Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 155 (2020) 108045

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cep

Ultrasound-assisted hydration of wheat grains at different temperatures and T

power applied: Effect on acoustic field, water absorption and germination
Bianca Guimarãesa, Tiago Carregari Polachinia,*, Pedro E.D. Augustob,c, Javier Telis-Romeroa
a
Food Engineering and Technology Department, São Paulo State University (Unesp), Institute of Biosciences, Humanities and Exact Sciences (Ibilce), São José do Rio Preto,
SP, Brazil
b
Department of Agri-food Industry, Food and Nutrition (LAN), Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (ESALQ), University of São Paulo (USP), Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
c
Food and Nutrition Research Center (NAPAN), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Wheat has been increasingly employed as malt in the food industry. As the malting process demands long
Soaking processing time, ultrasound can be a clean intensifying alternative. This work studied the ultrasound-assisted
Grains hydration of wheat grains at different nominal input power (0−1500 W) and temperatures (15−25 °C). The
Emerging technologies actual acoustic field within the reactor was characterized. The effects of the studied variables on hydration
Malting
kinetics were assessed separately by the Weibull and Peleg Models. Thermodynamic parameters were evaluated.
Mathematical modeling
Sprouting
Grains germination was also addressed under the studied conditions. Increasing temperature as well as higher
acoustic density caused an improvement in the hydration kinetics, reaching 72 % when both variables were
combined. Hydration was an endothermic and non-spontaneous process. In the range of actual acoustic density
(0.061–0.102 W mL−1) and hydration temperature, the maximum germination was kept at ∼5 days with 86 %
germinated grains.

1. Introduction
Wheat is one the most cultivated grains in the world, with an annual
production over than 700 millions of tons in the recent years [1]. Its
large production and relative low costs have been the main reasons for
the partial to complete replacement of barley malt for wheat malt in
many food applications [2].
The interest for wheat malt has increased not only for wheat
brewing purposes [3] but also for its functionality as food ingredient.
Wheat malt has been incorporate to formulations to improve poly-
phenols content, antioxidant properties, sensorial and/or structural
characteristics of cookies dough [4], probiotic beverages [5,6], wheat
bread [7,8], water biscuits [9], weaning foods [10] ciabatta bread [11]
and many other food products. Its wide applicability is mainly attrib-
uted to the presence of hydrolytic enzymes and bioactive compounds
together with the degradation of anti-nutritional compounds that are
developed during malting process of wheat – in special in the germi-
nation step [12,13].
However, the malting process consists of complex steps that should
be adequately controlled [14]. The grains should pass by an initial
water uptake to breakdown the cereal dormancy. Hydration, or soaking
(or even steeping), is performed by immersing the grains into aqueous
medium for several hours. After reaching the desired moisture content,
the grains follow to partial or complete germination under low tem-
peratures A suitable moisture content is considered to be in the range of
75–80 g of water per 100 g of dry matter, as reported in literature for
cereals malting [15,16]. In the germination (or sprouting) step, en-
zymes as amylases and proteases are developed into the grains during
hours or days. They hydrolyze the starchy endosperm and the protein
reserves into soluble compounds, which serve as nutrients for the ra-
dicle to grow [13]. When the desired level of germination is acquired,
the germinated cereal (green malt) is dried to undergo a selective en-
zyme inactivation.
Once the malting process demands long periods of hydration and
germination, assisting technologies has been studied in order to accel-
erate processing. Although several non-conventional and emerging
technologies are reported to enhance malting [17], ultrasound tech-
nology (US) is highlighted due to its capacity for increasing the water
absorption with possible benefits to germination step [18].
High-intensity ultrasound technology, specifically, comprises sound
waves in the frequency range of 20–1000 kHz and acoustic intensities
above 1 W cm−2. During the propagation, these waves produce suc-
cessive cycles of compression and decompression that promote the
development of cavitation bubbles in the liquid medium and interesting

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tiagopolachini@terra.com.br (T.C. Polachini).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2020.108045
Received 6 April 2020; Received in revised form 31 May 2020; Accepted 8 July 2020
Available online 16 July 2020
0255-2701/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
B. Guimarães, et al.
effects in the liquid-solid interface. On the other hand, mechanical ef-
fects like squeezing and releasing are expected in solid materials [19].
In the specific case of grains hydration, indirect or direct mechanisms
are more pronounced accordingly to the hydration stage [20]. The
magnitude of the ultrasound effects is dependent on the applied power.
Moreover, it is always desirable to use the smallest possible level of
power, which reinforces the need by evaluating a given process in a
range of applied energy. Ultrasound can also be combined with tem-
perature to obtain milder or more intense effects [21].
In fact, there are some recent studies regarding the use of ultrasound
for enhancing the grains hydrations [14,22–25]. Even though few stu-
dies concerned the ultrasound-assisted hydration of wheat grains
[26,27], they evaluated hydration at lower acoustic power (< 480 W of
nominal power) and higher temperatures (> 30 °C) than the ones re-
ported in the present work which may affect the malt quality – mainly
regarding α- and β-amylases, proteases and glucanases with adequate
enzymatic activity [28]. Although one work [26] was more focused on
simulating the hydration process by artificial neural networks, both of
them recommended the ultrasonication as an enhancing technology for
mass transfer and showed the significant effect of power applied and
temperature on the hydration processes. Notwithstanding, the authors
encouraged the investigation about the effects of other ultrasound
conditions on the wheat hydration. In addition, no effects on germi-
nation of wheat grains were addressed in both works [26,27]. More-
over, there is missing detailed information about the acoustic field
characterization reported in the literature for US-assisted hydration.
Such type of study is needed for scaling-up purposes.
Therefore, the present work aimed evaluating the effects of ultra-
sound application and temperature on the hydration kinetics of wheat
grains. For this, the acoustic field was previously characterized re-
garding the different exposure areas of probe-type ultrasound to cal-
culate the actual acoustic density. Peleg and Weibull models were fitted
to the experimental hydration data in order to provide important in-
formation about the kinetics. Hydration processes were also analyzed
according to the thermodynamic parameters. Finally, the effect of ul-
trasound power and temperature on germination parameters was ad-
dressed.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Raw material
Clean and whole wheat (Triticum spp.) grains were kindly provided
by the malting unit Malteria Blumenau (Blumenau, Santa Catarina,
Brazil). Initial moisture content was determined by drying the grains in
a convective oven at 105 °C in triplicate, according to the method from
AOAC [29]. Grains were, then, stored at room temperature in plastic
bags until their use.
2.2. Experimental set-up
The experiments assisted by ultrasound were performed using a si-
milar system as used by Carvalho et al. [14]. It consists of an ultrasonic
processor VCX-1500 (Sonics & Materials Inc., USA), operating at 20 kHz
of frequency and input nominal power able to vary from 300 W to 1500
W. It is coupled with a cylindrical titanium sonotrode of 2.2 cm dia-
meter, being the tip positioned 1.5 cm from the perforated stainless
steel basket (5 cm height; 12.5 cm diameter) where the wheat samples
were placed. The temperature of the reactor (stainless steel; 15 cm
diameter; 22 cm height) was controlled by driving cooled water from
the thermostatic bath (MA-184 model, Marconi, Brazil) through the
jacketed side of the vessel. Hydrations without ultrasound were carried
out in the same experimental set-up, but without ultrasound applica-
tion.
2
Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 155 (2020) 108045
2.3. Acoustic field characterization
Only part of the input power is converted by the ultrasound
equipment into acoustic power into the product. Consequently, the real
acoustic power delivered in the system needs to be determined (al-
though many literature works neglected this evaluation). In this work,
the acoustic field was characterized through the calorimetric method.
This method considers the temperature rise promoted during ultra-
sound application is a consequence of the cavitation process [30]. For
this, the Eq. (1) was used [31]:
dT
PUS = mcp
dt (1)
where PUS is the acoustic power (W), m is the processed mass (kg) of
water, cp is the specific heat of water (4.18 kJ kg−1·ºC−1), dT/dt is the
temperature rise recorded during the first 90 s of ultrasound application
(ºC·s−1). The acoustic intensity (W cm-2), acoustic density (W mL−1)
and yield of power conversion were determined by dividing the PUS
values by the emitter surface area of the tip (3.8 cm2), volume of treated
medium (1000 mL) and nominal input power, respectively.
The measurements were performed using the same volume of dis-
tilled water as used for the grain hydration (1000 mL). Initial tem-
perature was set at 15 °C, since initial temperatures below 60 °C did not
affect the measurements [32]. Type K thermocouples were connected to
the data acquisition system NI9213 (National Instruments, USA) and
the temperature rise was registered during 90 s in 4 radial positions (r
= 0; 0,022; 0,044; e 0,066 m) at 6 different angular positions (θ = 0,
60, 120, 180, 240 and 300°) – totaling 16 points placed 1.5 cm below
the sonotrode. Acoustic power was calculated for the different nominal
input power applied: 500, 1000 and 1500 W. Temperature records were
acquired with the aid of the LabView 2010 software (National Instru-
ments, USA) and, then, the slope dT/dt could be calculated for the
different points.
2.4. Experimental design
Approximately 100 g of wheat grains were placed in the stainless
steel basket, which was immersed into the reactor with distilled water.
Wheat grains with initial moisture content X0 were hydrated until
reaching 0.75 g of water per 100 g of dry matter. This target moisture
was chosen as it is the necessary condition for breaking the cereal
dormancy [15].
Moisture content was monitored by weighing the drained samples at
time intervals throughout the experiments (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 14 and
24 h). The weighing frequency was altered if the desired moisture
content was reached before or after the predefined time intervals.
Hydrations were performed based on a complete factorial design by
varying the water temperature (15; 20 and 25 °C – considering the
temperature range used for wheat malt production) and the input ul-
trasonic power level (0, 500, 1000 and 1500 W). In the ultrasound-
assisted experiments, ultrasound was applied using pulsed system (1 s
on; 4 s off). This was the best condition tested in which ultrasound
could be applied at the higher input power without overheating the
medium.
2.5. Mathematical modeling
Hydration kinetics was described using the Peleg Model (Eq. (2),
[33]) and the Weibull Model (Eq. (5), [34]):
t
X (t ) = X0 +
k1 + k2 t (2)
Where X(t) is the moisture content (g of water per g of dry matter) at
time t, X0 is the initial moisture content (g of water per g of dry matter),
t is the hydration time (h), and k1 (g of dry matter h g−1·of water) and
k2 (g of dry matter g−1 of water) are model parameters.
B. Guimarães, et al. Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 155 (2020) 108045

