Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/trends-in-food-science-
and-technology

Review

Food drying enhancement by ultrasound e A review

Grzegorz Musielak, Dominik Mierzwa*, Joanna Kroehnke

University of Technology, Institute of Technology and Chemical Engineering, ul. Berdychowo 4, Poznan
Poznan
60-965, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Background: Drying is one of the most popular methods of preserving a wide variety of food and agri-
Received 19 February 2016 cultural products. Unfortunately, this unit operation may negatively influence product quality. Moreover,
Received in revised form due to the high heat capacity of water, drying is usually a long-lasting and energy-intensive process, thus
5 August 2016
new drying techniques are continuously being sought.
Accepted 10 August 2016
Available online 16 August 2016
Scope and approach: This review presents the current state of art in ultrasonic-assisted drying. Despite
immense knowledge on the principles of ultrasound generation and action, this technology has found no
practical application in industrial drying yet. In this paper we tried to find the reasons for this state of
Keywords:
Drying
affairs. Up-to-date designs of dryers using ultrasound to enhance the drying process and the various
Ultrasound possible mechanisms of accelerating the drying process with the application of ultrasonic waves are
Food discussed. The influence of ultrasound on the product's quality (dried food) is judged and described.
Product quality Key findings and conclusions: The analysis of the results presented by the researchers here allows to state
Energy consumption that applying ultrasound to drying caused a shortening of the drying time and could reduce total energy
Apparatus design consumption. Moreover, due to the small “temperature effect”, the quality of the obtained products was
noticeably better as compared to the control processes (without ultrasound enhancement). The lack of an
effective technology for generating power ultrasound in air was distinguished as the primary constraint
for industrial application of this technology. The necessity of conducting detailed studies on ultrasound
application in drying was emphasized.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Thermal processing of food is the most common method of
ensuring stability of the product. One of the methods is thermal
drying. In addition to providing microbiological stability of the
obtained products, drying also reduces their weight and volume,
which leads to a reduction in storage and transportation costs.
Drying has been used since the very beginnings of civilization, and
today it is difficult to find any branch of industry in which drying is
not applied. For this reason, drying may be regarded as a well-
known technology which does not require further development.
However, rising energy costs, increasing quality requirements
regarding the product and the necessity of protecting the envi-
ronment have resulted in increased interest in the development of
modern drying technologies (Mujumdar, 2004, 2006). There are
various ways of developing new technologies. One of these
Mujumdar (2004, 2006) calls the “technology-push”, which means
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dominik.mierzwa@put.poznan.pl (D. Mierzwa).
using a technology that was originally developed for other appli-
cations. Using ultrasound during drying is only one of the examples
of the “technology-push” process.
The idea of using ultrasound for drying is not new. According to
(Muralidhara, Ensminger, & Putnam, 1985), the first studies on the
use of ultrasound in the drying process were conducted in the
1950s by Greguss (1963) and Boucher (1959); both the sonic and
ultrasonic range. In those times the technique of sonic and ultra-
sonic drying was further developed mainly in the Soviet Union
(Kudra & Mujumdar, 2009). These studies showed that the appli-
cation of ultrasound accelerated the process without causing a
drastic increase in the temperature. For this reason, ultrasound was
especially considered to enhance the drying operation of
temperature-sensitive materials, such as food. The main drawbacks
of these primarily developed systems were: low energy efficiency
and high noise levels (Kudra & Mujumdar, 2009), thus research on
ultrasonic drying was suspended.
The development of modern, high-power, ultrasonic generators
in the following years resulted in renewed interest in ultrasonic
drying (Ca
rcel, García-Pe
rez, Riera, Rossello

, & Mulet, 2014). It was
found that ultrasounds could work synergistically with other

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2016.08.003
0924-2244/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141
techniques of drying to accelerate this unit operation. Moreover,
ultrasounds, in contradistinction to other processing techniques,
such as microwaves, gamma radiation or pulsed electric field, have
been perceived as benign by the general public, thus they may be
applied in the food industry (Kentish & Ashokkumar, 2011). How-
ever, to date the actual interactions between ultrasonic waves and
the material being dried have not been thoroughly examined. There
is also a lack of information on industrial application of ultrasound
generators that would be suitable for drying processes. Thus this

rcel
technique is still in the laboratory and in experimental stage (Ca
et al., 2014), despite the many instances of ultrasound applications
in food processing. Modern drying technology which utilizes ul-
trasounds is expected to be elaborated upon in order to fill this gap
in industrial drying (Chemat, Zill-e-Huma, & Khan, 2011; Patist &
Bates, 2008).
The aim of this paper was to present a comprehensive review of:

The actual state of art of ultrasonic applications in food drying

The modeling approaches of this type of process

The physical phenomena caused by ultrasounds during drying

The influence of ultrasound on the quality of the obtained
products.
Accordingly, the following paragraphs describe in detail the
techniques of drying assisted by ultrasound and the results ob-
tained during the experiments. A summary of the chosen param-
eters, such as the materials being tested, techniques and conditions
of drying, wave parameters and mode of ultrasound transfer, type
of determined or analyzed kinetic parameters, and the mathe-
matical models applied during the numerical simulation, are pre-
sented in Table 1.
2. Ultrasound applications
Sound is an oscillation of matter which propagates in the form of
a mechanical wave. At equilibrium state the particles of the matter
oscillate around its equilibrium position. When the mechanical
wave passes through the matter, displacement from the equilib-
rium state occurs, and such a disturbance shifts through the me-
dium. Ultimately, the system returns to equilibrium, to an
undisturbed state. Mechanical waves propagating in solids are
called ‘elastic’, while those propagating in fluids are termed
‘acoustic’ (Ensminger & Bond, 2011). Elastic waves can be trans-
mitted as both longitudinal waves (alternating compression-
dilatation stress) and transverse waves (alternating shear stress).
Acoustic waves are only of a longitudinal type (alternating fluid
pressure). The frequency of mechanical waves ranges from below
16 Hz to above 1 GHz, and allows to divide “sounds” into four
groups, namely: infrasound (1e16 Hz), acoustic (audible sounds,
16e20 kHz), ultrasounds (20 kHz - 1 GHz) and hyper sounds (above
1 GHz). An average person has a hearing range to about 16 kHz, but
this ability changes with age. Thus, a young person hears to about
20 kHz, while someone in advanced age hears only to 15 kHz. It is
generally accepted that waves ranging between 20 kHz and 1 GHz
are classified as ultrasounds/ultrasonic (Cheeke, 2012).
Ultrasounds may be generated with the use of different
methods, namely:

Mechanically (aero- and hydrodynamic)

Thermally (electric discharge)

Optically (impulse of a high power laser)

With the use of reversible electric and magnetic methods
(piezoelectric, electrostriction, magnetostriction).
Among the other methods, only two of the above-mentioned
127
have found practical application during food processing, espe-
cially in drying. At the very beginning, ultrasounds were generated
by using aerodynamic methods (e.g. Galton's and Hartman's
whistle), static and dynamic sirens, etc. Although piezoelectricity
was discovered at the end of the 19th century, by Pierre and Jacque
Curie, it found practical application only after World War II when
high quality piezoelectric materials were developed, and it became
cheap, thus generally available. Piezoelectric transducers generate
acoustic waves under the influence of the delivered current or
applied magnetic field. The efficiency of these devices (the ratio of
supplied power to generated acoustic power) is different and de-
pends on the transducer's construction.
The most popular division of ultrasounds, i.e. into low- and
high-intensity (low- and high-power or energy), results from their
applications. The essential difference between these two groups of
ultrasounds consists in the results of the waves' action. For low-
intensity ultrasounds the matter, after the waves pass, returns to
the original equilibrium state, while permanent changes occur for
high-intensity radiation and the matter reaches a new equilibrium
state. The primary purpose of low-intensity applications is trans-
mitting energy through a medium without causing a change in the
state of the medium. Low-intensity applications use frequencies
higher than 100 kHz at intensities below 10 kW/m2. Typically, low-
intensity ultrasounds are used for a non-destructive characteriza-
tion of materials (NDT), for measurements of the fundamental
properties of materials, monitoring and controlling in industrial
processes, medical diagnosis, depth sounding, fish and submarine
detection, acoustic spectroscopy and microscopy, etc. (Ensminger &
Bond, 2011). In the food industry, low-intensity waves are used
mainly to characterize the properties of food materials (composi-
tion, structure, physical state), and for process control, e.g. detec-
tion of a foreign body (Dolatowski, Stadnik, & Stasiak, 2007; Knorr,
Zenker, Heinz, & Lee, 2004).
The purpose of applying high-intensity ultrasounds is to change
the medium through which the waves propagate. The waves have a
frequencies between 18 and 100 kHz at intensities higher than
10 kW/m2. Exemplary applications of high-intensity ultrasonic
waves are welding, machining of brittle materials, sorting and
particle motion in fluids, surface cleaning, atomization of liquids,
medical therapy, sonochemistry, formation and processing of
nanomaterials, etc. (Cheeke, 2012). There are many high-intensity
applications in food processing, e.g. viscosity alteration, emulsion
generation, cell disruption, aggregate dispersion, polymerization,
degassing of liquid food, extraction of enzymes and proteins,
microorganism inactivation, cutting, improvement of freezing and
defrosting, crystallization, filtration, pasteurization and steriliza-
tion, etc. Some reviews of these applications can be found in
(Chandrapala, Oliver, Kentish, & Ashokkumar, 2012; Chemat et al.,
2011; Demirdo €ven & Baysal, 2008; Dolatowski et al., 2007;
Gallego-Jua
rez, 2010; Knorr et al., 2004; Patist & Bates, 2008;
Soria & Villamiel, 2010).
High-intensity ultrasounds are also used to enhance drying
processes, especially in food drying. Some reviews of ultrasonic-
assisted drying processes can be found in the literature (Chemat
et al., 2011; Ca
rcel et al., 2014; Kudra & Mujumdar, 2009;
Muralidhara et al., 1985; Siucin
ska & Konopacka, 2014; Witrowa-



Rajchert, Wiktor, Sled z, & Nowacka, 2014).
All of the papers analyzed in this study concern high-power
ultrasounds generated mostly with the use of piezoelectric trans-
ducers. The only exceptions are the researches presented by:
Boucher (1959), Greguss (1963), Muralidhara and Ensminger (1986)
and Muralidhara et al. (1985), in which the aerodynamic method of
acoustic wave generation was used. The main parameters that
allow to characterize the acoustic wave or source are: frequency,
wavelength, amplitude, propagation speed, phase shift, beam,
128 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141

Table 1
Ultrasonically assisted drying e description of the used material, process type and procedure parameters.

