Thin–Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

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Thin-Walled Structures
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Axial compression behaviour of thin-walled metallic tubes under

quasi-static and dynamic loading
S.K. Tak, M.A. Iqbal *
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, 247667, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The finite element computations have been performed to study the axial compression behavior of thin-walled
Energy absorption metallic tubes under quasi-static and dynamic loading conditions. The mild steel tubes of circular and square
Axial compression sections were subjected to impact by a 350 kg drop hammer and a 5.13 kg projectile. The impact velocities of the
Johnson-Cook model
hammer were 3.63–9.68 m/s and that of the projectile were 30–80 m/s. The circular (diameter 40, 60 and 80
Crashworthiness
Buckling modes
mm) and the square tubes (edge length 31.63, 47.34 and 63.05 mm) had the equivalent cross-sectional area, total
length (200 mm), wall thickness (1 mm), mass and material. The effect of the quasi-static and dynamic loading
and the geometry was studied on the axial crushing behavior, energy absorption characteristics and the modes of
deformation. The three-dimensional numerical simulations were performed on ABAQUS/Explicit finite element
code and the constitutive and damage behavior of the mild steel was modelled using the Johnson-Cook
constitutive and fracture model. The validation of the constitutive and the computational models was carried
out by performing the experiments under dynamic loading on circular tubes (40 and 81 mm diameter) and by
simulating the available experiments under quasi-static loading on circular and square tubes. Under the dynamic
and quasi-static loadings, the axial shortening of both geometric sections decreased with the increase in the size.
The absorbed energy, on the other hand, increased with the increase in the diameter of tube while in case of the
square tubes no distinguished effect of the size of tube could be noticed on the absorbed energy.

1. Introduction number of corners in a tube. It is relatively easier to adjust wall thickness

A major challenge in the transportation industry is to design the
crashworthy and light weight automobile and aerospace structures so
that the safety of the occupants could be ensured with a minimum fuel
consumption. The energy absorbing devices are therefore provided in
the automobiles, aircrafts and ships to minimize the damage to the main
structural frame and the occupants. The mechanism of energy absorp­
tion is mainly based on the plastic crushing of the low strength and high
ductility materials. A number of energy absorbing devices could be
suitably designed for the transportation systems [1,2] however the
thin-walled prismatic sections are often considered as the primary en­
ergy absorbing elements due to their light weight, high structural effi­
ciency, easy manufacturing process and the associated economic
significance. The assembly of these thin walled prismatic sections for the
vehicles is designed based on the quantity of energy that a given element
can absorb. A good design is the one in which the mean crush force and
the maximum crushing distance could be maximized. The mean crush
force primarily depends upon wall thickness, average flow stress and
and the flow stress to obtain the required level of crushing force ,
however, it is much more difficult to maintain the required average
crushing force for the entire available crushing distance [3]. The pro­
gressive collapse of thin walled tubes is dependent upon the length to
width (L/C) and width to thickness (C/t) ratio for a square section and
length to diameter (L/D) and diameter to thickness ratio (D/t) for cir­
cular section [4]. The collapse of a tube in Euler’s mode continues until
the side face collapses locally. The tube at this point undergoes global
bending (Euler’s mode) or progressive collapse depending upon its
cross-section and material properties [4]. The axi-symmetric buckling of
elastic-plastic circular cylindrical shells studied numerically using a
strain rate insensitive model with linear strain hardening described that
the dynamic buckling process is governed by the stress wave propaga­
tion such that the entire length of the shell was involved in the defor­
mation behavior at high velocity impact [5]. The final buckling shape
was seen to be dependent upon the properties of the striker and the
geometry of the shell. It was further concluded that a high velocity
impact by a smaller mass causes a large axial compression to develop

