a TL value of 45 dB and a glazed window
relatively thin blanket. unit with a TL value of 25 dB, the Transmission
• Between 40 and 50 dB transmission loss: The Coefficients for the brick wall ( ) and the
required degree of transmission loss will window ( ) are given by:
require studs to be staggered, so that there is
no direct connection between the two leaves. w = 1 / [antilog (4.5)] = 3.2 × 10−5
Experience has shown that even the bridging g = 1 / [antilog (2.5)] = 3.2 × 10−3
Noise Control and Insulation 207
11.4.2 Methods of solid-borne erings. For example, the increase in IIC that can
noise insulation be obtained by laying a padded carpet on top
of a concrete slab is in the vicinity of 60. The
Methods of solid-borne or structure-borne insu-
increase is less than 10 if the padded carpet is
lation differ substantially from those of airborne
replaced by vinyl tiles. The advantages of carpet
insulation, and it is therefore essential that
are not only high-impact noise insulation and
every effort be made to ascertain whether a dis-
effective noise reduction at the source by absorp-
turbing noise originates from an airborne or
tion, but also psychological. Where floors have
solid-borne sound source. Although the solu-
been carpeted in schools, the general decrease
tion of each individual solid-borne source is
in impact noise has been accompanied by a sof-
unique, there are nevertheless three well-proven
tening of the normal institutional atmosphere
general approaches that should be considered:
and a greater concern for appearance and
• the use of resilient floor covering to reduce manners by the students. However, it should be
impact induced vibration; noted that apart from increased sound absorp-
• the use of isolating, flexible mountings (or tion, the carpet has virtually no effect on air-
anti-vibration pads) for machinery, in con- borne noise insulation.
junction with the provision of limp or spring- Further impact noise insulation may be
loaded connections between all ducts and obtained by discontinuous floor and ceiling
vibrating machinery; constructions. Floors can be constructed in mul-
• the use of discontinuous systems of con- tiple layers with resilient interlays or flexible
struction in the form of floating floors and mountings, so that the surface layer, which
completely isolated multiple walls (Figures receives the impacts, is virtually a floating mass.
11.15 and 11.16). Many systems of discontinuous floor construc-
The reduction of impact noise from footsteps tion are commonly in use, and some of these are
may be assisted by the use of resilient floor cov- shown schematically in Figures 11.17 and 11.18.
Figure 11.15 Impact of resilient floor coverings on Figure 11.16 Discontinuous construction at the
structure-borne noise insulation. floor level of buildings.
210 Building Science: Concepts and Application
designed for specific applications. The ampli- building shells (i.e., one inside the other). In the
tude of vibration of the source will be propor- case of a timber frame this can be accomplished
tional to the force causing the vibration, and its either with a double wall or the staggering of
own inertia, while the force that is transmitted studs in a wider, single-leaf wall.
to the building structure will depend on the Figure 11.19 compares the STC values of a
dynamic characteristics of the source on its flex- normal single-stud wall (approximately 40)
ible mountings (Bradbury, 1963). It is conceiv- with a staggered-stud wall (approximately 50)
able that an inappropriate choice of mounting and a double wall (approximately 55). As an
stiffness could lead to an increase rather than a additional enhancement, sound-absorbing
reduction of the transmitted force. As a funda- material can be added in the air cavity. The
mental rule, it is important that the natural fre- benefit of the absorptive infill is an STC increase
quency of the source on its flexible mounting of only 3 for the normal single-stud wall, but a
should be small compared with the frequency much greater increase in the case of the
of vibration of the source alone. For simple staggered-stud and double-wall construction
spring devices the degree of isolation is related alternatives (i.e., 9 and 11, respectively).
to the static deflection of the spring when It is interesting to note that the benefit of
loaded. As a compromise between cost and adding a second layer of ½ in thick gypsum
vibration isolation, a static deflection given by board to one side of the wall (i.e., the “1 + 2”
equation [11.3] is often aimed for: columns in Figure 11.19) is more than twice as
much for the discontinuous construction alter-
Deflection (d) = 160 / [f v2 ] (IN) [11.3]
natives than the normal single-stud wall, while
where fv cps is the lowest appreciable frequency in all three cases the increase in STC value is
of vibration. virtually the same as that provided by the cavity
Care must be taken that the spring has suffi- absorption infill. The reason for this is the extra
cient damping to control the vibration of the
machine during starting and stopping. At these
times, it is to be expected that the vibration of the
source will be momentarily equal to the resonant
frequency of the system. A steel spring can be
damped by external means such as dash pots.4
Unfortunately, the behavior of anti-vibration
pads (e.g., rubber, cork, or felt laminates) cannot
be predicted as simply as in the case of springs,
since the static and dynamic stiffnesses differ in
most materials. For many of these pads, damping
is a function of frequency.
mass provided by the second layer of gypsum built-in cabinets that are desirable in bathrooms.
board. For this reason, whenever noise insulation is an
In the case of the floor the required construc- important design criterion, such cabinets should
tional discontinuity can be provided by one of not be provided in a normal single-stud wall.
the alternative floating-floor constructions Cabinets in a staggered-stud or double-stud
described in Section 11.4.2 and depicted in wall need to be backed with gypsum board on
Figures 11.17 and 11.18. However, as noted pre- the back and all sides.
viously the STC values that can be achieved A very common noise-transmission problem
when the structural floor material is concrete is encountered in office buildings with sus-
are significantly higher than the corresponding pended ceilings. Even though special care may
values for a timber structure. have been taken, at considerable expense to the
Special care must be taken to avoid air paths building owner, to use prefabricated partition
in walls that will lead to the direct transmission walls with a relatively high STC value (e.g.,
of noise from one room to another. This is likely multi-layered with an interstitial lead sheet),
to occur whenever electrical outlets for two the result can be quite disappointing.
adjoining rooms are placed opposite each other As shown in Figure 11.21, the sound insula-
within the same stud cavity. tion will only be as good as the weakest link in
As shown in Figure 11.20, the outlet boxes the chain. In this case the effective STC value
should be sealed with preformed tape around will be 20 rather than 40, because the noise will
all sides and placed in separate stud cavities. In travel more readily through the ceiling than
addition, it is considered good practice to line through the partition.
the stud cavities containing outlet boxes with Neither of the two remedies suggested in
fiberglass or mineral wool. A similar noise- Figure 11.21 is ideal. Extending the partition to
transmission vulnerability exists for the small the underside of the structural floor above
Figure 11.20 Proper sealing of electric power Figure 11.21 Common sound insulation problem
outlet boxes in walls. between adjacent office spaces.
Noise Control and Insulation 213
inhibits the flexibility that was intended to be Table 11.2 Reduced increase in STC value of glass
provided through the use of partitions in the of different thicknesses.
first place. The partitions cannot be easily Glass Mass law Actual
moved to achieve an alternative space layout, thickness TL value STC value
because the suspended ceiling is no longer con-
1/
tinuous. Adding a loaded vinyl curtain in the in
8 29 dB 29
space above the partition poses a rather ¼ in 35 dB 31
½ in 41 dB 33
awkward construction challenge and still leaves
the ceiling as the weakest link in the chain.
Even more serious is the potential noise-
transmission problem that can occur between
STC value for the window in a closed condition
two adjoining apartments sharing a common
is lowered by 3 to 5 points. Sliding glass doors
attic space.
are particularly prone to air flanking paths.
Here, as shown in Figure 11.22, it is essential
While according to the Mass Law the thicker the
that special precautions are taken to fix a solid
glass the higher the TL value, this is not borne
noise barrier in the attic above the shared wall.
out in practice. Unfortunately, for thicker glass
Again, it is important that any direct air paths
the critical frequency of the Coincident Effect is
are eliminated by careful attention to the joints
lower and this reduces the STC value dispro-
where the blocking panel meets the top of the
portionately (Table 11.2). While the Mass Law
shared wall and the roof above.
suggests a TL increase of 6 dB with each dou-
Finally, a word of caution about windows in
bling of thickness, the STC value increases by
external walls. A typical fixed window with a
only 2 points.
single 1/8 in glass pane has an STC value of 29.
Needless to say, the simplest and most effec-
However, if the window is openable, then the
tive means of controlling noise inside buildings
is through sound architectural design practices.
In particular the following guiding principles
are highly recommended:
• Separate noisy rooms from noise-sensitive
rooms. For example, in multi-story apart-
ments and condominiums, bedrooms should
be separated from community corridors and
lobbies.
• Use noisier rooms to buffer noise-sensitive
rooms from external noise sources, such as
vehicular traffic noise.
• Apply sound absorption to reduce the inter-
nally generated noise level in highly reflec-
tive (i.e., live) rooms. However, be aware of
the Law of Diminishing Returns.
• Mitigate very loud internal noise sources
through isolation and the treatment of sur-
rounding surfaces with sound-absorbing
material.
• Ensure that the transmitted noise level is at
least 5 dB below the background noise level
Figure 11.22 Common sound insulation problem of the receiving room, so that the background
between adjacent apartments. noise level will not be significantly raised.
214 Building Science: Concepts and Application
and motors all produce both airborne and higher frequencies. It is therefore apparent that
solid-borne noise. The solid-borne noise is from an acoustical point of view alone the cen-
later radiated into the air of adjoining rooms trifugal fan is more amenable to acoustic treat-
from the surface of ducts. Although steps ment, despite the fact that it produces potentially
might be taken to reduce the noise levels at more annoying, higher-frequency noise. The
the source by improvement in balancing or simplest method of obtaining an appreciable
machining, it is often more economical to amount of sound absorption in ventilation
merely isolate the ducts from the fan and systems is to line the duct walls with an absorb-
motor assembly, and the latter likewise from ent material. Apart from a high absorption coef-
the building structure. Flexible couplings are ficient, such linings should have a smooth
most effective between fans and ducts, surface for low air friction and adequate strength
although care must be taken to ensure that to resist disintegration due to the continuous
the coupling is not stretched during fitting, action of the air stream.
and remains flexible throughout its service Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
life. (HVAC) systems commonly used in buildings
• Vortex noise: Vortex noise due to air turbu- essentially fall into five categories: namely,
lence around fan blades, grilles, and sharp window air-conditioning units; fan coil units;
bends forms the major portion of ventilation rooftop units; packaged air-handling units; and,
noise. Accordingly, high-velocity systems built-up air-handling units.
(i.e., over 3000 ft/min) produce a consid- Window and fan coil units are commonly
erable amount of vortex noise, especially if found in hotel rooms. Window air conditioners
outlet grilles are fitted with guide vanes are typically located within a bench-like enclo-
rather than open mesh. sure immediately below the windowsill. They
• Rotational noise: Rotational noise is gener- include a compressor and a fan as an integrated
ated by the mechanical action of fan blades assembly, and require no ductwork. The air is
producing fluctuating pressure changes that simply drawn into the unit through an air inlet
are transmitted along the main air stream as in the external wall and blown directly into the
a series of pure tones. The principal frequency room through fixed angle vanes. While the
of rotational noise is related to the number noise produced by the compressor and the fan
of blades, and the speed of the fan in revolu- cannot be controlled by building design, it may
tions per second. Obstructions close to the fan sometimes have the redeeming quality of
blades tend to aggravate the noise problem. masking other undesirable noise sources by
The rotational noise level of both high-speed raising the background sound level in the room.
axial flow and low-speed centrifugal-type However, window units are often a source of
fans increases approximately linearly with annoyance, particularly if they are not well
the power (KW), so that for each doubling of maintained (i.e., the noise produced by the com-
power, the noise level increases by some 3 dB. pressor and fan tends to increase with the age
On the other hand, the frequency spectrum of of the unit).
these two types of fan is fundamentally dif- Fan coil units are normally located at ceiling
ferent, and depends as well on the size of the level and incorporate a fan that blows air over
fan. While the centrifugal fan falls off steadily coils containing chilled or heated water that
at about 5 dB per octave band toward higher comes from a central plant. An alternative to
frequencies, the axial fan rises to a peak in the centrally supplied hot water is electric resist-
middle frequency range (i.e., 200 to 1000 cps). ance heating that is provided locally within the
unit. Although fan coil units are typically
The frequency spectrum of the fan is an impor- located near an external wall with an air inlet,
tant consideration, particularly since nearly all they operate mainly on the basis of recirculated
noise-reducing devices are more effective at air. The only sources of noise for this type of
216 Building Science: Concepts and Application
air-conditioning unit are the fan and the possi- for humidity, blown over chilled or heated coils
ble vibration of the panels that enclose the unit. as required, and then transmitted through the
As their name implies, rooftop air-conditioning connected ductwork to the conditioned spaces
units are usually found on the roof of a build- (Figure 11.23, lower diagram). Most commonly
ing, with the conditioned air delivered to the a packaged AHU incorporates one or more
internal spaces through supply ducts. Return thermostatically controlled mixing boxes that
air is drawn into the unit from a ceiling plenum mix cooled air from the AHU with warm return
(Figure 11.23, upper diagram). These are self- air. The mixing boxes may have their own fans
contained systems complete with compressor, and essentially control the variable fan speed of
evaporative cooling coils, heat exchanger coils the AHU through their demand for cool air. To
to extract heat from the recirculated air, filters, minimize the solid-borne noise that might be
and ducts (i.e., for both supplying and recircu- produced by the fan-motor assembly it is either
lating air). Fan coil units are commonly used in mounted directly on vibration isolators, or the
single-story buildings, where the ratio of the entire packaged AHU is mounted on vibration
external roof to internal floor area is favorable. isolation pads.
Packaged air-handling units (AHU) are much A built-up AHU is very similar to a packaged
larger and typically prefabricated as fully AHU, except that it is much larger and therefore
assembled units in a factory. They are com- assembled on-site. It may include more than
monly used in medium-rise buildings to serve one supply fan of the large centrifugal or axial
one or more floors through ductwork. Chilled type, and a whole bank of air filters and coils.
water is pumped to the unit from a central plant A complete built-up unit may take up an entire
and heating may be likewise supplied centrally floor of a high-rise building and will require a
in the form of hot water or steam, or provided floating-floor construction (Figure 11.24).
locally through electric resistance heating. Fresh Most of the noise in a HVAC system of the
air is mixed with return air, filtered, adjusted rooftop and AHU type is produced by the fan.
Noise Control and Insulation 217
the teeth of the cutting edge meet the surface machines, most internal domestic noise sources
being processed. Although it is almost impos- predominate in the middle and high-frequency
sible to influence this type of high-frequency sections of the spectrum.
noise at the source, some marginal reduction Impact noise in residential buildings is
has been achieved by applying large washers to usually the result of footsteps, movement of fur-
either side of circular saw disks (i.e., thereby niture, and door slamming. Unfortunately,
damping resonance). many multiple dwellings (i.e., condominiums
and apartment buildings) incorporate foyers
and staircases with acoustically hard finishes
11.6.3 Residential noise
that will readily transmit and reflect impact
Residential buildings are affected by sources of noise. Appropriate remedial measures include
external and internal noise. Several surveys of lining the walls and ceilings of these circulation
residential noise sources were undertaken in spaces with sound-absorbing material, and cov-
the late 1950s and early 1960s. Some of the find- ering floors and staircase treads with carpet.
ings of two of these studies focused on internal Furthermore, door jambs can be fitted with felt
noise sources, published by Van den Eijk in the or rubber damping strips to reduce the effect of
Netherlands (1966) and Lawrence in Australia door slamming.
(1968), are combined in Figure 11.28. Referring again to Figure 11.28, a typical
As might be expected, during this post-World push-button water-closet cistern can produce
War II period radio noise was by far the worst noise levels of 60 dB in the toilet compartment.
offender. Today, with the prevalent use of ear- Although this noise level may be reduced to less
phones, the radio is no longer considered a than 50 dB in an adjoining room, it can still
major source of annoyance. As shown in Figure exceed the ambient background noise level by
11.28, with the notable exception of washing a sufficiently large margin to produce undesir-
able interference, particularly at night. The sim-
plest way of dealing with this noise source is to
reduce the rate of refilling the cistern, since the
velocity of water is directly proportional to the
noise level produced. Another source of annoy-
ance in some older dwellings is the shock noises
that can be produced by the sudden closing of
a faucet. This is commonly referred to as a water
hammer and is caused by a large volume of
water being cut off suddenly. The remedy is to
provide an air damper consisting of a length of
pipe containing an air cushion at the dead end,
mounted on top of a tee-pipe section.