Material (cultivar) Drying Process parameters US US power, intensities Analyzed domains Modeled Reference
method transfer (frequency) parameters
ode

Apple Granny Smith) AFD 1, 2, 4, 6 m/s CL 25, 50, 75 W (21.8 kHz) drying kinetics oisture DK, De, hx
rcel,
Santacatalina, Fissore, Ca
5, 10, 15  C diffusivity Mulet, & García-Pe
rez, 2015
CV 1 m/s CL 18.5, 24.6, 30.8 kW/m3 drying kinetics structural DK, De, hx
Rodríguez et al., 2014
O
30, 40, 50, 70  C (21.8 kHz) and antioxidant properties
CV, FD 2 m/s CL 20 kW/m3 (21.8 kHz) drying kinetics moisture DK, De Ahmad-Qasem et al., 2015
60  C diffusivity antioxidant
properties
CD 1 m/s CO 75, 90 W (21 kHz) drying kinetics tructural nda Sabarez et al., 2012
40, 60  C and textural properties
25% RH
CV 1, 1.3, 1.7 m/s CO 25, 50, 100 W (20 kHz) drying kinetics oisture DK, De
rez et al., 2007
Gallego-Jua
22, 31  C diffusivity
CV 1 m/s CL 6, 12, 19, 25, 31 kW/m3 drying kinetics moisture DK, De Ozuna et al., 2014b
40  C (21.8 kHz) diffusivity tructural, Ozuna, Mulet, García-Pe
rez,
textural and acoustic Riera, & C

arcel, 2014c
properties
AFD 2 m/s CL 45 W; 19.5 kW/m 3
drying kinetics moisture DK, De
rez et al., 2012a
García-Pe
14  C (20 kHz) diffusivity
7% RH
LTD 2 m/s CL 25, 50, 75 W drying kinetics rehydration DK, De, hx Santacatalina et al., 2016
10, 10  C (21.9 kHz) 155 db hardness antioxidant
capacity phenolic content
microstructure
1, 2, 4, 6 m/s 20.5 kW/m3 drying kinetics effective DK, De Santacatalina et al., 2014a
10, 0e10  C (21.9 kHz) diffusivity
2 m/s drying kinetics shrinkage DK, De Santacatalina et al., 2014b
10, 5, 0, 5, 10  C effective diffusivity
phenolic and flavonoid
contents antioxidant
capacity
AFD 2 m/s CL (21.9 kHz) 30.8 kW/m3 drying kinetics antioxidant DK Moreno et al., 2015
10  C capacity vitamin C
retention
Apple (Braeburn) CV 70  C CO 4 mm (24 kHz) drying kinetics moisture DK, De € ssler et al., 2012a
Scho
diffusivity sonication time
shrinkage
Apple (Royal Gala) CV 1, 2, 3, 5 m/s CL 75 W (21 kHz) drying kinetics vitamin A, DK Fernandes et al., 2014
45, 60  C B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, D, E Fernandes et al., 2015
content
Apple (Lobo) CV 0.9 m/s CL 200 W (26 kHz) drying kinetics mechanical DK Banaszak & Pawłowski, 2015
75  C and acoustical properties
0.7 m/s 100 W (26 kHz) drying kinetics heat and DK, hx, EE Kowalski & Pawłowski, 2015
45  C mass transfer drying rate
energy consumption
Apple (Rubin) CV 2,3,4 m/s CL 200 W (26 kHz) drying kinetics heat and DK, hx, EE Kowalski et al., 2015
40, 50  C mass transfer color change
water activity energy
consumption
Banana CV 0.2 m/s CO 45 W drying kinetics moisture DK
ndez et al., 2015
Me
(Musa paradisiaca) 50  C (20 kHz) diffusivity shrinkage
polyphenols content
antioxidant capacity
Blueberry CV 5 m/s CL 200 W drying kinetics DK Konopacka et al., 2015
50  C (25 kHz) microstructure antocyanin
content water activity
Carrot (Nantesa) AFD 2 m/s CL 45 W; 19.5 kW/m3 drying kinetics moisture DK, De
rez et al., 2012a
García-Pe
14  C (20 kHz) diffusivity
7% RH
CV 1 m/s CL 75 W (21.8 kHz) drying kinetics moisture DK, De, hx C

arcel et al., 2011
40  C diffusivity load density
CV 1 m/s CL 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, nda nda García-Pe
rez, C

arcel, Benedito,
40  C 70, 80, 90 W (21.8 kHz) Riera, & Mulet, 2008
CV 1 m/s CL nda nda nda García-Pe
rez et al., 2006
30, 40, 50, 60, 70  C
CV 0.5e12 m/s CL 75 W; 154.3 dB drying kinetics moisture DK, De
rez et al., 2007
García-Pe
40, 50  C (21.8 kHz) diffusivity
Carrot (nda) CV 2 m/s CL 25, 50, 75, 100 W drying kinetics nda de la Fuente-Blanco et al., 2006
24-26  C (20 kHz)
30-46% RH
CV 4 m/s CL 75, 125, 200 W drying kinetics color DK Kroehnke et al., 2015
45  C change water activity
carotenoids retention
 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141 129

Table 1 (continued )

Material (cultivar) Drying Process parameters US US power, intensities Analyzed domains Modeled Reference
method transfer (frequency) parameters
ode

antioxidant activity
polyphenols content
CV 2.2, 2.8 m/s CL 100 W, 140 dB (25 kHz) drying kinetics air velocity hx Aversa et al., 2011
50  C
0.0096 kg/kg AH
CV 0.5 m3/min CL 150 W; 130e150 dB drying kinetics energy DK Khmelev et al., 2011
40  C (24 kHz) effiecency
CV 1 m/s CL 4, 8, 12, 16, 21, 25, 29, drying kinetics moisture DK, De
rez et al., 2009
García-Pe
40  C 33, 37 kW/m3 diffusivity
(21.8 kHz)
CV (A): 1.3, 1.6, 3 m/s CL (A) (A): 155 and 163 dB drying kinetics moisture DK, De
rez et al., 2007
Gallego-Jua
(A): 50, 60, 70, 83, 90, and (20 kHz) diffusivity
115  C CO (B) (B): 25, 50, 100 W
(B): 1, 1.3, 1.7 m/s (20 kHz)
(B): 22, 31  C
CV 5 m/s CL 200 W drying kinetics DK Konopacka et al., 2015
50  C (25 kHz) microstructure antocyanin
content water activity
3
Cassava CV 1 m/s CL 6, 12, 19, 25, 31 kW/m drying kinetics moisture DK, De Ozuna et al., 2014b
(Manihot esculenta) 40  C (21.8 kHz) diffusivity structural, Ozuna et al., 2014c
textural and acoustic
properties
Cherry CV 5 m/s CL 200 W drying kinetics DK Konopacka et al., 2015
50  C (25 kHz) microstructure antocyanin
content water activity
Cherry tomatoes CV 1, 2, 3 m/s CL 75 W vitamin A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, DK Fernandes et al., 2015
(Cerasiforme) 45, 60  C (21 kHz) E content carotenoids
content
Eggplant CV 2 m/s CL 45 W; 19.5 kW/m3 drying kinetics moisture DK, De
rez et al., 2012a
García-Pe
(Black Enorma) 14  C (20 kHz) diffusivity
7% RH
CV 1 m/s CL 6, 12, 19, drying kinetics moisture ~ o et al., 2010a
DK, De, SI, hx Ortun
40  C 25, 31, 37 kW/m3 diffusivity shrinkage García-Pe
rez et al., 2011
(21.8 kHz)
CV 1 m/s CL 45, 90 W drying kinetics DK Puig et al., 2012
40  C microstructure
Ginseng (nda) CV 0.5 m3/min CL 150 W; 30e150 dB drying kinetics energy DK Khmelev et al., 2011
40  C (24 kHz) effiecency
Grape pomace (Bobal) CV 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 3.0 m/s CL 3
30.8 kW/m , 154.1 dB drying kinetics moisture DK, De, hx Clemente, Sanju

rcel,
an, Ca
40, 50, 60, 70  C (21.8 kHz) diffusivity air velocity & Mulet, 2014
Grape skin (Bobal) CV 1 m/s CL 45 W drying kinetics phenolic DK, De Cruz et al., 2016
40, 50, 60, 70  C (21.7 kHz) content antioxidant
capacity
Grape stalk (Bobal) CV 1 m/s CL 45 and 90 W (21.8 kHz) drying kinetics moisture
rez et al., 2013
DK, De, EE, hx García-Pe
40, 60  C diffusivity energy efficiency
Green pepper CV 2 m/s CL 100, 200 W drying kinetics color DK
ska et al., 2015
Szadzin
55  C (26 kHz) change water activity
vitamin C content
rehydration
Guava CV 1 m/s CO 45 W drying kinetics moisture DK
ndez et al., 2015
Me
(Psidium guajava L.) (20 kHz) (20 kHz) diffusivity shrinkage
polyphenols content
antioxidant capacity
Herbs (Flos Lonicerae) CV 1 m/s CL 40, 60, 80, 120, 160 W drying kinetics distance De Liu, Sun, Miao, Li, & Luo, 2015
40, 50, 60, 70  C (20 kHz) from transducer moisture
diffusivity
Lemon peel (Fino) CV 1 m/s CL 4, 8, 12, 16, 21, 25, 29, drying kinetics moisture DK, De
rez et al., 2009
García-Pe
40  C 33, 37 kW/m3 diffusivity
(21.8 kHz)
CV 0.5e12 m/s CL 75 W; 154.3 dB drying kinetics moisture DK,De
rez et al., 2007
García-Pe
40, 50  C (21.8 kHz) diffusivity
Mango CV 1 m/s CO 45 W drying kinetics moisture DK
ndez et al., 2015
Me
(Magnifera indica L.) (20 kHz) diffusivity shrinkage
polyphenols content
antioxidant capacity
Meat CV 1 m/s CL 50 W drying kinetics DK Sawicka et al., 2015
(Longissimus dorsi) 40  C 20.5 kW/m 3