Complementary parameters can be obtained from the Peleg model activation entropy is related to disorder degree [41].
constants. The rate R0 (g of water g−1 of dry matter h−1) of water
absorption at the beginning of the process can be obtained as the in- 2.7. Germination power
versed of k1:
After hydration up to ∼0.75 g of water per 100 g of dry matter, the
dX (t ) 1
= R0 = wheat grains were germinated to simulate malting.
dt t→0 k1 (3)
For that, 50 units of hydrated wheat grains were placed in rectan-
On the other hand, the equilibrium moisture content (Xeq) can be gular trails (13 cm long, 9 cm width and 4 cm height) and covered by
estimated from k2, considering long periods of hydration (t → ∞) by Eq. perforated plastic film to allow gas exchange. The trails were condi-
(4): tioned in an incubator (MA 415, Marconi, Brazil) at 16 °C during 8 days.
The moisture content of the wheat grains was controlled by weighing
1
Xeq = X0 + the trails every 12 h and humidifying the grains when needed.
k2 (4)
At specific time intervals (0, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h), the grains were
The Weibull Model, is an exponential empirical model very useful evaluated and photographed. The germination percentage (%GER) was
due to its simplicity and good accuracy in describing complex processes determined during the whole period of germination. This percentage
with high variability [14,35,36]. corresponds to the number of germinated grains per total number of
α grains as given by Eq. (11):
X (t ) − X0 t
= 1 − exp ⎡−⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎤ n
Xeq − X0 ⎢ β ⎥ %GER = × 100
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦ (5) N (11)
where α is the shape parameter (dimensionless), which was also asso- where n is the number of germinated grains and N is the total number of
ciated to the initial rate of water uptake [37], and β is the time scale grains.
parameter (h), which represents the kinetics (and the required time to The average time needed for germination (ATG) could be also cal-
reach 63 % of the equilibrium moisture content). Moreover, the shape culated over the 8 days of incubation, as given by Eq. (12):
parameter α can be interpreted as a behavior index that is related to the
moisture migration mechanism during hydration: Values higher than 1 ∑ n i ti
ATG =
indicates the process is governed by internal moisture diffusion as well ∑ ni (12)
as external mass transfer, while external mass transfer is considered
where ni is the number of germinated grains per day, ti is the incubation
negligible when α < 1 [38,39].
time; and i varied from 1 up to 8 days [42].
Non-linear regressions were performed using the OriginPro 9.0
software (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, USA). The accuracy of
3. Results and discussions
the models was evaluated through the adjusted correlation coefficient
2
(Radj ) and root-mean-square error (RMSE).
3.1. Acoustic field characterization

2.6. Thermodynamic properties

Fig. 1 shows temperature increments after 90 s of ultrasound ap-
plication at the different power levels studied.
The estimation of the thermodynamic properties can provide in-
Ultrasound application caused an increment in the medium tem-
sights about the variables influence and the nature of the process. At
perature as a consequence of the collapse of cavitation bubbles. This
first, the effect of temperature on the specific parameter was evaluated
phenomenon provides useful information for determining the real
by fitting an Arrhenius-type equation (Eq. (6)) in each studied para-
acoustic power produced from established electrical input power, as
meters (PT):
well as its distribution inside the reactor. As the electrical energy cur-
E rent reaches the piezoelectric crystal, it starts to oscillate, contract and
PT = A exp ⎛ a ⎞
⎝ RT ⎠ (6) expand, and the mechanical waves are produced. These waves are
propagated to the bath cube, then towards the medium, causing the
where A is the pre-exponential factor, Ea is the activation energy (J
molecular displacement until the breakdown of the intermolecular
mol−1), R is the universal gas constant (8.314 J mol−1 K−1) and T is
forces [43]. In this moment, cavitation bubbles are formed and their
the temperature (K).
collapse generates pressure and heat gradients.
After obtaining the activation energy (Ea) for the different condi-
The temperature increase showed a linear trend over the ultrasound
tions, the thermodynamic properties could be determined. Thus, acti-
exposure time with determination coefficient higher than 0.99 for all
vation enthalpy (ΔH#; J mol−1), the activation Gibbs free energy (ΔG#;
the measurements. It reinforces the validity of using the calorimetric
J mol−1) and the activation entropy (ΔS#; J mol−1 K−1) were calcu-
method to estimate the delivered ultrasound power, and the heat
lated for the kinetic parameters of both models, i.e., the scale parameter
transfer to the surrounds could be neglected in the process (of only 90 s
(β), of the Weibull Model, as well as for the hydration rate (k1), for the
of duration).
Peleg Model, using the following equations [40]:
The slope (dT/dt) was used to calculate the acoustic power as well
ΔH # = Ea − RT (7) as the acoustic intensity, acoustic density and the yield of power con-
version at each condition. These parameters are described in Table 1.
P h As expected, acoustic power and derived acoustic parameters in-
ΔG # = −RT ln ⎛ T ⎞ ⎜ ⎟