Finally, it is good practice to insulate pipes
where they pass through or are fixed inside
walls, so that solid-borne sound is less likely to
be transferred. Under these conditions noise
and heat insulation can often be economically
combined.7
Table 11.4 Vehicular traffic noise (expected 80% of be rightly considered as an accurate design cri-
the time). terion. In these areas, traffic is subjected to stop-
Type of road and Expected noise levels
ping and starting owing to traffic conditions
environment (80% of the time) and intersection controls. When accelerating
from a stationary position, low gears are used
Day Night and engine speeds (i.e., revolutions) tend to be
(8 am – 6 pm) (1 am – 6 am) high. It must therefore be expected that sound
pressure levels are higher under these condi-
Highways and 75–85 dBA 65–70 dBA
freeways tions, accompanied by a slight shift of the fre-
Major heavy 65–75 dBA 50–60 dBA quency spectrum toward higher frequencies.
traffic roads Basically, the noise produced by vehicular
Residential 55–65 dBA 45–55 dBA traffic can be reduced in four ways: namely, by
roads
reducing the number of vehicles; by eliminating
Minor roads 50–60 dBA 45–50 dBA
Residential side 50–55 dBA 40–45 dBA conditions that are conducive to the noisy oper-
streets ation of vehicles; by limiting the noise produced
by individual vehicles; and by isolating traffic
noise either close to the source or near the lis-
tener. Although there appears to be little differ-
ence in maximum noise level whether one or
and under direct flight paths, for the majority more vehicles are passing a given point, the
of city and suburban sites vehicular road traffic percentage of near-maximum readings is greatly
will remain the most important and persistent increased for heavy traffic flows.
source of external noise. Since road traffic noise Present restriction of certain suburban roads
is subject to considerable fluctuations due to to passenger and light commercial traffic, while
changes in speed, age, size, and general state of based on utilitarian premises, could be extended
repair of a vehicle, surveys have generally been as a means of ameliorating noise conditions. In
expressed on a statistical basis. Table 11.4 lists city and suburban traffic, maximum noise levels
these findings in the form of noise levels occur during acceleration in low gear, whether
recorded for 80 percent of the time. Accordingly, this is due to a sudden increase in traffic speed
for 10 percent of the time noise levels were or grade. Significant improvements in traffic
found to be higher, and for the remaining 10 flow tend to be costly and often difficult to
percent of the time they were found to be lower achieve in existing cities, where most land is
than the range shown in the Table. Although privately owned. The reduction of noise pro-
mean traffic noise levels are acceptable as a duced by individual vehicles has long been
guideline, it is important to also know the considered the most fruitful approach. For
maximum levels that will occur whenever a combustion engines, the noise level is directly
vehicle passes the listener. related to the engine load and road speed,
It was discussed previously in Chapter 9 while in the case of diesel engines there is much
(Section 9.3) that a point source of sound in a less variation (Lawrence, 1968; Priede, 1962).
free field is reduced by some 6 dB for each dou- However, there are other sources such as tire
bling of the distance between the source and the noise at high speeds on highways and freeways,
listener. Unfortunately, traffic noise is more horns, and the rattling of bodywork in empty
accurately described as originating from a line heavy commercial vehicles that need to be
source, which means that the attenuation with considered.
distance is only about 3 dB for each doubling of In most cases the reduction of traffic noise is
distance. Further, it should be mentioned that, achieved mainly at the listener ’s end by improv-
particularly in city and suburban areas, the ing the insulation of the external building walls.
noise produced by freely flowing traffic cannot Since traffic noise has significant low-frequency
222 Building Science: Concepts and Application
• The trees and shrubs should be planted as craft fly-overs have resulted in the concept of
close to the noise source as possible. The Perceived Noise (PNdB) level (Kryter and
same rules as for free-standing sound barrier Pearsons, 1963). The perceived noise level is cal-
walls apply in this regard. Ideally, the vege- culated from the spectrum of the noise, so that
tation belt should be within 20 to 50 ft of the for aircraft fly-overs the PNdB value would cor-
noise source. respond to the maximum sound pressure level.
• The tree and shrub belt should be at least Experimental data have shown that, if duration
twice as long as the distance from the area to is defined as the time during which the sound
be protected. In the case of vehicular traffic pressure level is within 10 dB of its maximum
noise the vegetation belt should extend a sig- value, a doubling of duration will produce an
nificant distance in both directions parallel increase of 3 dB in the PNdB value (Pearsons,
to the road or highway. 1966). A few years later the perceived noise
level was adjusted to allow for the subjective
Wind is also a factor that can influence the effec- influences of discrete tones as well as the dura-
tiveness of a tree belt. If the prevailing winds tion of the noise. This became known as the
come from the direction of the noise source, Effective Perceived Noise (EPNdB) level, and
then the ability of a vegetation belt to act as a has remained to date as the most accurate
noise barrier will be much reduced. measure of individual annoyance.
7. This does not contradict previous statements in 8. The static pressure (P psf) resulting from a wind
this chapter that draw attention to the fallacy of speed of V mph at 90° to the surface of a wall can
assuming that thermal insulation will also serve be calculated using the equation: P = 0.00256 (V2),
well as sound insulation. In this particular case, which may be approximated to P = V2/400 (Mehta,
the sole acoustic purpose of the pipe wrapping is 1997). Therefore, for a wind speed of 50 mph the
to isolate pipe vibrations from the structural com- static pressure on the wall is (50 × 50)/400 or
ponents of the building. 6.25 psf, or 125 LB per vertical lineal foot of wall.
12 Sustainable Architecture Concepts
and Principles
The last three decades of the twentieth century have seen the emergence of a relatively new set of
building design criteria that are based on ecological concerns. These are driven by a genuine fear
that mankind has been recklessly ignoring repeated signs that the delicate balance in nature among
plants, animals, and the physical environment is in danger of disruption with serious consequences.
Contributing factors that are rapidly gaining widespread recognition include: an increasing world
population (approaching seven billion in 2009); a fairly sudden change from inexpensive to much
more expensive energy; an increasing realization that environmental pollution and lifestyle will have
an impact on health and longevity; the detection of a gradual but steady global warming trend;
and the marked transition to an Information Age in which the interests and capabilities of the
individual are greatly enabled.
The confluence of these powerful environmental and societal forces is having a profound impact.
With the increase in population, agriculture is gradually losing in its competition with residential
development. As the cost of land increases, the need for denser habitation also increases the nega-
tive human impact on nature. An increasing demand for water, energy, and materials is eroding
the availability of natural resources on planet Earth. Moreover, the extraction and processing of the
large amounts of raw materials to fulfill these needs not only damages the ecostructure, but also
increases the pollution of the atmosphere to a level that has in some localized instances threatened
the very existence of animal and human life. In particularly, water has emerged as the most precious
resource for habitation, agriculture, and the continuation of life itself.
From a more general point of view the impact of these forces can be recognized as trends to
which we adapt in both conscious and subconscious ways. For example, as the economy has shifted
from an industrial to a service base, women have entered the workforce in much greater numbers.
The smaller two-income family has different household and child-raising needs with direct architec-
tural implications. If we add to this the enablement of the individual through the availability of
computers and global connectivity, then it becomes readily apparent that the architectural criteria
for the design of buildings and, in particular, homes have already changed and will continue to
change as a means of adapting to these trends.
12.1 Human resistance to change change that is rooted in our biological evolution
and deeply embedded in our cognitive facili-
The recognition that we need to consider the ties. To explore the source of the resistance to
impact that our actions have on the natural change and attendant tensions that inevitably
environment has come only gradually over the accompany a paradigm shift, it is necessary to
past several decades, mostly due to painful understand that we human beings are very
experience. Human beings have an aversion to much influenced by our surroundings.
As shown in Figure 12.1, we are situated in
Building Science: Concepts and Application. Jens Pohl.
our environment not only in terms of our physi-
© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. cal existence, but also in terms of our psycho-
Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. logical needs and understanding of ourselves
226 Building Science: Concepts and Application
computer hardware, powerful software tools, several ways. How should the need for one or
and freely available global communication via more private workplaces be shielded from other
the Internet allows a single person to achieve family activities, in terms of space planning and
tasks that required a significant team effort in noise control? The parent working in the home
the not-too-distant past. Of course, to exploit requires a productive work environment, but at
this opportunity the individual person must the same time does not wish to be totally dis-
possess the skills that are necessary to fully connected from the household, particularly if
utilize the capabilities provided by software there are children in the family.
tools. Third, building designers need to find effec-
As a result a growing number of young, pro- tive ways of integrating the new Information
fessionally trained persons are seeking self- Age technology into the building, so that it is
employment in preference to employment in a readily accessible when needed and yet unob-
larger commercial or government organization. trusive at other times. This requires not only a
In addition, an increasing percentage of persons deeper understanding of the technology itself,
who are employed by commercial companies but also a working knowledge of how it could
are able to perform at least some of their work be employed to best advantage by the occu-
external to the organization’s facilities. In either pants of the building. For example, this includes
case the home becomes the preferred primary the dual local and centralized control of lighting
or alternative workplace. The impact of the fixtures. The occupants should have the option
accompanying lifestyle changes is gradually of automatically switching off all internal lights,
becoming evident in several ways. First, multi- radios, and television sets on closing the front
ple demands are being made on the functional door when leaving the house. Relatively inex-
design of the home. Space planning must take pensive electronic devices now allow the auto-
into account the multiple purposes that the mated monitoring of almost every activity,
home may be required to serve, such as an the rate of consumption of any resource (e.g.,
office where business tasks are performed, a water, electricity, and natural gas), the meas-
place where children are being educated as an urement of most aspects of the physical envi-
alternative to attendance at a public school, as ronment (e.g., temperature, humidity, light
well as all of the traditional functions of a family levels, noise levels, and pollution), and the
home. All of these functional requirements ability to alert the occupants to events that
must be served in a manner that allows each might require immediate attention. The ques-
function to be performed within its own neces- tion then arises: What should be monitored,
sary and desirable environment and yet con- how should it be monitored and most impor-
tribute to the operation of the home as an tantly, how should these electronic devices be
integrated functional unit. effectively deployed to be readily accessible
Second, whereas the land-line telephone pre- but not disruptive?
viously served as the principal facility for
immediate communication over any apprecia-
12.2.2 Recycling and waste management
ble distance, most business activities performed
in the home require greater communication Based on current and historical building con-
reach, flexibility, redundancy, and convenience. struction and occupancy experience it is quite
Not only are these requirements being satisfied difficult to imagine the design and operation of
by technological advances, but those advances a building that is not in some measure destruc-
in the form of microcomputers, e-mail, Web tive to the natural environment. Typically: the
services, and cell phones are themselves the site is graded to provide convenient vehicular
main drivers that made the lifestyle changes access and suit the layout of the building and
possible. The home as a workplace is posing its immediate surroundings; the construction
new challenges to the building designer in materials and components are produced from
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 229
raw materials that are extracted from nature • In the absence of any excavation equipment
and consume a great deal of energy during their the footings of the building will need to
production; the materials and components are adjust to the site topography, rather than the
transported to the site consuming more energy converse. Under these circumstances care-
in transit; on-site construction generates waste ful site selection will be a necessary prereq-
in terms of packaging material and the fabrica- uisite to any successful construction project.
tion of footings, walls, floors, and roof; during Also, to accommodate changes in topog-
the lifespan of the building, energy is continu- raphy that could occur due to environmen-
ously consumed to maintain the internal spaces tal influences, the footings will need to be
at a comfortable level and power the multiple adjustable at least in height. While ecological
appliances (e.g., lights, communication and design on Earth may tolerate a slightly larger
entertainment devices, food preservation and building footprint, any significant reshaping
preparation facilities, and security systems); of the site topography and certainly larger
despite some concerted recycling efforts, much areas covered by building footings or paving
of the liquid and solid waste that is produced should be avoided.
during the occupancy of the building is nor- • The building will need to be designed as a
mally collected and either treated before dis- minimum-weight structure, since every
charge into nature or directly buried in landfills; pound of material would need to be trans-
and finally, at the end of the lifespan, when the ported from Earth with an enormous con-
building is demolished most, if not all, of the sumption of energy. While the use of on-site
construction materials and finishes are again materials would circumvent the transporta-
buried in landfill sites. tion problem, this alternative is unlikely to
Let us consider the other extreme, a building be a feasible option, at least during the early
that has been designed on ecological principles stages of extraterrestrial settlement owing to
and is operated as a largely self-sufficient micro- the absence of the necessary extraction and
environment. Ecological design has been defined manufacturing facilities. The adoption of
in broad terms as being in symbiotic harmony minimum-weight structural principles on
with nature (Van Der Ryn and Cowan, 1996; Earth could also be a desirable ecological
Kibert, 2005). This means that the building design criterion. It would serve to minimize
should integrate with nature in a manner that is the size of footings, reduce the consump-
compatible with the characteristics of natural tion of energy required for transporting
ecosystems. In particular, it should be harmless materials and components to the site, and
to nature in its construction, utilization, and require fewer raw materials to be mined
eventual demolition. The closest we come to from the Earth’s surface.
being forced to comply with such stringent • The building will need to be largely self-
design and occupancy requirements is in the sufficient in terms of the energy required to
realm of extraterrestrial habitats, such as an sustain its occupants. This includes environ-
outpost on the Moon or Mars. The constraints mental control (i.e., temperature, humidity, air
imposed by the severe transportation limitations quality, and air composition), food preserva-
and the hostility of the environment to human, tion and preparation equipment, water and
animal, and plant life require careful considera- other waste recycling systems, communica-
tion of even the smallest component or quantity tion and computer hardware devices, and any
of material, and the most minute energy require- other electronic monitoring and control facili-
ment and need for non-recyclable material. The ties. With the exception of the need to maintain
designers of such extraterrestrial buildings will an artificial atmosphere (i.e., air composition)
be faced with design criteria that are only slightly within the building, these requirements are
more stringent than those called for by a truly essentially the same as those prescribed by
ecological design on Earth. For example: ecological design principles on Earth.
230 Building Science: Concepts and Application
• The occupants of the extraterrestrial build- ing pressure to reduce this amount through
ing will depend on the treatment and reuse recycling. In fact it is generally suggested that
of graywater and the recycling of solid waste it should be possible to reduce the freshwater
to virtually the same extent as a building on draw of buildings by as much as 90 percent in
Earth that adheres strictly to ecological design high-performance buildings (Kibert 2005, p. 408).
principles. In both cases water emerges as There is a need for much education in this area
one of the most precious and essential as a precursor to making appreciable progress.
resources for the sustainment of human life. Currently, with a few exceptions, neither build-
• Apart from the treatment and reuse of gray- ing designers nor building owners draw a dis-
water, the building will need to incorporate tinction between freshwater and graywater,
a waste-management system that is capable and simply refer to “water”. Increasingly build-
of sorting dry waste as a precursor to recy- ing designers will be required to include water-
cling and processing wet waste in an anaero- treatment and recycling facilities in their
bic or similar treatment facility for composting designs.
purposes. However, water conservation in buildings
• Regardless of whether or not the building is is as much a human behavioral problem as it
intended for an extraterrestrial or terrestrial is a mechanical solution. For example, whether
location, it should be designed for a fixed or not the building occupants abide by guide-
lifespan. The building materials and compo- lines that suggest soaping of hands before
nent products will need to be reusable in turning on the water during hand-washing, is
some form at the end of that lifespan. To a behavioral issue. However, how the waste
satisfy this ecological design requirement water from the hand-washing operation is
the building must be deconstructable, the captured, treated, and reused as graywater is a
materials must be recyclable, the products mechanical issue. These issues require different
must be disassemblable, and the materials solution approaches.
dissipated from recycling must be harm- The solution to the behavioral problem relies
less (Kibert, 2005, p. 279). The concept of a mostly on education and motivation. Much can
closed-loop building material strategy is be achieved in this regard by making the build-
central to ecological design and green build- ing occupants aware of the amount of fresh-
ing principles. water that they are using, at the time of usage.