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: iqbalfce@iitr.ac.in, ashraf.iqbal@ce.iitr.ac.in (M.A. Iqbal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2020.107261
Received 9 July 2020; Received in revised form 31 October 2020; Accepted 2 November 2020
Available online 21 November 2020
0263-8231/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal
Fig. 1. Mesh convergence study (a) 80 mm circular tube subjected to impact by 5.13 kg projectile at 40 m/s velocity and (b) 80 mm circular tube subjected to impact
by 350 kg hammer at 4.84 m/s velocity.
near the impacted end, while the larger bending deformations near the
stationary end. On the other hand, a larger mass-lower initial velocity
impact may lead to a larger bending deformation near the impacted end
which causes the progressive folding.
The dynamic plastic behavior of uniform thickness, stepped thick­
ness and functionally graded thickness tubes under axial impact studied
experimentally and numerically [6] described that the stepped thickness
and functionally graded thickness tubes absorbed the same energy with
more shortening and less peak load in comparison to the uniform
thickness tubes. The nonlinear finite element computations were per­
formed on LS-DYNA code to study the dynamic axial compression
behavior and energy absorption capacity of high strength and mild steel
tubes under different loading speeds and masses [7]. The high strength
steel tube offered higher energy absorption capacity than the conven­
tional tube for a given mass and impact speed. The change in the impact
load though influenced the overall deformation could not affect the
energy absorption capacity. An increase in the wall thickness was seen to
strongly increase the energy absorption capacity for the given initial
conditions. The dynamic crushing behavior of aluminum and steel cy­
lindrical shells studied through finite element computations showed that
the steel shells exhibited larger dynamic effects in comparison to the
aluminum tubes due to higher strain rate sensitivity of the material [8].
The fold length increased with an increase in the shell thickness when
keeping the cross-section of the shell constant. The development of the
buckling shapes for moving and stationary shells described that the
initially developed dynamic plastic buckling behavior is identical for
both shells and is independent of the striker mass.
The quasi-static axial compression behavior of bi-material thin cy­
lindrical tubes (tube within a tube) studied experimentally and theo­
retically with tubes of various bi-layer combinations such as aluminum-
steel, PVC-steel and aluminum-copper and aluminum-PVC [9]. The
deformation mode of the harder material governed the crushing char­
acteristics of the bi-layer tube. The soft material extruded severely in the
convolutions of the harder components diminishing in this manner its
thickness. Full adhesion at the internal edge of the convolution was
maintained but the contact was lost at the outer edge of convolution.
The mean post-buckling load was found greater in bi-material tubes than
in the super imposed ones, describing a higher energy absorbing ca­
pacity of the bi-material tubes. The mechanics of plastic collapse in
single and multi-cell multi corner tubes of aluminum AA6060-T6 stud­
ied through the nonlinear finite element analyses described a complex
folding mechanism of the multi cell tube than a single tube [10]. The
folding pattern stemming from multi-corner configuration depicted the
interaction of a large number of folds in the inner, outer and connector
walls and hence the participation of a larger portion of the structure in
the deformation process leading to the higher specific energy
2
Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261
absorption.
The quasi-static axial compression of aluminum tubes of 1 and 1.5
mm thicknesses with different cross-sections (circular, square, hexago­
nal, triangular, rectangular, pyramidal and conical) was studied
numerically and experimentally [11]. The circular and triangular sec­
tions absorbed the most and the least amount of energy among the tested
sections. A gradual increase in the section area of the specimen affected
the energy absorption capacity as well as the maximum and the average
force. The energy absorption capabilities of thin-walled low carbon steel
tubes with various polygonal cross-sections viz. hexagon, octagon,
12-sided star and 16-sided star studied under quasi-static axial crushing
led to the conclusion that increasing the number of corners may help
improve the energy absorption to some extent [12]. The 12-sided star
shaped section described about 48% improvement in the specific energy
absorption than the hexagon of the same cross-section area. However, a
further increase in the number of corners showed a reduction in the
energy absorption performance.
The energy absorption due to axial crushing of thin metallic tubes
has been studied under single and multi-cell configurations, in different
shapes and under quasi-static and dynamic loading conditions. The
available studies although described the influence of individual vari­
ables, however, the results cannot be directly compared due to limited
investigations and the complex nature of the problem. A larger section of
the studies is focused on the quasi-static behavior of thin-walled struc­
ture while the dynamic response has not been adequately explored. An
investigation of the quasi-static and dynamic response of thin-walled
mild steel tubes has been carried out in this study to understand the
behavior of circular and square tubes through nonlinear finite element
computations performed on ABAQUS/Explicit code. A validation study
of the constitutive and computational models has been presented
initially wherein the dynamic axial compression behavior of the mild
steel circular tubes of diameter 40 and 81 mm has been studied exper­
imentally and the findings thus obtained have been reproduced
numerically. Under quasi-static loading the experiments available in
literature on 37 mm diameter circular and 28 mm square mild steel
tubes have been simulated numerically to establish the validation for
further computational study. A detailed finite element investigation has
been carried out subsequently wherein the circular and square tubes of
mild steel of equivalent cross-section and length were subjected to drop
weight and ballistic impact by a 350 kg hammer and a 5.13 kg projectile,
respectively, keeping equivalent total energy but different loading rates.
The size of the circle was varied keeping same wall thickness to study the
effect of stiffness of the tubes. The size of square was also varied keeping
the wall thickness and the sectional area same to that of the circle. The
computational results of circular and square sections were compared
and discussed.
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal
Fig. 2. Three dimensional models of equivalent cross sections (a) 5.13 kg projectile and 60 mm diameter circular tube, (b) 5.13 kg projectile and 47.34 mm cross-
section square tube, (c) 350 kg hammer and 60 mm diameter circular tube and (d) 350 kg hammer and 47.34 mm cross-section square tube.
2. Computational modelling
The three-dimensional finite element model of 1 mm thick hollow
circular tubes with diameters 40, 60 and 80 mm and length 200 mm was
made in ABAQUS/CAE to study the influence of diameter on axial
shortening and energy absorption. The square tubes of edge length
31.63, 47.34 and 63.05 mm and length 200 mm with their sectional area
and volume equivalent to the circular tube were also developed. The
cylindrical projectiles of blunt head of diameter 93 mm, length 186 mm
and mass 5.13 kg was used to study the dynamic response of the tubes.
The projectile was impacted at incidence velocity in the range, 30–80 m/
s. The cylindrical hammer of blunt head of diameter 300 mm, length
631 mm and mass 350 kg was used to study the effect of drop weight
impact. The drop height considered in the present study was 0.67–4.78
m resulting in the impact velocity 3.63–9.68 m/s. The velocity range of
the projectile and the falling weight were considered to obtain equiva­
lent kinetic energy to enable a direct comparison.
The impactor was modelled as rigid and the tube as deformable
three-dimensional continuum. The shell was modelled using 4-node
reduced integration S4R shell elements with five integration points
through thickness under simpson thickness integration rule, which
presents the macroscopic mesh distortion in a better manner. The
number of shell elements which constituted the shell varied from 24,800
for the tubes of diameter 40 mm to 50,400 for the tubes of diameter of
80 mm. Correspondingly, the number of nodes was varied from 24,924
to 50,652. A mesh convergence study has been carried out in order to
obtain the optimum element size in the tubes. The axial deformation was
studied numerically by increasing the number of elements in 80 mm
diameter circular tube under the axial impact at 40 m/s velocity by 5.13
kg projectile and at 4.84 m/s velocity by 350 kg hammer. The edge size
of the four-node reduced integration (S4R) quadrilateral shell element
with unity aspect ratio was considered 3, 2.5, 2, 1.6, 1.0, 0.9 and 0.8 mm
giving a total number of elements in the range 5712–79316. The final
axial deformation of the tube was found to be 91.6, 97.7, 99.6, 99.9,
100, 100 and 100 mm, respectively, under the dynamic loading and
116.7, 117.4, 118.4, 118.9, 119, 119 and 119 mm, respectively, under
quasi-static loading, see Fig. 1(a) and (b), respectively. Based on the
mesh convergence study thus performed, the element size of 1.0 mm ×
1.0 mm was adopted in all numerical models of the tubes studied in the
present study.
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Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261
The projectile was assigned a reference point to provide the moment
of inertia and mass. It was modelled as analytic rigid body to optimize
the computational time of the simulation. The shell was considered fixed
at the rear end, thus, all the degree of freedom of the elements at the rear
end were considered fixed. The contact between all surfaces of the shells
was defined using the general contact algorithm to enable modelling of
the contact of the shell structure with itself using a coefficient of friction,
0.05. The contact between the impactor and the shell was assigned using
the penalty contact algorithm using a coefficient of friction, 0.05. Aba­
qus/Explicit module was used to perform all the dynamic explicit nu­
merical simulations.
The effect of geometric cross-section was studied by modelling the
behavior of the circular and square tubes of equivalent sectional area.
Thus, the square tubes of size 31.63, 47.34 and 63.05 mm were modelled
as equivalent to the circular tubes of diameter 40, 60 and 80 mm. The
tubes of the two different geometries with equivalent volume, height,
section area, thickness and material were modelled to study the influ­
ence of cross-section on the axial shortening and energy absorption
under quasi-static and dynamic loading. Three dimensional models for
60 mm circular tube and 47.34 mm square tube with equivalent cross
section area under axial impact of 5.13 kg projectile and 350 kg hammer
is shown in Fig. 2.
3. Constitutive material model
The Johnson–Cook [13,14] elasto-viscoplastic material model was
used to define the material behavior of mild steel tubes using the
ABAQUS/Explicit finite element code. The model incorporates the flow
of material using the linear thermo-elasticity, von-Mises yield criterion,
isotropic strain hardening, strain rate hardening, and softening due to
adiabatic effects. The equivalent von Mises stress σ of the Johnson-Cook
model is express as:
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
( ) ε̇
pl [ ]
pl pl ̂ pl n ⎣
σ ε , ε̇ , T = [A + B(ε ) ] 1 + Cln⎝ ⎠⎦ 1 − T ̂m (i)
ε̇0
where, A, B, n, C and m are material parameters obtained from various
pl
tensile tests. ε̇0 is reference strain rate, εpl is equivalent plastic strain, ε̇
is equivalent plastic strain rate, and Tis ̂ unit less parameter related to
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Table 1 where, T is the current temperature, Tmelt is temperature at the melting

