SENSORY ORGANS

• Animals possess some specialised structures to perceive the different type of changes (stimuli) occurring
in their external environment.
• These structrures are known as sense organs.

EYE (Photoreceptor)
• These are photosensitive organs which are situated in the notch of lacrymal bone in the skull.

Eyelids or palpebrae
• There are two muscular eyelids for the protection of eye..

• Nictitating membrane or third eye lid is present in the eye.

• Nictitating membrane is vestigeal in human.
Internal structure of Eye ball
• The wall of remaining eye ball has three layers.

(a) Sclera
• It is the outer visible part.
• At the front of the eye it is continuous with the cornea.
• Cornea is used for donation
• It lacks blood vessels.

b. Choroid layer
• Choroid layer lie below the sclera.
i. Ciliary body
• It has ciliary processes which project into eyeball.
ii. Iris
• There is present an aperture in the Centre of iris, it is called Pupil.
• Light rays enter in the eyeball through pupil.

iii. Retina
• It is the inner most layer of eye ball.
• It has photoreceptors Rods and cones.
• Rods differentiate between light and dark.
• Rods are more sensitive than cones.
• It has bipolar neurons.

Lens
• Transparent and biconvex lens
• Lens is connected by ciliary body with the help of "Suspensory ligaments

Aqueous chamber
• The part of eye ball which lies between cornea and lens is filled with aqueous humor.
• That extra fluid increases the pressure in your eye, damaging the optic nerve. This is known as

glaucoma.

Vitreous chamber
• Cavity of eye ball which lies between lens and retina filled with vitreous humor.

SOME IMPORTANT DEFECTS OF EYE

1. Hypermeteropia (far sightedness)

• In this defect person is able to see objects placed at far distance but is unable to see objects close to him
or her.
• This defect is due to small size of eyeball or flatness of lens.
• In this defect image is formed behind the retina.
• To cure this defect person should wear convex lenses in spectacles.
2. Myopia or Nearsightedness or short sightedness
• In this defect of eye, person is able to see objects near/close to him or her but is unable to see objects
placed at far distance.
• This is due to enlargement of eyeball or increased convexity of lens.
• In this defect image is formed before the retina.
• To overcome this defect person should wear concave lenses in spectacles.
3- Presbyopia
* Sometimes in old age this defect may occur due to reduction in the flexibility of lens or ciliary body.
4. Astigmatism
• In this defect curvature of cornea is changed as a result of that incomplete and blurred vision.
• This defect may be cured by cylindrical lenses.
5- Night blindness
• This is due to deficiency of vit A. In this disorder synthesis of Rhodopsin is reduced, as a result of this
person is unable to see in dim light or night.
6- Xerophthalmia
• It is due to keratinisation of conjunctiva and cornea, and conjuctiva becomes solid. It is also due to
deficiency of vit A.
7- Trachoma
• In this defect of eye, a watery liquid oozes out from eyes and eyes become red due to irritation. It is
caused by a microbe Chlamydia trachomatis.
8- Cataract
• In this defect, lens becomes more solid, brown or more flat.
• The lens becomes opaque.
9- Glaucoma
• Due to excess production or reducing outflow of aqueous humour pressure is increased in eye chambers
and retina is damaged, and person becomes totally blind.
EAR (Stato - Acoustic organ)
Functions of ears
(1) To receive sound waves (hearing)
(2) To maintain body balance. Main function of ear is to maintain the balance of body.
• Structurally, ear may be divided into three parts :-
 (a) External ear
(b) Middle ear
(c) Internal ear

(a) External ear

• Divided again into 2 parts
(i) Ear pinna
(ii) Ear canal
* At the end of ear canal a membrane is present, it is called ear drum or tympanic membrane.
* It separates the ear canal to middle ear.

Middle Ear
• These ear ossicles are -
(i) Malleus
• It is the largest of three bones and of hammer shaped.
• Malleus and incus are Joint together by synovial hinge joint.
(ii) Incus
• The incus is anvil shaped , joined by stapes by ball and socket joint.
(iii) Stapes
• Shaped like Stirrup of horse. It is the smallest bone of body.
(c) INTERNAL EAR
• Inner ear called labyrinth consists of two parts, the bony and the membranous labyrinths.

Vestibular apparatus
• It is sensory part for balancing, located above the cochlea.
• Numerous CaCO3 particles are found in endolymph these are called Otoconia.
• These sensory cells situated in internal ear are in contact with small nerves.
• All these nerve combine to form vestibular nerve (branch of auditory nerve).
• Ears are stato- acoustic organs of body. Thus these help the body to hear and balancing the body.

(b) Hearing
• Cochlea is sensory structure for hearing.
• This act is done by "Organ of Corti".

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Primary sex organ
• Essential organs which form the gametes.
• In males, testes while in females, ovaries are primary
• The male gamete is spermatozoon. The female gamete is ovum.
Secondary sex organ
• These organs form the passage for the gametes to help the union of male & female gametes.
• In male these include epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands &
penis etc.
• In female these organs are fallopian tube, uterus and vagina, bartholin gland etc.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• In man, one pair testes are the main or primary reproductive organ.
• Both testes are located in scrotum and situated below & outside the abdominal cavity
• The temperature of scrotum is 2 – 2.5°C lesser than body temperature.
• Internally scrotum is lined by dartos muscle .
• Testis is divided into 250-300 testicular lobules and each lobules has 1 t-o 3 seminiferous tubules
• A network of tubules called as rete testis.
• Rete testis fuse to form 10 to 20 vasa efferentia .
• These ductules form epididymis or ductus epididymis.
• Epididymis can temporarily stores the sperms for as long as one month and here the functional
maturation of sperms takes place.