The near real-time measurement of the amount
A major advantage of a building based on eco- of water that has just been used by a build-
logical design principles on Earth over an extra- ing occupant and the concurrent display of
terrestrial structure is that the site environment this measurement as immediate feedback to
is not hostile and can be used to facilitate the the occupant is likely to be more effective in the
recycling and waste-management processes. longer term than automatically stopping the
For example, the reuse of composted materials water flow as soon as the recommended fresh-
in an extraterrestrial building would likely be water draw has been exceeded. At the same
confined to a small greenhouse facility, while time, communication on a continuous basis
on Earth the opportunities for the effective use of the cumulative water usage to each indi-
of compost extend beyond the confines of a vidual building occupant, in comparison to
greenhouse structure to the entire site. all other occupants, can motivate occupants to
use less water on a competitive basis. Again,
inexpensive electronic measurement and alert-
12.2.3 Water as a precious commodity
ing devices are already available to meet these
Water is such a precious commodity that even objectives.
though buildings account for only about 12 The capture, treatment, and reuse of graywa-
percent of the total use of water, there is increas- ter are amenable to a range of mechanical solu-
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 231
tions that are largely independent of user cepts and principles can be applied in the design
control. However, all of the solutions that are solution. The decisions that are made during
currently available and even those that may this detailed climatic analysis will largely deter-
become available in the foreseeable future will mine the overall shape and orientation of the
result in an increase in capital costs. They all building, the degree to which the building can
require the addition of plumbing equipment become energy self-sufficient, and the potential
and devices as part of a somewhat more complex need for additional thermal provisions.
water-reticulation system. Nevertheless, within Consideration of passive design approaches
the context of the overall cost of the building, and strategies will require not only an in-depth
this increase will be a relatively small percent- knowledge of the different passive building
age.2 On the other hand, faced with dwindling types and their implementation principles, but
freshwater resources, building codes will also detailed analysis and design tools to simu-
increasingly mandate water-conservation meas- late different design scenarios for comparative
ures that will force building designers to give purposes. One focus of this analysis will be to
the plumbing design of a building a great deal determine how renewable energy sources such
more attention than has typically been the case as solar radiation and natural air movement can
to date. facilitate each alternative passive design solu-
tion. The outcome of the simulation results will
also determine to what extent the building
12.2.4 Energy self-sufficiency
envelope will need to resist the flow of heat by
Prior to the energy crisis precipitated by an conduction, convection, and radiation. Most of
Arab–Israeli conflict in the early 1970s, energy these determinations will require access to soft-
was so inexpensive in the US that its conserva- ware design tools that not only consider each
tion was rarely considered as a design criterion. factor in isolation, but are also capable of con-
Buildings were commonly designed with little sidering the impact of each factor on all other
regard to the climatic determinants of orienta- factors as an integrated building system. This is
tion and the performance of the building enve- a complex undertaking requiring the designer
lope in respect to heat flow, and daylighting to have both breadth and depth of knowledge,
was often at best a secondary consideration. and is unlikely to be achievable without access
This situation changed drastically in the suc- to subject-matter experts and/or a set of sophis-
ceeding 30 years, with the adoption of new ticated design tools.
building energy codes that mandated building
designs based progressively on more and more
12.2.5 A healthy building environment
stringent energy-conservation standards.
During the twenty-first century there will be The transition from the Industrial Age to the
increasing pressure on architects to devise Information Age is continuing to enable the
building designs that aim at energy self- individual. Increasingly, the assets of an organi-
sufficiency. While this goal may not be attain- zation are being measured in terms of the ability
able in less favorable climates, the expectation of the organization to manage the knowledge
will be that the requirements for active heat- contributed by its members (Pohl, 2003). Under
ing, cooling, and ventilation are minimized. these circumstances it is not surprising that
Foremost, this will require a very thorough there should be a parallel concern for health
evaluation of the regional or macro climatic maintenance. Examples include the concerted
conditions, as well as the micro climatic factors government campaigns aimed at curtailing
such as the local topography that may apply to and eventually eradicating the smoking and
a particular site. The specific characteristics of chewing of tobacco, the government-mandated
the site’s climatic profile will determine the descriptions of the ingredients on the packaging
extent to which passive thermal design con- of food products, and the emphasis on diet and
232 Building Science: Concepts and Application
exercise by an increasing proportion of the includes intermediate materials that are used in
public. the production, application, joining, and finish-
This concern for good health and longevity ing of other construction materials, such as:
also extends to the built environment. In a 1983 paints, solvents, lubricants, adhesives, mastics,
report the World Health Organization projected detergents, bleaches, and acids.
that up to 30 percent of buildings worldwide
were subject to excessive complaints about
12.2.6 Quality of life expectations
indoor air quality (WHO, 1984). A 2002 article
by a toxicologist of the US Environmental In addition to the increasing concern for the
Protection Agency (USEPA) estimated a pro- impact of buildings on the environment, the
ductivity loss of over (US) $150 billion per year health of the occupants, the recycling of materi-
due to building-related illnesses, taking into als and waste, the minimal use of freshwater,
account direct and indirect costs (Smuts, 2002). and the avoidance of fossil fuels, the building
However, it is only in recent years that a spate designer will need to deal with another over-
of lawsuits have brought terms such as Sick arching trend. The enablement of the individ-
Building Syndrome (SBS), Building-Related ual, in a world in which entrepreneurship and
Illness (BRI), and Multiple Chemical Sensitivity self-employment will increasingly replace tra-
(MCS) into prominence. ditional long-term employment opportunities,
There are several potential causes of an is likely to be accompanied by a marked con-
unhealthy internal building environment, sumer insistence on efficiency and convenience.
including: toxic chemical off-gassing of materials The quality of life expectations of the individual
that might continue for several years after the person are likely to increase as an indirect con-
construction of a building; the growth of allergy- sequence of the greater value that an Information
producing molds in moist areas such as those Age society is placing on the knowledge-based
caused by condensation; ductwork that has capabilities of each person.
been contaminated during construction; and This trend has already started to manifest
glare due to excessive daylight at external itself in several ways – for example, the increas-
windows or inadequately shielded artificial ing use of the Internet as a convenient shopping
light fixtures. In each case there are readily mall, with the expectation that the purchased
available remedies that can be applied at the goods will be shipped within 24 hours and
design stage. For example, dehumidification packaged in a way that will facilitate their
and ultraviolet radiation will reduce the growth almost immediate use on receipt by the cus-
of molds and can effectively kill molds and bac- tomer. Even relatively major purchases, which
teria that have invaded a ventilation system, in the past would have involved a lengthy
respectively. period of careful deliberations, are today often
Nevertheless, the selection of construction concluded in an e-business environment in a
and finish materials will become a much more matter of hours rather than days. Buildings,
demanding and complex design task in future particularly the home, will be expected to func-
years. Not only synthetic materials may have tion with the same level of efficiency, speed,
potentially toxic ingredients, such as volatile and convenience.
organic components. Natural materials may Only electronic devices will be able to deliver
also contain pollutants that are harmful. The the level of monitoring, control, and customiza-
selection process for materials is further compli- tion that is required to realize such expecta-
cated by the fact that ecological design princi- tions. This suggests that the building will need
ples will require the building designer not to be electronically enabled from a functional
only to avoid materials that may be toxic in use, point of view. Full use of available electronic
but also to consider toxicity during extraction, capabilities will include the monitoring of
manufacturing, and deconstruction. This also energy and water consumption, both at the
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 233
point of utilization and cumulatively over a It makes a great deal of sense that as the
daily, weekly, monthly, and annual period. In individual members of society gain access to
other words, not only will the building occu- powerful tools and inexpensive global commu-
pants wish to know exactly how much water nication facilities, they will also come to value
they have just used for washing their hands or their capabilities and increasingly have higher
for taking a shower, but they will also wish to quality-of-life expectations.
compare this water usage with their average In this section we will define some of the
usage and the usage levels mandated or recom- fundamental concepts and new terms that have
mended by the authoritative government been coined over the past half-century in the
agency. It will take some ingenuity by building field of sustainable development, as they apply
designers to devise ways for communicating to the built environment.
this kind of information to building occupants
so that it is readily available when desired and
yet unobtrusive at other times. 12.3.1 Sustainability
Similar monitoring and control requirements In the context of the built environment sustain-
will apply to environmental systems and ability is the overarching concept that acknowl-
devices such as electricity and gas consump- edges the need to protect the natural environment
tion, the movement of blinds and sunshading for future generations.3 It proposes that any-
devices, the dimming of artificial lights, the ena- thing that we build today should be sustainable
bling and disabling of active noise-control throughout its lifespan. Furthermore, at the end
systems, and the operation of integrated enter- of its lifespan it should be amenable to decon-
tainment suites. In all cases the expectation of struction and the reuse of all of its materials in
the building occupants will be the convenient some form. This is indeed a paradigm shift,
availability of high-quality monitoring and when we consider that most recycling efforts
control facilities for the full range of building are still in the earliest and most primitive stages.
services. Particularly the continuous monitor- While the sorting of household, business and
ing of energy and water usage will contribute public waste into categories such as paper prod-
indirectly to the heightened awareness of the ucts, bottles and cans, landscaping material,
ability of each individual person to contribute and all other waste, is now reasonably well
to the conservation of these resources. established in many parts of the world, compa-
rable large-scale recycling programs have yet to
be initiated in the construction industry.
12.3 Fundamental concepts and Since the 1970s the emphasis has been placed
definition of terms on energy conservation during the lifespan of a
structure. Only a very small number of build-
As discussed previously in this chapter, the ings have been certified to date (2010) to comply
sustainable development movement is far more at least partially with the concept of sustainabil-
encompassing than the design of buildings that ity, and in each case the certification process has
are accountable for the natural resources that been undertaken on a voluntary basis by the
they consume, the amount of pollution that they building owner. These are very small, first steps
produce, and the impact that they have on in the quest for a sustainable built environment
the health of their occupants. Rather, the when we consider what needs to be achieved.
increased sensitivity to the natural environ- For a building to meet the full intentions of
ment, the concern about global warming trends, sustainability it would need to:
and the increasing awareness of the benefits
of proactive health maintenance are a direct • be constructed only of materials and prod-
outgrowth of the enablement of the indi- ucts that are reusable in some form or another
vidual in a knowledge-based Information Age. at the time of deconstruction of the building
234 Building Science: Concepts and Application
and, by implication, most of these materials a design process that is intent on meeting the
would already contain recycled ingredients; objectives of the designer, regardless of what
• be constructed of materials and products that those might be, and one that demands synergy
used as little energy (i.e., embodied energy) with the natural environment. Based on this
as possible during their manufacture; definition, ecological design is much more
• be constructed of materials that are not complex than what has been practiced by
subject to toxic off-gassing; designers in the past. It adds a whole new
• be as close to energy self-sufficiency as pos- dimension to design that on the one hand con-
sible, subject to climatic and technology stitutes a new set of design constraints, and on
limitations; the other hand requires a deep understanding
• employ water-harvesting, -treatment and of the nature of natural systems that does not
-reuse strategies to reduce its freshwater necessarily exist. According to Kibert (2005,
draw to the smallest possible amount (i.e., p. 110) the “… key problem facing ecological
about 10 percent of existing usage, based on design is a lack of knowledge, experience, and
current predictions); and understanding of how to apply ecology to
• incorporate a waste-management system design”.
that is capable of recycling most, if not all, of Adherence to ecological design concepts does
the dry and wet waste produced in the not mean that we should attempt to slow down
building. technological progress and downgrade our life-
style. Instead we should build on natural
Clearly, it will take some time before the con- systems in a complimentary manner. What
struction industry and its professions will be Kibert and others have pointed out is that this
able to meet these stringent requirements. is a difficult undertaking when most of our
Supportive industries, such as an economically existing knowledge is based on the machine as
viable recycling industry, will need to be estab- the model for design (Kibert, 2005; McHarg,
lished. Governments will need to incrementally 1999; Odum, 1983; Holling, 1978; Mumford,
increase building code requirements, despite 1967). Nevertheless, the objectives of ecological
industry and potentially even public objections. design are sufficiently clear for the formulation
Owing to the intrinsic human aversion to of at least some broad guidelines.
change it is unlikely that building owners will
be willing to voluntarily meet requirements that • The built environment should not unduly
do not serve their needs during the ownership disturb the natural environment by disrupt-
period of the building. These are just some of ing ecosystem processes. Any disruption
the reasons why full acceptance of the concept that cannot be avoided should be temporary
of sustainability will witness a change in lifestyle and reparable by natural processes.
that will evolve during the twenty-first century. • Materials that are used for the construction
While this change is inevitable, it is difficult to of the built environment should not be toxic
predict how long it will actually take. to the natural environment (including the
human occupants of buildings), and should
be to a large degree recyclable at the conclu-
12.3.2 Ecological design
sion of the lifespan of the structure that they
Van Der Ryn and Cowan defined design as “… were part of.
the intentional shaping of matter, energy, and • Freshwater should be drawn from the natural
process to meet a perceived end or desire”, and environment sparingly and recycled as its
ecological design as “the effective utilization of quality progressively downgrades through
resources in synchrony with natural processes multiple uses. Certainly, technology will
in the ecosystem” (Van Der Ryn and Cowan, play a major role in maximizing the reuse of
1996). These two definitions distinguish between water.
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 235
• The selection of energy sources and the effi- these impacts (WBCSD, 1996). More specifi-
cient use of energy should be a major design cally, WBCSD established the following eco-
criterion. The use of fossil fuels should be efficiency objectives: reduction of both the
minimized and avoided wherever possible, material and energy requirements of goods and
because the processes used to harvest, man- services; maximization of the recyclability of
ufacture, and utilize these fuels are typically materials and the sustainability of renewable
disruptive to the natural environment. resources; containment of toxic dispersions
Again, this is an area where technology will from materials and processes; and the achieve-
be helpful. ment of improvements in product durability
and service intensity of goods and services.
The ecological design objectives related to the WBCSD believes that these objectives can be
efficient use of water and energy will be much achieved through the judicious application of
easier to achieve than those related to materials five strategies:
of construction and site planning. In the first
case, designers will be able to build directly on 1 Improved Processes: The adoption of well-
the existing body of scientific and technical designed manufacturing processes and service
knowledge that was developed during the deliveries that avoid the generation of pollu-
Industrial Age. For example, the efficient use of tion in preference to the employment of end-
natural sources of energy (e.g., sun and wind) of-process pollution clean-up procedures.
and the treatment of water for recycling pur- 2 Product Innovation: The design of new prod-
poses depend largely on the exploitation of ucts and redesign of existing products based
man-made technology. However, in respect to on resource-efficiency principles.
materials, urban planning, and even site plan- 3 Virtual Organizations: The exploitation of infor-
ning, the available body of knowledge is much mation technology to share resources in a net-
more limited. Little is known about the proc- worked environment and thereby increase the
esses and timescales involved in ecological effective use of physical facilities.
systems that can be readily applied to the design 4 Business Strategies: The exploration of alterna-
of the built environment. For example, while tive marketing models, such as the leasing of
we do have some understanding of the rela- products as services rather than goods for
tionship between pollution of the atmosphere sale, thereby refocusing the design emphasis
and global warming, we know very little about on durability and serviceability.
the extent to which nature is able to utilize its 5 Waste Recycling: The utilization of the by-
own processes to counteract atmospheric pollu- products of one process as the ingredients of
tion. Once we have gained an understanding another process, with the objective of mini-
of those natural processes, it will be neces- mizing resource waste.
sary to translate that knowledge into method- It is readily apparent that the concepts and prin-
ologies and strategies that will allow designers ciples of eco-efficiency are well aligned with the
to create the appropriate solutions for the built objectives of sustainable development and sustain-
environment. ability discussed earlier in this chapter.
shallow sea required to support a single person and manufacture of the product, as well as the
in terms of food, water, housing, energy, trans- energy used during its operation, recycling, and
portation, commerce, and waste disposal. As the disposal of those components that cannot be
such, it provides a convenient index for com- recycled. Finally, the impact of all of those
paring the resource consumptions associated material extraction, manufacturing, recycling,
with the different lifestyles of nations. For and disposal operations on the natural environ-
example, Wilson (2002) has estimated the ment must be measured. This is a complex
average ecological footprints for the US and for undertaking that not only requires a great deal
the world population as a whole to be approxi- of knowledge, reliable data, and access to evalu-
mately 24 acres and 5 acres, respectively. If the ation tools, but also depends on reasonable
more than five billion people in developing assumptions in respect to useful life span and
countries were to achieve even half of the US utilization.
levels of resource consumption, then based on The objective of LCC is to determine the eco-
current technological capabilities we would nomics of a product in present value terms. For
require at least two Earth planets to support the example, the financial return of a solar hot-
world population. water system requires the amortization of the
The term ecological rucksack has been pro- initial cost of the system and its installation over
posed to quantify the mass of material required the probable years of operation, taking into con-
to be moved to extract a particular resource. It sideration projected energy savings and main-
is defined by the European Environmental tenance costs. An appropriate discount rate is
Agency as the material input required by a selected and the net benefits for each year are
product or service minus the weight of the tabulated to determine the payback period of
product (EEA, 2009). Material input includes the system. Clearly an LCC evaluation is a
the total quantity of natural material that will much simpler undertaking than an LCA analy-
be displaced during the entire life cycle of the sis, because there are fewer factors involved
product from raw-material extraction, through and these are considered only from the financial
manufacture, recycling, to final disposal. Vari- point of view. However, sometimes the LCC
ations of the ecological rucksack among differ- evaluation is combined with an LCA analysis to
ent materials are quite large. For example, the determine the combined environmental and
ecological rucksack for new aluminum (85) is financial impact of a particular material,
more than 20 times greater than for recycled product, component, or entire building.
aluminum (4) and more than four times greater
than for new steel (21) (Weiszäcker et al., 1997).