Material parameters of mild steel. point and T0 is designated as room temperature.
Description Notation Numerical Value The fracture model proposed by Johnson-Cook [14] extended the
2 failure criterion proposed by Hancock and Mackenzie [15] by incorpo­
Modulus of elasticity E (N/m ) 203 × 109
Poisson’s ratio N 0.33 rating the effect of strain path, strain rate, and temperature on the
Density ρ (Kg/m3) 7850 equivalent fracture strain expression, in addition to the stress-triaxiality.
Yield stress constant A (N/m2) 304.33 × 106 The fracture criterion is based on the damage evolution wherein the
Strain hardening constant B (N/m2) 422 × 106 failure of the material is assumed to occur when the damage parameter
n 0.345
Viscous effect C 0.0156
D, exceeds unity.
Thermal softening constant m 0.87 ∑ ΔεP
0.0001 s− 1 D(εP , ε̇ , T, σ* ) = (iii)
P
Reference strain rate ε̇0
P
Melting temperature θmelt (K) 1800 εf (ε̇ , T, σ* )
Transition temperature θtransition (K) 293
Fracture strain constant D1 0.1152 where ΔεP is an increment of the equivalent plastic strain, εf is the strain
D2 1.0116 at failure, and the summation is performed over all the increments
D3 − 1.7684 throughout the analysis. The Johnson–Cook fracture model takes into
D4 − 0.05279
account the effect of stress-triaxiality, strain rate, and temperature on
D5 0.5262
the equivalent failure strain. The equivalent fracture strain εpl
f is
expressed as;
temperature defined as; ⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
⎧ ( ) [ ( σ )] pl [ ]
pl σ m pl ̂ ε̇
0 for T < To (iv)
m ⎣
⎪
⎪ εf , ε̇ , T = D1 + D2 exp D3 ̂
1 + D4 ln⎝ ⎠⎦ 1 + D5 T
⎪
⎨ (T − T ) σ σ ε̇0
(ii)
̂= o
T forTo ≤ T ≤ Tmelt
⎪
⎪ (Tmelt − To )
⎪
⎩ where D1 − D5 are material parameters determined from different me­
1 for T > Tmelt
chanical tests, D1, D2 and D3 are the stress-triaxiality parameters, D4 is
strain rate dependent damage parameter, D5 is temperature dependent

Fig. 3. Schematic of experimental setup of pneumatic gun.

Table 2
Validation of the numerical model for the dynamic loading response of circular tubes.
Test No. Length of tube Diameter of tube 2R (mm) Thickness t (mm) Mass Velocity Impact energy Final axial deformation (mm)
L (mm) M (kg) V (m/s) K (kJ)
Present experimental study Present numerical study

CC401 200 40 1.0 5.0 33.04 2.730 73.0 86.69

CC402 38.66 3.736 106.66 117.96
CC403 41.18 4.240 117.0 133.86
CC404 51.30 6.580 149.0 176.58
CC405 57.28 8.203 172.0 181.34
CC406 74.11 13.731 191.5 193.0

CC811 200 81 1.08 5.0 35.00 3.063 53.0 56.97

CC812 38.33 3.673 60.0 69.07
CC813 50.38 6.345 99.50 118.24
CC814 51.66 6.673 110.0 127.04
CC815 76.08 14.470 179.25 187.25
CC816 80.44 16.176 182.3 190.39

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S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Fig. 4. Progressive deformation of 40 mm diameter tube under axial impact at 51 m/s incidence velocity (a)–(e) captured through the high-speed videography and
(f)–(j) finite element simulations.

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S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Fig. 5. Axial deformation (a) actual and (b) predicted in 81 mm diameter tube at 35 m/s incidence velocity and (c) actual and (d) predicted in 40 mm diameter tube
at 74.11 m/s incidence velocity.

Fig. 6. Top view after axial deformation (a) actual (b) predicted in 40 mm diameter tube at 57.28 m/s incidence velocity and (c) actual (d) predicted in 81 mm
diameter tube at 51.66 m/s incidence velocity.

6
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Table 3
Validation of the numerical model for quasi-static loading response of circular tubes with the help of experiments performed by Abramowicz and Jones [4].
Test No. Length Diameter of tube 2R (mm) Thickness t (mm) Mass Velocity Impact energy Final shortening δ (mm)
L (mm) M (kg) V (m/s) K (kJ)
Experimental Present numerical study
Study [4]

CC2 210.0 37.23 1.07 72.5 8.30 2.497 72.5 78.00

CC4 266.6 37.08 1.12 72.5 8.30 2.497 67.5 76.71
CC5 304.9 37.06 1.14 72.5 8.30 2.497 62.3 76.00
CC7 342.4 37.30 1.14 165.5 9.11 6.868 195.0 213.34
CC9 210.3 37.26 1.14 165.5 6.49 3.485 112.1 111.59

Table 4
Validation of the numerical model for quasi-static loading response of square tubes with the help of experiments performed by Abramowicz and Jones [4].
Test No. Length Size of square C (mm) Thickness t (mm) Mass Velocity V (m/s) Impact energy Final shortening δ (mm)
L (mm) M (kg) K (kJ)
Experimental Present numerical study
Study [4]

SC12 300.0 28.82 1.28 70.5 11.74 4.858 132.6 145.7

SC14 330.3 28.73 1.37 70.5 10.50 3.886 137.6 112.44
SC15 238.6 28.63 1.37 184.5 10.20 9.598 214.8 223.91
SD6 319.8 30.81 1.19 70.5 11.74 4.858 177.1 161.16
SD7 480.5 30.70 1.20 70.5 11.58 4.727 177.5 152.88

Fig. 7. Numerical buckling shapes with contours of von-Mises stresses developed in the model for validation of circular tube CC9 with final shortening 111.59 mm
and square tube SD6 with final shortening 161.16 mm.

