1 Microstructure of Ceramics ne ofthe mai princi inciples on which thi itoduction to ceramics it bases that the properties of ceramic products ae deernad aaa by the compostion dnd ststre ofthe pases present hat ae ay taxman of he phe. The ate dtbain or merece {hel wae depends on the lit abaton ecm oe eee ‘sed, pas-euiviam aloo and ines of hae ene at ow ad sintering. In chape teeing ees ae of different systems are discussed. “ « MA Characters of Microstar The observation and interpretation of micros istry in eoigy et Many ofthe mt te so ony argh ad crams. Man fhe mt al 1910-18, 20 that this is by no scans a new sbjest Howe es evelopment in techrgues andthe understanding of fac oeey Understanding factor ae lcosructre development have provided a mare Sie pine what the structure sacl Ikea utr interprctonot tveige “Thecharacteristics of mierostov that canbe determined aide amber an ietieation of pases present, ining porosity (he itive amount ofeach fae presen, tad (3) carseeny of ek ‘Phase, sch a size, shape, and einai, “ «temic Staying Meroe.” Many diferent tchigis ot studying miconructirehave ben wee wo ost widely ted ope it aeration of thn scion wh tamed Tet servations of polished section withrefcted igh. Thimsectio’ rete {Heh ping trough secon ats fob Os nee ‘esti prepared by cating atin se of mae, pasha igh ie toa microscope side and then ging ced seg MICROSTRUCTURE OF CERAMICS 0 ‘eather side to obtain a section ofthe required uiform thickness. The feo i advantageous in thatthe optial properties of each phase ‘event canbe determined andthe phases thus wente. I sues rom fae main disadvantages: fs, specimens are ait to prepare, and, ‘sen, the inva rains in many fnegrined ceramic materials are Siler ie size than the section thickness, which lads to confsion, Fartelay for those who are aot expers. In general, considerable ‘prence enecesary toute thin-aection techniques to best advantage Pashed sections ae usualy prepared by mounting acu specimen in ‘elie oF Lucite plastic and then grinding aod polishing one face ‘oath, using a svies of abrasive papers followed by abrasive powders ‘cloth wheels Polished surfaces can be observed dieetly wih Fefected {Bit ie& metalurgical microscope to dstingish pore stucture and, a sone ceramics, to distinguish diferences i relief or reflectivity between ‘Stereo phases. Usually, however, diferent phases are best distin bisbed after chemical cichiag. When the sample is subjected to a fhenial reagent, some phases are more rapidly attacked than others ‘i toundares ae ual the mos! rapidly dissolved. Resting der. {cs ine an surface roughness allow a Sitnston amonathe phises| reset Plihed sections are advantageous in that they are relatively {35 to prepare and are simpler to interpret, particularly for besinner Pass present cannot be denies by thir optical properties but ean be “singished and sometimes ented by ther etching characlerscs Suube etchants munt be developed for each cass of mater. As Te i, te Sa eestor heen eee ee i ae mean intercept oath £ = LeJNe i 8 ‘acterize pate size. For ath ies 4 sphere a0) Lode so Lam wot aun andthe thickness # of pate-shaped phase Lau plate au In addition, for spacefling esis, since L= UN, and P= Nu the fice area per unt volume is Bven DY 2p, =2N, =? ay Svo2P. =2m +} ar seperated pte, P, =2No, and sy 72P, =4N, = a8) isthe ether important parameter in determining sat dteibuio moet inane twee prles by the mean eOso-edae dance Se eine benecn the pris or phe. tv DY - a aus ® ‘is val i elated to the mean intercept length: Euove 136 soi the mean spacing beeen particle emer is S, aun 180 rmmopuctioy ro cenawes Thus, rom eltively simple methods of point souning and a nals ot ony he volume rston af ey presen bus on ei intormation aout ther size ad aca dtbton con be Jama From s itogrm of the mean tet lng,» cll ea pate dstution canbe mae eetenoe I). Spec pes ss necetary in vlutog nonrandom orenedand enamels non ircterenes and 3 rosy tantaive meaner’ of he porosity peseatisone the charities of eras foes by compacts pow sno ‘The ores can occa In widely Seren se, hopes and hbo nd guanitatv haters ot ays snp in ny ete ‘est ends se ole section with Uns aes nas Tag tm eecive method for tats, ema prceat, scar