12.3.6 Embodied energy
The embodied energy of a component or product
12.3.5 Life-cycle assessment and costing
refers to the entire energy that is expended
While life-cycle assessment (LCA) methods deter- during the extraction of the raw materials,
mine the environmental and resource impacts transportation, and manufacture. About 50
of a building or one of its components (e.g., percent of the embodied energy of a material is
material or product), life-cycle costing (LCC) used in the production process, and approxi-
determines the financial performance of a build- mately 40 percent of the energy is used in the
ing. In each case the analysis is performed over extraction of the material. The embodied energy
a time period that typically encompasses the of a material is an important consideration in
entire lifespan of the building or component the selection of materials and products in
and is quite complex. The LCA analysis of a respect to sustainability criteria. For example,
product such as a television set must consider the embodied energy of an aluminum window
all energy and material resources that have frame is seven times greater than for a steel
been used in the extraction of the raw materials window frame, and the embodied energy of poly-
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 237
styrene insulation is almost nine times greater quarter for humanity to reach sustainability
than for fiberglass insulation and about 35 times based on 1997 conditions (Weiszäcker et al.,
greater than for cellulose insulation. Yet the 1997). Their proposal, published in the form of
thermal insulation performance ratio of these a book, was in fact a report to the Club of Rome.
materials is quite similar (Table 12.1). In other It was intended as a follow-up to a 1972 report
words, from an ecological design point of view to the Club of Rome, which was published
cellulose thermal insulation in the form of under the well known title Limits of Growth
milled paper or wood pulp is a far superior (Meadows et al., 1972). The latter projected that
choice to polystyrene. as a result of resource consumption and envi-
The values of embodied energy for specific ronmental impact, growth on Earth would be
materials are likely to vary for different coun- halted within a century.
tries and different years (Baird et al., 1984). This Schmidt-Bleek of the Wuppertal Institute
is due to variations in production sites, climate, in Germany suggested that long-term sustain-
raw material quality, extraction and processing ability will require humanity to reduce its
methods, distances between extraction and pro- resource consumption to one-tenth.4 While the
duction sites, and transportation methods. Factor 4 proponents believed that the technol-
According to Adalberth (1997), the transporta- ogy required for reducing resource consump-
tion energy component can be as much as 10 tion to 25 percent of current levels was already
percent of the manufacturing energy for a con- available in the 1990s, it is generally agreed that
struction material. The difficulties encountered the Factor 10 goals are much more difficult to
in determining the embodied energy value for any achieve. Even though it can be shown that by
particular material are discussed in detail by abandoning the common practice of oversizing
Heidrich (1999). For example, values for thermal mechanical equipment (e.g., chillers, pumps,
insulation materials may be quoted per volume fans) up to 90 percent reductions in energy con-
or weight. Such data are not comparable because sumption are possible, this strategy represents
they involve assumptions about the density of only a relatively small part of the measures nec-
the material, which varies widely for such mate- essary for achieving Factor 10 goals (Kibert,
rials. Methods for estimating the energy cost of 2005, p. 47).
materials are discussed by Chapman (1974).
12.3.8 Green high-performance buildings
12.3.7 Factors 4 and 10
The term green building has been accepted inter-
The concepts of Factor 4 and Factor 10 are similar nationally as describing buildings that are
in principle, although suggested by different designed and constructed based on the princi-
persons. They both propose in very general ples of sustainability. It is not possible to define
terms a course of action for maintaining a in absolute terms what exactly constitutes a
balance between human habitation and the green building, because the definition is based
natural environment on planet Earth. Factor 4, on what is acceptable and reasonably achieva-
proposed by Weiszäcker and Lovins, requires ble at any particular point in time. Arguably,
resource consumption to be reduced to one- the term green building represents a goal based
238 Building Science: Concepts and Application
on parameters that are measured by what are included the publication of the Bruntland
considered to be attainable resource and energy Report (UN, 1987) in 1987, the formation of
conservation levels at any particular time. Both the Committee on the Environment (COTE)
the target areas of the concept of sustainability by the American Institute of Architects in 1989,
and the desired level to be aspired to in each the United Nations Conference on Environment
target area depend on prevailing societal pres- and Development in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)
sures (i.e., economical and political) and govern- in 1992, and the World Congress of Architects
ment mandates (i.e., codes and regulations). sponsored jointly by the International Union
Since the 1970s the focus has been on post- of Architects and the American Institute of
construction energy conservation, suggesting Architects held in Chicago in 1993. The mani-
that we are still very much in the initial stages festo issued at the conclusion of the Chicago
of the quest for a sustainable planet. While there World Congress of Architects represents per-
is some concern for the conservation of fresh- haps the most important milestone in the evolu-
water, marked by the more prevalent appear- tion of the green building movement in the
ance of low-flow shower heads and dual-flush US. Under the title of “Declaration of Interde-
toilets, water treatment and recycling sys- pendence for a Sustainable Future” it boldly
tems are still rare in buildings. The selection of pronounced the following five commitments
construction materials based on recyclability, (UIA-AIA 1993).
non-toxicity, and minimum embodied energy “We commit ourselves as members of the
criteria remains a distant goal, outside the realm world’s architectural and building-design pro-
of normal consideration. Nevertheless, the green fessionals, individually and through our profes-
building movement is gaining strength. Signif- sional organizations, to:
icant strides have been made in several parts of
the world, including the US, since the 1980s. • place environmental and social sustainabil-
ity at the core of our practices and profes-
In Europe, the Conseil International du
sional responsibilities;
Batiment (CIB), a well-established international
construction research association located in • develop and continually improve practices,
procedures, products, curricula, services,
Rotterdam (the Netherlands), and the Inter-
and standards that will enable the imple-
national Union for Experts in Construction
mentation of sustainable design;
Materials, Systems, and Structures (RILEM)
based in Bagneux (France) advocated the need • educate our fellow professionals, the build-
ing industry, clients, students, and the
for building assessment tools and standards.
general public about the critical importance
In 1992, CIB formed Task Group 8 for this pur-
and substantial opportunities of sustainable
pose. This was followed by the formation of CIB
design;
Task Group 16 to promote the application of
sustainability concepts and principles to con- • establish policies, regulations, and practices
in government and business that ensure sus-
struction. Since 1998 the International Institute
tainable design becomes normal practice;
for a Sustainable Built Environment (iisBE) has
and
held biannual Green Building Challenge and
Sustainable Building Conferences at which • bring all the existing and future elements of
the built environment – in their design, pro-
international green building entries are rated
duction, use, and eventual reuse – up to sus-
using iisBE’s Green Building Tool (GBT) assess-
tainable design standards.”
ment method.5
Although the beginnings of the green build- The first prominent US examples of green build-
ing movement in the US may be traced back to ings appeared from the mid-1980s onward,
the 1970s,6 it was really a succession of events with the design of the New York offices of the
that has focused US attention on the environ- Environmental Defense Fund organization in
ment in more recent times (BDC, 2003). These 1985 and the Natural Resources Defense Council
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 239
in 1989. However, it was the renovation of CI), homes (LEED-H), and core and shell
Audubon House in New York City in 1992 by (LEED-CS). For new construction, only slightly
the Croxton Collaborative firm that drew atten- modified LEED-NC v2.1 and LEED-NC v2.2
tion to the necessary involvement of a much were released in 2002 and 2005, respectively.
broader group of stakeholders in the design of The roll-out of a more user-friendly LEED v3.0,
a green building. The process employed by the with Minimum Program Requirements (MPR)
Croxton Collaborative for the Audubon project and higher standards, commenced in April 2009
was documented and became a template model (LEED, 2009).
for achieving the extensive cooperation and col-
laboration that is required in the design of green
buildings (Audubon, 1992). 12.4 Assessment of
The US Green Building Council (USGBC) was high-performance buildings
formed in 1993 and, according to available
records, started certifying green buildings in As can be seen from the definition of terms in
2000. With its Leadership in Energy and the previous section, the design of a green or
Environmental Design (LEED) certification high-performance building is a much more
standard, USGBC has become the preeminent complex undertaking than the design of a build-
green building organization in the US. The ing that does not have to consider sustainability
strength of LEED lies in the fact that it is con- criteria. What makes this undertaking particu-
trolled by a non-government organization. It larly difficult is not just the need to consider
was produced collaboratively by representa- more issues – such as the carbon content and
tives of the USGBC’s membership, which pre- embodied energy of the construction materials,
sumably includes the principal stakeholders. In the treatment and recycling of water and all
this respect the LEED standard is market-driven forms of waste, and the potential impact of the
and is therefore likely to continue to reflect at finishes on the health of the occupants – but the
any particular point in time what building relationships among all of the design issues.
owners would like to achieve and what the The complexity of a building design problem
design professions and construction industry is is seldom due to the difficulties encountered in
able to deliver. coming to terms with any one design issue in
The first LEED v1.0 test version was released isolation, such as the avoidance of glare in the
in 1998. It led to a pilot evaluation project under maximization of daylight, or the provision of
the auspices of the Federal Energy Management sound insulation when a building is located in
Program. The purpose of the pilot effort was to a noisy environment. Difficulties arise when
test the assumptions and assessment frame- these solutions have to be combined into an
work employed by LEED on 18 building projects acceptable holistic design solution. For example,
representing over 1 million square feet of floor the conflict that arises when the maximization
area. As a result of this evaluation and the of daylight requires large windows but the
support of its increasing membership (i.e., over existence of an external noise source, such as a
300 by 2000), USGBC released a greatly major freeway adjacent to the building site, calls
improved LEED v2.0 in 2000. This version pro- for a high degree of noise insulation.
vided for a maximum of 69 possible credits and The notion of assessing the design and per-
four levels of certification, namely: Platinum, formance of a building is relatively new to the
Gold, Silver, and Bronze. design and construction professions. Apart
From 2002 onward separate LEED certifica- from design competitions and post-occupancy
tion standards have been released for different performance evaluations, typically contracts
construction types and occupancies, such as provide for a defects liability period during
new construction (LEED-NC), existing build- which the contractor is obligated to correct con-
ings (LEED-EB), commercial interiors (LEED- struction faults such as cracks in walls, poorly
240 Building Science: Concepts and Application
fitting doors and windows, leaking pipes, and This would also allow the setting of minimum
non-operational equipment. Even in the case of standards that must be reached in each category
design competitions there are no commonly for the building to qualify for a particular
accepted evaluation frameworks and individ- overall rating. However, there is an opposing
ual review committee members are normally argument to this concept that also has merit. It
left to their own devices on how they will may be a desirable incentive for design innova-
compare the merits of the submissions. The tion if a building is able to obtain a certain
approach has been more formal in respect to ranking by gaining very high scores in some
assessing the performance of a building during categories and much lower ones in other
its occupancy, with the proposal of several categories.
methodologies (Daisch, 1985; Pena et al., 1987; In any case, there does not appear to be an
Preiser et al., 1988; Preiser, 1989; AIA, 2007). alternative to the kind of assessment approach
Therefore, the assessment of buildings prior adopted by USGBC to form the basis of the
to occupancy for the purpose of gaining a green LEED certification process. The different fea-
building certification adds a whole new dimen- tures that must be considered in the design of a
sion to the building design process. Currently, green building such as site planning, water effi-
such certifications are conducted entirely on a ciency, energy, materials, and so on are too
voluntary basis, with the incentive that a build- diverse in nature to be able to be combined into
ing that achieves a high green building ranking a single index. Each feature has different units
will have greater economic value. Eventually, of measurement and applies at a physical scale
however, it is likely that many of the sustain- that is directly tied to its unique context (Kibert,
ability criteria that have been defined by organ- 2005, p. 70). For example, it does not appear to
izations such as USGBC will find their way make any sense to attempt to combine the
into national building codes as mandatory building health aspects of a material with its
requirements. embodied energy and carbon content character-
istics. If this is not possible when dealing with
the same type of component (i.e., a particular
12.4.1 Assessment framework concepts
construction material), then it is even less likely
and principles
that different types of component will be able
Even though the design of a building – and to be combined into a single index.
even more so in the case of a green building –
must take into account a host of factors and
12.4.2 The LEED assessment framework
their interrelationships, it is convenient to be
able to express the final result of the assessment The LEED v3.0 certification process was
as a single score. This is the method adopted by launched in April 2009, together with a new
USGBC and the basis of the LEED Certified, Green Building Design and Construction Reference
Silver, Gold, and Platinum ratings. However, Guide (LEED, 2009) that now serves as a single
the single score is an amalgamation of a points guide for LEED-Schools, LEED-NC (i.e., New
system that allocates individual scores to differ- Construction), and LEED-CS (i.e., Core & Shell).
ent categories and subcategories of desirable While the feature categories of LEED v2.2 have
higher-performance features. remained the same in LEED v3.0, their relative
The disadvantage of such an assessment weightings and the total number of points allo-
system is that the manner in which a building cated increased from 69 to 110.
achieved its final rating is not represented in the The structure of the LEED standard includes
rating. It might therefore seem appropriate to a set of minimum requirements that must be
include in the certification documentation a met for a particular project to be eligible for
graph that shows how the building scored in LEED certification. These requirements are
each category of the assessment framework. quite general in nature and appear to be
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 241
intended to ensure that a submitted project energy (3 to 7 points). The measurement and
does in fact comply with applicable laws and is verification of energy performance is allo-
definable as a component of the built environ- cated three points, and the remaining three
ment. For example, the project must comply desirable features – relating to further
with existing environmental laws, minimum enhancements in commissioning, refrigerant
building-to-site-area ratios, minimum floor area management, and the generation of at least
and occupancy rates, include at least one build- 35 percent of the electricity requirement from
ing, and provide USGBC access to the water renewable sources – are allocated 2 points
and energy consumption data. All except two each.
of the seven feature categories include one or Materials and Resources [14 possible points]:
more prerequisites, followed by a list of desir- As a prerequisite to certification, provision
able attributes with assigned credit points. In must be made for the on-site or off-site col-
the case of LEED-NC v3.0 the seven feature cat- lection and storage of recyclable materials
egories cover the principal sustainable develop- and products. Two credit points are allocated
ment considerations discussed in Section 12.3, to the building reuse of 75 percent of existing
as follows: walls, floors, and roof. The remaining desir-
able features – ranging from additional reuse
Sustainable Sites [26 possible points]: As a pre- of external and internal building materials,
requisite to certification some pollution- the diversion of construction waste from dis-
prevention measures are required to be posal to recycling, and the use of regional
implemented during construction. Multiple materials, to the use of rapidly renewable
credit points are allocated to: development materials and at least 50 percent of wood-
density and proximity to existing commu- based material and products that are certi-
nity services (5 points); public transportation fied by the Forrest Stewardship Council
access (6 points); fuel-efficient and low- (FSC) – are allocated one point each.