⎝ kB T ⎠ (8) creased with increasing nominal power applied – although it was not
linear. Both the trend and values magnitude are in accordance to pre-
ΔH # − ΔG #
ΔS # = vious study regarding the acoustic field produced in aqueous medium
T (10)
used for improving barley grains hydration [14]. The low values of
−34
In these equations, h is the Plank's constant (6.6262 × 10 J·s−1) yield of power conversion (∼12−20%) must be highlighted, which
−23 −1
and kB is the Boltzmann's constant (1.3806 × 10 J K ). The acti- reinforce the need for determining the actual power delivered to the
vation enthalpy represents the required energy for binding water mo- system (instead of considering the nominal values). The yield of power
lecules to the wheat grains in order to form the activated complex; the conversion was also higher for the highest power level studied, evi-
Gibbs free energy is related to the process spontaneity; and the dencing a higher efficiency of the equipment in converting higher

3
B. Guimarães, et al.
Fig. 1. Temperature rise distribution inside the reactor after 90 s of ultrasound
application at (a) 500 W, (b) 1000 W and (c) 1500 W of nominal input power.
amounts of electrical energy into acoustic power [44].
In addition to the higher acoustic field, the application of higher
nominal power is reported to increase the microagitation of the
medium [19], leading to a more homogeneous exposure to ultrasound
application by the grains. Even so, the acoustic field is not perfectly
homogeneous. Higher temperature increments are represented in Fig. 1
by the zones with yellow to red coloration, covering wider areas as the
nominal applied power increased. Concerning the temperature rise
4
Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 155 (2020) 108045
distribution in the reactor, the most affected areas were located just
below the sonotrode. The rises in temperature tended to decrease as the
points are analyzed axially away from the center, due to acoustic at-
tenuation. Similar observations were done by Fan et al. [45] and Po-
lachini et al. [44], who observed higher acoustic power in the same
direction of the ultrasound transducer in both ultrasonic bath and
probe-type devices, respectively.
Even though the acoustic field presents some differences over the
reactor, it does not compromise our evaluation, since the wheat grains
were placed all over it, being also constantly moved during the process
(by evaluating the water absorption), which guaranteed process
homogeneity.
From now on, all the described ultrasound power parameters are
related with the actual measured values (in the exception when the
“nominal” term is applied).
3.2. Hydration kinetics
3.2.1. Required hydration time
Fig. 2 shows the necessary time needed by each treatment to reach
the desired moisture content (0.75 g of water per g of dry matter, which
is the dashed gray lines in the following Figs. 3 and 4). The higher was
the hydration temperature and the nominal power applied, the shorter
was the time required to humidify the grains. This time varied from
∼44 h for hydrations performed without ultrasound assistance at 15 °C
to 12 h when temperature was increased to 25 °C under sonication at
acoustic density of 0.102 W mL−1.
The time required for hydration was improved by ∼30−40 % when
temperature was raised from 15 to 20 °C. Increasing the temperature
from 15 to 25 °C caused an improvement in the processing time of ∼55
% for all acoustic density studied. On the other hand, experiments
carried out with ultrasound tended to last ∼28−42% shorter than
experiments performed without ultrasound. This value is in accordance
to literature, which reported an improvement by the use of ultrasound
of 40 % for Andean lupin beans [46], 35 % for corn kernels [47], 40 %
for sorghum [23], 40 % for navy beans [48] and 36 % for wheat grains
[26]. Moreover, when temperature and ultrasound application was
combined, an improvement of up to 72 % was noticed for the required
processing time.
For the range of variables studied, temperature had a higher im-
provement in the hydrations time. However, these effects should be
specifically evaluated regarding the hydration kinetics and quality
parameters as germination [28].
Grain’s water absorption was differently enhanced by varying pro-
cess conditions as seen by temperature and acoustic density in Figs. 3
and 4, respectively. Despite the differences over the processing time, all
of the hydration curves showed a similar downward concave shape –
typical for this kind of cereal – without a lag phase of very low water
absorption rate. Moreover, the wheat hydration presented only one
continuous behavior, differently to the hydration in two-parts described
for corn [47] and oat [49], reinforcing the use of Peleg and Weibull
Models.
At the beginning of the process, the rate of water absorption was
very high and it tended to decrease as the grain is hydrated. Literature
attributes the rapid water absorption through the free pores and ca-
pillaries, and ultrasound can accelerate the water flow in the capillaries
through the so called “sponge effect” and inertial flow [47]. Once these
spaces are occupied by the water molecules, the difference between the
wheat moisture content and its equilibrium moisture content decreased.
This reduced driving force leads the water absorption rate to decrease
[50–52].
3.2.2. Kinetics modeling
Table 2 shows the parameters of Peleg Model (Eq. (2)) while Table 3
presented the ones for Weibull Model (Eq. (5)). Both of them presented
2
high accuracy (Radj > 0.9842 and RMSE < 0.0220), although Weibull
B. Guimarães, et al.
Table 1
Acoustic parameters for the different nominal input power applied.
Parameters Nominal input power
500 W
−1
dT/dt (ºC·s ) 0.015 ± 0.002c
Acoustic power (W) 61.45 ± 8.87c
Acoustic intensity (W cm−2) 16.16 ± 2.33c
Acoustic density (W mL−1) 0.061 ± 0.009c
Yield of power conversion (%) 12.29 ± 1.77c
Means and standard deviation followed by the same letter in the same line represent no significant difference by the Tukey test at 95 % of confidence.
Fig. 2. Processing time required by each experiment to reach the moisture
content needed for wheat germination. Different lowercase and capital letters
represent significant difference (p < 0.05) by the Tukey test among the tem-
perature under the same acoustic density applied and among the acoustic
density applied at the same temperature, respectively.
Model presented slightly higher adjusted determination coefficients and
slight lower root-mean-square error. After performing the statistical
analysis, it could be seen the fitting parameters differed among the
experiments (p < 0.05). Therefore, these differences could be discussed
as follow.
The β values decreased when the medium temperature was in-
creased, being in close agreement with the results shown in Fig. 2. This
decrease in the β values is related to the increased water diffusivity at
higher temperatures as a consequence of the lower viscosity and the
expansion of the grain pores [53]. The decrease in β with increasing
temperature was even more noticeable for ultrasound-assisted experi-
ments than for conventional hydration (without ultrasound). This ob-
servation was accompanied by a slight increase in the equilibrium
moisture content (Xeq) of wheat grains under sonication, mainly at
higher acoustic densities.
The shape parameter α can be related to the mechanisms of water
migration from the medium towards the center of the grain, but its
inverse also gives insights about the initial rate of hydration [38,39,54].
Analogous to the statement of Corzo et al. [38] and Marabi et al. [39]
for drying and rehydration processes, α values lower than 1 indicated
the water migration is governed by the internal resistance to mass
transfer. Since the α values in the present work varied from 0.5953 up
to 0.7950, it can be assumed that external resistance to water transfer is
much lower than internals for hydration processes. In fact, Patero and
Augusto [23] highlight that food hydration is a reaction limited by
internal resistance to the mass transfer, even though ultrasound reduces
the convective resistance by the intense turbulence in the aqueous
medium.
Internal resistances are not only attributed to the water diffusion but
also to phenomenon as capillarity, which is more associated to the
5
Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 155 (2020) 108045
1000 W 1500 W
0.020 ± 0.001b 0.025 ± 0.001a
83.60 ± 2.66b 102.41 ± 4.39a
21.99 ± 0.69b 26.94 ± 1.16a
0.084 ± 0.003b 0.102 ± 0.004a
16.72 ± 0.53b 20.48 ± 0.88a
physical properties of the grains. The physical properties of grains are
also related to the water absorption capacity by the grains (Xeq). No big
differences (0.7664–0.7769 g of water per g of dry matter) were ob-
served for the estimated equilibrium moisture content (Xeq) in the ex-
periments without ultrasound at the different temperatures studied. It is
in agreement with the values of k2 and Xeq from Peleg’s model, which
presented approximately constant values for the wheat capacity for
water absorption over the temperature range. No changes in the Xeq was
reported in literature for other food products, including grains such
barley, wheat and wheat flour [50,55], although the variations in the
equilibrium moisture content depends on the thermosensitivity and
temperature range studied [22,26].
The hydration curves of wheat grains were also affected by the
acoustic power applied into the medium. By both Figs. 2 and 4, it could
be seen that hydration experiments assisted by ultrasound reached the
aimed moisture content earlier as the power level increased. This ob-
servation is in close agreement to that observed for the time required to
reach 63 % of the Xeq (β): β values decreased as the nominal power was
increased, although this decrease was more significant at lower tem-
peratures. During ultrasound application, the sound waves cause a
series of compressions and decompressions in the solid material. This
sponge effect provoke the pores to contract and to expand successively,
promoting the water pumping towards the grain [46]. In the liquid side,
the cavitation bubbles generate high pressure and temperature gra-
dients, besides microjets. It leads to the creation of microchannels in the
food matrix and an enhanced mass transfer. Thus, the access by the
water molecules to the grains’ microstructure is improved when com-
pared to conventionally agitated medium [19,20]. Because of these
effects, with increasing acoustic density, ultrasound caused an increase
in the water absorption capacity (estimated by the equilibrium moisture
content - Xeq) in all studied temperatures. Besides the possible creation
of micropores, ultrasound is also able to prevent their clogging by the
removal of existing and/or extracted solids located into the micro-
channels [22,56], which can contribute for the higher water absorption.
After observing lower enthalpy values for barley hydration with the