ae ‘Series and probe shouldbe more dey ed tha as eel Fes Thevmain dices wih th veciine ace ase ow tively soft specimen that ste ditt potsh md) sacs hich wns tend to pil et dorng pong oth mening oD Talos Test, Plshing tof pecans canbe doe sso nore the sample With» rn Plot a ddl paces ial caused by eiferenens in consiacet hrdnens or by mest mosey aks gs nth same Hane ie use high eb at encostages ult team be cones Uy as Ssitably ard abrasive fr posting amoné pond for exalt hard at pling seraceMirostesae or mtseutes ae ets sce oti halo woot iv) sna ‘eves. Pllus that oer ope feel posing cae nef the Best inetons that mirotesses and microersa pres. Denti The sie ships, dtrbton, an amout of he t,t can be deesined rom themiron Tae ol pores canst Imeasured by determining the bak etaly ps os Sante ‘iho Yolme, incising pre) and omjing ts wl i eosy tl weve of sl), Thee es Sometines iti convenient to measse bulk density as the tation theoretical density acheved. lin 21 = fo “The te density canbe dterained realy for a single-phase mate ‘but not so esily fora polyphase materi. For crystalline sa ensty en be calculated from the crystal scr a ats coma since the nomic weight fr each constien s Known, This lel | cu, ‘ude lasrte in Chater Tre density ea ln be determined by ‘Searing porte samples wth a igla having a kaown density. For fines and snl ental this ean be done by welhing the materi inst athe suspended ins iui, determing the volume by Archimedes feta can be done more pretisly by adjusting the composition or nperatre of ll column ist to balce the density of the sod So SM nether sik nor rier ut remsinn suspended i the guid. For fhe are no resdul cose pores, and the dewsity i then determined by ‘ke pyenometr method. The sample pt in kown-volme pyar ‘ote and weighed: then quid is aaed to give Known volume of| Sui pls voli and snnther welsh aken To ensure penetration the ‘hd among apres, the sumple an quid should be bold or heated ter vacuum The sifterencs in weighs oblined give the hg ‘ome th subtracted from the total pyenometr volome to give the ht sample vlune from whieh the denuty canbe sleulted. The bulk density of porous Bosesreuites determination of the total sdune of old pls pores. For Smples suchas bck his ean be done by ‘Sopes bulk Jenity can be determined by measuring the weiht of ary (eof any other nonseting lid tht does not penetrate the ors) coplaced bythe sample With «mercury volumeter, o he force feed to submerge the sample (Achimedes” metiod) For small ‘ples bulk density can aso be determined by cotig the sample with ‘3 ierencs so thatthe lm volume is known, Then the volume othe ‘snp plo fm can be detemjned by Archimedes method and the Spe Volume measured by diflerence. The Total porosity cat be ‘ecmined a he sume tne the opengore volume is measured by fs Setine» spl nat Wz and them esting in bong water for Phe to Webeopen pores completely with water After cooling the We ofthe saunsed pce i determined (1) suspended ip water Wa (2) nai Ta The ference tween there lst ty vas per the sample ‘oie’ and llows escultion of the bulk density. The eifernce eset sturated and dry weighs gives the oper-pre volume, (Open Prony. Varous methods have been devised for hurting ‘open pores by trating them as capilaries and deterining thet tssle! diameter from thera of id ow through them othe extent Stich guid mercury am be forced ito ther Inthe merry mab, faexample, the samples placed a contaler and evacuated nd then ecary faded and pressure applied. THe presse necessary tO fee mercury nto a capiry depends on the contact angle and surfacers IntmonverioN To cExasncs tension discussed in Chaper 7) nd, according to Lesrivin igi by patroose_ a ad ce ete P isthe pressure ken, dis the pre dometr (miro, ste surface tension of mercury, aod @ is the contact angle Latter a ‘sites. As the pressure is increased, smalersie pores ste persened Their amount is measured by the decrese ofthe aparcat eles mercury pls sample. The result stained is eistlguton of See sass characteristic ofa parieuar materia. Average por sae fot Porosity vary from less than 8 micron for clay snd athe fas eon bodies to the millimeter range for some coarse textured retrenceae 11. Taxa Writeware Compions A