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S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Table 5
Maximum axial compression and energy absorption in the tubes of 80, 60 and 40 mm diameter impacted axially by 5.13 kg projectile.
Velocity (m/s) Maximum axial compression of mild steel Energy absorption in mild steel tubes (Joule) impacted by 5.13 kg projectile
Tubes (mm) impacted by 5.13 kg projectile

80 mm 60 mm 40 mm 80 mm 60 mm 40 mm

80 192.56 193.52 200.0 16341.72 16060.11 16035.05

75 191.69 192.49 200.0 14401.88 14251.77 13851.37
70 190.46 192.13 200.0 12552.68 12507.91 11892.98
65 187.85 189.06 191.54 10771.74 10740.9 10759.68
60 184.80 185.21 188.49 9188.94 9189.27 9190.77
50 162.17 172.90 181.36 6403.24 6394.94 6358.05
40 100.02 115.01 145.80 4097.75 4098.43 4099.71
35 77.62 92.49 111.60 3135.19 3138.05 3136.76
30 55.5 67.34 84.35 2300.58 2304.36 2306.65

Table 6
Maximum axial compression and energy absorption in tubes of 80, 60 and 40 mm diameter impacted axially by 350 kg hammer.
Velocity (m/s) Maximum axial compression of mild steel tubes (mm) impacted by 350 kg hammer Energy absorption in mild steel tubes (Joule) impacted by 350 kg hammer

80 mm 60 mm 40 mm 80 mm 60 mm 40 mm

9.68 197.66 200.0 200.0 16176.23 15965.17 15946.83

9.08 195.72 197.85 200.0 14266.57 14293.69 14123.09
8.47 194.54 197.11 200.0 12520.43 12405.84 12491.75
7.87 191.71 194.73 194.79 10828.5 10800.33 10764.36
7.26 186.43 188.07 191.09 9149.29 9143.73 8398.96
6.05 171.73 178 .00 182.5 6390.95 6385.77 6345.43
4.84 119.03 135.43 161.92 4097.55 4096.27 4100.02
4.24 90.94 102.86 120.81 3139.57 3139.81 3137.00
3.63 64.46 84.51 88.17 2300.45 2303.33 2306.26

fracture strain parameter, σσm is the stress-triaxiality ratio, σm is the mean
stress and σ is the equivalent von Mises stress. The material parameters
used to characterize the material of the targets are mentioned in Table 1
[16].
4. Validation of computational and constitutive models
The validation of the problem has been carried out under the dy­
namic and quasi-static impact conditions. The ballistic experiments have
been carried out wherein 5 kg hardened steel projectile of diameter 92
mm (see Fig. 3) has been impacted against the mild steel tubes of di­
ameters 40 and 81 mm and wall thickness, ~ 1 mm. The axial crushing
behavior of the tubes has been studied at different incidence velocities in
the range, 33–80 m/s. The arrangement of the experimental setup has
been made in a manner to ensure that the projectile is precisely causing
the axial crushing of the steel tube and the bending is completely
avoided by keeping the minimum free flight path of the projectile, see
Fig. 3. The experimental and numerical results with respect to the final
axial deformation obtained corresponding to different incidence veloc­
ities have been enlisted in Table 2. The deformation of the tube has been
found to decrease with the increase in the tube diameter apparently due
to increase in the tube stiffness. A close correlation between the actual
and predicted modes and the magnitude of the deformation has been
found. A typical progressive deformation of 40 mm diameter tube
(against 51 m/s incidence velocity) captured through high-speed vide­
ography described a close correspondence with that of its finite element
reproduction as well as a smooth axial crushing of the tubes, see Fig. 4.
At low incidence velocities the tubes underwent axi-symmetric crushing,
see for example the modes of actual and predicted deformation of 81 mm
diameter tube, Fig. 5(a) and (b) respectively, undergoing a maximum
deformation, 53 and 56.97 mm respectively, at 35 m/s velocity. At
relatively higher incidence velocities, on the other hand, the tubes
initially underwent concertina mode of deformation which towards the
advanced stage of deformation transformed into the diamond mode, see

Table 7
Comparison of the maximum axial compression behavior in the tubes of 80, 60 and 40 mm diameter under quasi-static and dynamic loading when impacted with
equivalent energy.
Velocity of 5.13 kg Velocity of 350 kg Diameter of tubes in mm
projectile (m/s) hammer (m/s)
80 mm 60 mm 40 mm

Maximum axial compression of mild steel tubes (mm)

Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by
5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer 5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer 5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer

80 9.68 192.56 197.66 193.52 200.0 200.0 200.0

75 9.08 191.69 195.72 192.49 197.85 200.0 200.0
70 8.47 190.46 194.54 192.13 197.11 200.0 200.0
65 7.87 187.85 191.71 189.06 194.73 191.54 194.79
60 7.26 184.80 186.43 185.21 188.07 188.49 191.09
50 6.05 162.17 171.73 172.90 178 .00 181.36 182.5
40 4.84 100.02 119.03 115.01 135.43 145.80 161.92
35 4.24 77.62 90.94 92.49 102.86 111.60 120.81
30 3.63 55.5 64.46 67.34 84.51 84.35 88.17

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S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Table 8
Comparison of the energy absorption in the tubes of 80, 60 and 40 mm diameter under quasi-static and dynamic loading impacted with equivalent energy.
Velocity of 5.13 kg Velocity of 350 kg Diameter of tubes in mm
projectile (m/s) hammer (m/s)
80 mm 60 mm 40 mm

Energy absorption of mild steel tubes (Joule)

Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by
5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer 5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer 5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer

80 9.68 16341.72 16176.23 16060.11 15965.17 16035.05 15946.83

75 9.08 14401.88 14266.57 14251.77 14293.69 13851.37 14123.09
70 8.47 12552.68 12520.43 12507.91 12405.84 11892.98 12491.75
65 7.87 10771.74 10828.5 10740.9 10800.33 10759.68 10764.36
60 7.26 9188.94 9149.29 9189.27 9143.73 9190.77 8398.96
50 6.05 6403.24 6390.95 6394.94 6385.77 6358.05 6345.43
40 4.84 4097.75 4097.55 4098.43 4096.27 4099.71 4100.02
35 4.24 3135.19 3139.57 3138.05 3139.81 3136.76 3137.00
30 3.63 2300.58 2300.45 2304.36 2303.33 2306.65 2306.26

Fig. 8. Energy absorption versus axial compression for 40, 60 and 80 mm diameter circular tubes at different velocities under axial impact of 5.13 kg projectile.