presence of ultrasound, Shafaei et al. [50] reinforced the energetic
contribution by ultrasound to create active sites to bind water mole-
cules.
The indirect mechanisms (erosion in the solid-liquid interface, mi-
crochannels formation and microagitation) are supposed to occur more
intensively at high water activity. In fact, the displacement between the
hydration curves of ultrasound-assisted experiments are more evi-
denced at higher moisture content. The experimental curves with in-
creasing acoustic power tended to differ more noticeably among them
at the end of the process. Miano et al. [57] stated that ultrasound effects
are more pronounced when the grains have higher water content as a
consequence of the reduced difference in the acoustic impedance as
well as the cavitation inside the grain. Grains with higher moisture
content have their values for acoustic impedance close to the ones en-
countered for aqueous medium. This condition reduces the wave’s re-
flectance and increases ultrasound effects. In fact, the rate of water
absorption in the beginning of the process did not present much var-
iation among the power levels applied: Close values of α, from Weibull
B. Guimarães, et al.
Fig. 3. Influence of temperature on the hydration experiments performed under (a) no sonication; sonication at acoustic density of (b) 0.061 W·mL−1, (c) 0.084
W·mL−1 and (d) 0.102 W·mL−1. The dots are the experimental values; the bars the standard deviation; the lines the best fitted model (Weibull Model). The horizontal
dashed line represents the moisture of 0.75 g of water per 100 g of dry matter.
Model, and R0, from Peleg Model, were noticed among the experiments
at a same temperature and reinforce this theory. Similar behavior was
observed for Andean lupin, different beans and grains as the own wheat
[27,46,58].
3.2.3. Thermodynamic properties
Estimating the thermodynamic parameters associated to the hy-
dration rate (β, from Weibull Model, and k1, from Peleg Model) can give
insights about the influence of the variable on the hydration kinetics.
At first, Table 4 showed good fitting results of the Arrhenius-type
equation to β and k1. This equation provides information about the
amount of energy (Ea) that is needed to form the activated complexes
water-dry sites. The experiments without ultrasound had lower Ea
(46.59 kJ mol−1) than most of the ultrasound-assisted hydrations (at
0.061 and 0.084 W mL−1 of acoustic density). In a first moment, this is
the opposite behavior of that described in literature for common beans,
barley and wheat grains [27,40,50] when studying ultrasound-assisted
hydrations. The main differences among these studies are related to the
fact that ultrasound was applied at lower actual acoustic density than
the minimum level of the present study, besides the stricter and lower
range of temperature assessed. On the other hand, activation energy
decreased from 90.36 kJ mol−1 up to 27.27 kJ mol−1 with increasing
the acoustic density (applied from 0.061 to 0.102 W mL−1). Similar
behavior was also presented for Ea related with k1. At the highest
acoustic density applied, the activation energy was even lower than for
experiments without ultrasound – following the same trend reported by
the abovementioned literature [27,40,50].
As observed before, ultrasound can create new active site for
binding water. It occurs analogously to what is observed during mate-
rial swelling in water sorption processes. At high moisture content, the
material swells as it absorbs water and high-energy sites are opened up
6
Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 155 (2020) 108045
– thus causing the enthalpy for binding water to increase until it covers
the strongest bind sites [59]. So, when hydration takes place at 0.061
and 0.084 W mL−1, the additional energy demanded by the new sites
are higher than the contribution of ultrasound to reduce their activation
energy. As the acoustic density reached 0.102 W mL−1, ultrasound
effects could compensate the water binding onto the additional stronger
dry sites with the reduction in the activation energy. This observation is
in close agreement with enthalpy data presented as follow and can
describe the obtained data.
The estimated activation energy values were required for the cal-
culation of activation enthalpy (ΔH#), activation Gibbs free energy
(ΔG#) and activation entropy (ΔS#), all expressed in Table 5. Activation
enthalpy represents the binding energy or intermolecular forces be-
tween water and the food matrix [60]. This parameter followed the
same trend as discussed for Ea, maintaining positive values for all of the
conditions. In other words, this endothermic reaction requires an ex-
ternal amount of energy to form activation complex between water-dry
sites before obtaining the final product (wet grains) [40]. These values
decreased in experiments with increasing acoustic density – confirming
the findings in literature [27,50]. Moreover, the enthalpy values tended
to decrease with increasing temperature. The increase in temperature
improves the complex formation by adding energy in the form of heat,
similarly as observed for other cereal as rice, barley and wheat
[27,50,61].
The calculated activation entropy fluctuated between negative and
positive values, which can be a result of propagation of deviations
during calculation, once this parameter is calculated using ΔG# and
ΔH# (Eq. 10). Being the discussion through entropy and Gibbs free
energy similar, this latter was chosen for interpretation: Gibbs free
energy represents the driving force, given by the difference between
enthalpy (available energy) and entropy (unavailable energy), for the
B. Guimarães, et al.
Fig. 4. Influence of the acoustic density on the hydration experiments per-
formed at (a) 15 °C, (b), 20 °C and (c) 25 °C. Lines represented the best fitted
model (Weibull Model). The horizontal dashed line represents the moisture of
0.75 g of water per 100 g of dry matter.
hydration process to occur under specific conditions [61]. This mea-
surement is related to the to the spontaneity of the transition state
formation [40]. The activation Gibbs free energy remained positive,
characterizing a non-spontaneous reaction with slightly higher sensitive
to temperature than acoustic density for the range of variables studied.
ΔG# increased with increasing temperature and increasing acoustic
density, similarly to the findings for wheat, barley and common beans
[27,40,41]. In this sense, the formation of the intermediate complex
dried grain-water is considered as not spontaneous, which is associated
with the high degree of organization in activated complex (dry matter –
7
Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 155 (2020) 108045
water) structure [40].
3.3. Germination
Controlling wheat germination permits the development of nu-
trients and ingredients to enhance functional and technological prop-
erties in food products or even when solely consumed [8,62].
Hydrated wheat grains were subjected to germination under con-
trolled conditions. Fig. 5 shows the percentage of germinated grains
over the incubation time for the different experiments evaluated and an
image corresponding to the initial radicles appearance. It could be seen
that experiments performed at 20 °C under 0.102 W mL−1 and at 25 °C
without ultrasound showed the lowest germination percentage at the
initial days of incubation. On the other hand, slightly higher germina-
tion percentage was obtained for 15 °C.
Miano and Augusto [22] described the mechanisms of the grains
hydrations as a 3-stage kinetics. The stage I concerns the initial water
uptake by physical mechanisms in order to activate its metabolism.
Then, in the stage II, the grains started to pass by metabolic preparation
for germinating such as enzyme development and to digest the reserve
molecules to be used by the embryo for germination, which is the stage
III. Because the processing time was longer for the lowest temperature,
the grains were supposed to remain more time in the stage II. In ad-
dition, Miano and Augusto [22] also highlights the possible existence of
both live and dead grains that absorbs water equally during hydration.
Thus, their heterogeneity in the germination step could lead to the high
standard deviation and no clear trend observed among some treat-
ments.
After 1 day of incubation, it was possible to notice the appearance of
radicle in some grains. However, in the second day, Fig. 6 showed the
majority of grains were germinated and the radicles tended to develop
over the following days. Based on the results of Figs. 5 and 6, some
germination parameters could be obtained for the two levels of acoustic
density at the three temperatures, being presented in Table 6. From the
fourth to the eighth day, the germination percentage almost did not
vary, reaching a maximum of ∼86 % with low variations among the
treatments. The obtained values for %GER were similar to the ones
found for some seeds [63], beans [64] and grains [65].
Although ultrasound application and temperature did not affect the
final percentage of germinated grains, they affected the hydration ki-
netics, or germination velocity, in some cases. Moreover, regarding the
quality aspects of the malt (total vitreous grain content, grain friability,
wort characteristics as diastatic power, viscosity, etc.), it is encouraged
to work under lower processing temperatures to meet the industrial
requirements [66]. On the other hand, the addition of aiding technol-
ogies as ultrasound may be an outcome for accelerating the process.
Besides the germination (%GER) at the fourth (4th) and eighth (8th)
day, Table 6 also presented the average time for the germination to
occur (ATG). The average time required for the maximum germination
was ∼5 days, as observed for ATG values. For wheat brewing purposes,
prolonging the germination is able to produce good quality malt as a
consequence of the protein degradation over the grains growth [67].
However, the effects of ultrasound application and hydration tem-
perature on the activity and actuation mechanisms of the proteases
should be specifically addressed.
In some cases, the germination was lower in comparison with some
studies which reported an improvement in the germination of seeds and
beans by the use of ultrasound technology [18,24,65,68]. This im-
provement is closely dependent on the time-intensity of sonication as
well as the application system and grain characteristics. In the studies
which an enhanced germination was noticed, the acoustic density was
in the range of 0.013 up to 0.041 W/mL, for different exposure time.
Above this range, ultrasound seemed to cause damage to the plant
tissue that are responsible by the radicle development, besides the en-
zymes inactivation [69]. These last authors observed that germination
was hindered by using acoustic density of about 0.100 W mL−1) when
B. Guimarães, et al. Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 155 (2020) 108045