wide range of tadional ceramic compositions, the bas for much the whiteware industry, Is mixtures of ey, feldspar, and fig Tg compositions include hard poredlain for aware, ablewase, visto, Sanitary ware, electrical poreelan,semivteous tableware, het eee est poten, and thes Table 112) typial composition soaks ‘onsiered equal parts of china ly, bal clay, feldspar nad fit, lee, Tale 112, Composono Teal Whitevare Campton (Chinn Ball Pek Type Bly hy Cy spar ist te ove 1 har porn owe me Cove Mdeccliuinton vie ids aL Geos Birney ware ate (Cone 12 deta alton BEM i] (one 10 ise i a Sxtemivimwame 8 3H By te 10 bea shina BB asvmen Cane 10 et hing uw pm & Seca Cone 10 ert porn ar (Cone etl alton B 0S % rue Pan Bt. Crm 48 (98H, bi pri in esa rt Sisticmetiemns eimaentememe ania pre Etna cist moet ely Ea scan dagen x\ Campin, Type compotion ngs fo een ype (tous re tated oe sllereche-muie pas dag a Pe iste compton arte rely vad Ht tyr tices y arith learned, On 5 agam these tave a Sec hnped teeth The mn ete ta tong cooporios ar ete rae ans ta Hat ier Arete aon eer ‘ro gd formed he set tempore ness, wiow -srmoDucToN To cenamics ton proceeds at a ower taper, thee is mor ald pees a fcr visieton and hips tances ape ota Ae fay Sled by ey hither temertrs as fees fr vecae oy {he fring proces becomes moe ical and espace at forming process become eset, andthe essa #20 ced oper fh esling bay at inproved The umount aon eee iid te mst purty regs ree mine mae fia ormng tsi we el ‘content is required. oa Consiighe ifrntcompostos sated io Tate 1.2 ad 115, dental porelns req higherransceney ab aaa sal snp shapes so tat high lpariw cy cemousea anise. conan hard prechin ata and ee ek e forme nto complicated hw shapes by had trove ad sp cating. For succentl forming hmastet amet, Chim clay bas reltely ge pares ted mae ying stings andy song) st white uring bale es arises Gigh pli, ying tenkage sy seen ae Erer amounts of impure wich mule kes eee oa owt bonig Atlee atv ty ming ance easly a Fmt sce frm. Fo automate ne mony a thse wed fr Ancrcan bol chin and aie tee tnt of tal cay ae mcd Conpetions ach ooo ena Celene ot cen eo ier fermig setae eee A ance dese wich nd fo the mest economic oo Sa lrg inviual manufac coo i nb, bedy ined ee 25) to form bt al th sae tine cane res ito dice ee tet cared to comple vivian, tha avn problems oP ek bet temperature, high ing shia and warns Changs arog Fig The changes ht eeu the tree oa ‘ll pores ding ring ope fo a rem onc oa eels - ey LIASI0, isa ted derieaise of fequrt, and these phases are ones tenimealy occuring in glass-ceramics. Variations ia the amount of ming changes inthe alka on content are common. ‘Spell properties of gass-ceramics can be developed when sheet ses, primary thse ofthe fuorine mica fami, ae precipitated ste tne pave inthe pase-ceramic body. Such glasceramics containing fare than 65 1070 vol mica can be machined to cose tolerances if the ‘pect ratio of the crystal are lpge enough fo eatse contact between then. The dstabe machinabity i assoclated with basa cleavage ofthe ‘a crystals, because of relatively weak bonding Between the ars, abdors with the lieuty of fracture propagation across the basal plans Fractures therefore flow te crystal boundaries, causing detachment individual crystals or small eroups of cyst. Figte 1125 shows a Crystals having low an igh sapect alos in glass-ceramic bogies. Te novice thigh spect al rere toa an teeing hae ands stractre, ha the more desirable properties. MICROSTRUCTURE OF CERAMICS ss Feat Simin of 810,380, cr indi 20 _ Tate rocetooneschang tenatining cused in Chapter sCinemirouructres whi rel fom owenchange Westnet of a pels shown in Fig. 1126. gat ceramle body in the MgO-ALO,SiO, tc and cristata the stale crystallin phase exchanged in a LiSO. bath at 1007C. Ip the BLI"= Me exchange, the phase asremblage in he near-surface region assforms successively toa f-quartz solid soluson and then to 4 Drpodunene solid solution asthe L* concentration inteass1.9. Petrie and Magnetic Ceramics ‘The general category of electrieal and magnetic ceramics i one ht inclaes a wide range of compositions and sructurs, Most cam terse can be teed ae eletial insulators or for other electra Purposes. The composition tit ls