Olive leaves (Serrana) CV 1 m/s CL 8, 16, 25, 33 kW/m 3

nda nda C

arcel et al., 2010
40  C (21.8 kHz)
Orange peel (Navelina) CV 1 m/s CL 45, 90 W (21.8 kHz) drying kinetics moisture DK, De
rez et al., 2012
García-Pe
40  C diffusivity structural
properties
(continued on next page)
130 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141

Table 1 (continued )

Material (cultivar) Drying Process parameters US US power, intensities Analyzed domains Modeled Reference
method transfer (frequency) parameters
ode

Passion fruit peel CV 1 m/s CL 30.8 kW/m3 drying kinetics antioxidant DK, De, hx do Nascimento, Mulet, Ascheri,
40, 50, 60, 70  C (21.7 kHz) capacity phenolic
rcel, 2016
de Carvalho, & Ca
compounds microstructure
Peas (nda) AFD, CV 3.1, 3.2, 3.4 m/s CL 67, 68, 69, 70, 73 W drying kinetics moisture DK, De Bantle & Eikevik, 2011
6, 3, 0, 10, 20  C (20 kHz) diffusivity color
Persimmons CV 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, CL 75 W; 154.3 dB drying kinetics moisture DK,De
rez et al., 2007
García-Pe
(Rojo Brillante) 12 m/s (21.8 kHz) diffusivity
40, 50  C drying kinetics moisture DK, De, hx C

arcel et al., 2007
diffusivity mass transfer air
velocity
Pistachios (Akbari) CV 1 m/s CL 150, 300 W (20 kHz) drying kinetics DK Kouchakzadeh & Ghobadi, 2012
25  C
SD 1.18e2.06 m/s CL 500, 1000 W (20 kHz) drying kinetics drying DK Kouchakzadeh, 2013
23.3e27.1  C efficiency
24 - 30% RH
Potato (Belana) CV 70  C CO 2 and 4 mm (24 kHz) drying kinetics structural DK € ssler et al., 2012b
Scho
properties
Potato (Denar) CV 50  C CL 25 kHz drying kinetics color DK Kroehnke et al., 2014
rehydration energy
consumption
Potato (nda) CV 1, 1.3, 1.7 m/s CL (A) (A): 155 and 163 dB drying kinetics moisture DK, De
rez et al., 2007
Gallego-Jua
22, 31  C and (20 kHz) diffusivity
CO (B) (B): 25, 50, 100 W
(20 kHz)
Potato (Monalisa) CV 1 m/s CL 6, 12, 19, 25, 31, 37 kW/ drying kinetics moisture DK, De, hx Ozuna et al., 2011
40  C m3 (21.8 kHz) diffusivity mass transfer
Red bell pepper CV 70  C CO 4 mm (24 kHz) drying kinetics moisture DK, De € ssler et al., 2012a
Scho
(Annuum) diffusivity sonication time
shrinkage
FD 46 Pa CO 4.9, 6, 6.7 mm (24 kHz) drying kinetics sonication DK € ssler et al., 2012b
Scho
time bulk density color
ascorbic acid content
rehydration characteristics
Rice CV nda CL 160 dB (130, 415 Hz) drying kinetics DK Fedorov, Fedorchenko, An,
Lee, & Choo, 2010
CV 22 m/s CL 160 dB (415 Hz) drying kinetics DK Korobeinikov et al., 2008
22  C
3.5% RH
Fish CV 1 m/s CL 45 W (20 kHz) drying kinetics moisture DK, De, hx Bantle & Hanssler, 2013
10, 20, 30  C diffusivity energy
30% RH consumption
CV 2 m/s CL 25 W/kg WB (20 kHz) drying kinetics energy DK Bantle & Eikevik, 2014
20  C consumption
30% RH
LTD 2 m/s CL 155 dB, 20.5 kW/m3 drying kinetics rehydration DK, De Ozuna et al., 2014a
10, 0, 10  C (21 kHz) color texture Santacatalina et al., 2016
2 m/s
20, 10, 0, 10,  C
Strawberry CV 2 m/s CL 30, 60 W (21.8 kHz) drying kinetics moisture DK, De, SI, hx Gamboa-Santos et al., 2014a
(Fragaria x 40, 50, 60, 70  C diffusivity shrinkage
ananassa Duch) sorption isotherms
CV 2 m/s CL 30, 60 W (21.8 kHz) microbiological analysis nda Gamboa-Santos et al., 2014b
40, 50, 60, 70  C vitamin C retention Mailard
reaction rehydration
Thyme (nda) CV 1, 2, 3 m/s CL 6.2, 12.3, 18 W/m3 drying kinetics heat and DK, hx J. Rodríguez et al., 2014
40, 50, 60, 70, 80  C (21.8 kHz) mass transfer
Model food solution CV 0.3, 0.9, 1.9 m/s CL 60, 120 W (20 kHz) drying kinetics DK Beck et al., 2014
50, 60, 70  C

AFD e Atmospheric Freeze Drying, LDT e Low Temperature Drying, CV e Convective Drying, FD e Freeze Drying, CL e contactless, CO e contact, DK e drying kinetics, De e
effective diffusivity, hx e heat and/or mass transfer coefficient, SI e sorption isotherms, EE e energy efficiency, nda e no data available.

power consumption (net power), intensity, etc. Although these
parameters have a key meaning when considering different ultra-
sound systems, their detailed description is rarely mentioned in the
papers. And even if the authors usually report the frequency of the
generated ultrasound (e.g. 20 or 25 kHz), the amplitude of the wave
is frequently omitted. Moreover, the energy of acoustic waves
delivered to the material is often erroneously identified as energy
consumption of the ultrasonic system (generator). Only in a few
works did the authors consider the power of incident waves and
properly defined it as: intensity (kW/m2), acoustic power (W) or
SPL e Sound Pressure Level (dB). For these reasons a comparative
analysis of particular applications of ultrasounds during drying
with respect to the waves' properties is almost impossible. Thus,
the original descriptions of the ultrasound waves' parameters are
quoted and a detailed analysis of the different apparatuses or
process design is discussed.
 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141
3. Ultrasonic intensification of drying
In the 20th century, acoustic drying (both sonic and ultrasonic)
was carried out mainly by using whistles or sirens (Boucher, 1959;
Kudra & Mujumdar, 2009; Muralidhara & Ensminger, 1986). The
energy efficiency of these sound generators was very low, thus
acoustic drying did not find an industrial applications. The studies
showed that the application of ultrasound may greatly accelerate
the drying process without causing a noticeable increase in the
material's temperature (an increase in material temperature in the
range of 1e2 ). For this reason, the ultrasound-assisted drying
method is useful especially for temperature-sensitive materials
such as food. The materials used in these experiments were as
follows: apples, peas, cod, clipfish and rice (Boucher, 1959; Greguss,
1963; Muralidhara & Ensminger, 1986; Muralidhara et al., 1985).
The construction of a new type of ultrasound generator caused
further development in ultrasonic drying technology (Gallego-

rez, Corral, Prieto, & Vitini, 1993). The applicability of this
Jua
elaborated construction was verified during convective drying of
different foodstuffs (Gallego-Jua
rez, Rodriguez-Corral, G
alvez
Moraleda, & Yang, 1999). It is well known that the transfer of
acoustic energy from air into solid (or liquid) is difficult due to an
acoustic impedance mismatch. Therefore, in (Gallego-Ju
arez et al.,
1999), two different modes of ultrasound transfer between the
transducer and the material being dried were tested, namely con-
tactless by the air (air-borne ultrasound e Fig. 1b) and by contact
(direct ultrasound under static pressure e Fig. 1c). The application
of static pressure was to maintain contact between the material
being dried and the ultrasound transducer. It is commonly known
that most foodstuffs, especially fruits and vegetables, are highly
shrinkable products which significantly reduce their dimensions
during dehydration. For this reason it is reasonable to press the
samples down on the vibrating plate in order to ensure constant
sound amplification. The results showed that in low air velocity and
low temperature regimes, air-borne ultrasound enhancement
reduced the drying time by about 20e30%, whereas for contact
drying the authors stated only that “the drying effect was
remarkably improved”.
These studies were continued in subsequent works and were
different from previous research studies due to the:

Application of the “simple contact” method without static
pressure e Fig. 1a (Riera, Gallego-Ju
arez, Rodríguez-Corral,
Acosta-Aparicio, & Andre
s-Gallego, 2002)

Modification of the shape of the ultrasonic transducer from a
circle to a rectangle e Fig. 1b (de la Fuente-Blanco, Riera-Franco
de Sarabia, Acosta-Aparicio, Blanco-Blanco, & Gallego-Jua
rez,
2006)
Fig. 1. Configuration of the different ultrasonic e assisted drying systems: a) and b) contactless; c) contact with static pressure. CV e Convective Drying (air flow direction), Sp e
samples, Td e transducer, Vc e vacuum, SP e static pressure.
131