9
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal
Fig. 9. Energy absorption versus axial compression for 40, 60 and 80 mm diameter circular tubes at different velocities under axial impact of 350 kg hammer.
Fig. 5(c) and (d), respectively, for 40 mm diameter tube impacted at 74
m/s velocity. The final stage of deformation depicted through the top
view of the crushed tubes of diameters 40 and 81 mm impacted at 57 and
51 m/s, receptively, substantiate the formation of the premature con­
certina mode and advanced diamond mode of deformation, see Fig. 6.
The validation of the model under quasi-static loading was carried
out by numerically reproducing a few drop impact tests performed by
Abramowicz and Jones [4] wherein the square mild steel tubes were
impacted by 70.5 and 184.5 kg hammers and circular mild steel tubes
were impacted by 72.5 and 165.5 kg hammers at incidence velocities in
the range 6.5–12 m/s. The validation was performed corresponding to
five experimental conditions of circular tubes and five experimental
conditions of square tubes. The experimental results of Abramowicz and
Jones [4] and the numerical results of the present study with respect to
the permanent final shortening of circular and square tubes compared in
Tables 3 and 4, respectively, described a close correlation between the
actual and computational findings. However, the numerical results ob­
tained in the present study witnessed 21.9% higher final shortening for
the test CC5 and 18.28% smaller final shortening for test SC-14 in
comparison to the experimental results, see Tables 3 and 4 respectively.
The typical computed maximum shortening for the tests CC9 and SD6
reported in Ref. [4] was 111.6 and 161.16 mm, respectively, while the
10
Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261
actual deformation was 112.1 and 177.1 mm, respectively, see Fig. 7.
5. Results and discussion
The numerical results of energy absorption and axial compression
behaviour are presented for different spans (section dimension/diam­
eter) of the tubes at different velocities under the axial impact by 5.13 kg
projectile and 350 kg hammer. Based on the numerical computations the
resultant outcome has been presented as the energy absorption versus
axial compression for the square and circular tubes. A comparative study
has also been carried out on energy absorption behavior of square and
circular tubes with the same volume, height, equivalent section area and
thickness under quasi-static and dynamic loading conditions.
5.1. Axial compression and energy absorption behavior of circular tubes
Energy absorption and axial compression results for different diam­
eter of tubes under axial impact with different velocities are presented in
Tables 5–8 and Figs. 8–9. The numerical buckling shapes of circular
tubes of 80, 60 and 40 mm diameter under axial impact by 350 kg
hammer at 4.84 m/s velocity and by 5.13 kg projectile at 40 m/s velocity
are presented in Figs. 10 and 11, respectively.
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Fig. 10. Numerical buckling shapes and contours of von-Mises stresses developed in circular tube of (a)–(b) 80 mm diameter, (c)–(d) 60 mm diameter and (e)–(f) 40
mm diameter under axial impact by 350 kg hammer at 4.84 m/s velocity.

11
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Fig. 11. Numerical buckling shapes and contours of von-Mises stresses developed in circular tube of (a)–(b) 80 mm diameter, (c)–(d) 60 mm diameter and (e)–(f) 40
mm diameter under axial impact by 5.13 kg projectile at 40 m/s velocity.

12
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Table 9
Maximum axial compression and energy absorption in square tubes of different cross-sections impacted axially by 5.13 kg projectile.
Velocity (m/s) Maximum axial compression of mild steel tubes (mm) impacted by 5.13 kg projectile Energy absorption in mild steel tubes (Joule) impacted by 5.13 kg projectile

63.05 mm 47.34 mm 31.63 mm 63.05 mm 47.34 mm 31.63 mm

80 200.00 200.00 200.00 15040.97 14667.74 15849.41

75 196.13 197.10 200.00 13760.15 13984.88 13058.32
70 195.11 195.68 200.00 12018.37 11927.94 11062.35
65 194.81 195.15 200.00 10633.24 10416.11 10511.29
60 192.71 193.68 194.93 9152.02 9155.23 8940.10
50 179.56 186.89 188.90 6382.48 6350.74 6311.83
40 118.88 134.17 161.06 4094.32 4096.36 4094.14
35 89.25 100.35 119.50 3132.97 3134.25 3123.65
30 58.11 73.00 83.83 2298.78 2302.22 2301.84

Table 10
Maximum axial compression and energy absorption in square tubes of different cross-sections impacted axially by 350 kg hammer.
Velocity (m/s) Maximum axial compression of mild steel tubes (mm) impacted by 350 kg hammer Energy absorption in mild steel tubes (Joule) impacted by 350 kg hammer

63.05 mm 47.34 mm 31.63 mm 63.05 mm 47.34 mm 31.63 mm

9.68 200.0 200.0 200.0 16147.26 15771.98 15737.45

9.08 198.02 198.94 200.0 14028.89 13721.85 13871.61
8.47 197.55 198.23 200.0 12396.92 11802.67 12397.07
7.87 197.26 198.01 200.0 10280.30 10269.58 10259.69
7.26 194.41 197.88 198.98 9020.84 8690.62 7961.63
6.05 193.04 194.21 189.42 6308.48 5521.89 6222.24
4.84 169.88 176.76 178.31 4082.93 4079.96 4075.01
4.24 134.12 157.42 162.44 3130.69 3128.04 3126.74
3.63 95.43 102.87 107.55 2298.11 2299.35 2301.37