most widely wed for low-seqron Inslators are eaxa porcelains already discussed in Seton 113. Gane, are also widely sed for electial-nsltion purposes. Fr low foes a Nattrequenoy applications state, forsterite, and shimina Ceram te a 1hf ee he xan ces fenealy used. Reactions occuring ving fring nd the phase compos fiom ofthese materials have Been disused in Chapter 7 ‘Stet compoiions ate general lise of iletcs which onl stent, or tales a major constituent. They are extensively sed fe Fhrequeney insulators besause oftheir good strength, rly Ahelectreconstan, andi dlectrc lores, Two main phases te pee {nthe fred ody (Fie 1127). The crysalne phase ie enstatie wh fsppears se small drete prismatic crytlites in lassy wats Tt Iigh-emperture eguliriam form is protoentatte, which comers ‘linoenstatiteon cooling, The conversion inhibited by the eas | SrhlchRolates the individual eye, and large ryt are some ‘more spidly than small ones. The presence of ge crystals sari properties, since they tend to crack, owing to diflernces in expan fvecientbetweenthe crystals and pissy mtr usated inFig a lctical properties of ststie ceramics ar argey determined by mount and composition of the sassy phase. Triana porcelain coe Considerable amount of alles devve frm the felispar tod as tx This leads to bigh electcal conductivity apd high dielectric los, State potelains that have felnpar ded ax an aid in fring iso have icosraucrURE OF CERAMICS so Sere lost, The low-loss composition are early alkalifee, using Sine earth oxides av fusing consents. Fonte ceramics have thie material, M.S. a8 he major crystalie ‘Alc bonded with glery mate The crystals are pismati and uty Eins in sie than the ensuite crystal preseat im steaite. A typical stciue has been ilvtated in Fe. 733. Dilerences among vations tenpostons depend forthe ost parton the amount of slasy phase fron Foster ceramic ar particulary useful a lo los delectcs EBesens in which the thermal expansion coeficent must be ible for ‘taleermic bonding ina ceramics have AKO, a the erytalie phase bonded with» ‘easy matin Insome bodies the sumina ha prismatic habit wheres In ‘Serre are ner pheridal, The fctrscontraling esa bit ‘Seto completely uaderstood a typieal meroseucture i steated In Fie .28. The properties obtained depend in are parton the amon nd Fenetes ofthe ghsey phase, whichis usally alkalifee, being om fran rom mixtres of ely, tac, and alkaline earth faxes. The ing apertre of alumina ceramics i rentively high The body must be ‘tly compounded for satisfactory rests. The main imperfection is ‘ese porsity the pore sze sully ager ha thatthe nvidal bins of raw aerials tned and renuts from poor forming or ring tteigis. The main sdvantages of alumina ceramis usally ven ateek Heb prep ye Sor oc mor Ahoy Sutsesmoohnes depends age parton gaat For uttalow-loss applications particularly where lage energy tranfr tea ctenc guid, windows or biggoered Satins re {Stepan wet alumina by sintering pute fine-grained materi athe old stat at ‘rtempernutesStroctres obtained are iealy fin-rained with ite Phsty Fig 0.76) Frequently, secondary erytalization occurs at he Bee tbaperatnes wed so tat structures suchas thos illustrated in Be lott arc obtained The main effect of increased grain ize storedvce ‘Sent has ite effect on electrical properties. a cppatons in which very high dielectric constants are required ee eect conten stn tt or barom at (letric constant ‘Sexson ceramics ave used in tana ceramics TO, is the major elu pac with small mut of fuses suchas in oxide added 10 Fraga phar a the Gring temperatures. The resulting sre | ‘Satta of ig, 7.1 Baru itanite bogies nocmally consis ently ‘Faywalige BaTiO, The individual eystas in a poyerytaline sample seam atipe. domains of diferent ferroelectric oriemations (ce Gupte 18) which ave cleariy dsungushed on etching (Fig. 1.30) Frucnty, some secondary exystalization cece during fring (Fi. aD.