Accessory Reproductive Glands

1. Seminal vesicle
• It is formed from the Wolffian duct of the embryo.
• It secretes seminal fluid which makes 60–70% part of semen. It is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3).Fructose is
found in seminal fluid, it act as fuel to sperm.

2- Prostate gland
• This gland is located below the urinary bladder.
• It secretes slightly alkaline prostatic fluid which is milky, thick, sticky or jelly like.
• It makes about 30% part of semen and helps in sperm activation.

3- Cowper's glands/ bulbourethral gland

• It is a pair of glands found on lateral side of urethra.
• This destroys the acidity of the urethra and cleans it for the movement of sperms.
• Semen = Sperm + Accessory reproductive gland fluid Volume = 3 to 4ml
• pH = 7.3

• Normal sperm count 20 to 120 million/ml.

• Oligospermia < 20 million/ml.
• Azospermia – either absence or near absence of sperms.

seminiferous Tubules
• It is made of spermatogenic cells which forms sperm by spermatogenesis.
• Some Another cells called as Sertoli cells , provide nutrition to germ cells, so they are also called as
sustentacular or nurse cells
• interstitial or Leydig cells are found between seminiferous tubules in intertubular space.These cells
secrete androgens (testosterone).

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• A pair of ovaries is the main or primary sex organ of female reproductive system.
• Female secondary sex organs are 1 pair fallopian tube, 1 uterus and 1 vagina and 1 pair Bartholin glands.

• Fertilization takes place in the ampulla of fallopian tube

GAMETOGENESIS/ FORMATION OF GAMETES

• GnRH, FSH, LH regulates gametogenesis. Besides this hormone vitamin E is also essential for
gametogenesis.

SPERMATOGENESIS
• The proecess of formation of spermatozoa
• Occured in the seminiferous tubules of testis.
• At puberty spermatogonia divide to form spermatozoa
• spermatozoa grow in size and form primary spermatocytes (44 + XY).
• The primary spermatocytes now divide so that each of them forms two secondary spermatocytes (first
meiotic division) (22 + X or 22 + Y chromosomes)
• Each secondary spermatocyte divides to form two spermatids. ( Second meiotic division )
• Each spermatid gradually changes its shape to become a spermatozoon.

Sperm
• Sperm is a male gamete that is composed of a head, neck, middle piece, and tail.

Head
The head of the sperm contains a haploid nucleus.
• The anterior portion or top of the head is covered by a cap-like structure called an acrosome.
• This acrosome is filled with enzymes that help in getting in the ovum and cause fertilization.
 Neck
• The neck contains a proximal & distal centriole
Middle piece
• middle piece, is surrounded by a spiral sheath made up of mitochondria

Tail
• The longest part of sperms.
• Sperm moves by help of tail.

OOGENESIS

Pre-Natal Stage
• During the early fetal development, germ cells differentiate to form oogonia which develop into primary
oocytes.
• The primary oocytes enter prophase I of meiosis I, during the fetal stage but do not complete the phase
until puberty.

(B) Post Natal Stage

• After puberty, hormones FSH and LH trigger ovulation about once a month. The dominant primary
oocyte completes meiosis I to produce a polar body and a large secondary oocyte.
• Secondary oocyte completes meiosis II if a sperm fertilizes it.

Note - Whereas one primary spermatocyte gives rise to four spermatozoa, one primary oocyte forms only
one ovum.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• Duration – 28 days Ideally
• Menstrual cycle has three main phases :
(i) Bleeding phase or menstruation phase.- low level of estrogen and progesterone.
(ii) Proliferative/preovulatory/follicular phase or oestrogenic phase
(iii) Secrectory/post ovulatory/luteal phase or progesteronic phase.
 For- UPSC / MPPSC

FERTILIZATION

• Union of male and female gametes and fusion of pronuclei of sperm and ovum takes place and
formation of diploid zygote.

CLEAVAGE (Cellulation or segmentation)

• The term 'Cleavage' was given by "Von Baer".

• In fertilized egg or activated egg, the egg undergoes repeated cell divisions without changing its size.
• All these rapid mitotic cell divisions are collectively called cleavage or segmentation.
• Cells produced as a result of cleavage are termed as blastomeres.

GENERAL STAGES OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

1. Morula
• As a result of cleavage unicellular zygote changes into a solid ball like structure with 8 to 16 blastomeres
is called a morula.
2- Blastulation :- The morula continues to divided and transforms into blastocyst.

3- Gastrulation

EXTRA EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES AND PLACENTA

• Peripheral portion does not take part in the formation of embryo. This peripheral part is known as extra
embryonic region.
• Extra embryonic membranes are of four types–
1. Amnion (Protection) 2. Chorion(Exchanges of gasses) 3. Yolk sac 4. Allantois(Excretion)
PLACENTA
• The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly form a structural
and functional unit between developing embryo (foetus) and maternal body called placenta.
• It secrets HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)

Add: –Infront of Bank of Baroda, Near Sai Baba Mandir Phoolbagh Gwl (M.P.) Cont. us – 7524821440,7000360672 pg. 110