Development of a multi-sample drying system utilizing direct

rez et al.,
ultrasounds under static pressure e Fig. 1c (Gallego-Jua
2007; Sabarez, Gallego-Jua
rez, & Riera, 2012).
The results of these works confirmed that although air-borne
ultrasounds (contactless method) accelerate the drying process in
low temperature and low air velocity ranges, the contact methods
are distinctly more efficient, especially if static pressure is applied.
This way the drying time can be reduced by about 65e70%.
Moreover, in (Gallego-Jua
rez et al., 2007) the process was modeled
with a simple diffusion equation, and effective diffusion coefficients
were calculated for both variants of the process, i.e. with and
without ultrasound applications. An analysis of the obtained results
revealed that the use of ultrasounds resulted in a three-fold in-
crease in effective diffusivity for apple and in a six-fold increase for
potatoes. Because the authors of those studies were focused mainly
on the dryer's construction, other phenomena, such as the influ-
ence of ultrasound application on changes in the temperature of
the samples (thermal effect), drying rates, energy efficiency and
quality of the product, were not analyzed.
According to Khmelev, Shalunov, Barsukov, Abramenko, and
Lebedev (2011), low efficiency of the system utilizing air-borne
ultrasound generators may be improved by applying a special ge-
ometry of the drying chamber. The authors proposed a new con-
struction for the convective dryer equipped with an air-borne
ultrasound generator (Fig. 2). The main novelty of the system was a
drying chamber that was designed in a shape ensuring effective
propagation of ultrasonic waves in the interior. The dryer was
tested for three different drying programs in two variants: with and
without ultrasound enhancement. The experiments were con-
ducted with the use of carrot and ginseng, dried as a whole root or
cut into slices and bars. Due to ultrasound enhancement, the drying
rate increased by about 20% and energy consumption decreased by
about 20% in comparison to the control processes (convective
Fig. 2. Scheme of the dryer presented in Khmelev et al. (2011). Sp e samples being
dried, Td e transducer.
132 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141

drying without ultrasound). Unfortunately, the authors did not (air) and the higher attenuation of ultrasounds. On the other hand,
compare the obtained results with contact methods. an increase in the single batch weight with the same power of ul-
Another example of a solution employing an air-borne ultra- trasound caused higher energy absorption which diminished the
sound system to enhance convective drying of food products was a effectiveness of enhancement. Ozuna et al. (2011; 2014b; 2014c)
device that imitated a fluidized bed dryer. The novelty of the pro- found that the texture of the material being dried could also in-
posed apparatus lay in its chamber, which was directly connected fluence ultrasound effectiveness. It was found that an increase in
to the ultrasound transducer (Fig. 3aeb). In this way the chamber the surface hardness led to a drop in ultrasound efficiency. Finally, if
played the role of an ultrasonic radiator and generated an acoustic the impact of the initial freezing of material (meat) and ultrasound
field inside the drying area. enhancement during drying were analyzed and compared, it could
Such a construction was used by several authors who investi- be stated that both of these processes accelerated the drying but
gated the effect of: did not exhibit the synergy phenomenon (Sawicka et al., 2015).
The authors also conducted a detailed analysis of the drying

Air velocity (Ca
rcel, García-Pe

rez, Riera, & Mulet, 2007; kinetics based on numerical calculations (mathematical model).
Fernandes, Rodrigues, C

arcel, & García-Pe
rez, 2015; Fernandes, The “effective diffusion coefficient” was chosen as the major

rez, Ca
Rodrigues, García-Pe
rcel, & Mulet, 2014; García-Pe
rez, parameter describing the rate of drying. Unfortunately, certain
C

arcel, Benedito, & Mulet, 2007; García-Pe
rez, C

arcel, de la authors calculated this coefficient with the use of different models,
Fuente-Blanco, & Riera-Franco de Sarabia, 2006; J. Rodríguez, namely: with the Weibull model (García-Pe
rez et al., 2006), a
Mulet, & Bon, 2014) diffusion model neglecting external resistance of mass exchange

Ultrasound power (García-Pe
rez et al., 2006; García-Pe
rez, (Ozuna et al., 2014b, 2014c, 2011; Ca
rcel et al., 2007; Fernandes
C

arcel, Riera, & Mulet, 2009; García-Pe
rez, Ca
rcel, Simal, et al., 2014, 2015; García-Pe
rez, Ortun ~ o, Puig, Ca
rcel, & Perez-
García-Alvarado, & Mulet, 2013; Ortun~ o, Pe

rez-Munuera, Puig, Munuera, 2012b; García-Pe
rez et al., 2009, 2007), a diffusion
Riera, & García-Pe
rez, 2010b; Ozuna, Ca
rcel, Santacatalina, model considering external resistance (Ca
rcel et al., 2011, 2007;
Mulet, & García-Pe
rez, 2011; Ozuna, Go


mez Alvarez-Arenas, Gamboa-Santos, Montilla, Ca
rcel, Villamiel, & García-Pe
rez,
Riera, Ca
rcel, & García-Pe
rez, 2014b; J. Rodríguez et al., 2014) 2014a; Ortun ~ o, García-Pe
rez, Ca
rcel, Femenia, & Mulet, 2010a;

Air temperature (García-Pe
rez et al., 2013; J. Rodríguez et al., Ortun ~ o et al., 2010b; Puig, Perez-Munuera, C
arcel, Hernando, &
2014) García-Pe
rez, 2012; O.
Rodríguez et al., 2014), and a simultaneous

Texture of the material (Ozuna et al., 2014b, 2011) heat and mass transfer model considering external resistances

Batch mass (Ca
rcel, García-Pe

rez, Riera, & Mulet, 2011; García- (García-Pe
rez et al., 2013; J. Rodríguez et al., 2014). In consequence,

rez et al., 2006)
Pe a comparison of the results presented in these particular papers is

Initial freezing of the material being dried (Sawicka et al., 2015). quite difficult and requires a detailed analysis of the “physical
meaning” of the coefficients. Curiously, only in two works (Ortun ~o
A number of conclusions can be drawn on the basis of the results et al., 2010a; O.
Rodríguez et al., 2014) was the influence of
presented in the above-mentioned papers. First, the application of shrinkage on mass transport taken into account. Although
air-borne ultrasound accelerates convective drying, thus resulting neglecting shrinkage in other models allows to simplify the cal-
in a reduction in the drying time (c.a. 50%) and energy consumption culations, it is a serious shortcoming for highly shrinkable products
(c.a. 27%) (Ortun~ o et al., 2010b). Drying acceleration was found as a such as fruits and vegetables. Some authors additionally deter-
linear function of the power of the applied ultrasounds (García- mined the coefficients of: mass (C
arcel et al., 2007; García-Pe
rez
Pe
rez et al., 2009, 2013, 2006; Ortun ~ o et al., 2010b; Ozuna et al., et al., 2013; Ortun ~ o et al., 2010b, 2010a; J. Rodríguez et al., 2014)
2014b, 2011; J. Rodríguez et al., 2014). An increase in the drying and heat transfer (García-Pe
rez et al., 2013). Once again, the results
air velocity caused a decrease in ultrasound efficiency due to dis- of these calculations explicitly depend on the used model (García-
turbances in the ultrasounds' field pattern (Ca
rcel et al., 2007; Pe
rez, Ozuna, Ortun ~ o, Ca

rcel, & Mulet, 2011).
García-Pe
rez et al., 2006, 2007; J. Rodríguez et al., 2014). A critical Generally, it can be concluded that the diffusion coefficients
threshold of about 4 m/s, above which there is no notable impact of calculated by a model that takes into account external resistance
the ultrasounds, was determined (Ca
rcel et al., 2007). The increase are usually more than two times higher as compared to those ob-
in temperature (García-Pe
rez et al., 2013; J. Rodríguez et al., 2014) tained by a model that disregards external resistance. A similar
and batch mass (Ca
rcel et al., 2011; García-Pe
rez et al., 2006) also inconsistency can be observed in the calculated moisture (mass)
resulted in a decrease in efficiency of ultrasound enhancement. The transfer coefficients. The model that considered the external re-
higher the temperature, the lower the density of the drying agent sistances showed an increase (due to ultrasound application) in this