Table 2
Fitting parameters of Peleg Model (Eq. (2)) to the hydration data.
Temperature Acoustic density k1 k2 R0 Xeq 2
Radj RMSE
(ºC) (W mL−1) (g of dry matter h g−1·of (g of dry matter g−1 of (g of water g−1 of dry matter (g of water g−1 of dry
water) water) h−1) matter)

15 0 8.4598 ± 1.5024a 1.4904 ± 0.0491bcd 0.1206 ± 0.0202d 0.8174 ± 0.0117bcd > 0.9889 < 0.0185
0.061 9.3230 ± 0.5434a 1.5054 ± 0.0262abc 0.1075 ± 0.0061d 0.8174 ± 0.0117cde > 0.9804 < 0.0170
0.084 8.1723 ± 0.4216a 1.4829 ± 0.0162bcd 0.1226 ± 0.0065d 0.8274 ± 0.0074bcd > 0.9911 < 0.0161
0.102 5.1341 ± 0.2474b 1.5147 ± 0.0176abc 0.1951 ± 0.0092c 0.8133 ± 0.0077cde > 0.9882 < 0.0181
20 0 5.0031 ± 0.4920b 1.5690 ± 0.0178a 0.2011 ± 0.0192bc 0.7904 ± 0.0072e > 0.9842 < 0.0201
0.061 4.4867 ± 0.1747bc 1.5285 ± 0.0055ab 0.2231 ± 0.0089bc 0.8072 ± 0.024de > 0.9896 < 0.0165
0.084 4.6568 ± 0.0581bc 1.4534 ± 0.0072cde 0.2144 ± 0.0027bc 0.8411 ± 0.0034bc > 0.9941 < 0.0127
0.102 4.3894 ± 0.1152bc 1.4617 ± 0.0137bcd 0.2279 ± 0.0059bc 0.8372 ± 0.0064bcd > 0.9959 < 0.0107
25 0 4.7943 ± 0.1102bc 1.4549 ± 0.0148cde 0.2087 ± 0.0048bc 0.8404 ± 0.0070bc > 0.9965 < 0.0099
0.061 3.4626 ± 0.0297c 1.5054 ± 0.0066abc 0.2888 ± 0.0025a 0.8173 ± 0.0029cde > 0.9968 < 0.0094
0.084 4.2549 ± 0.2176bc 1.3858 ± 0.0152e 0.2354 ± 0.0123b 0.8746 ± 0.0078a > 0.9986 < 0.0065
0.102 3.3492 ± 0.2977c 1.4348 ± 0.0457de 0.3003 ± 0.0281a 0.8504 ± 0.0220ab > 0.9932 < 0.0136

Means and standard deviation followed by the same lowercase letters in the same column represent no significant difference by the Tukey test at 95 % of confidence.

Table 3
Fitting parameters of Weibull Model (Eq. (5)) to the hydration data.
Temperature Acoustic density α β Xeq 2
Radj RMSE
(ºC) (W mL−1) (dimensionless) (h) (g of water g−1 of dry matter)

15 0 0.7352 ± 0.0981abc 8.1923 ± 0.5723bc 0.7675 ± 0.0162b > 0.9873 < 0.0190
0.061 0.6432 ± 0.0634abcd 12.2135 ± 1.6942a 0.8189 ± 0.0310ab > 0.9952 < 0.0119
0.084 0.6793 ± 0.0506abcd 9.4047 ± 1.6589b 0.8028 ± 0.0292ab > 0.9931 < 0.0139
0.102 0.6198 ± 0.0239 cd 6.3772 ± 1.0896c 0.8111 ± 0.0290ab > 0.9907 < 0.0152
20 0 0.6491 ± 0.0082bcd 5.5988 ± 0.7975de 0.7769 ± 0.0148b > 0.9782 < 0.0220
0.061 0.5953 ± 0.0139d 6.0684 ± 0.6586cde 0.8275 ± 0.0175ab > 0.9947 < 0.0110
0.084 0.6952 ± 0.0317abcd 4.9633 ± 0.4654de 0.7998 ± 0.0158ab > 0.9947 < 0.0115
0.102 0.6840 ± 0.0061abcd 4.7140 ± 0.1096de 0.8000 ± 0.0039ab > 0.9949 < 0.0112
25 0 0.7656 ± 0.0169ab 4.3834 ± 0.1135de 0.7664 ± 0.0046b > 0.9933 < 0.0128
0.061 0.6499 ± 0.0170bcd 3.7165 ± 0.1789e 0.7882 ± 0.0065ab > 0.9991 < 0.0045
0.084 0.7950 ± 0.0077a 3.8059 ± 0.1832e 0.7802 ± 0.0035b > 0.9974 < 0.0082
0.102 0.6359 ± 0.0937bcd 4.4891 ± 1.0547de 0.8551 ± 0.0597a > 0.9959 < 0.0101

Means and standard deviation followed by the same lowercase letters in the same column represent no significant difference by the Tukey test at 95 % of confidence.