‘eos te eb hoy Ce) Gn Re Bev Magntis ceramics ate ideally composed of a single crymaline hue ‘having a composition determined by the magnetic properties csid (FeNIFeO., BaFeO>, FeMnFeO., and so Toth; see Chapter 19 an fold phae sintering secondary recrystalizatin may ocr (allt Fig 1015. ‘As shown forthe Fe-O system in Fig 79, the dese single paseo imapnstie,FeOq occurs ony aver a linited range of oxen cote orresponding to limited range of oxygen pressure. This also treet ther magne Tete phases, and in production all manufacturer cst the oxygen peste ving fring o ensure obtaining the desied magne ‘properties normal fo a particular compos {otha found by RE. Carter for Ni (ig. 1.32) Diferences inthe expansion coefficient ofthe two pte a to cracking of the ferrie and have an averse elect on the magne pyopertes obsind 11.10 Abrasives Abrasive products have as ther esentilcontitent hard phase ht provides many invita parses with sharp eating edges bong 1a, Morne fl ee, Bh ps vie pi en rom ae cele 6 sa ete) Cay 8 rs Swe ae Sion: etree Setadua we eon ene Cosy ECethane ante hase hols these particles ina mre of porolty provides channels for a For the hard abrasive pain eter sally used. Aluminum onde o oles ght, anda certain amout ro gud Rew through the strctee minum oxide or slicon arise ais ate tougher than silicon cris pisranc wear mote slowly, butthey are not quite so har. Seon carbide {sareharder and morestiiactor for grinding hard materials bt tend ‘iacueinuseso at thelifeof he abrasvels shore. Ineither abrasive ‘nBiual rains ate bonded to wheel o paper or cloth witha strength ‘gern onthe proposed se Is desirale that grins beak out of the teedmateria once they hecome dl Bond mateilsnche fired ceramic fer and a variety of oceanic resin andres. Fired eramic bonds are ‘vey har, provide for lone life, cam be seed at high speeds ‘tfc and account forthe major pat of srinding-wheel prdcton. ‘Ro mater what hard grain and bond material are used, the overall set simia o those ilistated in Fi 1.3 in which secon of 5 ‘Sens cbse wheel and an aluminum oxide wheel are shown. Int he ‘Bove rin ate held tether with» lasy bond wich determines the ‘Save hardness ofthe lndivdual whee, The alumina product usrated (SF 11336 has greater svength and hardess than the sicon catbide ‘el which iat ge proportion of abrasive rain 9 bond Ibo he ‘2ctre of the wheel is open with a large voi fraction to provide for ‘eet cooling etherby sir eurrentsorguigcoolants ring the srnsing ‘penton This slsoalows grins oracure and beak ff athe become a1 Cement and Concrete Aside variety of cementitious material ae used for diferent purposes ‘adel in much deta The one that of most economic importance and is ‘os widely used i portland cement highatumina cement, cet fond, ‘Suse for felractory purposes. Portland cements manufactured ineotary {inn sing varoos raw materia to give an overall ompostion in which ‘Be major resulting constituents are trealeium slate, 3Ca0 SiO and ‘eeu sieste,1Ca0' SiO, The products made na roar furnace and Shtered under sch condilons tha fraction ofthe charge becomes Fai pase. The transformation occurring inthe dicalcim silicate on Dpifcolingcauressrocient volume change t give rite odin, hat ‘eshown in Fig. 1134 In aditon tothe major dicalium sate and rac scat pases, which are the base matvials present there are teqenty smaller amount of tieslciom aluminate, 3C20+ AsO brow ier (approximately €C20:AK0,Fe,0), some CaO, some MEO, and fs Tae amounts, composition, ané morpholosy of the minor phates Fete depend great deal onthe raw’ material wed and conditions for Sintering. Aluminous cement has mich hiherslumin content (aprFoX! ‘tl 40AL0, 80C20, THD, TPO, FeO, and five other oxides) and‘ingen process forms amc more Aid au phase which ives elo the mame meld cement. The main constituents ia the clinker ae utele SC30'3A1.0m monocalcim sluminate, C20-AL 0, an umiate, Ca0-2A1{0. The unstable SC30'3AK0, prosably sypoxinate composition 6CA0-4A1.0; FeO'Si0 “be euction wit water the ciker forms a complex hydrated product hich a cementitious material. The main cementitious proddct that fens isa nonceytaline calcium scat gel esting from the tricalcim ‘Seated icaleum sate present in he clinker material. Alongwiththe ‘lcm ssate hydrate calcium hYroxige formed a by-product and ‘Son dondeinthesir or water valble to form cteum carbonate. The fling stricture ofthe gel se formed after reaction is iwested Simpied form in Fig. 1138. 