Fig. 3. Scheme of the apparatus working as fluidized bed dryer: a) and b) with transducer directly connected to a drying chamber; c) with sonotrode placed inside the chamber,
below the material being dried. CV e Convective Drying (air flow direction), Sp e samples, Td e transducer.
 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141
coefficient, from 13% - drying of persimmon (Ca
rcel et al., 2007) to
230% - drying of eggplant (Ortun ~ o et al., 2010a; Puig et al., 2012).
Meanwhile, the simultaneous heat and mass transfer model
revealed, caused by ultrasound, an increase in the heat transfer
coefficient (ca. 65%) and no change in the moisture transfer coef-
ficient (García-Pe
rez et al., 2013). These inconsistencies suggest
that the results must be regarded as qualitative rather than quan-
titative. It must also be stated that this increase in diffusion co-
efficients as induced by ultrasound and calculated using the same
model (i.e. the model taking into account external resistance)
strongly depends on the type of material. The influence of ultra-
sound on this parameter is reported from “not significant” - drying
of olive leaves (C
arcel, Nogueira, García-Pe
rez, Sanjua
n, & Riera,
2010), to about 40% - drying of carrot (Ca
rcel et al., 2011) and
140% - drying of apple (O.
Rodríguez et al., 2014), to 210% - drying of
eggplant (Ortun ~ o et al., 2010a; Puig et al., 2012).
A similar construction of a dryer, as described in the previous
paragraph, was also used for finishing drying of apples that had
previously been treated with the water solution of olive leaf poly-
phenols (Ahmad-Qasem et al., 2015). The aim of the research was to
analyze the influence of ultrasound on the kinetics of convective
drying and on the retention of polyphenolic compounds that have
antioxidant properties. It was found that the applied enhancement
affected neither the drying kinetics nor final polyphenol retention.
The results of the research also indicated that ultrasound should
not be used to re-dry (finishing drying) materials due to the low
efficiency of enhancement.
Kouchakzadeh and Ghobadi (2012) also used a vibrating cylin-
der as a drying chamber. In the presented solution the vibrating
drying chamber was filled with a packed bed of material (pista-
chios). In this way, ultrasound was transferred to the material
directly, so this method can be considered a contact one. Two
powers of ultrasound were analyzed in fixed drying conditions
(1 m/s, 25  C). Unfortunately, the authors did not refer to any
comparative process (without ultrasound), so the effect of
enhancement could not be determined. On the basis of the ob-
tained results the authors stated that the power of the applied ul-
trasound had a meaningful influence on the kinetics of the process.
The higher the power of the ultrasound, the faster the drying and
the shorter the time of the process. A dependency was noticed
between enhancement efficiency and the power of the applied
ultrasound. The authors also focused on selecting the best thin-
layer drying model (e.g. Newton, Page, Pabis & Henderson, etc.)
describing the kinetics of the processes being conducted. According
to the results of statistical parameter analysis, the logarithmic
model could be used to describe pistachio drying.
In (García-Pe
rez, Ca
rcel, Riera, Rossello
, & Mulet, 2012a;
Moreno, Mulet, Mas, Rosello
, & C
arcel, 2015; Ozuna, Ca
rcel,
Walde, & García-Pe
rez, 2014a; Santacatalina, Contreras, Simal,
C
arcel, & García-Pe
rez, 2016; Santacatalina, García-Pe
rez,
Rossello
, Mulet, & Ca
rcel, 2014a; Santacatalina et al., 2014b), the
technical solution utilizing a vibrating cylinder as a source of air-
borne ultrasound was used to improve atmospheric freeze drying.
The application of ultrasound in negative temperatures of ambient
air was considered due to the increase in density (simultaneously a
drop in ultrasound attenuation) of the drying agent that led to
higher overall efficiency of the enhancement. Moreover, drying at
low temperature caused minor deterioration of the quality of the
products. The authors tested different materials, such as carrot and
eggplant (García-Pe
rez et al., 2012a), apple (García-Pe
rez et al.,
2012a; Moreno et al., 2015; Santacatalina et al., 2014a, 2014b,
2016) or salted cod (Ozuna et al., 2014a). The obtained results un-
equivocally exhibited a very positive effect of ultrasound
enhancement. Regardless of the material that was used (charac-
terized by a different structure), significant drying acceleration was
133
observed in enhanced ultrasound processes. The drying time was
reduced by 65e70%, the moisture (mass) transfer coefficient
increased 2e3 times while the effective diffusion coefficient
increased 5 times.
Ultrasound-assisted atmospheric freeze drying was also inves-
tigated by Bantle and co-workers (Bantle & Eikevik, 2011; Bantle,
Eikevik, & Grüttner, 2010). In these studies a heat-pump fluidized
bed dryer was modified with an ultrasonic transducer as a source of
air-borne ultrasound (Fig. 3c). Zooplankton species, cod, apple
(Bantle et al., 2010) and peas (Bantle & Eikevik, 2011; Bantle et al.,
2010) were used as the experimental materials. The results of these
studies revealed that the ultrasound caused an increase in the rate
of drying by 6e17.5% and improved the system's energy efficiency
by 3e11% (Bantle et al., 2010). An increase in the effective diffusion
coefficient (modeled with the Weibull equation) in ultrasonically-
aided processes was in the range of 5e14% (Bantle & Eikevik, 2011).
The same system was used for drying of codfish with different
temperatures of the drying agent, namely 10, 20 and 30  C (Bantle
& Eikevik, 2014; Bantle & Hanssler, 2013; Bantle, Hanssler,
Tolstoreblov, & Eikevik, 2012). It was found that “the initial mois-
ture content after 100 h was reduced to 60% in the conventional
drying process (without ultrasound) and 56% in the drying process
with ultrasonic assistance” (Bantle et al., 2012). This means that the
effect of ultrasound was rather small. The authors also calculated
the increase in the drying rate in particular processes. According to
the results, the increase was equal correspondingly to: ca. 40% at
the beginning of drying and 20% at the end. Despite the fact that
these values do not correspond to the total acceleration of the
process (which is equal to ca. 5%), the results suggest that ultra-
sound should be used at the beginning of drying. Further studies
(Bantle & Hanssler, 2013) confirmed that the duration of the initial
period of drying could be reduced, by 91.5, 32.2 and 8.3% in drying
at 10  C, 20  C, 30  C, respectively, if ultrasound was applied. These
observations additionally proved that the increase in the drying
agent temperature negatively influenced the efficiency of the ul-
trasound enhancement. In order to comprehensively describe the
drying kinetics, the authors applied a modified Weibull model and
a Fick-type equation. Both models showed that the effective
moisture diffusion coefficient increased via the action of the ul-
trasounds. The energy efficiency of the processes was analyzed on
the basis of these results (Bantle & Eikevik, 2014). It was stated that
the energy efficiency of the ultrasound-assisted processes was
lower as compared to the reference ones (without ultrasound). The
difference was particularly noticeable for the heat pump dryer.
Such results may follow from the significant difference in the effi-
ciency of the devices used: an ineffective ultrasound generator and
a highly effective heat pump. What is interesting is that the thermal
effect of the ultrasounds was observed during the experiments. The
temperature of the material increased 4e7 over the ambient
temperature due to the action of the ultrasounds (Bantle & Eikevik,
2014; Bantle & Hanssler, 2013).
The only example of the application of ultrasounds during
(vacuum) freeze drying can be found in the work of Scho €ssler, Ja
€ger,
and Knorr (2012b). In this case the ultrasound system consisted of
an ultrasound processor with two sonotrodes attached to a solid
profile stainless steel ring via a titanium thread bolt (Fig. 4b). A
stainless steel screen mesh with an aperture of 500 mm, which
served as the sample holding and sound transmitting surface, was
soldered on the ring (Scho €ssler et al., 2012b). The sieve generated
compressional stress waves in the material being dried, so the
method should be regarded as a contact one. Red bell pepper was
used as the experimental material. The authors analyzed different
drying times (4, 8, 12, 16 and 24 h) and different excitation ampli-
tudes of the ultrasounds (4.9, 6.0 and 6.7 mm which refer to 76, 90
and 110 W of consumed energy, respectively). It was found that
134 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141
€ ssler and coworkers: a) convective dryer (Scho
Fig. 4. Scheme of dryers utilized by Scho
transducer.
continuous ultrasonic treatment resulted in a very high thermal
effect (the temperature increased over 50  C), which lead to a loss
of the frozen state. Therefore, intermittent sonication was applied
in subsequent experiments. This modification allowed to reduce
the thermal effect and the maximum temperature increase was
equal to only 5 . In the best schedule of drying, intermittent soni-
cation at 10% net sonication time applied allowed to shorten the
freeze-drying time by 11.5% (Scho € ssler et al., 2012b).
A similar construction (Fig. 4a) was used during convective
drying of apple and red bell pepper (Scho €ssler, Ja
€ger, & Knorr,
2012a). The drying system consisted of an oven (hot-air drying)
and an ultrasonic sieve (generating shear ultrasonic stresses in the
material). The authors analyzed different variants of ultrasound
application (continuous and intermittent) at fixed drying condi-
tions (70  C, amplitude of the ring 4.2 mm and of the sieve 6e13 mm,
power consumption of the ultrasonic system 42 W). Ultrasonically-
aided processes were compared to the control trials done without
ultrasounds. It was observed that the ultrasounds reduced the
drying time by about 18e27% depending on the type of material
(apple or pepper), variant of the process (continuous or intermit-
tent) and the value of the desirable moisture content (20 or 30%).
Calculations of effective diffusivity, based on thin-layer drying
models (Page, Newton, Pabis & Henderson etc.), revealed an in-
crease in this coefficient both in the constant and falling drying rate
period (Scho € ssler et al., 2012a). It is worth noticing that
Fig. 5. Scheme of laboratory cabinet hybrid dryer: 1 e blower, 2 e AUS controller, 3 e AUS amplifier, 4 e heater, 5 e air outlet, 6 e AUS transducer, 7 e pyrometer, 8 e rotatable pan,
9 e drive, 10 e balance, 11 e microwave generators, 12 e control unit.
€ ssler et al., 2012a), b) vacuum freeze dryer (Scho
€ ssler et al., 2012b). Sp e samples, Td e
intermittent sonication (at a 50% net sonication time) resulted in a
similar effect on the kinetics of drying as the continuous use of
ultrasounds. Because it is reasonable to assume that energy con-
sumption was smaller in the case of intermittent sonication, the
obtained results vary from the economic point of view.
Another dryer design allowing to use ultrasound for drying
enhancement was described by Kowalski and Mierzwa (2015) and
Kowalski and Pawłowski (2015). The design comprises a kind of
cabinet dryer which allows drying by using two different tech-
niques: convective and microwave, separately as well as in different
combinations (hybrid processes). The apparatus is equipped with
an Airborne Ultrasound System (AUS) developed by Pusonics S.L.
(Spain). Ultrasound is applied to the material being dried through
the air (air-borne). The scheme of this technical solution is pre-
sented in Fig. 5.
The following processes have been analyzed so far:

Ultrasound-assisted convective drying of potatoes (Kroehnke,
Musielak, & Boratyn
ska, 2014) and apples (Banaszak &
Pawłowski, 2015; Kowalski & Mierzwa, 2015; Kowalski &
Pawłowski, 2015; Kowalski, Mierzwa, & Stasiak, 2015;
Mierzwa & Kowalski, in press)

Ultrasound-assisted convective drying of apples pre-treated
with ultrasonically-aided osmotic dehydration (Mierzwa &
Kowalski, in press)
 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141