Table 4 using ultrasonic bath. On the other hand, this impairment was not
Fitting parameters of the Arrhenius-type equation to the β and k1 values. observed in the present study for probe-type system using similar
Parameters Acoustic density A Ea RMSE 2 acoustic density. The system of ultrasound application is highly related
Radj
(W mL−1) (units of β or k1) (kJ mol−1) with the sonochemical effects produced in the material. Ultrasound
baths have transducers distributed along the bottom surface while the
β 0.000 2.91 × 10−8 46.58 0.1646 0.9785 ultrasonic probe has one main point of higher application. Thus, the
0.061 5.02 × 10−16 90.36 0.2495 0.9903
0.084 6.40 × 10−13 72.59 0.4243 0.9382
temperature rise distribution caused by probe-type ultrasound appli-
0.102 0.71 × 10−4 27.27 0.2890 0.7645 cation is less homogeneous in the reactor, as evidenced in Fig. 1. Also,
k1 0.000 2.14 × 10−8 47.34 0.6088 0.7376 probe-type ultrasound is supposed to promote higher degree of agita-
0.061 1.30 × 10−14 81.91 0.4911 0.9261 tion over time, leading the particles in suspension to a more homo-
0.084 1.23 × 10−9 54.11 0.5414 0.8103
geneous exposure to ultrasound. Apart of the intrinsic characteristics of
0.102 2.59 × 10−5 29.25 0.1196 0.9466
the wheat itself, these two reasons (zones of lower acoustic density and
particles movement) might be a reason why ultrasound was able to

Table 5
Activation enthalpy (ΔH#), Gibbs free energy (ΔG#) and entropy (ΔS#) for β and k1 values at different temperatures and acoustic density applied.
Parameters T (ºC) β k1

−1
Acoustic density (W mL ) Acoustic density (W mL−1)

0.000 0.061 0.084 0.102 0.000 0.061 0.084 0.102

ΔH# 15 44.19 87.96 70.20 24.88 44.94 79.51 51.71 26.86

(kJ mol−1) 20 44.15 87.92 70.16 24.84 44.90 79.47 51.67 26.82
25 44.10 87.88 70.11 24.79 44.86 79.43 51.63 26.78
ΔG# 15 54.42 53.46 54.09 55.02 54.34 54.11 54.42 55.54
(kJ mol−1) 20 56.33 56.14 56.63 56.75 56.61 56.87 56.78 56.92
25 57.94 58.35 58.29 57.88 57.72 58.53 58.01 58.61
ΔS# 15 −0.04 0.12 0.06 −0.10 −0.03 0.09 −0.01 −0.10
(kJ mol−1 K−1) 20 −0.04 0.11 0.05 −0.11 −0.04 0.08 −0.02 −0.10
25 −0.05 0.10 0.04 −0.11 −0.04 0.07 −0.02 −0.11

8
B. Guimarães, et al. Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 155 (2020) 108045

Fig. 5. Germination (%) of wheat grains over the incubation time. Dots and error bars represent the calculated germination percentage and standard deviation,
respectively, in triplicate. Figure at left showed the radicles appearance at the first germination day.

Fig. 6. Visual aspect of the wheat grains during 5 days of germination.

accelerate hydration process without significant losses in the germina-
tion percentage observed for non-sonicated wheat.
4. Conclusions
Conventional and ultrasound-assisted hydration of wheat grains
were assessed at different temperatures (15–25 °C) and actual acoustic
density (0.061–0.102 W mL−1). The last parameter was characterized
by the calorimetric method, reaching the higher exposures to ultra-
sound just below the sonotrode. Yields of power conversion were found
between 12.3 and 20.5 %. The Peleg and Weibull Models were fitted to
the experimental data with high accuracy, although slightly higher

9
B. Guimarães, et al. Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 155 (2020) 108045

Table 6 V. Krstanović, From malt to wheat beer: a comprehensive multi-toxin screening,