The final axial deformation of 40, 60 and 80 mm circular tubes
compared in Table 5, has been found to increase with the increase in the
impact velocity up to 75 m/s. Subsequent to this however, the increase
in the velocity did not affect the final deformation of the tubes. This
affect observed for all the tube diameters was more prominent for the
larger diameter tubes, see Table 5. It was also observed that with the
increase in the span (diameter) of circular tube the axial shortening
decreases for a given incidence velocity, see Table 5. The 40 mm circular
tube was found to be fully compressed at 70 m/s impact velocity and
tearing of the tube occurred after it attained the crushing at the entire
length.
The energy absorption in the tubes increased with the increase in the
deformation of tube. The absorbed energy was initially almost same for
the different tube diameters. However, with an increase in the impact
velocity the absorbed energy in the larger diameter tube was found
higher than a smaller diameter tube. Thus, in a larger diameter tube the
axial deformation reduced but the energy absorption increased with the
increase in the impact velocity. This observation has been further sub­
stantiated in Fig. 8 wherein it could be clearly seen that the energy
absorbed initially increased linearly with the increase in deformation
and the final absorbed energy was almost same in all the tubes but the
deformation was higher in smaller diameter. With increase in the impact
velocity, beyond 70 m/s the deformation became constant but the en­
ergy kept increasing. This phenomenon was gradually became visible for
all the tube diameters, see Fig. 8.
Against the impact of 350 kg hammer, the axial compression
increased with the increase in the incidence velocity at the quasi-static
loading condition. The final axial deformation increased consistently
for 60 and 80 mm diameter tubes at the entire range of velocities. The
40 mm diameter tube, on the other hand, got completely crushed at 8.47
m/s velocity however the energy absorption in this tube increased
continuously with increase in the velocity. In general, the crushing was
highest in the smallest diameter while the absorbed energy was highest
in the largest diameter tube for a given initial velocity, see Table 6. At
lower incidence velocity, the axial deformation and energy absorption
had a linear relationship and there was a significant difference in the
final axial deformation while the total energy absorption was almost
same in all the tube diameters, see Fig. 9. At higher velocities, beyond
7.26 m/s, the axial deformation reached close to maximum but the en­
ergy absorption increased continuously in the tube.

Table 11
Comparison of the maximum axial compression behavior of square tubes under quasi-static and dynamic loading impacted with equivalent energy.
Velocity of 5.13 kg Velocity of 350 kg Sizes of square tubes in mm
projectile (m/s) hammer (m/s)
63.05 mm 47.34 mm 31.63 mm

Maximum axial compression of mild steel tubes (in mm)

Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by
5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer 5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer 5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer

80 9.68 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0

75 9.08 196.13 198.02 197.10 198.94 200.0 200.0
70 8.47 195.11 197.55 195.68 198.23 200.0 200.0
65 7.87 194.81 197.26 195.15 198.01 200.0 200.0
60 7.26 192.71 194.41 193.68 197.88 194.93 198.98
50 6.05 179.56 193.04 186.89 194.21 188.90 189.42
40 4.84 118.88 169.88 134.17 176.76 161.06 178.31
35 4.24 89.25 134.12 100.35 157.42 119.50 162.44
30 3.63 58.11 95.43 73.00 102.87 83.83 107.55

13
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Table 12
Comparison of the energy absorption of square tubes under quasi-static and dynamic loading impacted with equivalent energy.
Velocity of 5.13 kg Velocity of 350 kg Sizes of square tubes in mm
projectile (m/s) hammer (m/s)
63.05 mm 47.34 mm 31.63 mm

Energy absorption of mild steel tubes (in Joule)

Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by Axial impact by
5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer 5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer 5.13 kg projectile 350 kg hammer

80 9.68 15040.97 16147.26 14667.74 15771.98 15849.41 15737.45

75 9.08 13760.15 14028.89 13984.88 13721.85 13058.32 13871.61
70 8.47 12018.37 12396.92 11927.94 11802.67 11062.35 12397.07
65 7.87 10633.24 10280.30 10416.11 10269.58 10511.29 10259.69
60 7.26 9152.02 9020.84 9155.23 8690.62 8940.10 7961.63
50 6.05 6382.48 6308.48 6350.74 5521.89 6311.83 6222.24
40 4.84 4094.32 4082.93 4096.36 4079.96 4094.14 4075.01
35 4.24 3132.97 3130.69 3134.25 3128.04 3123.65 3126.74
30 3.63 2298.78 2298.11 2302.22 2299.35 2301.84 2301.37

Fig. 12. Energy absorption versus axial compression for 31.63, 47.34 and 63.05 mm cross-sections square tubes at different velocities under impact of 5.13
kg projectile.

A comparison of the axial compression at different diameter of tubes
impacted with same impact energy is provided in Table 7. The axial
shortening of the tube has been found higher under quasi-static loading
in comparison to the dynamic loading for a given impact energy. This
has been found to be consistent for all the diameter of the tubes. On the
other hand, the energy absorption in the tube has been found to be
almost same against both types of loading conditions, see Table 8.
The buckling shape for 80, 60 and 40 mm circular tubes axially
compressed against 350 kg hammer at 4.84 m/s velocity have been
provided in Fig. 10. This figure demonstrates that number of folds are
increasing with time at the impacted end and axial compression is also
increasing with time for all the tubes in a progressive manner. The
location of maximum von-Mises stress is also changing due to the in­
crease in the compression of tube as presented in Fig. 10. The maximum
compression has occurred in 40 mm circular tube. The 40 mm diameter
tube has crushed completely at higher velocities and has described the
tearing of the material.
The buckling of the circular tubes at corresponding dynamic loading
condition but equivalent impact energy (to that of quasi-static loading)
has been presented in Fig. 11. It has been found that the local bucking