Ultrasound-assisted convective-microwave drying (hybrid pro-
cesses) of carrots (Kroehnke, Radziejewska-Kubzdela, Musielak,
& Stasiak, 2015) and green peppers (Szadzin
ska, Łechtan

ska, &
Kowalski, 2015).
In all of the studied cases the application of ultrasound during
convective drying resulted in a shortening of process duration. Yet
the impact of ultrasound application on the rate of convective-
microwave drying remains ambiguous. For green pepper, the dry-
ing rate was improved by the ultrasounds (Szadzin
ska et al., 2015),
while for carrots the acoustic waves did not influence the rate of the
process (Kroehnke et al., 2015). The application of ultrasounds
during convective drying of osmotically dehydrated apples also did
not meaningfully affect the overall rate of the process (Mierzwa &
Kowalski, in press).
Additionally, the kinetic curves obtained during the experi-
mental stage were simulated in (Kowalski & Pawłowski, 2015;
Kowalski et al., 2015; Mierzwa & Kowalski, in press) with the use
of a global model as proposed by Kowalski (2015). The procedure of
determining the model parameters, particularly the heat and mass
transfer coefficients, and the element describing the ultrasound
source of energy (absorption) were presented in (Stasiak, Musielak,
& Kowalski, 2015). The obtained results show that the ultrasounds
improved both transfer coefficients (Kowalski & Mierzwa, 2015;
Kowalski & Pawłowski, 2015; Kowalski et al., 2015). Another
important feature of the drying process is its energy efficiency.
Although it is obvious that the use of ultrasound requires an
additional power feed, a reduction in the drying time in ultrason-
ically aided processes may diminish energy consumption in com-
parison to control convective drying (Kowalski & Mierzwa, 2015;
Kowalski & Pawłowski, 2015; Kowalski et al., 2015; Kroehnke
et al., 2014; Szadzin
ska et al., 2015).
A slightly different construction of the dryer is presented in
Fig. 6. Likewise as in the previous example, this apparatus allows to
dry using the convective and microwave technique, with or without
ultrasound assistance. The difference between these two devices
consists in the type of sample holder. The dryer presented in Fig. 6
is of the drum type, so the samples are blended intensively during
the drying operation. Moreover, for this device the maximal mass of
a single batch is equal to 2 kg, while in the previous case it is about
0.5 kg. The ultrasounds are generated with the same system,
namely AUS delivered by Pusonics S.L.
A similar construction of a hybrid (convective-microwave) dryer
was presented in (Konopacka, Parosa, Piecko, Połubok, & Siucin
ska,
2015). The main differences between these designs are the di-
mensions of the drying chambers and the directions of the ultra-
sounds applied to the material being dried. Additionally, the device
presented in this paper allows for instantaneous injection of chilled
Fig. 6. Scheme of drum hybrid dryer: 1 e blower, 2 e AUS controller, 3 e AUS amplifier, 4 e microwave feeders, 5 e heater, 6 e pneumatic valve, 7 e air outlet, 8 e pyrometer, 9 e
drum drive, 10 e microwave generators, 11 e balance, 12 e rotatable drum, 13 e AUS transducer, 14 e control unit.
135
air into the drying chamber (intermittent drying). The dryer was
tested in two configurations: as a rotary (batch load: 1 kg of carrot
cubes) and a tray dryer (batch load: 0.25 kg of carrot cubes). The
first test showed a very small effect of ultrasound application.
Water evaporation from the material was improved by about 3%.
Differently, the second test revealed a large improvement of the
drying rate due to the ultrasounds. The amount of water evaporated
during the initial hour of the process was about 60% greater for
ultrasound-assisted drying in comparison to clear convective
drying.
Aversa, Van der Voort, de Heij, Tournois and Curcio (2011) pre-
sented quite a simple design for a drying system. It consisted of a
convective oven equipped with a rectangular steel sheet acting as a
vibrating element (ultrasound transmitter), placed 10 cm above the
samples (Fig. 1b). In this way air-borne ultrasounds (with an in-
tensity of 140 dB) were applied to the material being dried. Carrot
slices of three different diameters were used as the experimental
material. Two velocities (2.2 and 2.8 m/s) at a fixed temperature
and absolute humidity of the drying agent (50  C and 9.6_103 kg/kg,
respectively) were tested. The authors studied the influence of ul-
trasounds on the heat transfer coefficients which were calculated
on the basis of an energy balance applied to the constant drying
rate period. It was found that the ultrasounds caused an increase in
the heat transfer coefficients, and the range of improvement was
between 12 and 44% depending on the material size and air ve-
locity. The experiments showed that the heat transfer coefficient
rises along with an increase in the air velocity and a reduction of
the sample's diameter. The best results were obtained for the
smallest samples dried at the highest air velocity. It should be noted
that this result is contrary to the results of the above-mentioned
studies (C
arcel et al., 2007; García-Pe
rez et al., 2006, 2007; J.
Rodríguez et al., 2014). However, the authors did not provide any
information about the mass of a single batch. If the load was very
small (e.g. a single slice), then the effect of the air flow could pre-
dominate the positive influence of the ultrasounds.
An interesting technical design was proposed in (Beck, Sabarez,
Gaukel, & Knoerzer, 2014), in which the authors modified a dryer
presented in (Gallego-Jua
rez et al., 2007; Sabarez et al., 2012). They
exchanged the vibrating plate on a specially designed horn for air-
borne ultrasound transmission (Beck et al., 2014). The distance
between the sonotrode and the material being dried was constant
and equal to 40 mm. The model food system (water solution of
cellulose, starch and fructose) with thermo-physical properties and
a composition similar to those of plant-based foods was used in this
study (Beck et al., 2014). The influence of temperature (50, 60 and
70  C), velocity (0.3, 0.9 and 1.9 m/s) and relative humidity (10, 30
and 50%) of the drying agent and power of ultrasound enhance-
ment (0, 60 and 120 W) on the kinetics of the process were studied.
136 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141
Because the experiments were designed with the Response Surface
Methodology (RSM), the parameters were analyzed in given pairs:
air temperature versus air velocity, ultrasound power versus air
temperature or humidity or velocity. On the basis of the obtained
results the authors stated that:

Both the drying rate and effectiveness of ultrasound enhance-
ment increase along with an increase in air temperature and
ultrasound power. The reduction of the drying time was equal
to, respectively: 21% at 50  C and 79% at 70  C with ultrasound
power 120 W. This is in contradiction with the results in (Ca
rcel
et al., 2007; Gallego-Jua
rez et al., 1999; García-Pe

rez et al., 2006,
2007; J. Rodríguez et al., 2014), but the authors did not explain
this phenomenon.

Increasing ultrasound power and decreasing relative air hu-
midity causes acceleration in drying. However, the fastest drying
was not at the extreme (boundary) parametric level, but at
approximately 90 W of ultrasound power and 25% relative air
humidity. The first phenomenon was explained by the forma-
tion of a turbulent jet between the tip of the sonotrode and the
material where the sound intensity was dissipated. The influ-
ence of relative humidity was not justified but only commented
on: “Low relative air humidities may limit the efficient transfer
of the ultrasonic waves…” (Beck et al., 2014).

Above a certain power level of ultrasound (ca. 80 W), its effec-
tiveness and drying acceleration decreases regardless of the
flow velocity. “Below that value, both air velocity and ultrasound
power accelerated the drying process…” (Beck et al., 2014). This
was not explained in detail by the authors but the statement can
be related to the above-mentioned “turbulent jet”.

No impact of air flow velocity on the effectiveness of ultrasound
enhancement was observed. However, the authors referred to
the work of C
arcel et al. (2007) in which the horizontal flow was
analyzed and the critical value of velocity was designated at 2 m/
s. In this study the perpendicular direction of the flow was
applied and the maximal value of this parameter did not exceed
the critical value found by Ca
rcel et al. (2007).
The experimental results were also approximated with a
second-degree polynomial function. In this way the authors tried to
find the optimal drying conditions. According to the calculations,
the predicted drying time usually differed from the experimental
values. The discrepancies varied. from 8.4% (drying at: 60  C,
0.095 m/s, 30% RH, ultrasound 30 W) to þ48% (drying at: 70  C,
1.9 m/s, 34% RH, ultrasound 117 W), which was two times shorter
than the drying time obtained experimentally for extreme drying
conditions. Such a wide range indicates rather poor suitability of
the proposed numerical tool.
The application of ultrasound during the drying of banana,
mango and guava was also studied by Me
ndez, Orrego, Manrique,
Gonzalez, and Vallejo (2015). Although the method of ultrasound
transfer to the material was not precisely described, a reduction of
the drying time due to ultrasound ranged from 30% (mango)
through 32% (banana) to 47% (guava). What is interesting to note is
that although ultrasound enhancement was applied periodically,
i.e. only for 5 or 10 min per every hour of the process, noticeable
differences between pure convective drying and ultrasonically-
assisted processes were observed.
With the exception of drum dryers presented in Fig. 6 and
(Konopacka et al., 2015), all of the above-mentioned dryers worked
on a laboratory scale. A semi-industrial ultrasound-assisted solar
dryer was examined by Kouchakzadeh (2013). It consisted of a
2  2 m flat plate equipped with two bolt-clamped Langevin type-
transducer elements. The dryer worked under open sun conditions.
The tested material were pistachios (scattered in a mono layer).
Ultrasound application resulted in a reduction of the drying time
from a few days (solar drying) to 4 or even 2 h depending on the
ultrasound power. According to the author's calculations, the
application of ultrasound resulted in a two- and three-fold
improvement of the drying efficiency for an ultrasound power of
500 and 1000 W, respectively.
4. Mechanisms of ultrasonic process acceleration
The drying process is a complex moisture removal operation
from a solid matrix and involves simultaneous heat and mass
transfer. From the kinetic point of view the drying rate may be
controlled by: external resistance, internal resistance or, in the
most complex case, via a mixed system (internal-external). To
determine which kind of resistance controls the drying operation
we need to estimate the Biot number (Bim) for mass transfer, i.e. the
ratio of external to internal mass transfer. For food products the
following assumptions can be drawn (Kahveci & Cihan, 2007):

Bim < 0.01 - externally controlled drying

1 < Bim < 100 - drying controlled with both internal and external
resistances (mixed)