Average time needed for germination (ATG) and the germination percentage
(%GER) at the fourth and eighth day of incubation.
Temperature Acoustic density ATG %GER
(°C) (W mL−1) (days) 4th day
15 0 4.56± 0.02b 85.17± 2.47a
0.102 4.58± 0.03b 82.67± 1.19ab
20 0 4.65± 0.04b 82.67± 3.25ab
0.102 4.75± 0.11ab 83.78± 3.97bc
25 0 4.91± 0.04a 83.08± 2.34c
0.102 4.62± 0.06b 84.46± 3.56abc
Means and standard deviation followed by the same lowercase letters in the
same column represent no significant difference by the Tukey test at 95 % of
confidence.
adjusted determination coefficients were noticed for the Weibull Model.
Increasing the temperature of the medium reduced the processing
time up to 55 % at a same acoustic power. On the other hand, a max-
imum improvement of 40 % in the hydration time was observed by
increasing the acoustic power. Combining these two variables, hydra-
tion processing time was accelerated up to 72 %. The formation of in-
termediate complex (dried wheat-water) demonstrated to be an en-
dothermic and non-spontaneous reaction. Approximately 86 % of the
hydrated grains could germinate adequately without significant nega-
tive effect by the ultrasound on the radicle growth. They took an
average time of about 5 days for complete germination.
Additional studies are recommended to explore the effects of the
processing conditions on the enzymatic profile developed by the wheat
grains over the germination, being this information useful to meet the
adequate needs for a given application.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Bianca Guimarães: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing - original draft. Tiago Carregari
Polachini: Formal analysis, Data curation, Visualization, Writing -
original draft, Writing - review & editing. Pedro E.D. Augusto: Formal
analysis, Writing - review & editing. Javier Telis-Romero:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - review & editing,
Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the São Paulo Research Foundation –
FAPESP (Grant 2017/06518-2) and the Coordination for the
Improvement of Higher Level Personnel – CAPES (Code 001 and Grant
88887.468140/2019-00) for the financial support. The authors are also
grateful to the National Council for Scientific and Technological
Development (CNPq, Brazil) for funding the productivity grants of
P.E.D. Augusto (306557/2017-7) and of J. Telis-Romero (308567/
2017-0).
References
[1] FAOSTAT, Official Data of Wheat Production, Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations, 2020.
[2] A. Poreda, M. Bijak, M. Zdaniewicz, M. Jakubowski, M. Makarewicz, Effect of wheat
malt on the concentration of metal ions in wort and brewhouse by-products, J. Inst.
Brew. 121 (2015) 224–230.
[3] K. Mastanjević, B. Šarkanj, R. Krska, M. Sulyok, B. Warth, K. Mastanjević, B. Šantek,
transfer assessment and its influence on basic fermentation parameters, Food Chem.
254 (2018) 115–121.
[4] B. Yang, M. Guo, Z. Zhao, Incorporation of wheat malt into a cookie recipe and its
%GER effect on the physicochemical properties of the corresponding dough and cookies,
8th day LWT Food Sci. Technol. 117 (2020) 108651.
[5] S.T. Hingade, V.R. Chavan, G.M. Machewad, H.W. Deshpande, Studies on effect of
85.67± 0.02a malting on physiochemical characteristics of wheat malt and barley malt used for
preparation of probiotic beverage, J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 8 (2019)
85.34± 1.17a
1811–1813.
85.50± 2.68a
[6] D. Mridula, M. Sharma, Development of non-dairy probiotic drink utilizing
86.05± 3.97a
sprouted cereals, legume and soymilk, LWT Food Sci. Technol. 62 (2015) 482–487.
85.97± 2.15a [7] M. Świeca, D. Dziki, U. Gawlik-Dziki, Starch and protein analysis of wheat bread
85.89± 3.23a enriched with phenolics-rich sprouted wheat flour, Food Chem. 228 (2017)
643–648.
[8] A. Marti, G. Cardone, M.A. Pagani, M.C. Casiraghi, Flour from sprouted wheat as a
new ingredient in bread-making, LWT Food Sci. Technol. 89 (2018) 237–243.
[9] A. Hidalgo, V.T. Šaponjac, G. Ćetković, V. Šeregelj, J. Čanadanović-Brunet,
D. Chiosa, A. Brandolini, Antioxidant properties and heat damage of water biscuits
enriched with sprouted wheat and barley, LWT Food Sci. Technol. 114 (2019)
108423.
[10] H. Imtiaz, M. BurhanUddin, M.A. Gulzar, Evaluation of weaning foods formulated
from germinated wheat and mungbean from Bangladesh, Afr. J. Food Sci. 5 (2011)
897–903.
[11] D. Zadeike, R. Jukonyte, G. Juodeikiene, E. Bartkiene, Z. Valatkeviciene,
Comparative study of ciabatta crust crispness through acoustic and mechanical
methods: effects of wheat malt and protease on dough rheology and crust crispness
retention during storage, LWT Food Sci. Technol. 89 (2018) 110–116.
[12] O.E. Mäkinen, E.K. Arendt, Oat malt as a baking ingredient – a comparative study of
the impact of oat, barley and wheat malts on bread and dough properties, J. Cereal
Sci. 56 (2012) 747–753.
[13] A. Marti, G. Cardone, A. Nicolodi, L. Quaglia, M.A. Pagani, Sprouted wheat as an
alternative to conventional flour improvers in bread-making, LWT Food Sci.
Technol. 80 (2017) 230–236.
[14] G.R. Carvalho, T.C. Polachini, R. Darros-Barbosa, J. Bon, J. Telis-Romero, Effect of
intermittent high-intensity sonication and temperature on barley steeping for malt
production, J. Cereal Sci. 82 (2018) 138–145.
[15] P.A. Brookes, D.A. Lovett, I.C. MacWilliam, The steeping of barley. A review of the
metabolic consequences of water uptake, and their practical implications, J. Inst.
Brew. 82 (1976) 14–26.
[16] J.P.M. Biazus, J.C.C. Santana, R.R. Souza, E.B. Tambourgi, Caracterização da ati-
vidade amilásica do malte de milho (Zea mays L.), Acta Sci. Technol. 28 (2006)
13–19.
[17] E.J. Rifna, K. Ratish Ramanan, R. Mahendran, Emerging technology applications for
improving seed germination, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 86 (2019) 95–108.
[18] J. Ding, G.G. Hou, M. Dong, S. Xiong, S. Zhao, H. Feng, Physicochemical properties
of germinated dehulled rice flour and energy requirement in germination as af-
fected by ultrasound treatment, Ultrason. Sonochem. 41 (2018) 484–491.
[19] J.A. Cárcel, J.V. García-Pérez, J. Benedito, A. Mulet, Food process innovation
through new technologies: use of ultrasound, J. Food Eng. 110 (2012) 200–207.
[20] A.C. Miano, A. Ibarz, P.E.D. Augusto, Mechanisms for improving mass transfer in
food with ultrasound technology: describing the phenomena in two model cases,
Ultrason. Sonochem. 29 (2016) 413–419.
[21] J. Raso, A. Palop, R. Pagán, S. Condón, Inactivation of Bacillus subtilis spores by
combining ultrasonic waves under pressure and mild heat treatment, J. Appl.
Microbiol. 85 (1998) 849–854.
[22] A.C. Miano, P.E.D. Augusto, The hydration of grains: a critical review from de-
scription of phenomena to process improvements, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. F. 17
(2018) 352–370.
[23] T. Patero, P.E.D. Augusto, Ultrasound (US) enhances the hydration of sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor) grains, Ultrason. Sonochem. 23 (2015) 11–15.
[24] M. Yaldagard, S.A. Mortazavi, F. Tabatabaie, Application of ultrasonic waves as a
priming technique for accelerating and enhancing the germination of barley seed:
optimization of method by the taguchi approach, J. Inst. Brew. 114 (2008) 14–21.
[25] A. Yildirim, M.D. Öner, M. Bayram, Fitting Fick’s model to analyze water diffusion
into chickpeas during soaking with ultrasound treatment, J. Food Eng. 104 (2011)
134–142.
[26] S.M. Shafaei, A. Nourmohamadi-Moghadami, H. Rahmanian-Koushkaki, S. Kamgar,
Neural computing efforts for integrated simulation of ultrasound-assisted hydration
kinetics of wheat, Inf. Process. Agric. 6 (2019) 357–374.
[27] S.M. Shafaei, A. Nourmohamadi-Moghadami, S. Kamgar, An insight into thermo-
dynamic aspects of ultrasonication effect on hydration mechanism of wheat, J. Food
Process Eng. 41 (2018) e12862.
[28] J. Krapf, L. Ding, J. Brühan, L. Lorimer, G. Walther, E. Flöter, Effect of sprouting
temperature on selected properties of wheat flour and direct expanded extrudates,
J. Food Process Eng. 43 (2020) e13365.
[29] AOAC, Official Methods of Analysis, Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
Washington D. C, 2010.
[30] T.C. Polachini, A. Mulet, J. Telis-Romero, J.A. Cárcel, Influence of high-intensity
ultrasound application on the kinetics of sugar release from acid suspensions of
artichoke (Cynara scolymus) biomass, Chem. Eng. Process. 145 (2019) 107681.
[31] M.A. Margulis, I.M. Margulis, Calorimetric method for measurement of acoustic
power absorbed in a volume of a liquid, Ultrason. Sonochem. 10 (2003) 343–345.
[32] J. Raso, P. Manas, R. Pagan, F.J. Sala, Influence of different factors on the output
power transferred into medium by ultrasound, Ultrason. Sonochem. 5 (1999)
157–162.