1a the gel phate sf there te pore spaces teteen the individual gel partes fn addon, there sre large residual tila pores remaining from the excets water coatentreqied to form Secement and plceitsatsfactorly. This excess capillary porosity should etepta low as posible the optinum mechanical properties fom the e135 Singtel mae ft conn re ce showing alee pel rtlaundegay cone om Povey! am Cet 105once an ageeeateofcushel tone gnount of prot present prtsaary capita pony aoe Ses masa pens Pa es ene Js sontast porand cement, which fons toate et ate having good ahesve properties to bond sree age, Tews cpl aept opt newly ees “ass rope eS fs ern ly oe Sys ad then eed by veyron: ome BY aig Canton: €250.2110 = casouitU0 +0 Rebyéraion: —— cas0eiH0+3H0= CaSO ‘Beinn ry pee ate ibe om fe nedes tat ung wc coepans io eke aragonite at ‘fiat strenath. The amount of residalperosty deren aes deter presenta the oii mis. A the water cotetisinrese the ‘he fraction prostate drying aso Increased the absorption aly ofthe moll ralbed, but at the sane line is seg ed sty we reset rary of othe menos materials are wed for varous apes swf ceramics, These range fom tars and sugar soliton to reactions ‘St foem oxyehlondes or acl posphats and Incloe the Use of (Secure cbaoed fs smart tht sited in Tig. 113, i which he ‘tg material it ibd atthe sontck pomts between grin, ‘Sng then together. More of fess bonding mera may be requted, pening the stent deste andthe properties of he particu bond (Se The penral characteris thal here mstrals aves tendency ‘Siem nonerytlneprogst. In many caves this corresponds fo the ‘portly Torestemsive development of hydrogen tonds, which prove echanim for aheretee However, for many splcatons peat ‘eens are not parley requted, andar Tong a8 gl pase (Sittic alo postions etwoen slid gine andthe slid, ‘er isuficient adherece developed for satisfactory resus The mot {enc wth rear adeson est weg andthe the poss ty of ‘wicet adherence said 142 Same Spcal Carpi Imation tothe casts f materi siacased ths far, in which the ‘eat majnty of ceramic progeton canbe include, there se man ‘cl tat ste dca fo noe loan of these spe product ‘oir ltoogh they do natconrbte ch to he over volun ofthe Gems industry, they Trequentty sipply eal needs or provide gers that cant be blsned clewheresconsequetl), they a Purtcolry important from te plat of view of developing new materials “armeth groay of mater hat come unde the goer classi Sweat refractories ate the combinations of tls ane earamic matrls SSledcermets The compositons af mos sgneance fr hei practa ot onal application are carbides having hgh temperstaesteath (NIE and, m pra, gest hardest Alto, on-base cermats Be ‘eel properties as hgh temperate, hghstrengb mater te resonbly sale ai he moat extensive investigated and aly CSemerelaly” walle one aremistres primarily composed ofom INTRODUCTION To CERAMICS sluminum oxide and chromium suitably alloyed to give useful Hi temperature properties. The cabide-metal compacts consist of ee "pheroidl or prxmatic carbide grains completly enclosed by te me ‘hase. The bond phase Is usually igi atthe ing temperate set Completely weteand ows between the carbide particles, forming ‘of metal. These compositions have excelem’ hightemperstre see Sd ls sttactorytoughners: The carbides sed are hard tht an be sed in cting too Inthe aluminum oxide-cromiu ss ontas there sa continuous phase ofboth the oxide and chromo TH fives ret high temperate streath nd veistance to thermal tee During cooling to room temperature there isa tendency for bouisy streses to develop, andthe strengthand other properties areless frente attoom temperate thant higher empeatures Microstructures Compositions are ilostated in igs 137 “Contin The only Sins of coating that have been cacao thu ke sare lazes and enamel based primarily on forming ls ii wh Movs over and covers the surface variety of composton hasbeen! 