Bim > 100 - internally controlled drying
During externally controlled drying (Bi > 100), mass transfer
inside the material can be neglected (uniform moisture distribu-
tion) and the rate of the process is limited by mass exchange be-
tween the surface of the material and the drying agent. In the case
of drying that is partly or fully internally controlled, the moisture
distribution in material is non-uniform, thus mass transfer inside
the material cannot be neglected. In extreme conditions (e.g. at the
end of the second, “falling drying rate” period), the rate of the
process is entirely controlled by moisture transport inside the
material, therefore drying is very slow and long-lasting. Drying
processes of food material can mostly be assumed as internally
controlled ones. Due to many factors (e.g. complex composition and
structure, high critical moisture content induced by shrinkage and
deformations, changes in the surface of the heat and mass transfer,
etc.), the first, “constant drying rate” period where the external
resistances control the speed of drying is very rarely observed.
Similarly, the Biot number can be determined for heat transfer
(BiT). In this instance it constitutes the ratio of heat transfers done
by conduction and proceeded by convection. High values
(BiT > 100) indicate that the conductive resistance controls the heat
transfer, and the temperature inside the material is not uniform.
Consequently, a small Biot number (BiT < 0.01) represents the case
where conduction resistance is negligible and the temperature
gradients in the material can be neglected.
Due to the different interactions with the material being dried,
the ultrasound may influence both external and internal resistance
of mass and heat transfer. Despite many papers on topics of ultra-
sonically assisted drying of food products, particular mechanisms of
drying enhancement have been weakly discussed and confirmed,
and many ambiguities are still present in the literature. For this
reason, the obtained results frequently remain in contradiction to
one another.
The authors of the articles reviewed here proposed a number of
different mechanisms that could result in ultrasonic acceleration of
the drying process. It is obvious that ultrasounds transmit their
energy to the material being dried. Part of this energy may be
dissipated by the attenuating matter, thus causing a “heating effect”
in the form of a temperature increase (Kowalski & Mierzwa, 2015).
The effect was particularly observed in freeze drying (Scho € ssler
et al., 2012b). Continuous ultrasound treatment of red bell pep-
pers during drying caused a temperature increase by even more
 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141
than 50 , which resulted in a loss of the frozen state of the material.
The authors investigated an intermittent ultrasound application
and obtained a temperature increase that was lower than 4 when
ultrasound was applied for only 10% of the overall net time. The
thermal effect was also observed in low temperature drying of
clipfish (Bantle & Hanssler, 2013). The observed temperature rise
due to ultrasound application varied between 7 and 15 , and the
magnitude of changes depended on the temperature of the
ambient air. The lower the drying temperature, the greater the
“heating effect” was observed. The thermal effect is usually weak
(García-Pe
rez et al., 2012a; Kowalski & Mierzwa, 2015) or not even
observed (Kowalski & Pawłowski, 2015; Kroehnke et al., 2014).
During drying, moisture is transported within the material be-
ing dried to its surface (internal moisture flux) and then discharged
to the environment through the boundary layer of the drying me-
dium (external moisture flux). Both of the above-mentioned fluxes
could be enhanced by ultrasound. For the internal flux, many au-
thors have shown an increase in the effective diffusion coefficient
due to ultrasonic application, which means that the mass transfer
inside the material was accelerated. Such an increment may result
from two phenomena:

Changes in material structure and/or properties

Dynamic interactions with the material being dried.
The first phenomenon may arise from both a spatial modifica-
tion in the structure of the material (geometry) and changes in the
physicochemical properties (such as viscosity, surface tension,
adhesion force). Visible and meaningful spatial changes of the
material structure were observed via microscope analysis and re-
ported for: orange peel (García-Pe
rez et al., 2012b; Ortun ~ o et al.,
2010b), eggplant (Puig et al., 2012) and apple (O.
Rodríguez et al.,
2014; Sabarez et al., 2012; Santacatalina et al., 2016). It was noted
that the use of ultrasound resulted in greater damage to the ma-
terial structure in comparison to samples dried without ultrasound
enhancement. The authors, among others, observed: loss in tissue
coherence, breaks in cell membrane and wall, formation of
microchannels, increase in porosity, etc. Additional information
about changes in structure can be drawn from the analysis of the
rehydration process. It is generally assumed that impairment of the
internal structure of food products influences both the rehydration
rate and ratio. An analysis of the rehydration of: potatoes
(Kroehnke et al., 2014), green pepper (Szadzin
ska et al., 2015), cod
(Ozuna et al., 2014a) and apple (Santacatalina et al., 2016) indirectly
confirmed structure changes due to ultrasound application.
Banaszak and Pawłowski (2015), on the basis of texture analysis
(acoustic emission during compression tests) also confirmed that
the structure was changed by ultrasounds. On the other hand, it
was found in (Scho € ssler, Thomas, & Knorr, 2012c) that the change in
the potatoes' structure was only close to the surface and had no
influence on mass transport. The authors measured the leakage of
ions from the cells of the material being dried and stated that only
the directly sonicated cell layer was injured by the ultrasounds. The
deeper tissue layers did not undergo cell injury.
Other phenomena follow from the dynamic interaction of ul-
trasounds on the material being dried. The simplest of the above-
mentioned reasons is alternating the tension and compression of
moisture (liquid) in the material being dried (stiff solid) with the
predominance of one of these interactions. This can induce the
movement of moisture. Also, during drying the ultrasonic waves
produce successive compression and expansion of the solid part of
the material. This phenomenon is the so-called “sponge effect” due
to the similarity to squeezing and releasing a sponge. The forces
involved in this mechanism can be higher than the surface tension
which maintains the water molecules inside the capillaries/pores
137
(Corre ^a et al., 2016), thus the “sponge effect” may promote mois-
ture transfer from the interior to the surface of the sample.
The next dynamic phenomenon that may affect the effective
diffusion coefficient is cavitation. The ultrasound wave passing
through the fluid medium causes an alternating increase and
decrease in local pressure. Because the boiling temperature of a
liquid is strictly connected with the pressure, a sudden drop of this
parameter may induce local boiling of the liquid phase. As a result,
vapor bubbles are created and increase prior to cavitation. These
bubbles remain until the pressure of the surroundings is lower than
their surface tension. When the surrounding pressure exceeds the
surface tension of the bubble it implodes, with an accompanying
violent (local) increase in temperature (to thousands  C) and
pressure (to hundreds atm). Such a violent local increase in tem-
perature and pressure causes: heating, micro-stirring and the for-
mation of micro-stream. There are many papers in which the
authors mentioned that these phenomena may influence the dry-
ing kinetics. Some indirect confirmation of the above-mentioned
dynamic interactions can be found in the following papers
(Ozuna et al., 2014b, 2014c, 2011). It was also found that the
effectiveness of ultrasounds is somehow correlated with the
texture of the material, but this has not been confirmed experi-
mentally so far.
It is obvious that ultrasound may also influence the external
resistances of heat and mass transfer. Many authors have reported
that ultrasound enhancement has a positive effect on heat and
moisture transfer between the material surface and the sur-
rounding air (Kowalski & Mierzwa, 2015; Kowalski et al., 2015; Puig
et al., 2012). Yet only one paper (Bantle & Hanssler, 2013) presents
experimental studies on the influence of ultrasound on the heat
transfer coefficient in special series of experiments (heating and
cooling of an aluminum plate). It was stated that the ultrasound
caused an increase in this coefficient in the case of heating and a
small decrease during cooling of the material.
Various mechanisms may cause such an effect. Pressure pulsa-
tions could increase the turbulence inside the boundary layer and
reduce the layer thickness. It is worth noticing that both heat and
mass transfer through a boundary layer are done by the slowest
mechanism, i.e. conduction. If the thickness of the boundary layer is
reduced, the heat and mass transfer proceed more effectively.
Moreover, alternating compression and rarefaction could improve
diffusion through the boundary layer. Fluctuations of pressure close
to the material surface could also promote circulation flows of va-
por with the predominant direction outside the material. The
breaking of vapor bubbles (cavitation) close to the liquid surface
could cause a decrease in surface tension and promote moisture
evaporation. A number of additional mechanisms may be consid-
ered, however, it is extremely important to experimentally confirm
and discuss reliably considered phenomena.
5. Influence of ultrasound on product quality
In the case of food products, quality is a critical parameter which
determines the suitability of a given processing procedure (e.g.
drying). Unfortunately, almost all processing procedures somehow
influence the quality of products. The authors of the reviewed ar-
ticles studied the effect of ultrasound application on various pa-
rameters describing the quality of the material being dried.
Generally, these parameters can be divided into two categories:
physical and chemical ones.
A truly important physical parameter of dried food is its water
activity. This factor informs us about the availability of water as: a
solvent, reagent or an environment favorable for the growth of
microorganisms (including pathogenic ones). High water activity is
advantageous for all deteriorative processes (oxidation, enzymatic
138 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141
and non-enzymatic reactions) and for the growth of bacteria, fungi,
molds, yeasts, etc. (Toledo, 2007). In (Kowalski et al., 2015) it was
found that ultrasound application caused a slight decrease in the
water activity of dried apple. Kroehnke et al. (2014) reported that
ultrasound did not influence the water activity of dried potatoes.
The same results were obtained for ultrasound-assisted convective
and microwave-convective drying of carrot (Kroehnke et al., 2015)
and for the drying of apple (Mierzwa & Kowalski, in press). A
positive effect of ultrasound application on water activity was ob-
tained for convective and microwave-convective drying of green
pepper (Szadzin
ska et al., 2015).
The color of the products is a very important parameter and
constitutes one of the key-meaning (or even decisive) factors taken
into account when judging the product's quality. Color, next to
smell/odor, is one of the first stimuli which arrive in the human
brain even from a far distance. On first observation the customer is
already able to accept or reject the presented product. Moreover,
due to the lack of specialist devices or time, color, smell and tactile
feelings are usually the only test tools to judge the quality of most
food products such as fruits, vegetables, bakery products, etc.
Bantle and Eikevik (2011) reported no influence of ultrasound
application on the color of dried green peas. Similarly, Scho €ssler
et al. (2012b) stated that ultrasound did not influence freeze-
dried red pepper. On the other hand, Mierzwa and Kowalski (in
press) obtained a decrease in total color change of dried apples
after applying ultrasound. They found that the ultrasound shifted
the color of the dried samples to different shades of red. Similarly,
Kroehnke et al. (2014) obtained a significant decrease in the total
color change of dried potatoes due to ultrasound. A positive effect
of ultrasound on color change was also obtained in the case of
convective and microwave-convective drying of carrot (Kroehnke
et al., 2015) and green pepper (Szadzin
ska et al., 2015). Some ef-
fect of ultrasound on the color of low-temperature dried cod was
reported by Ozuna et al. (2014a). Unfortunately, in this study a
change of color as compared to the fresh sample was not observed.
However, the differences between the color of ultrasound-assisted
and purely convective dried cod were imperceptible, but it was
stated that ultrasound promoted an increase in the lightness and
yellow shades of the cod.
Another relevant physical quality factor is food texture. Proper
texture parameters of the product are required due to tactile
sensation or bite ability. The hardness of convectively dried apple
was measured by Sabarez et al. (2012). It was stated that slightly
smaller hardness characterized samples that had been dried
without ultrasound as compared to those processed with ultra-
sound, but the differences were not significant in comparison with
the standard deviations of the results. The hardness of low-
temperature dried cod was investigated in (Ozuna et al., 2014a). It
was found that the ultrasound caused a decrease in the hardness of
all of the samples, both dried and after rehydration. The hardness of
low-temperature dried apple was measured by Santacatalina et al.
(2016) by simple compression tests. A decrease in hardness due to
ultrasound application was observed at a temperature of 10  C, but
the hardness of apple dried in 10  C was not influenced by ul-
trasound. Banaszak and Pawłowski (2015) studied the influence of
ultrasound on Young's modulus, mechanical strength, brittleness
and crispness of dried apples. They conducted compression tests on
dried apple chips and observed acoustic emission during trials. The
results showed that both strength and Young's modulus for mate-
rial being dried rose due to ultrasound application. Ultrasound-
assisted dried chips were more brittle and less crispy as
compared to samples dried with pure convective drying.
The next physical parameter describing dried food is its rehy-
dration compliance. Gamboa-Santos et al. (2014b) reported no
differences in the rehydration ratio between ultrasound-assisted
and pure convective drying of strawberries. Similarly, Scho €ssler et
al. (2012b) stated that ultrasound did not influence rehydration of
freeze-dried red pepper. However, Kroehnke et al. (2014) obtained
that both the rate and the ratio of rehydration for potatoes
increased due to ultrasound application. The same results (rehy-
dration rate and ratio improvement) were achieved in the case of
microwave-convective drying of green pepper (Szadzin
ska et al.,
2015), low-temperature drying of salted cod (Ozuna et al., 2014a)
and apple (Santacatalina et al., 2016).
If the chemical parameters are considered then it can be stated
that most of the authors focused on determining the nutrients,
vitamins and antioxidant retention. Gamboa-Santos et al. (2014b)
analyzed vitamin C retention during convective drying of straw-
berries. It was observed that although overall ascorbic acid reten-
tion after drying was quite high, ultrasound application caused a
slightly higher loss of this compound. A similar result was obtained
for atmospheric freeze drying of apples (Moreno et al., 2015), in
which ultrasound caused a significant degradation of the ascorbic
acid. However, Scho € ssler et al. (2012b) obtained that ultrasound did
not influence vitamin C degradation in freeze-dried red pepper.
And, finally, in (Szadzin
ska et al., 2015) an increase in vitamin C
retention in green pepper was reported for processes enhanced
with ultrasound. The retention of vitamins A, B1þB2, B3, B5, B6, D
and E during convective drying of apple was investigated in
(Fernandes et al., 2015, 2014). It was stated that convective drying
increased the amount of available B1þB2, B3 and B6 vitamins,
decreased the amount of B5 and E, and did not significantly influ-
ence the amount of vitamins A and D. Generally, on the basis of the
results in the papers presented here the correlation between ul-
trasound application and vitamin retention cannot be justified. The
influence of ultrasound could be either positive (mostly in a lower
drying temperature) or negative (mostly in higher drying temper-
ature), but there was no unequivocal dependency between the
analyzed parameters.
Another important group of food ingredients are natural color-
ants, such as carotenoids, anthocyanin, etc. Kroehnke et al. (2015)
analyzed the retention of carotenoids after convective and
microwave-convective drying of carrots, with and without ultra-
sound enhancement. It was obtained that ultrasound application
positively influenced retention in material being dried convectively
and could also improve carotenoid retention in microwave-
convective dried carrot. On the other hand, Konopacka et al.
(2015) stated that ultrasound application had no influence on the
final content of anthocyanin in dried blueberries.
The other analyzed chemical parameters of food products were
antioxidant activity and total polyphenol content. It was shown
(Kroehnke et al., 2015) that the antioxidant activity of carrot sam-
ples was improved due to ultrasound application, both for
convective and microwave-convective drying processes. However,
the results obtained for polyphenols did not reflect this improve-
ment (Kroehnke et al., 2015). Moreover, it was stated that ultra-
sound application reduced the total polyphenol content. The loss of
antioxidant capacity, total polyphenol and flavonoid content during
convective drying of apples were also investigated by O.
Rodríguez
et al. (2014). It was found that the loss of antioxidant capacity de-
pends both on the drying temperature and on ultrasound appli-
cation. Applying ultrasound at a lower temperature of the drying
agent resulted in a decrease in antioxidant capacity, meanwhile, at
a higher temperature it resulted in an increase in this parameter's
value. It was also observed that ultrasound enhancement caused a
decrease in the total polyphenol and flavonoid content indepen-
dently of the drying temperature. Low-temperature drying of apple
was also investigated in (Santacatalina et al., 2014b; Santacatalina
et al., 2016). It was stated that ultrasound caused a decrease in all
of the investigated parameters, i.e. antioxidant capacity, total
 G. Musielak et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 56 (2016) 126e141
polyphenol and flavonoid content. Ultrasound application during
the drying of mango, banana and guava (Me
ndez et al., 2015)
caused a reduction in both the antioxidant activity and total poly-
phenol content of these materials. A slight reduction in antioxidant
potential due to ultrasound application was also observed in at-
mospheric freeze drying of apples (Moreno et al., 2015).
Last but not least, ultrasound could also inactivate enzymes and
microbes. In the case of food materials, quality or rather product
safety are the major factors which determine the product's suit-
ability and market value. Enzymes and microorganisms alike are
responsible for many deteriorative processes, thus it is extremely
important to reduce their activity (Toledo, 2007). As was stated
previously, almost all negative bio-chemical conversions and the
activity of pathogenic microorganisms may be reached due to a
reduction in water activity. But it was also found that the applica-
tion of ultrasounds led to inactivation of enzymes and microbes
(Alzamora, Guerrero, Schenk, Raffellini, & Lo
pez-Malo, 2011;
Bermúdez-Aguirre, Mobbs, & Barbosa-C
anovas, 2011; Dolatowski
et al., 2007; Mawson, Gamage, Terefe, & Knoerzer, 2011).
Gamboa-Santos et al. (2014b) analyzed the microbiological quality
of strawberries just after drying and after six-month storage. Total
aerobic bacteria, enterobacteria, aerobic and anaerobic sporulated
bacteria, mold and finally yeast counts were then investigated. The
obtained results did not reveal any significant differences between
the considered variant of drying (convection with and without ul-
trasound enhancement). All of the processes ensured appropriate
microbiological stability of the obtained products.
6. Final remarks
A review of the actual state of art of ultrasonic-assisted drying
was presented in the paper. All of the results show that the appli-
cation of ultrasounds may significantly influence the drying ki-
netics, but the final effects depend on the:

Ultrasound application mode (contact or contactless)

Acoustic power/intensity

Drying technique (convective, microwave, freeze-drying, etc.)

Drying conditions (temperature, velocity and relative humidity
of the drying agent)

Type of material (structure, texture, etc.).
Proper selection of the drying technique and the process's pa-
rameters allows to increase the drying rate significantly, which
obviously results in a shortage of the overall drying time. In
consequence, the energy efficiency of the process can be improved
leading to lower energy consumption.
Moreover, on the basis of the papers analyzed here it can be
stated that the application of ultrasound does not influence the
product's quality. Most of the quality parameters considered here
were not affected by acoustic waves (water activity, vitamin con-
tent) or exhibited positive changes (color, antioxidant volume,
hardness). A very positive effect of ultrasound enhancement is the
inactivation of enzymes and microbes. Such a phenomenon leads to
an increase in product stability and safety due to the slowing down
of decay processes.
A number of different mechanisms that can result in ultrasonic
acceleration of the drying process were proposed. It can be
assumed that supplementary ultrasonic effects, such as moisture
and vapor migration improvement, boundary layer reduction,
evaporation and sublimation improvement, changes in structure
and properties (density, viscosity, etc.) of the material and others,
have contributed to drying enhancement. However, further cogni-
tive studies in the field of ultrasonically assisted drying are neces-
sary to identify the contribution of different effects induced by
139
these mechanical waves.
Ensminger and Bond (2011) identified the factors that appear to
hinder large-scale applications of high-intensity ultrasonic energy
as follows:

Competition from other, less expensive methods

Scale-up problems

General lack of information, training and equipment developed
for the proposed application.
In the case of the drying industry, the lack of an effective tech-
nology for the generation of power ultrasound in air was distin-
guished as the primary constraint ahead of large-scale application.
Although the construction of a new type of ultrasound generator
renewed interest in the application of ultrasound during drying

rez et al., 1993), this technology has not found practical
(Gallego-Jua
application in industrial drying yet. Large-scale acceptance of high-
intensity ultrasonic processes in the industry depends on
(Ensminger & Bond, 2011):

Design simplicity

The unique capabilities offered

Utilization of localized reaction zones

Operational simplicity.
However, the developed solution meets almost all of the above-
mentioned requirements but the efficiency of the generator is still
too small. An effective impact on the material being dried, at an
industrial scale, demands the use of a large number of transducers,
which would raise both investment and operating costs. An inter-
esting alternative could be the contact (method) of providing ul-
trasound. This way of ultrasound transmission was found as more
effective in comparison to the contactless one, i.e. air-borne ultra-
sound (Gallego-Jua
rez et al., 1999). There are several factors which
hinder wide application of this solution, namely:

The great “heating effect” due to friction between the processed
material and the ultrasonic sieve, which, for example, may lead
to loss of the frozen state

Difficulties in construction (e.g. coupling between the trans-
ducer and sieve)

The requirement of applying many transducers to attain suitable
acoustic power (phase lock problem)

The deteriorative influence on product quality (e.g. mechanical
destruction of the outer skin due to friction)

Hygienic requirements specified for the processing of food
products

Other.
The discussion on the suitability of ultrasound in food processing
(especially for drying) is still open and many new papers are deliv-
ered each year. Almost all of the published works have considered
the laboratory-scale solutions, however, attempts of large scale
application are frequently reported. This gives hope that the effec-
tive use of ultrasound in the food industry is only a matter of time.
Acknowledgments
This study was conducted as part of research project No. PBS1/
A8/13/2012 funded by the National Centre for Research and
Development in Poland.
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