10
B. Guimarães, et al.
[33] M. Peleg, An Empirical Model for the Description of Moisture Sorption Curves, J.
Food Sci. 53 (1988) 1216–1217.
[34] W. Weibull, A statistical distribution function of wide applicability, J. Appl. Mech.
18 (1951) 290–293.
[35] L.M. Cunha, F.A.R. Oliveira, A.P. Aboim, J.M. Frías, A. Pinheiro-Torres, Stochastic
approach to the modelling of water losses during osmotic dehydration and im-
proved parameter estimation, Int. J. Food Sci. Tech. 36 (2001) 253–262.
[36] L.M. Cunha, F.A.R. Oliveira, J.C. Oliveira, Optimal experimental design for esti-
mating the kinetic parameters of processes described by the Weibull probability
distribution function, J. Food Eng. 37 (1998) 175–191.
[37] K. Prasad, P.R. Vairagar, M.B. Bera, Temperature dependent hydration kinetics of
Cicer arietinum splits, Food Res. Int. 43 (2010) 483–488.
[38] O. Corzo, N. Bracho, C. Alvarez, Weibull model for thin-layer drying of mango slices
at different maturity stages, J. Food Process. Pres. 34 (2010) 993–1008.
[39] A. Marabi, M. Jacobson, S.J. Livings, I.S. Saguy, Effect of mixing and viscosity on
rehydration of dry food particulates, Eur. Food Res. Technol. 218 (2004) 339–344.
[40] A.C. Miano, V.D. Sabadoti, P.E.D. Augusto, Enhancing the hydration process of
common beans by ultrasound and high temperatures: impact on cooking and
thermodynamic properties, J. Food Eng. 225 (2018) 53–61.
[41] V.M. Borsato, L.M.M. Jorge, A.L. Mathias, R.M.M. Jorge, Thermodynamic proper-
ties of barley hydration process and its thermostability, J. Food Process Eng. 42
(2019) e12964.
[42] D.B. Carvalho, R.I.N. Carvalho, Influence of accelerated aging and light on the
physiological quality of arrowleaf sida seeds, Acta Sci. Agron. 31 (2009) 489–494.
[43] T.A. Mamvura, S.E. Iyuke, A.E. Paterson, Energy changes during use of high-power
ultrasound on food grade surfaces, South Afr. J. Chem. Eng. 25 (2018) 62–73.
[44] T.C. Polachini, G.R. Carvalho, J. Telis-Romero, Determination of acoustic fields in
acidic suspensions of peanut shell during pretreatment with high-intensity ultra-
sound, Braz. J. Chem. Eng. 34 (2017) 385–394.
[45] D. Fan, L. Huang, B. Li, J. Huang, J. Zhao, B. Yan, W. Zhou, W. Zhang, H. Zhang,
Acoustic intensity in ultrasound field and ultrasound-assisted gelling of surimi, LWT
Food Sci. Technol. 75 (2017) 497–504.
[46] A.C. Miano, M.L. Rojas, P.E.D. Augusto, Using ultrasound for improving hydration
and debittering of Andean lupin grains, J. Food Process Eng. 42 (2019) e13170.
[47] A.C. Miano, A. Ibarz, P.E.D. Augusto, Ultrasound technology enhances the hydra-
tion of corn kernels without affecting their starch properties, J. Food Eng. 197
(2017) 34–43.
[48] M. Ghafoor, N.N. Misra, K. Mahadevan, B.K. Tiwari, Ultrasound assisted hydration
of navy beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), Ultrason. Sonochem. 21 (2014) 409–414.
[49] S.O. Oladele, L.A.S. Agbetoye, O.F. Osundahunsi, P.E.D. Augusto, Oat hydration
kinetics at different temperatures: evaluation, model, and validation, J. Food
Process Eng. 42 (2019) e13159.
[50] S.M. Shafaei, A. Nourmohamadi-Moghadami, S. Kamgar, The combined effect of
ultrasonication and hydration temperature on water absorption of barley: Analysis,
modeling, kinetics, optimization, and thermodynamic parameters of the process, J.
Food Process. Pres. 43 (2019) e13905.
[51] P. García-Pascual, N. Sanjuán, J. Bon, J.E. Carreres, A. Mulet, Rehydration process
of Boletus edulis mushroom: characteristics and modelling, J. Sci. Food Agric. 85
(2005) 1397–1404.
[52] M. Yu, I. Cannayen, J. Hendrickson, M. Sanderson, Moisture Sorption Kinetics of
11
Chemical Engineering & Processing: Process Intensification 155 (2020) 108045
Switchgrass, Big Bluestem, and Bromegrass Biomass, T. ASABE 57 (2014)
1219–1230.
[53] A.L. Oliveira, B.G. Colnaghi, E.Z. Silva, I.R. Gouvêa, R.L. Vieira, P.E.D. Augusto,
Modelling the effect of temperature on the hydration kinetic of adzuki beans (Vigna
angularis), J. Food Eng. 118 (2013) 417–420.
[54] Y. Liu, Y. Zeng, X. Hu, X. Sun, Effect of ultrasonic power on water removal kinetics
and moisture migration of kiwifruit slices during contact ultrasound intensified heat
pump drying, Food Bioprocess. Technol. (2020).
[55] A.C. Resio, R.J. Aguerre, C. Suarez, Hydration kinetics of amaranth grain, J. Food
Eng. 72 (2006) 247–253.
[56] C. Ricce, M.L. Rojas, A.C. Miano, R. Siche, P.E.D. Augusto, Ultrasound pre-treat-
ment enhances the carrot drying and rehydration, Food Res. Int. 89 (2016)
701–708.
[57] A.C. Miano, M.L. Rojas, P.E.D. Augusto, Chapter 15 - other mass transfer unit op-
erations enhanced by ultrasound, in: D. Bermudez-Aguirre (Ed.), Ultrasound:
Advances for Food Processing and Preservation, Academic Press, 2017, pp.
369–389.
[58] A.C. Miano, V.D. Sabadoti, J.C. Pereira, P.E.D. Augusto, Hydration kinetics of cereal
and pulses: new data and hypothesis evaluation, J. Food Process Eng. 41 (2018)
e12617.
[59] N.A. Aviara, O.O. Ajibola, Thermodynamics of moisture sorption in melon seed and
cassava, J. Food Eng. 55 (2002) 107–113.
[60] D. Oulahna, A. Hebrard, B. Cuq, J. Abecassis, J. Fages, Agglomeration of durum
wheat semolina: thermodynamic approaches for hydration properties measure-
ments, J. Food Eng. 109 (2012) 619–626.
[61] T.C.V. Balbinoti, L.M.M. Jorge, R.M.M. Jorge, Modeling the hydration step of the
rice (Oryza sativa) parboiling process, J. Food Eng. 216 (2018) 81–89.
[62] J. Ding, G.G. Hou, B.V. Nemzer, S. Xiong, A. Dubat, H. Feng, Effects of controlled
germination on selected physicochemical and functional properties of whole-wheat
flour and enhanced γ-aminobutyric acid accumulation by ultrasonication, Food
Chem. 243 (2018) 214–221.
[63] K.Y. Chiu, J.M. Sung, Use of ultrasonication to enhance pea seed germination and
microbial quality of pea sprouts, Int. J. Food Scie. Technol. 49 (2014) 1699–1706.
[64] A.C. Miano, V.D. Sabadoti, P.E.D. Augusto, Combining ionizing irradiation and
ultrasound technologies: effect on beans hydration and germination, J. Food Sci. 84
(2019) 3179–3185.
[65] S.J. Goussous, N.H. Samarah, A.M. Alqudah, M.O. Othman, Enhancing seed ger-
mination of four crop species using an ultrasonic technique, Exp. Agric. 46 (2010)
231–242.
[66] V.M. Borsato, L.M.M. Jorge, A.L. Mathias, R.M.M. Jorge, Ultrasound assisted hy-
dration improves the quality of the malt barley, J. Food Process Eng. 42 (2019)
e13208.
[67] Y. Jin, K. Zhang, J. Du, Effects of wheat protein content on endosperm composites
and malt quality, J. Inst. Brew. 114 (2008) 289–293.
[68] A.C. Miano, J.C. Pereira, N. Castanha, M.D.M. Júnior, P.E.D. Augusto, Enhancing
mung bean hydration using the ultrasound technology: description of mechanisms
and impact on its germination and main components, Sci. Rep. UK 6 (2016) 38996.
[69] A.C. Miano, P.E.D. Augusto, The ultrasound assisted hydration as an opportunity to
incorporate nutrients into grains, Food Res. Int. 106 (2018) 928–935.