emittance vehicles (3 points); and, parking Indoor Environmental Quality [15 possible
provisions (2 points). The remaining 10 points]: As a prerequisite to certification, the
attributes deal with various aspects of site submission must meet specified indoor air-
selection and development and carry one quality requirements7 and prevent the build-
point each. ing occupants from being exposed to tobacco
Water Efficiency [10 possible points]: As a pre- smoke. The 15 desirable features under this
requisite to certification a 20 percent reduc- category are all rated equally with one credit
tion in freshwater usage is required. The five point each. They include: monitoring of the
desirable features are weighted equally with inlet air flow rates and carbon dioxide content,
two points each and are concerned with with the ability to generate an alarm when-
water usage for landscaping, wastewater ever the conditions vary by 10 percent or
treatment, and additional freshwater usage more from the set-point; increased ventilation
reductions by 30 percent and 40 percent rates; protection of the HVAC system during
Energy and Atmosphere [35 possible points]: As construction and testing of the air contamina-
a prerequisite to certification the submission tion level prior to occupancy; selection of
must provide evidence that specified require- low-emitting (VOC8) materials for wall, floor,
ments will be met during the commissioning and ceiling finishes; control of the entry of
process and that certain minimum standards pollutants from the outside, as well as con-
will be adhered to in both energy perform- tainment and air exhaust facilities for pol-
ance and refrigerant management. Multiple lutants originating from sources inside the
credit points are allocated to the enhance- building (e.g., cleaning substances); a high
ment and optimization of energy perform- degree of individual lighting and thermal
ance (up to 19 points) and on-site renewable control; a comfortable thermal environment;9
242 Building Science: Concepts and Application
a monitoring system of thermal comfort con- the associated architecture and engineering
ditions; and, daylight and external views for professions are capable of delivering. Based on
75 percent and 90 percent of the internal market-driven incentives and voluntary partici-
spaces, respectively. pation, USGBC and its LEED standard have
Innovation and Design Process [6 possible made quite remarkable progress over the past
points]: No prerequisites to certification are decade. However, at some point in the future
stipulated in this category. Up to 5 credit voluntary compliance with sustainability stand-
points may be obtained by a submission that ards may no longer be acceptable and the
substantially exceeds LEED-NC v3.0 require- Government may have to step in and require
ments in one or more feature categories. An mandatory compliance with part or all of the
additional point may be earned if a LEED standards. Hopefully, this will be accomplished
Accredited Professional (AP) is a principal by the gradual absorption of LEED standards
member of the design team. into building codes, without negatively impact-
Regional Bonus Credits [4 possible points]: ing the excellent proactive work being per-
This category takes into account that ecologi- formed by USGBC and similar organizations
cal conditions and priorities may vary from outside the US.
region to region. The USGBC Website (2009;
see: www.usgbc.org) provides six features
for each US state (by zip code) that have been 12.5 Energy design strategies
determined by the regional authority to be of
benefit above the point value set by the LEED Reduction of energy consumption is currently,
Green Building Rating System. Compliance and will remain for the foreseeable future, one of
with up to four of the applicable priorities the principal goals of green high-performance
adds one point for each claimed agreement, buildings. In the US the energy consumed by
up to a maximum of four credit points. buildings and transportation is approximately
equal and accounts for 80 percent of the total
The maximum number of points that can be national energy consumption. A typical legacy
earned in LEED-NC v3.0 is 110. The importance US commercial building consumes about 100
assigned to each category, in terms of the 000 BTU per square foot of building area per year
number of points allocated and the selection of (Kibert, 2005, p. 181). A green building based on
the desirable features stipulated, is based on the LEED standards will reduce this annual energy
judgment of the LEED-NC committee members requirement by at least 50 percent to less than
who participated in the preparation of the 50 000 BTU per square foot, whereas buildings
standard. This is both the weakness and the based on Factor 4 and Factor 10 criteria would
strength of the LEED rating system. Not all of reduce this energy requirement to 25 000 and 10
the stakeholders may be represented on the 000 BTU per square foot, respectively.
USGBC working groups. In particular, the Beyond these current energy-saving goals,
views of the Government may not be adequately some advocates of ecological design principles
represented. Furthermore, the deliberations, are suggesting that in the future the majority of
recommendations, and/or decisions made by buildings should be at least energy-neutral (i.e.,
any of the working groups may be unduly they should not consume more energy than
influenced by special interests. they generate), and where feasible they should
However, on the other hand, the market- become net energy producers (i.e., they should
driven non-governmental structure of USGBC generate more energy than they consume). This
is also a significant strength. It will tend to is indeed a tall order, which will require not
ensure that the direction of the evolving LEED just a reduction of energy consumption, but a
standard over the foreseeable future will remain paradigm shift in how architects will need to
closely aligned with what the AEC industry and approach the design of buildings.
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 243
In this section, we will briefly explore energy cally include an assessment of the regional ver-
conservation measures that are either already nacular;10 a summary narrative description of
available today or are being actively pursued regional climatic conditions and the incidence
for near-term application, in four areas, namely: of special events such as storms and tornadoes;
passive building design strategies; building charts of the principal climatic parameters on a
envelope performance; hot-water systems; and monthly scale (i.e., average minimum and
lighting design. It will become quite clear to the maximum dry-bulb temperatures, relative
reader that in virtually all cases the design strat- humidity, heating and cooling degree-days,
egies that are employed will require a much average wind speeds and directions, solar radi-
deeper analysis of the technical issues involved. ation intensities, cloud cover, precipitation (i.e.,
Designers will not be able to achieve this based rain and snow), and daylight levels); and a top-
on intuition, experience, or manual methods ographical analysis of the site.
alone. Instead, they will require sophisticated This climate profile information is then used
simulation tools that are user-transparent and by the students to categorize the type of climate
seamlessly integrated as semi-automated serv- that they are dealing with and to select, at least
ices within the kind of intelligent, computer- in general terms, the appropriate thermal design
aided design environment that has been made strategy. Of course in many cases the climatic
possible by a distributed Web-enabled environ- profile is seasonal, requiring a hybrid solution
ment based on service-oriented architecture of the potentially conflicting strategies applica-
principles (Pohl and Myers, 1994; Pohl et al., ble to different climate types. For example, hot-
2000; Pohl et al., 2010). humid summer conditions might call for natural
cooling through cross-ventilation (i.e., a build-
ing envelope with large openings), while cold
12.5.1 Passive building design strategies
winter conditions could require a sealed enve-
Well-known passive solar building types and lope with maximum thermal insulation.
design strategies have been discussed previ- To translate this information into accurate
ously in Chapter 5 (see Section 5.9). The under- passive building design decisions is a very dif-
lying concept of a passive solar solution is to ficult undertaking. Apart from the level of com-
design the building so that it can function plexity, there are a number of obstacles. First,
intrinsically as a collector, distributor, and store without simulation tools that are capable of
for solar energy. This requires an intricate taking into account both thermal parameters
balance of design parameters related to the such as temperature, humidity, and air move-
shape of the building and internal layout of ment (i.e., wind), and topographical site condi-
spaces, the location and size of windows, sun- tions such as contours, vegetation, and
path angles and shading devices, and the selec- surrounding structures, only general (i.e., rule-
tion of building materials with the appropriate of-thumb) design decisions can be made.
thermal properties. Second, tools that are able to perform the
For this reason, in current tertiary-level archi- required thermal analysis and are capable of
tecture degree programs students are taught to producing accurate results will require more
undertake an extensive climate analysis study detailed data, such as hourly temperature vari-
prior to the commencement of the preliminary ations. Third, there is currently still insufficient
design phase. The establishment of the regional knowledge for the design of simulation tools
(i.e., macro) climate profile and the identifica- that are capable of accurately modeling the
tion of the local site-specific (i.e., micro) factors influence of micro-climatic factors and topo-
that may significantly modify the regional graphical site features to accurately assess their
climate profile are considered essential prereq- impact on the projected thermal conditions.
uisites for the development of a building design Without the ability to accurately model these
solution. The results of such investigations typi- parameters the most accurate thermal analysis
244 Building Science: Concepts and Application
based on hourly temperatures can be quite that is permitted to penetrate into the building
misleading. interior as a natural source of heat. While manu-
The tools that are available today will allow ally movable and automatically controlled sun-
a designer, with the assistance of an expert con- shading devices have been commercially
sultant, to make sound design decisions in available for many years, their use in buildings
respect to the shape, orientation, space layout, is only gradually becoming prevalent. For
window placement and sizing, massing, and various reasons, including cost and maintaina-
solar control of a building. However, the ability bility, fixed sunshading devices are still preva-
to fine tune these decisions for achieving a lent. Manually openable windows and internal
Factor 10 or energy-neutral design solution will blinds are still by far the most common and
in most cases require a much more granular preferred form of natural thermal and daylight-
design analysis and access to more sophisti- ing control in low- to mid-rise buildings.
cated design and simulation tools than are cur- Fortunately, this leaves considerable scope
rently available. for the implementation of the far superior
thermal-control strategies that will be required
to meet the future objectives of sustainable
12.5.2 The building envelope
architecture in terms of energy-neutral and net
The building envelope serves as the interface energy-export buildings. First, thermal insula-
between the uncontrollable natural environ- tion will need to be considered as a dynamic
ment and the internal building environment, rather than a static approach for achieving
which is desired to be maintained within quite energy efficiency. It should be possible to auto-
narrow boundaries. While the external environ- matically generate thermal insulation on a near
ment can be characterized based on statistical real-time basis as external climatic conditions
data that have been collected over a considera- change.11 This will require the development of
ble number of years, the resulting profile does new thermal insulation on demand technologies
not tell us much about the local micro climate that are tightly coupled with external electronic
and the sudden short-term weather changes monitoring devices. Second, the level of fine
that can radically deviate from the average tuning required to achieve very high degrees of
regional conditions. energy efficiency mandates the continuous
The traditional approach to the design of the monitoring of internal and external environ-
building envelope has been to reduce the flow mental conditions. The necessary technology to
of heat out of the building by embedding support the precise monitoring of temperature,
thermal insulation in the envelope, and to humidity, air movement, radiation, precipita-
control the heat flow into the building by means tion, and air quality has been commercially
of sunshading devices or by treating the build- available at relatively low cost for more than a
ing envelope as a heat sink that will shield the decade. Third, the same level of monitoring and
desirable constant comfort conditions of the precision will need to be applied to the control
interior building spaces from the diurnal tem- of sunshading devices. Much headway can be
perature swings of an external arid climate. In made in this area by simply taking advantage
the US, since the oil embargo of the 1970s, gov- of existing electronically controlled devices
ernment building codes have placed the empha- before considering more elaborate technologies,
sis on thermal insulation and the prevention of such as the ability of a building or portion of a
air infiltration and heat leakage through the building to change its configuration in unison
envelope. with the movement of the sun. This can be
Roof overhangs and other sunshading devices achieved by rotational movement or by compo-
are used to shield the envelope and the building nents of the building receding or protruding in
interior from direct solar radiation, or in colder response to changes in external and internal
climates to control the amount of solar radiation thermal conditions (Fisher, 2009).
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 245
The ability of a building to change its configu- ward and have been described in more detail in
ration in direct response to environmental Chapter 5. The heat collector typically consists
changes or occupant desires is a more complex of a flat metal plate with a matt black finish that
issue than would appear at face value. It is cer- sits on top of a set of closely spaced pipes
tainly not just dependent on innovation and through which water is circulated. By inclining
design ingenuity. What will be required is a the flat plate at a fixed slope that is as close as
paradigm shift in attitude of both the building possible to maintaining a 90° angle to the rays
designer and the building owner or occupant. of the sun during the major part of the day, the
In addition, the construction industry will be plate transfers much of the collected heat to the
required to respond with new manufacturing water circulating on its underside. Assuming a
methods and processes. As buildings become high degree of thermal insulation applied to the
more dynamically responsive to short-term sides and bottom of the collector, the efficiency
changes in conditions, they will necessarily also of such an active solar collector varies from
become more dependent on mechanical and approximately 20 percent to 70 percent, depend-
electronic capabilities. This will require a shift ing on the number of glazings (i.e., none, single,
from on-site construction to factory production double, and triple) and the temperature differ-
of integrated prefabricated modules and entire ential between the incoming water and the col-
buildings. The building owner will need to be lector plate. The greater the temperature
prepared to accept a building on terms similar differential, the more efficient is the heat trans-
to a manufactured car. Such a paradigm shift fer between the plate and the circulating water.
will occur only if driven by the strongest forces In most cases a solar hot-water service will
(e.g., potential economic loss or threat to human require a storage facility, and since water has
life) to overcome the natural human aversion to very limited thermal stratification properties
change. Finally, the designer will need to be the storage facility will often consist of two
able to cope with the increasing complexity of tanks, a large tank and a small tank. The larger
the resultant design solution. This is not just a tank will at most times be at a temperature that
matter of academic preparation and experience, is not sufficiently high for direct usage, while
but more importantly the ability of the designer the smaller tank will be at a higher temperature.
to apply sufficient technical depth and breadth This requirement would not exist in the case of
to the development of the design solution. Such a solar collector system in which the heat-
ability will increasingly depend on the availa- transfer medium is air instead of water, because
bility of an arsenal of readily accessible and the associated rock storage facility has excellent
seamlessly integrated design tools. heat-stratification properties. However, the
additional requirement of transferring the heat
from the air medium to the water that will be
12.5.3 Hot-water systems
used will normally favor a water-based solar
In building types where bathing and shower- collector solution.
ing, washing clothes, or cooking are principal The tankless hot-water service, as implied by its
activities there is a relatively heavy demand for name, does not require a heat-storage facility. It
hot water. This includes health-club facilities, is based on the concept that water can be rapidly
drycleaners and laundromats, restaurants, and heated at the time that it is required. The heating
also residences. The two methods that have facility is activated by the flow of water that
become quite prevalent in recent years for pro- occurs as soon as the hot water faucet or valve
viding hot water under energy conservation is opened. If the heating facility has been sized
constraints are solar and tankless hot-water correctly, based on the volume of hot water
services. required at the time that it is activated, then
The concept and implementation principles the tankless system will deliver a constant
of a solar hot-water service are quite straightfor- and endless amount of hot water at the desired
246 Building Science: Concepts and Application
temperature and flow rate. The two alterna- up the sky. Therefore, particularly under clear
tive heat sources that are readily available to sky conditions the sun will greatly influence the
deliver the fairly intense amount of heat that is brightness of the sky in its vicinity. Accordingly,
required to raise the temperature of the water the brightness of the portion of the sky seen
on such an instantaneous basis are electricity through a window could vary greatly with the
and gas. While gas would appear to be the more time of day. Fourth, because the sky is likely to
energy-conservative heat source, its efficiency be much brighter than the interior building
is significantly lowered unless the need for a spaces, side windows acting as an interface
pilot light can be avoided through alternative between external and internal daylighting con-
technology. ditions can easily become a source of glare.