14
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal
Fig. 13. Energy absorption versus axial compression for 31.63, 47.34 and 63.05 mm cross-sections square tubes at different velocities under impact by 350
kg hammer.
shapes are slightly different from that obtained under quasi static
loading. The axial compression (crushing) has reduced for all the tube
diameters under dynamic loading. It has been noticed that the bucking
started near the rear end of tube at final stage of compression in 40 mm
circular tube. However, at the initial stages of crushing, under both
quasi-static as well as dynamic loading conditions, the first fold was
formed at free end of the tube with a radially outward buckle. The mode
of deformation has shown the in-out-in-out folding, which guarantees
concertina-diamond like pattern in circular tubes under both the loading
conditions.
5.2. Axial compression and energy absorption behavior of square tubes
The square tubes of size 63.05, 47.34 and 31.63 mm, and thickness 1
mm, with sectional area and volume equivalent to that of the circular
tubes were studied under axial compression. The results with respect to
the energy absorption and axial compression behavior of the square
tubes of different sizes are presented in Tables 9–12 and Figs. 12–13. The
numerical buckling shapes of square tubes under axial impact by 350 kg
hammer at 4.84 m/s velocity and by 5.13 kg projectile at 40 m/s velocity
are presented in Figs. 14 and 15, respectively.
The axial compression of square tubes has been found to increase
with the increase in the impact velocity of the 5.13 kg projectile, see
Table 9. The rate of increase of axial compression was higher in the
smaller size (edge length) tube. The 31.63 mm size tube attained the full
compression at 65 m/s velocity while the other two tubes attained the
full compression at 80 m/s velocity. The absorbed energy has been
found to marginally increase with the increase in the size of the tube.
15
Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261
However, at the highest impact velocity, the there is no consistency in
the absorbed energy due to the fact that the tubes are crushed. The
31.63 mm tube has suffered significant damage and tearing at the
highest velocity.
The energy absorbed versus axial compression relationship is linear
up to 40 m/s, Fig. 12. With a further increase in the velocity the rela­
tionship becomes nonlinear such that there is a sudden increase in the
absorbed energy when full compression is achieved in the tube. This
sudden increase became apparent early in the smaller size tube due to
the fact that the full compression in the smaller size tube has reached
earlier.
Under quasi-static loading against 350 kg hammer, a similar
behavior of the tube was observed as is seen under dynamic loading. The
axial compression increased with the increase in the impact velocity.
The full compression in the tubes reached at the same corresponding
velocity that transfers the energy equivalent to that of the dynamic
loading condition. The absorbed energy has been found to marginally
increase with the increase in the size of the tube. However, at the highest
velocity the tubes suffered significant damage as the full compression
was attained. Therefore, the absorbed energy is not consistent.
The axial deformation of the square tubes was found to be higher
under quasi-static loading as compared to the dynamic loading, see
Table 11. This observation was consistent for all the sections considered.
It could be clearly seen that the rate of deformation was highest in the
smallest size, with edge length 31.63 mm. The absorbed energy was
higher under the dynamic loading condition at low incidence velocities,
see Table 12. At higher incidence velocities there is some inconsistency
in the energy absorption.
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Fig. 14. Numerical buckling shapes and contours of von-Mises stresses developed in (a)–(b) 63.05 mm square tube, (c)–(d) 47.34 mm square tube and (e)–(f) 31.63
mm square tube under axial impact of 350 kg hammer at 4.84 m/s velocity.

16
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Fig. 15. Numerical buckling shapes and contours of von-Mises stresses developed in (a)–(b) 63.05 mm square tube, (c)–(d) 47.34 mm square tube and (e)–(f) and
31.63 mm square tube under axial impact of 5.13 kg projectile at 40 m/s velocity.

17
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Table 13 Table 15
Comparison of the maximum axial compression behavior of circular and square Comparison of the maximum axial compression behavior of circular and square
tubes of equivalent cross-section impacted by 5.13 kg projectile. tubes of equivalent cross-section impacted by 350 kg hammer.
Velocity Maximum axial compression in mild steel tubes (mm) Velocity Maximum axial compression in mild steel tubes (mm)
of 5.13 kg of 350 kg
Circular Square Circular Square Circular Square
projectile hammer
tube (80 tube tube (60 tube tube (40 tube
(m/s)
mm) (63.05 mm) (47.34 mm) (31.63 (m/s) Circular Square Circular Square Circular Square
mm) mm) mm) tube (80 tube tube (60 tube tube (40 tube
mm) (63.05 mm) (47.34 mm) (31.63
80 192.56 200.0 193.52 200.0 200.0 200.0
mm) mm) mm)
75 191.69 196.13 192.49 197.10 200.0 200.0
70 190.46 195.11 192.13 195.68 200.0 200.0 9.68 197.66 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0
65 187.85 194.81 189.06 195.15 191.54 200.0 9.08 195.72 198.02 197.85 198.94 200.0 200.0
60 184.80 192.71 185.21 193.68 188.49 194.93 8.47 194.54 197.55 197.11 198.23 200.0 200.0
50 162.17 179.56 172.90 186.89 181.36 188.90 7.87 191.71 197.26 194.73 198.01 194.79 200.0
40 100.02 118.88 115.01 134.17 145.80 161.06 7.26 186.43 194.41 188.07 197.88 191.09 198.98
35 77.62 89.25 92.49 100.35 111.60 119.50 6.05 171.73 193.04 178 .00 194.21 182.50 189.42
30 55.50 58.11 67.34 73.00 84.35 83.83 4.84 119.03 169.88 135.43 176.76 161.92 178.31
4.24 90.94 134.12 102.86 157.42 120.81 162.44
3.63 64.46 95.43 84.51 102.87 88.17 107.55
The progressive folding of the square tubes under quasi-static
loading occurred in a symmetric manner for all the tube sizes, see
Fig. 14. The folding of the lobes at the two opposite sides of the tube was the absorbed energy of two sections was higher in quasi-static loading in
towards inner side and at the two remaining sides was towards the outer comparison with that of the dynamic loading.
side. The crushing of the smaller size tube has occurred at a faster rate Under dynamic loading, the buckling profile of the circular and the
and the final crushing is also higher in this case so the folds have square tubes has been compared in Fig. 16. The circular tube described
collapsed and are not so distinguished as shown in Fig. 14. The the progressive formation of concertina mode of deformation. At the
collapsing mechanism of the tube under dynamic loading was almost attainment of full crushing length, the diamond mode of deformation
same to that of the quasi-static loading but here the crushing of the tube occurred in the cylindrical tube. However, the number of lobes in a
was not so severe, and the final crushed length of the tube was also diamond increased with the diameter of the tube. The square tube
smaller. The final crushed length of the smaller size tube was higher than experienced symmetric progressive folding.
that of the larger size tube for a given impact velocity, see Fig. 15. Under quasi-static loading, the buckling profile of the two sections
has been compared in Fig. 17. The progressive buckling has occurred
with a larger crushing of the tube. The concertina mode of deformation
5.3. Comparison of the equivalent circular and square tube sections with
has occurred and the diamond formation could also be noticed but due
respect to axial compression and energy absorption
to collapsing of the tube the diamond formation could not be distin­
guished. The number of lobes were higher in a larger diameter tube. The
Energy absorption and final axial shortening results for different
square tube buckled through the formation of the symmetric folds.
square and circular tubes under axial impact with different velocities are
The axial compression versus energy absorption behavior of the 40
presented in Tables 13–16. A comparative study has also been carried
mm (diameter) circular and 31.63 mm (edge size) square equivalent size
out on energy absorption behavior of circular and square tubes of same
tubes has been compared in Fig. 18 under dynamic loading. The
volume, height, equivalent section area and thickness at the same
behavior of both the geometric sections was almost same and linear at
impact energy under different rates of loading.
the low incidence velocities. At higher velocities the relationship
Under dynamic loading, the axial compression of the tubes with
became nonlinear such that there is sudden increase in the energy when
square sections was found to be higher for a given equivalent section,
the maximum crushing of the tube has occurred. Some deviation in the
Table 13. As such the difference between the quasi-static and dynamic
behavior of the two sections has been noticed in this regime. Under
results was found almost same for the three sets of tube sizes considered
quasi-static loading, however, the rate of energy absorption was higher
for both the geometric sections. The energy absorption was higher in the
in the circular tube at lower incidence velocities when the relationship is
circular tube, Table 14. As the size of the tube reduced the difference of
linear. However, when the energy absorption-axial crushing relation­
energy absorption between the two sections increased.
ship became nonlinear, the response of both the tubes became almost
Under quasi-static loading, the axial compression was higher in the
same, see Fig. 19.
square section. The difference between the axial compression of two
The energy absorption versus axial crushing of the circular and
sections was higher in this case in comparison with that of the dynamic
square tubes for the largest equivalent size (80 mm circular and 63.05
loading, see Table 15. The energy absorption in the circular section was
mm square) has been compared under dynamic and quasi-static loading,
found higher than the square section, Table 16. The difference between