8 enamel or gas coating, in much the sae wa. In ation, howe, outing of nonmetals can be applied by reaction fom the vspe pas ‘which depos coating on the surface, by dame-spaying oxide med through a high-intensity eat source so that Ht fses i the Hume wd toliifes when i srker the relatively cool srface, or By srg ‘tapension ona hot rrface so tht aie particle dispersions formed iting the surface to deveop 8 stable costing. The microntroctretl these diferent types of coating vary substantially, depending on particular method f application. Flane-spayed coatags normaly aes Porosity of 7 to 108 and frequelly show evidences of some ed Structure during the buldup, although this depends on the park techniques wed. Layers formed by the evaporation of alent atewey ‘sallcrysalsinheresutant coating Incontast coatings developed tet | ‘he vapor phase by reaction request show large crystals, oving ie ‘ueleaton of new crystal the suface ang then subsequent growth ing stvuctre,inthat pe crystals ae nucleatedand grow onsesl ofthe underying material. Graphite cooings fr exam cane formed by passing ht CH gas, over a hot srtce. In this proces now pyrayle graphite crystal form a deposit with het cas oma ‘he underting surface, in parle! bundles consisting of individual eh lites of neal the same orientation (Fig. 1138, intred Olde. Another kindof materia which we have mene the pe sintered snge-phase oxide Tor ves requiring hith seg high-temperature eapabiies, god electrical properties, or set he encom ston, Couesy Me Humes. 6) OALOCNCr (35. Coueygbtemperature refractory materials. Single crystals of rutile (TO), tt MALO} stron itenae (SO. aby (ALO ith ome C0) {aid ssatony and others have Been used a synthe jewel material. [Ua ratte (LINGO) is Used apa ane hot and aya substrate. The le poperties of single crystals of magnesium oxide have been of cal interes; the use of lk and alkaline earth bade ceystls for remand window's in optical equipment hasbeen widesrend for many es Single crystal of cleum @uorde, Hhatm Ruoride,rodtumehoride, {et oany others are commercially avalabe, ‘Wises. An area of interest from a research poit of view bs been ‘aewirctre and properties of whiskers of ceramic materials in Which ‘venely hghstrenph valve have been observe, Under certain cond ‘Serofrowth crystal formin which the growth i apidimone destin, tevlping flamettary crystals that are prestmably free tom gross ‘Sperection and have stengihs upto several lion pounds per sauare ich Whiskers ofthis typeof aluminum oxide, several slides, several fale, graphite, an others have Been grown in the nboratoy oe 2 PY “rescind at aks E> | sstntay abet asc pet stew pp rape Fags ae Zig | Searmaty mate tom mitre ef eke and ch which ae formed and ng pied oe ihe vod ath besteated to develop a graphite crystal structure. The praphite crystals eanny hose Revere od Aiton fon J fmed are highly snnometrc, forming places, as would be expectes "str om te crystal structure. The general microstructure of graphite ©on- sit of ras of highly graphitzed material in a matrix of vary Bae ned material which is more of les grephiized and more ct less wweatharénes | Sroely crystallized, depending on the parcuar heat eatnent. A ‘set Forexample,ALOsbas been used at tool mat ad low thetion with metal com ‘tah sintering in Chapter 10, and some soca On of he intersting rose acess Have Bees formation, together with Ms distbuton and heat treatment. rng sof uanimonide as anicear en ortbiscssot J gopitation. The properties of the resulting graphite are tonal) seve ioctieen suman be ran css | Sanit went et poe MBALO., Polications include BeO, MgO, Thos, f srcture and properties have not been worked out for any detailed o ‘many special applications, single crystal a adoter commie one as alsofoxite |" High-Poroty Structures. Another group of materials, mentioned er ‘laste therasthe pore size decreases andthe amount of porosity increases, mates ‘ecome more effective as thermal insulators However for Use at hgh Temperaires, the minimem pore sis that can be present witoot inducing Sintering and insabity of volume is limited. Consequently, materials {sed in vck form for iehermperatore insulation have a uch rer pore size than materials red a temperatures below the tering rate ‘Bis ithe main reason why powdered carbon has been Useful 8s Cxtemely high-temperature insulation; the mobiity of earbon sloms = ‘ery low ae dneuned in Chapa so that sintering doesnot take pace, tnd avery fe particle size mater can he sed satfactony Suggested Reading 2 hy a eit xy of Cramer ant Coes 4 hewn cy Ting Wah Spm okt Meier, » Somme Abaaton Steet Ean she Se ee Problems