Virtually all hot-water services, including Finally, to optimize energy consumption we
solar and tankless services, suffer from a poten- need to control the transmission of light and
tial heat and water wastage problem. The loca- heat separately. Fortunately, in recent years
tion of the hot-water tank, or heat source in the much headway has been made in the manufac-
case of a tankless facility, is typically at some ture of window glass with low-emissivity (Low-
distance from the point of delivery (e.g., faucet E) coatings.13 Low-E glass can reduce heat
or valve). This means that for the hot water to transfer by more than 50 percent, while reduc-
reach the point of delivery it has to fill the entire ing the visible transmittance by less than 25
length of the pipe from the source to the deliv- percent.
ery point. After the faucet or valve has been The balancing of these somewhat conflicting
closed the hot water remains in that section of considerations can be a complex undertaking.
the pipe and gradually cools down, even though This is particularly true in cases where there is
the pipe may be well insulated. Later, after an a desire to maximize the amount of daylight in
appreciable time interval, when the faucet or deep rooms with minimum ceiling heights. In
valve is opened again the standing volume of such rooms there will be a considerable differ-
water between the heat source and the delivery ence between the light levels at the window and
point is wasted unless special provisions are in the rear of the space, giving rise to glare con-
made for its collection and recycling. In a tank- ditions. While light shelves can mitigate this
less system this problem can be avoided only if condition by reflecting some of the superfluous
the heat source is placed in very close proximity light at the window into the rear of the room,
of the outlet. This tends to be expensive if there they typically provide only a partial solution.
are multiple outlets at some distance from each An alternative and complementary approach is
other, requiring several tankless hot-water to utilize artificial lighting to reduce the bright-
installations. ness differences in the room by gradually
increasing the artificial light level from a
minimum required illumination level in the
12.5.4 Daylight and artificial lighting
rear sections to whatever level is required
Daylight is an abundantly available resource on to eliminate glare conditions at the window.
most building sites. However, its effective utili- This approach, referred to as Permanent
zation for the lighting of interior spaces is not Supplementary Artificial Lighting of Interiors
without challenges. First, the actual amount of (PSALI),14 provides visual comfort at the
daylight available varies from hour to hour expense of increased energy consumption and
during the day as the sun appears to move is particularly wasteful of energy in regions
across the sky from east to west.12 Second, the where clear skies predominate.
variations in daylight can be even more radi- While every effort would be made by the
cally and suddenly influenced by cloud condi- designer to maximize the availability of day-
tions. Third, although we consider the sky to be light in a green high-performance building,
the source of daylight, it is the sun that lights some degree of artificial lighting is likely to be
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 247
necessary even during daylight hours. Therefore, ing interiors. Particularly attractive from a sus-
after ensuring that all daylighting opportunities tainability point of view are the 50 000-hour life
have been fully exploited, any additional efforts of LEDs, their relatively high efficacy, their
to reduce the energy consumed by lighting will lower carbon dioxide emission,18 and their non-
rely largely on advances in artificial light source toxicity. However, LEDs also have some disad-
technology. As discussed previously in Chapter vantages. Primary among these are their high
8 (particularly Section 8.2), most existing artifi- initial purchase price, their sensitivity to higher
cial light sources are quite inefficient. For ambient temperatures in the operating environ-
example, the light-production efficiency of a ment, and their potential health risks. There is
fluorescent lamp is only about 20 percent. some concern that with increasing efficacy blue
Although this is three times the efficiency of an and cool-white LEDs will exceed eye safety
incandescent lamp, in the context of sustainabil- limits in respect to the blue-light hazard.
ity it must still be considered as being unaccept-
ably low. Considerably more efficient artificial
12.5.5 Active heating, cooling,
light sources will be required to achieve the
and ventilation
order of reduction in building post-occupancy
energy consumption that is postulated by Factor After exploiting every opportunity for the
10, or even Factor 4. application of passive building design princi-
Perhaps the most promising candidate for ples, the need for active heating, cooling, and
increasing the efficacy15 of artificially produced ventilation requirements will be at least mini-
light is the Light-Emitting Diode (LED), which mized. However, even in the mildest climatic
is based on electroluminescence principles. The regions the need for HVAC systems will persist
ability of a semiconductor diode to emit light in most commercial buildings and many mid-
when it is subjected to an electric current was to high-rise apartment complexes. The question
first observed by the Russian engineer Oleg then arises: What strategies can be applied to
Losev (1903–1942) in the mid-1920s (Zheludev, reduce the energy consumption of HVAC
2007). However, it was not until the early 1990s systems?
that the Japanese firm Nichia Corporation Electric Motors: The answer begins with con-
invented the first high-brightness indium– sideration of the power unit that normally
gallium chip that was able to produce white drives the distribution of air in buildings that
light through the wave shift provided by a utilize either a partial or full HVAC system. The
phosphor coating. Although the efficacy of electric motor typically consumes energy each
current commercially available LED light year at a cost that is many times its initial pur-
sources is only in the 20 to 30 lumen/watt chase price. For example, an electric motor
(lm/w) range, which is barely comparable with driving a fan fairly continuously for one year is
fluorescent lamps, much higher efficiencies are likely to cost more than eight times its purchase
likely to become available in the near future.16 price in the consumption of electricity.
In 2006 the US firm Cree Inc. (Durham, North Both improvements in the efficiency of the
Carolina) demonstrated a white LED with an motor and the equipment that it drives can save
efficacy of 131 lm/w. At the time of writing of energy. For example: large-diameter copper
this book (2009) Cree is marketing the XLamp wire in the stator can reduce resistance losses;
(XR-E R2) white LED with a tested efficacy of thinner steel laminations in the rotor will reduce
100 lm/w.17 magnetization losses; and, high-quality bearings
While the application of LEDs was initially will reduce friction losses. While the increase in
limited to indicators and signs (e.g., digital overall efficiency of a high-efficiency electric
equipment displays, traffic lights, signs, and motor may not exceed a standard model by
vehicle brake lights) they are now increasingly more than 5 percent, even this apparently small
incorporated in the lighting schemes of build- increase in efficiency can lead to an appreciable
248 Building Science: Concepts and Application
energy saving over time if the motor is in con- expertise. Based on the ratio of cooling power
tinuous operation. to input power, water-cooled rotary screw or
It is important to note that electric motors scroll-type chillers are more than twice as effi-
perform most efficiently at or near full load. cient as electrically operated air-cooled chillers.
Therefore, the size of the motor should be deter- However, a water-cooled chiller requires a
mined on the basis of the expected load, without cooling tower to dissipate the heat absorbed
making allowance for possible future increases from the building interior. While absorption
in load. This is in conflict with noise-control chillers have a much lower cooling-power-to-
strategies discussed in Chapter 11 (Section input-power ratio, they could utilize the heat
11.6.1) that call for the operation of air distribu- recovered from other plant components (e.g.,
tion fans at less than full capacity. We must solar energy) to significantly increase their
expect such conflicts between different design overall energy efficiency.
objectives to arise quite frequently over the next Air Distribution: The energy efficiency of an
several decades as sustainability considerations air-distribution system depends largely on the
increase in priority. The resolution of these con- ability to deliver no more than the required
flicts, apart from further increasing the com- quantity and quality of air to all parts of the
plexity of the design process, will depend given building domain, under often greatly
largely on technical innovation and design varying operating conditions. US Government
ingenuity. guidelines for federal buildings suggest the fol-
Chiller Plants: The chiller component of air- lowing design approach for energy efficient air
cooling systems is the largest energy user in com- distribution systems (DoE, 2006):
mercial buildings, accounting for more than 20
percent of the total building energy consump- 1 Use variable-air-volume systems in prefer-
tion. The impact of the chiller is exacerbated ence to constant-volume systems to deliver
because its greatest energy consumption nor- the precise volume of air, based on actual
mally occurs during the day and therefore coin- loads, to each building space.
cides with peak electric power demand. In 2 Use local variable-air-volume diffusers with
addition, there are two design considerations individual temperature control to allow for
that work against achieving an energy-efficient temperature variations within multi-room
chiller-plant solution. First, it is a well-established zones.
engineering design practice to oversize cooling 3 Size fans based on actual loads and use elec-
systems, for fear that assumed loads may be tronic controls to match fan speed and torque
exceeded during the lifespan of the HVAC instal- with variable load conditions.
lation. Second, while chillers have to be designed 4 Use a displacement ventilation system to
for peak loads, they operate most of the time reduce or eliminate the need for ducting by
under part-load conditions. To compound feeding the conditioned air through a floor
matters, just as in the case of electric motors, plenum and returning the used air through a
chillers also operate at their greatest efficiency ceiling plenum.
when they are operating at maximum capacity. 5 Use low-face-velocity air handlers to take
Driven partly by building codes and market advantage of the ability to reduce the air
forces manufacturers have been addressing the velocity, due to increased coil size. Since the
energy efficiency of chillers through the incor- pressure drop across the coils decreases with
poration of new technologies such as direct the square of the air velocity, smaller fans and
digital control and variable-frequency drives. variable-frequency drives – as well as slightly
However, the selection of the most energy- higher chilled water temperatures – will be
efficient chiller plant for a given set of building acceptable. The savings in capital costs
design conditions can be a complicated under- together with the downsizing of the chilled
taking requiring a great deal of engineering water plant can be significant.
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 249
6 Increase the duct size and avoid sharp turns Energy-recovery ventilators are essentially
to reduce duct pressure drop and fan size. heat and humidity exchangers that are placed
Since the pressure drop in ducts is inversely between the conditioned outgoing air and the
proportional to the fifth power of the duct unconditioned incoming air. They are usually
diameter, the savings in energy that can in the form of a fairly large-diameter rotating
accrue from relatively small increases in duct wheel made of a thermally highly conductive
size are appreciable. material, such as metal. The wheel is actually a
disk with a desiccant material inside it. The des-
Energy Recovery: Air-conditioning systems iccant bed is responsible for drying the air and
have a mandated requirement for fresh air, the metal enclosure is responsible for the heat
which means that as much as 50 percent of the transfer during the air exchange. The technology
conditioned internal air is replaced by uncondi- is mature and not subject to the kind of opera-
tioned external air. This can be a considerable tional failures that have plagued economizers.
energy cost, particularly in hot or cold climates. Radiant Cooling: The concept of cooling a
For example, on a hot-humid summer day building space with air incorporates some
external air may be at a temperature of 90°F intrinsic inefficiencies. Since air has a very low
with a relative humidity of more than 90 percent. heat capacity and is highly compressible, rela-
At the same time the conditioned internal air tively large volumes of air are required to cool
that is being exhausted from a building may be a space and a considerable amount of energy is
at a temperature of 78°F with a relative humid- required to move the air to the space. Water, on
ity of less than 60 percent. Under these condi- the other hand, has a high heat capacity and is
tions the preconditioning of the incoming incompressible. It can be moved (i.e., pumped)
external air with the outgoing internal air with the expenditure of relatively little energy.
should result in considerable energy savings. Therefore, radiant cooling systems that circu-
The same applies in the case of a cold winter late water through tubes that are embedded in
day, where the cold external incoming air can floor, wall and/or ceiling elements have started
be preheated by the conditioned outgoing air. to be viewed as a more energy-efficient alterna-
Also, it should be possible to use external air tive to forced-air cooling systems.
directly for conditioning the building whenever Ground-Coupling: At even fairly shallow
the external climatic conditions are close to the depths, in any but the coldest climates, the tem-
thermal comfort zone. perature of the earth and groundwater below
Technologies that are available to take advan- the surface of the building site remains rela-
tage of these energy-saving opportunities tively stable. This provides an opportunity for
include economizers and energy-recovery ven- using the ground as a heat sink for cooling and
tilators. Economizers are designed to monitor as a heat source for heating a building. Both
external conditions and shut down those com- horizontal and vertical ground-coupling
ponents of the HVAC plant that are not required systems are possible. In horizontal implementa-
to operate at any particular time, and then reac- tions pipes are placed in trenches in a single or
tivate these components as external conditions multiple pipe arrangement. More effective are
become less favorable. The difficulties encoun- vertical systems in which pipes are placed in
tered with this concept are virtually all related boreholes that reach down to the groundwater
to operational failures that can lead to signifi- table. Alternatively, it is possible to bring exter-
cant energy wastage. Common failures include nal air into a building through relatively large-
corroded dampers that stick in place, failure of diameter (3 to 6 feet) underground pipes. In
temperature sensors, and failure of actuators. addition, hybrid systems that combine the
Past surveys have indicated that less than 50 direct ground-coupling approach with the indi-
percent of economizer-based systems may be rect vertical or horizontal strategy are possible.
operating correctly after several years of use. All of these are variations of the same concept,
250 Building Science: Concepts and Application
namely to use the natural thermal inertia of the as typhoid, cholera, and dysentery are responsi-
ground to maintain constant thermal conditions ble for the deaths of over 2 million persons each
inside a building, with the objective of minimiz- year (Gleick, 2002, Hunter et al., 1997, 2000). A
ing the energy required for air conditioning. large proportion of those death are due to a lack
of water-treatment plants in developing coun-
tries. Consequently, raw sewage is dumped into
12.6 Water conservation strategies rivers at an alarming rate, For example, 300 000
gallons are dumped into the Ganges River in
While much of the early interest in green high- India every minute (Kibert, 2005, p. 245). It is
performance buildings has focused on energy estimated that only 35 percent of wastewater is
conservation, within the next two decades and treated in Asia and less than 15 percent in Latin
perhaps sooner the attention may shift to fresh- America. According to a 2000 survey by the
water as an even more important resource. World Health Organization, more than 1.1
Water is critical for human survival and billion people around the world lack access to
although four-fifths of the Earth’s surface is safe freshwater and more than 2.4 billion lack
covered by water, less than 3 percent of that access to satisfactory sanitation (WHO, 2000).
enormous amount of water is freshwater.
Almost 90 percent of freshwater is essentially
12.6.1 Water-consumption goals
unavailable in the form of ice and snow, as gla-
ciers. In most parts of the world freshwater is The World Health Organization has defined the
being withdrawn at a much faster rate than it daily water requirements for bare survival to be
can be replenished. There are many examples 0.5 to 1 gallon per person for drinking and
of serious freshwater depletion, such as: reduc- another 1 gallon per person for food prepara-
tion of the size of the Aral Sea in Russia by 75 tion. However, for maintaining a reasonable
percent in the 20-year period between 1960 and quality of life the US Agency for International
1980, due to the Soviet collective farms program Development (USAID) suggests a much higher
for the production of cotton; the annual with- requirement of 26.4 gallons per person per day.
drawal in some regions of the US (e.g., Arizona) The current daily consumption of water in the
of twice as much water as is being replaced by US is estimated to be in the vicinity of 100
rainwater; and the severe water shortage being gallons per person. If we add the use of water
experienced by 90 percent of the population in for agricultural and industrial purposes, then
West Asia. In the US, even though the popula- that estimate increases the US per capita figure
tion is continuing to grow at a steady rate, the to around 1800 gallons per day.
water consumption has leveled off since the Buildings account for approximately 12
mid-1980s. However, despite this per-capita percent of the total freshwater withdrawal.
reduction there are clear signs that the annual Although this is a relatively small fraction of
withdrawal of around 400 billion gallons of water usage when compared with the 80 percent
water is not sustainable. consumed by agriculture, it still represents a
More than 80 percent of the water consump- meaningful target for water conservation meas-
tion is for agricultural purposes. Therefore, the ures. The building hydrologic cycle, which
leveling off of the water consumption in the US includes the irrigation of landscaping and the
is more than likely due to slight improvements management of stormwater, is currently very
in irrigation systems. However, it is estimated wasteful. For example, the irrigation of land-
that more than half of all irrigation water is still scaping is typically accomplished with potable
wasted by evaporation, leaking canals, and water from sprinklers or handheld hoses, toilets
mismanagement. are flushed almost exclusively with potable
Water is also a major factor in respect to public water, and the majority of residential buildings
health and hygiene. Waterborne diseases such have one or more dripping faucets.
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 251
Clearly, the prospects for reducing the use of Table 12.2 EPAct water usage standards for
potable water in buildings and introducing plumbing fixtures.
water-treatment facilities are quite favorable. Plumbing fixture Maximum flush and
As a starting point this will require architects to flow requirements
become familiar with the differentiation of the
common term water into its multiple forms Water closets (toilets) 1.60 gallons per flush
within the building hydrology cycle (TGF, Urinals 1.00 gallon per flush
Showerheads 2.50 gallons per minute
2009).
at 80 psi water pressure
2.20 gallons per minute
• Potable Water: Water of a quality suitable
at 60 psi water pressure
for drinking. It is either untreated (e.g., from
Faucets 2.50 gallons per minute
a water well) or has been filtered, tested, and at 80 psi water pressure
possibly mixed with certain chemicals (e.g., 2.00 gallons per minute
fluoride) prior to release into a municipal at 60 psi water pressure
water system. Replacement aerators 2.50 gallons per minute
Metering faucets 0.25 gallons per cycle
• Freshwater: Naturally occurring water that
by definition contains less than 500 parts per
million of dissolved salt. While freshwater is
found in naturally occurring lakes, rivers,
and underground aquifers, the source of simple life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis that may
almost all freshwater is precipitation from consider only the cost of potable water. A more
the atmosphere in the form of mist, rain, and detailed and complex LCC would also take into
snow. account reductions in the energy required to
• Rainwater: Water that is collected during move and treat both wastewater and potable
rainfall. Rainwater is typically collected on water.
the roof and used directly for landscape irri- Based on Kibert (2005, pp. 250–1), the follow-
gation or subjected to purification treatment ing additional steps for developing a building
prior to use as potable water. hydrologic design strategy are suggested:
• Groundwater: Water found below the surface
• Step 1: Selection of the appropriate water
of the ground in aquifers, underground
source (i.e., type) for each purpose. Potable
rivers, and between soil particles.
water should be used only for human con-
• Graywater: Water from showers, bathtubs,
sumption such as drinking, cooking,
kitchen and bathroom sinks, hot tub and
washing, and cleaning.
drinking fountain drains, and washing
machines. • Step 2: For each water usage the technology
that ensures minimum water consumption
• Blackwater: Water containing human
should be employed. For example, the speci-
excreta, such as wastewater from toilets.
fication of low-flow and no-flow fixtures, as
In the US the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct) well as sensors for control purposes.
requires all plumbing fixtures to meet specific • Step 3: Consideration of the implementation
water-consumption standards, as follows: of a dual wastewater system that will auto-
While these standards (Table 12.2) constitute matically separate graywater from blackwa-
a welcome increase in code requirements, green ter as a prerequisite for water treatment and
high-performance buildings will generally improve recycling.
on them by employing strategies such as speci- • Step 4: Consideration of the implementation
fying ultra-low-flow fixtures and drought- of a wastewater treatment facility. For exam-
tolerant landscaping plants that require minimal ple, at the very least consideration should
or no water.19 The cost benefits of these strate- be given to the provision of a constructed
gies can be determined on the basis of a fairly wetland20 to process effluent.
252 Building Science: Concepts and Application
most suitable, because they are smooth and hensive implementation of this concept based
provide less opportunity for the growth of on the current body of knowledge does not
algae, mold, and moss. appear to be feasible. As mentioned previously
• A roof-wash system that prevents the initial in Section 12.3.6, the definition of embodied
run-off during rain from being collected. In energy is very broad and includes not only the
other words, the initial run-off is sacrificed energy consumed during the extraction of the
for purposes of cleaning the surface of the raw materials. It also includes the energy used
roof. during the transportation and initial processing
• Protection of open inlets with pre-storage fil- of the raw material, the preparation of the final
tration devices such as stainless steel screens, construction material or product, the marketing
to prevent leaves and other debris from and distribution of the material or product,
entering the storage tank. Depending on site and the transportation to the building site. The
conditions, leaf guards over gutters may current barriers are numerous.
need to be included.
• A storage tank that is large enough to supply General Variations: The embodied energy of a
sufficient water in between rainfalls. The material or product varies from country to
tank may be located inside the building or country and with time. Factors that influence
external to the building, and normally con- this variation include the quality of the raw
stitutes the most expensive component of the material, the climate, processing methods,
system. age and type of plant, distances between
• A booster pump to deliver the water under extraction, production and construction sites,
pressure (ideally at least 60 psi) from the and transportation modes.
tank to the point of use. Seldom is a gravity- Transportation Modes: The proportion of
feed arrangement possible, because the tank energy consumed by transportation depends
would need to be at least 60 feet above the not only on the transportation mode, but also
point of use.21 on the weight (i.e., density) of the raw mate-
• A water-treatment facility to protect plumbing rial. For example, according to Adalberth
and irrigation lines. Such a facility typically (1997), the transportation component of
consists of a filtration unit to remove particu- embodied energy accounts for from 5 to 10
lates in the case of graywater uses, and a percent of the manufacturing energy. To
considerably more sophisticated treatment arrive at this estimate he assumed 2.7 MJ/
unit in the case of potable water uses (e.g., km22 for distances less than 50 km, 1.0 MJ/km
microfiltration, reverse osmosis, ozonation, for distances greater than 50 km, 0.5 MJ/km
ultraviolet sterilization, chemical treatment, for coastal vessels, and 0.2 MJ/km for ocean-
or any combination of these). going vessels.
Units of Measurement: The units of measure-
Since rainwater, like solar energy, is readily ment for embodied energy have not been
available in virtually all regions it presents an internationally standardized to date (2009).
opportunity for taking advantage of a natural Some sources provide their data per material
source of water. Therefore, it is likely that green volume (MJ/m3) and others per material
high-performance buildings will in coming mass (MJ/kg). For example, the embodied
years increasingly incorporate rainwater har- energy for bricks is given in volumetric terms
vesting systems. (MJ/m3) in Australia and in weight terms
(MJ/kg) in Germany, while the US first pub-
lished brick data per volume in 1967 and
12.7 Closed-loop building materials then changed to per mass in 1996. Although
the US has not generally changed to the metric
While the concept of closed-loop building mate- system of units, it has adopted metric units
rials is sound and highly laudable, a compre- for embodied energy values.23 A comparison
254 Building Science: Concepts and Application
of primary sources such as coal or crude oil, tend to be superficial, because they are based
then the loss of energy during conversion to on industry groups rather than individual
electricity should be considered. Therefore, in material types or products.
countries using mostly hydroelectric power the Hybrid Analysis: This method attempts to
embodied energy will be lower than in coun- combine the process analysis method with
tries that depend mostly on fossil fuel as the the input–output method. Starting with the
primary source of energy. In the case of nuclear data that are readily available, such as the
power, the boundaries drawn for assessment information relating to material preparation
in respect to the period of maintenance of or product manufacturing processes, the
the power plant and the management of the method proceeds with process analysis.
nuclear waste material can have an appreci- When the readily available data have been
able impact on the end result. The following exhausted the hybrid approach switches
four assessment approaches are described in over to the input–output method. The quality
the literature. of the results depends on how much of the
less granular input–output data had to be
Process Analysis: This approach considers both used.
direct and indirect energy consumptions. Statistical Analysis: This approach relies on
Direct energy refers to the energy that is published statistical data relating to the energy
directly related to a particular process. For profile of a particular industry (i.e., energy
example, the energy used in a smelter during consumption and industrial output). Similarly
the manufacture of steel is considered to to the input–output method, the analysis is
be direct energy. The direct energy compo- based on industry groups rather than on a
nent can normally be determined with a particular material or product. It therefore
fairly high degree of accuracy. However, the lacks detail. However, order-of-magnitude
indirect energy consumed during the extrac- estimates can be rapidly generated.
tion of the iron ore, transportation, and the
manufacture of the equipment and facilities Clearly, these methods are only approximate.
used during the production of steel requires While the process analysis method has the
many assumptions to be made. As a very potential of providing fairly accurate results for
general rule of thumb, Baird et al. (1984) have the direct energy component, it suffers from the
suggested that approximately 40 percent of same problem as the other three methods in
the embodied energy is consumed during respect to the indirect energy component. From
extraction, 50 percent during manufacture, that point of view, all four of the methods are
and 10 percent for the equipment employed. useful for indicating trends and identifying
This method is time-consuming, because of materials that should be avoided because of
the level of detail required for a complete their relatively high embodied energy, rather
analysis. It can be argued that the effort than determining precise embodied energy
involved is not justifiable owing to the poten- values.
tial vagueness of the assumptions that have
to be made in the analysis of the indirect
12.7.2 Deconstruction and disassembly
energy component.
Input–Output Analysis: This method is based The need to consider the recycling of all of the
on examination of national financial data that materials that have been used in the construc-
track the flow of money in and out of the tion of a building at the end of the lifespan of
energy-consuming and energy-producing that building is an onerous requirement.
sectors. In this way the monetary output Historically, building components such as the
value of each sector can be equated with the structural frame, external and internal walls,
energy consumed by that sector. The results floors, and ceilings have not been designed for
256 Building Science: Concepts and Application
disassembly. Buildings are typically custom- layout. The design emphasis should be on an
designed and the manufacturing industry has open building system that provides flexibil-
found ways to adapt to an increased desire for ity through interchangeable components.
customization without any appreciable cost • Material Selection: Reduce the number of
increase. This has been made possible by different types of material and place the
computer-controlled manufacturing that allows emphasis on existing materials that have
for customization during a mass-production been recycled and can be again reused after
process. While this serves the interests of the deconstruction. In addition, criteria for mate-
customer, it complicates the reuse of building rial selection should include the avoidance
components. For example, the customization of of toxic and hazardous materials, as well as
window sizes makes it very difficult to recycle composite materials that cannot be easily
complete window units. The availability of the separated into their component parts after
required number of reusable window units deconstruction. This includes avoidance of
would need to be known at the design stage of secondary material finishes.
a new building. With the very large variation in • Structural Layout: Use a standard structural
window sizes and configurations, such a grid and separate the structure from the
dependency between new construction and the building envelope.
deconstruction of existing buildings is not com- • Structural Frame: Use mechanical (e.g.,
mercially viable. bolted, nailed, screwed) in preference to
The lifespan of a building is normally not chemical (e.g., welded, glued) connections.
predictable and can often exceed 50 years. In Design components to facilitate assembly
fact, one of the criteria of the green building and disassembly, with particular regard to
movement is to consider the renovation or component size (for ease of handling),
remodeling of an existing building in prefer- number of connectors and types (limit the
ence to the construction of a completely new number of different connector types), and
one. For example, LEED New Construction joint tolerances.
2009 allocates 4 points to building reuse under • Deconstruction Provisions: Design joints
the Materials & Resources category (LEED, and connectors to facilitate disassembly and
2009). Over such a relatively long life-span, allow for parallel deconstruction sequences.
deconstruction and recycling assumptions that Use assembly technologies that are compat-
were made at the design stage may no longer ible with standard building practices and
be applicable at the final deconstruction stage. capabilities (by default this will equally
Few would argue with the notion that profound apply to deconstruction).
technological, economic, and societal changes • Documentation: Provide standard and per-
are occurring at an increasing rate. manent identification of each material type
Given the indefinite nature of some of the and each component. Record and retain
issues involved, the concept of deconstruction comprehensive descriptions of the building
and disassembly requires careful consideration and its components, the assembly and disas-
at the building design stage. In his doctoral sembly sequences, and component handling
thesis Crowther (2002) suggests a framework of procedures.
27 principles for considering deconstruction at • Maintenance: Apart from drawings and
the building design stage. The proposed frame- descriptions of the principal building com-
work can be divided into several categories of ponents, allocate storage space for maintain-
consideration: ing at least a minimum inventory of critical
spare parts.
• Overall Design: Adopt a modular design
approach that includes prefabricated sub- Crowther ’s framework treats a building as a set
assemblies within a clearly defined grid of components that can be as easily disassem-
Sustainable Architecture Concepts and Principles 257
bled as they can be assembled during the initial are specific materials that should be avoided.
construction of the building. In the past such Regardless of the variations among different
design criteria have been applied by architects data sources (see the discussion at the begin-
only in very special cases, such as temporary ning of Section 12.7.1) certain materials such as
and mobile structures. Typically, still today by aluminum, polystyrene and fiberglass insula-
far the majority of buildings are designed and tion, paper, and steel almost always appear
constructed with little thought (if any) to how among the top 10 most energy-intensive materi-
they might be deconstructed, let alone how als. However, this does not mean that these
their materials and principal components such materials should be necessarily avoided in new
as the structural frame and envelope might be building construction. There are several other
salvaged for recycling. factors that could reverse such an a priori deci-
sion. First, the energy intensive material may be
the best choice for the function to be performed,
12.7.3 Selecting green building materials
and the amount of the material required to
Conceptually a closed-loop building material or perform this function may be relatively small.
product should consist of materials that are Second, the material may lend itself to recycling
non-persistent, non-toxic, and originate from and may in its present form already be a product
reused, recycled, renewable, or abundantly of recycling. If it is already a product of recy-
available sources (ORTNS, 2004; Kibert, 2005, cling, then its embodied energy is likely to be
pp. 277–8). The material or product should not much reduced. For example, the embodied
be new, but a remanufactured or refurbished energy of recycled aluminum is only 5 percent
version of a previous use. The emphasis is on of the energy consumed when aluminum is pro-
recycling, not only in terms of past use but also duced from bauxite ore. Third, there may be
in respect to future use. In other words, the additional factors such as maintenance, com-
material should also be able to be recycled at mercial availability, cost, and energy savings
the end of the lifespan of the building. The related to other components that are indirectly
notion of “renewable” requires the material to influenced by the selection of the energy-
come from a source that will be regenerated in intensive material, which should be considered
nature at a rate that is greater than or at least in the final design decision.
equal to the rate of consumption. Finally, the
material should be abundantly available in
nature so that the human use of the material is Endnotes
small in comparison with its availability.
How will the architect be able to consider all 1. A sports utility vehicle (SUV) is an automobile,
of these additional construction material selec- similar to a station wagon, mostly equipped with
tion criteria that are a prerequisite for meeting four-wheel drive for occasional off-road driving.
sustainability objectives? Certainly the architect SUVs are considered light trucks and have in the
will have neither the time nor expertise to cal- past been regulated less stringently than passen-
culate embodied energy values for materials ger cars under the US Energy Policy and Con-
and products from first principles. Instead, the servation Act for fuel economy standards, and
building designer will have to rely on material the US Clean Air Act for emissions standards.
2. If the plumbing costs (including fixtures) of a
vendors and product manufacturers to take
typical home are currently about 5 percent of the
responsibility for researching and certifying total cost of the building, then even a 40 percent
their offerings. It could be quite misleading for increase in plumbing costs is only a 2 percent
the building designer to assume this responsi- increase in the capital cost of the building.
bility. For example, when conducting a com- 3. The Bruntland Report (1987) defined sustain-
parative analysis of the embodied energy of able development as “… meeting the needs of
different materials it would appear that there the present without compromising the ability of
258 Building Science: Concepts and Application
future generations to meet their needs” (UN, 14. See Chapter 8, Section 8.7, for a more detailed
1987: “Our Common Future”. United Nations, explanation of the PSALI concept.
World Commission on Environment and Devel- 15. Efficacy defines energy efficiency in terms of the
opment, A/42/427 Supplement 25, 4 August, light flux (lumen) produced per electric power
New York, NY). (watt) consumed (i.e., lumen/watt).
4. The Factor 10 concept continues to be promoted 16. However, there are some technical barriers that
by the Factor 10 Club and the Factor 10 Institute, have to be overcome before the full potential of
whose publications are available at: www. LED lighting can be realized. For almost a decade
factor10-institute.org. researchers have been trying to understand why
5. The iisBE Web site address is: www.iisbe.org. the efficiency of bluelight-emitting diodes drops
The next Green Building Challenge Conference off sharply with increasing current (Stevenson,
is scheduled for London, UK in 2011. 2009). This phenomenon, referred to as droop,
6. In 1970 Earth Day was founded in the US by currently defies explanation, with several com-
Senator Gaylord Nelson (D-Wisconsin) as an peting theories under discussion. It is one reason
environmental teach-in. Since then Earth Day has why LED technology has been used most effec-
been celebrated in the US on April 22 each year. tively in low-power applications such as the
In other countries Earth Day is celebrated in backlit screens of mobile telephones and indica-
spring in the northern hemisphere and in autumn tor panels.
in the southern hemisphere. 17. Based on 20 000 hours of continuous testing, Cree
7. For LEED-NC v3.0 the minimum requirement for Inc. estimates that the brightness deterioration of
mechanically ventilated buildings is ASHRAE the XR-E series of LED lamps is about 30 percent
Sections 4–7 (62.1-2007) and ASHRAE Section 5 over a life span of 50 000 hours.
Paragraph 5.1 (62.1-2007) for naturally ventilated 18. While a 40-watt incandescent lamp will generate
buildings. about 196 pounds of carbon dioxide per year, a
8. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) are gases or 13-watt LED with comparable light output will
vapors emitted by various solids or liquids, produce only about 63 pounds of carbon dioxide
which may have a deleterious health impact. per year.
Typical building materials that emit VOC include 19. Also referred to as xeriscaping or xerogardening,
paint, paint strippers, glues and adhesives, floor which is an environmentally friendly form of
coverings, building materials, and furnishings. landscaping that relies on the use of indigenous
9. To obtain the allocated single credit point the and drought-tolerant plants, shrubs, and ground
HVAC system must be designed to meet the cover.
requirements of ASHRAE Standard 55-2004. 20. An artificially constructed wetland is a landscap-
10. The regional vernacular “built environment” is ing area that is saturated by wastewater and
often an indicator of indigenous architectural takes advantage of natural processes involving
prototypes that reflect historical solutions to soil development and plant growth.
ambient climatic conditions, such as adobe con- 21. A 60-feet height difference would result in a
struction in desert regions (see Chapter 3, Section water-head, owing to gravity of a little under
3.2 and Chapter 4, Section 4.9). 30 psi.
11. In 1967 Laing proposed an approach for generat- 22. Megajoules per kilometer (MJ/km). For conver-
ing thermal insulation on demand through multi- sion to American units of measurement 1 MJ/km
layered membranes in which the width of is approximately equivalent to 592.4 BTU/mile
interstitial air cavities is controlled by either elec- or 0.174 kWH/mile, or 149.3 Cal/mile.
trostatic or pneumatic forces (Feder D. (ed.), 1967, 23. The prevalent units of measurement for energy in
Proceedings of the 1st International Colloquium the American system are British Thermal Unit
on Pneumatic Structures, IASS, University of (BTU), Kilowatt Hour (kWh), and Calorie (Cal).
Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany, (pp. 163–79)). In respect to embodied energy the conversion
12. This is of course an illusion. The sun appears to factors from metric to American units are as
move across the sky when viewed from Earth. In follows: 1 MJ/m3 = 26.84 BTU/FT3 = 0.0079 kWh/
fact, planet Earth rotates around the sun. FT3 = 6.762 Cal/FT3; and 1 MJ/kg = 429.9 BTU/
13. See Chapter 3, Section 3.3, for a more detailed LB = 0.126 kWh/LB = 108.5 Cal/LB.
explanation of Low-E glass.
References and Further Reading
Adalberth K. (1997) “Energy Use During the Life- Bedford, T. (1936) The Warmth Factor in Comfort at
Cycle of Buildings: A Method”, Building and Envi- Work. Industry Health Research Board, Report 76.
ronment, 32(4), 317–20. Bedford, T. (1951) “Equivalent Temperature”;
AIA (2007) Design for Aging Post-Occupancy Evalua- Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, 95(23).
tion. American Institute of Architects, Wiley Series Beranek, L. (1960) Noise Reduction. McGraw-Hill,
in Healthcare and Senior Living Design: Wiley, New York, NY.
Hoboken, NJ. Beranek, L. (1966) Concert and Opera Halls: How They
Aldersey-Williams, A. (1960) Noise in Factories. Fac- Sound. The Acoustical Society of America,
tory Building Studies No. 6. Building Research Woodbury, NY.
Station, HMSO, London, UK. Beranek, L. (2004) Music, Acoustics and Architecture,
ANSI (1969) Methods for the Calculation of the Articu- 2nd edn, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
lation Index. American National Standards Institute, Bishop, D. (1957); “Use of Partial Enclosures to. Reduce
ANSI S3.5. Noise in Factories”, Noise Control, 3(2), March, 65–9.
ANSI (1989) Methods for Measuring the Intelligibility Bishop, D. (1966) “Judgments of the Relative and
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Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Warren, J. (1983) Lighting: Basic Concepts. Department
Sabine, W. (1964) Collected Papers on Acoustics. Dover, of Architectural Science, University of Sydney,
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Taylor and Francis, London, UK. Rinehart and Winston, New York, NY.
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Keyword Index
Absorption Coefficient 166, 169, 170–3, 175, 185, artificial lighting 19, 51, 102, 122, 125, 127, 129, 131,
187–9, 199, 215 133, 135–7, 139, 141, 143, 145, 246
acclimatization 25 artificial sky dome 113
acoustic ceilings 173 audience 168–9, 184–6, 188–92, 194
active solar systems 70, 72–3, 79 auditoria 169, 184
activity 16, 22–5, 28, 30, 31, 103, 159, 181–3, 228, 235 Audubon House 239
adaptation level 90, 93, 95, 97–8, 112–13, 115 Australia 34, 160, 192–5, 220, 252–3
adhesives 232, 258n
AEC (Architecture, Engineering and Construction) background noise 17, 159–65, 175–8, 180–3, 198,
242 208, 213, 220
age 24–6, 33, 157–8, 160, 186, 215, 221, 225–8, 231–2, ballast 127–8, 133–5
233, 235, 253 bearing or azimuth 42
agriculture 13, 46, 225, 250 Beethoven Halle Bonn (Germany) 189
air cavity 40, 56–9, 66, 171, 173–4, 193, 211 black body 1, 17–18, 28, 81, 123, 127–8
air changes 48–9, 59 blackwater 251–2
air movement 16, 20, 23–4, 26–31, 36–7, 45, 52, 54, British Research Station 116, 121
64, 149, 180, 214, 231, 243–4 British Thermal Unit (BTU) 258n
air pressure 16, 169, 219 broadcasting studios 178
air quality 229, 232, 244 Bruntland Report 238, 257n
airborne noise 148, 198, 208–10, 217 building codes 48, 60, 197, 231, 240, 242,
airports 159, 211, 220, 223 244, 248
altitude 20, 37–9, 41–3, 45, 77, 110–11, 116 Building Design and Construction (BDC) 238
aluminum foil 37 building envelope 35–7, 54–60, 62–6, 70, 72, 231,
American Institute of Architects (AIA) 238, 240 243–4, 256
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 176 Building-Related Illness (BRI) 232
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
207–8 carbon content 239–240
annoyance 16, 159–60, 176, 180–3, 196–7, 214–15, ceiling height 23, 41, 191–2
220, 223 cellulose 210, 237
apartments 101, 197, 213 central field 96
Apothecaries’ measures 14 chemoluminescence 135
Apothecaries’ weights 14 chillers 237, 248
Apparent Brightness Theory 90 cholera 250
Arab-Israeli conflict 226, 231 chromaphores 95
Aral Sea 250 churches 178, 191
arithmetic mean 6, 155 climate 20, 35–37, 45, 55, 59–61, 64–5, 75, 237,
243–4, 253
climate zones 60
closed-loop material 230, 253, 257
Building Science: Concepts and Application. Jens Pohl. clothing 21, 23–4, 27–31, 34, 169, 185
© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Club of Rome 237
Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. coefficient of variation 9–10
268 Keyword Index
fans 71, 74, 148, 198, 215–16, 218, 237, 248 illumination 17, 45, 89–93, 96–9, 102, 104–6, 109–11,
flanking paths 198, 202, 213 113–14, 122, 124–5, 130, 134, 138–9, 141–2, 144–6,
floating floors 209 246
fluid-supported structure 78, 88–9 illumination level 17, 89, 91–2, 97–9, 102, 106, 109,
fluorescent 113, 125, 133–7, 142–3, 247 111, 113–14, 124, 138–9, 142, 144–6, 246
flux 91–3, 101–2, 127, 137, 141–2, 145, 258n Impact Insulation Class (IIC) 208
fly wire screen 36 incandescent lamps 128–30, 134
fossil fuel 50–1, 60, 69, 105, 232, 235, 255 individual control 21, 23
freshwater 230–2, 234, 238, 241, 250–1 infants 24
inferential statistics 4
Ganges River 250 insulation 24, 33, 36–7, 41, 50–1, 53, 55, 57–65, 67,
geothermal 51, 69 74, 80–2, 109, 134, 165, 181–2, 190, 193, 196–213,
glare 17, 25, 44–5, 85, 90, 98, 100–3, 105, 109, 114, 215, 217, 219–21, 223–4, 237, 239, 243–5, 254, 257,
116, 122–3, 137, 140, 145–6, 232, 239, 246 258n
Glare Index 103 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
glass 14–15, 17, 23, 37–40, 44, 61–2, 64–6, 71, 80, 159, 161–2, 164, 219
84–5, 102, 115–16, 121–3, 135, 194, 199, 205–6, 213, International Institute for a Sustainable Built
217, 222, 236, 254, 258n Environment (iisBE) 238, 258n
globe-thermometer 28–9 International Standards Organization 159
graywater 227, 230, 251–3 Internet 228, 232
green buildings 238–9 interview 16, 184
greenhouse effect 38, 71, 79
ground-coupling 249 joule 14, 126
groundwater 249, 251
Lambert’s Law 95, 104,
Haas effect 186 lamp 91–2, 101–2, 104, 125, 127–37, 139, 142–3,
health 25, 34, 48, 63, 157, 159, 196–7, 225, 231–3, 145–6, 247, 258n
239–40, 245, 247, 250, 258n landfill 229
health club 245 large sample 9, 12
hearing 83, 149–50, 156–60, 163, 165, 176, 178, latent heat 36, 51, 73
181–2, 196–7, 219 latitude 21, 31, 34, 42, 44, 76–7, 80
Hearing Conservation Criteria 160 laylight 146
hearing loss 158, 160 lecture hall 168, 188–9
heart rate 17, 26 LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
heat capacity 34, 36, 52, 59, 61, 66–7, 72–3, 76, 80, 249 Design) 239–42, 256, 258n
heat stratification 71, 73–4, 245 legislation 196–7, 214
heat stroke 33 life-cycle assessment (LCA) 236
Helmholtz resonator 174 life-cycle costing (LCC) 236
High Intensity Discharge (HID) 129, 131 lifespan 129–30, 133, 135, 229–30, 233–4, 236, 248,
high pressure sodium 133 255–7
high-performance buildings 230, 237, 239, 242, 251, lifestyle 225, 228, 234
253 light meter 16, 91, 112
home 36, 50, 62, 225, 227–8, 232, 239, 257n Light-Emitting Diode (LED) 135, 247, 258n
hot water 24, 31, 51, 58, 70–1, 73–5, 77, 215–16, 243, lighting 1, 17, 19, 45, 50–1, 60, 87, 89, 90–1, 93, 95–9,
245–6, 252 101–2, 105–6, 109, 111, 113, 122–3, 125–7, 129–41,
human body 20–2, 25–6, 29–30, 45, 54 143, 145–6, 228, 241, 243, 246–7, 258n
humidity 16, 23, 26–31, 33–4, 36, 45, 64, 73, 163–4, linear equations 1–2, 4
185, 197, 214, 216, 228–9, 243–4, 249 low pressure sodium 132, 136
HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning) low-E glass 40, 116, 122, 246, 258n
215–16, 218, 241, 247–9, 258n Lumen Method of design 141
hydroelectric power 255 luminaires 136–40, 142
270 Keyword Index
luminance 90–3, 97, 102–3, 105, 107, 111–16, 120, orientation 23, 33, 39, 41, 45–6, 54, 60, 77, 80, 82, 98,
122–5, 136–7, 146 125, 146, 159, 231, 244
luminous ceiling 139–40 ORTNS 257
luminous intensity 13, 91–3, 104, 136–7 outer ear 157
luminous wall panels 140
panel absorbers 170–3
macro climate 243 passive solar systems 70, 79, 81–2
masking sound 178–84 perceptional constancy 98–9
Mass Law 200–1, 213 perspiration 17, 20, 22–3, 28, 32, 36, 45
mastic 205, 232 photoelectric effect 87, 104
mean 1, 6–7, 10, 12, 26, 28, 75, 90, 104–5, 111, 123, photons 87
128, 147, 155, 221, 234, 257 polarization 85–6
mean radiant temperature 26, 28 pollution 50, 69, 105, 181, 225, 228, 233, 235, 241
mercury vapor 131–3, 136 porous absorbers 170–3
metabolism 20, 22–24 potable water 250–3
metal-halide 129, 132–3, 137 Precision Sound-Level Meter 161, 164
metamerism 108 Predicted 4-Hour Sweat Rate (P4SR) 28–30
Metric system 13–14, 51, 104, 125, 149, 200, 253 presbycusis 157, 160
micro climate 244 PSALI (Permanent Supplementary Artificial
middle ear 157, 159 Lighting of Interiors) 145–6, 246, 258n
mirror-box artificial sky 113–14 psychoacoustic effects 186
mode 5, 55, 165, 253 psychrometric chart 27
mold 253 pumps 70,172, 237, 252–3
multi-leaf walls 205
Multiple Chemical Sensitivity (MCS) 232 quality of life 196, 232–3, 250
Munsell Color Atlas 107
music 147, 149, 154, 160, 166, 168–9, 173, 175–6, 178, radiant cooling 249
181, 184, 186, 188–91, 194, 196, 214 radiation 1, 17–18, 20, 22–3, 27, 29–32, 36–42, 45–6,
music rooms 178, 181 51–4, 57–8, 61–2, 68–74, 76, 80–2, 87, 89, 106, 112,
Musiksaal Basel (Switzerland) 189 123, 127–30, 132–4, 231–2, 243–4
rainbow 84, 88
National Hospital London 28 rainwater 250–3
nausea 26, 159 rate of work 26–7, 30
neon 135 reflected glare 101
net energy producer 242, 244 reflection 40, 45, 61, 71, 85, 94, 96, 115, 120, 136, 138,
noise barriers 222 141–4, 165–9, 175, 184, 187, 189–93, 199, 223
Noise Criteria Curves 177–8 refraction 85
Noise Reduction Coefficient 170, 174 relative humidity 16, 30–1, 36, 73, 164, 185, 197, 214,
Normal Distribution Curve 6–7, 10–11, 106, 123, 243, 249
128 resonance 163, 171–5, 204, 206, 219, 220
nuclear power 51, 255 respiration 26
nystagmus 159 reverberation time 174–5, 187–91, 194–5
rock storage 73–4, 245
objective data 16 roof 36–7, 40–1, 51–2, 58, 64–7, 70, 73, 78–82,
octave bands 154–5, 161, 177–8, 207–8 104–5, 113, 123–4, 174, 192, 213, 216, 229, 241, 244,
odors 31, 252 251–3
Odum 234
off-gassing 232, 234 schools 181, 183–4, 209
offices 40, 177, 198, 219, 238 seasons 41–2, 44
operative temperature 29 sensible heat 51
Keyword Index 271
shading 23, 37–40, 45, 80, 102, 123, 188, 243 Texas Engineering Experiment Station 46
shivering 17, 22, 24 thermal acceptance ratio 29
showerheads 251–2 thermal capacity 55
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) 232 thermal insulation 33, 36–7, 41, 50–1, 53, 55, 57–9,
Simple Harmonic Motion 147 61–5, 67, 74, 203, 224, 237, 243–5, 258n
simultaneous equations 2–3 thermal resistance 34, 55–9, 74
single-leaf panels 200, 205 tristimulus 109
sky 20, 54, 69, 82, 89, 93, 98, 100–1, 105–7, 109–20, Tropic of Capricorn 42
122–4, 127–40, 145–46, 246, 258n tuning fork 199–200
sky conditions 110–11, 115, 122, 124, 140, 246 typhoid 25
small sample 4, 9–10
sociocusis 158 U-value 35, 55–6, 58–9, 65–6
sol-air temperature 51, 58, 65–6, 68 UIA (Union internationale des Architectes) 238
solar charts 41–2 US Agency for International Development (USAID)
solar collector 17–18, 70–1, 73–7, 79, 81, 245, 250
solar pond 17, 81–2 US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 232
solar radiation 20, 23, 29, 36–9, 41, 45–6, 51, 53–4, US Green Building Council (USGBC) 239–242
58, 61, 68–70, 72–4, 76, 80–2, 231, 243–4 US system of units 14–15
Solarscope 44
solid-borne noise 208–9, 215–16 valences 140
solstice 41–2 vapor pressure 23, 64, 130, 132, 134
solvents 232 variance 9, 20
sound intensity level (SIL) 150, 165 vasomotor control 21
Sound Level Meter 16, 161–5, 214 ventilation 23, 35, 38, 40–1, 45–9, 63, 65, 80–2, 114,
sound pressure level (SPL) 150–1, 153, 156, 160, 180, 182, 190, 198, 202, 214–5, 218, 231–2, 241, 243,
186, 195–6, 223 247–8
Sound Transmission Class (STC) 207 visible spectrum 88–9, 106–7, 133
sources of noise 215 visual field 90, 96–7, 99–100, 102, 109, 127, 159
space heating 51, 69–70, 75, 77, 79 volume absorbers 170–1, 174
specific heat 49, 52, 59, 67, 73
Speech Interference Level 160, 165, 175–8 waste management 228, 230, 234
standard deviation 7–12, 123 water storage 71, 73
standard operative temperature 29 well water 252
steady-state heat-transfer 54–5 wet-bulb temperature 27, 29–30, 214
Steeneken 177 wetland 258n
stormwater 250 wind 36–7, 40, 46, 48, 50–1, 65, 69, 169, 194, 197,
stratification 71, 73–4, 245 222–4, 235, 243
stuffiness 16, 31 women 24–5
sundial 44 World Business Council on Sustainable
sunlight 43, 89, 93, 96–7, 105, 107, 122–3, 136 Development (WBCSD) 235
sunrise 43, 64, 77, 82, 105 World Health Organization 159, 196, 232, 250
sunset 43, 64, 77, 82, 105 world population 225, 236
sunshading device 36
sustainability 227, 233–40, 242, 247–8, 257 zone of thermal comfort 21
Sydney Opera House (Australia) 192–4 zone of thermal neutrality 24, 30
Symphony Hall Boston (US) 189 zoning ordinances 159