Table 14
Comparison of the energy absorption by circular and square tubes of equivalent cross-section impacted by 5.13 kg projectile.
Velocity of 5.13 kg projectile Energy absorption in mild steel tubes (mm)
(m/s)
Circular tube (80 Square tube (63.05 Circular tube (60 Square tube (47.34 Circular tube (40 Square tube (31.63
mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm)

80 16341.72 15040.97 16060.11 14667.74 16035.05 15849.41

75 14401.88 13760.15 14251.77 13984.88 13851.37 13058.32
70 12552.68 12018.37 12507.91 11927.94 11892.98 11062.35
65 10771.74 10633.24 10740.9 10416.11 10759.68 10511.29
60 9188.94 9152.02 9189.27 9155.23 9190.77 8940.1
50 6403.24 6382.48 6394.94 6350.74 6358.05 6311.83
40 4097.75 4094.32 4098.43 4096.36 4099.71 4094.14
35 3135.19 3132.97 3138.05 3134.25 3136.76 3123.65
30 2300.58 2298.78 2304.36 2302.22 2306.65 2301.84

18
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Table 16
Comparison of the energy absorption of circular and square tubes of equivalent cross-section impacted by 350 kg hammer.
Velocity of 350 kg hammer Energy absorption in mild steel tubes (mm)
(m/s)
Circular tube (80 Square tube (63.05 Circular tube (60 Square tube (47.34 Circular tube (40 Square tube (31.63
mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm)

9.68 16176.23 16147.26 15965.17 15771.98 15946.83 15737.45

9.08 14266.57 14028.89 14293.69 13721.85 14123.09 13871.61
8.47 12520.43 12396.92 12405.84 11802.67 12491.75 12397.07
7.87 10828.5 10280.30 10800.33 10269.58 10764.36 10259.69
7.26 9149.29 9020.84 9143.73 8690.62 8398.96 7961.63
6.05 6390.95 6308.48 6385.77 5521.89 6345.43 6222.24
4.84 4097.55 4082.93 4096.27 4079.96 4100.02 4075.01
4.24 3139.57 3130.69 3139.81 3128.04 3137.00 3126.74
3.63 2300.45 2298.11 2303.33 2299.35 2306.26 2301.37

Fig. 16. Numerical buckling shapes at final stage of compression of equivalent cross-section tubes (a) 80 mm circular and (b) 63.05 mm square with contours of von-
Mises stresses developed under axial impact of 5.13 kg projectile at 50 m/s velocity.

see Figs. 20 and 21, respectively. Under the dynamic loading, the
behavior of both the sections was almost identical while under quasi-
static loading the rate of crushing of the circular tubes was signifi­
cantly higher than the square tubes.
6. Conclusions
The quasi-static and dynamic axial crushing behavior of the circular
and the square mild steel tubes has been studied by carrying out the
finite element simulations. The size of both the tubes was varied keeping
the wall thickness, sectional area and the volume constant. The behavior
of the individual geometric sections was studied under different sizes
and the response of the two identical sizes with different geometries was
compared. A detailed validation of the computational and the consti­
tutive models has also been carried out under dynamic and quasi-static
loading.
Under both the dynamic and quasi-static loadings, the axial short­
ening of circular tube decreased with the increase in the diameter.
However, the absorbed energy increased with the increase in the
diameter of the tube.
The axial shortening of the circular tube has been found higher under
quasi-static loading in comparison to the dynamic loading for a given
impact energy. On the other hand, the energy absorption in the tube has
been found to be almost same against both types of loading conditions.
The rate of increase of axial compression was higher in the smaller
size square tube under dynamic loading but this effect diminished at
quasi-static loading. The absorbed energy did not show any significant
influence of the size of tube under both quasi-static and dynamic
loading. The axial deformation of the square tubes was found to be
higher under quasi-static loading as compared to dynamic loading. The
rate of deformation was highest in the smallest size, with edge length
31.63 mm.

19
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Fig. 17. Numerical buckling shapes at final stage of compression of equivalent cross-section tubes (a) 80 mm circular and (b) 63.05 mm square with contours of von-
Mises stresses developed under axial impact by 350 kg hammer at 6.053 m/s velocity.

20
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Fig. 18. Energy absorption versus axial compression of equivalent cross-section tubes (40 mm circular and 31.63 mm square) at different velocities under axial
impact of 5.13 kg projectile.

21
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Fig. 19. Energy absorption versus axial compression of equivalent cross-section tubes (40 mm circular and 31.63 mm square) at different velocities under axial
impact of 350 kg hammer.

22
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal Thin-Walled Structures 159 (2021) 107261

Fig. 20. Energy absorption versus axial compression of equivalent cross-section tubes (80 mm circular and 63.05 mm square) at different velocities under axial
impact of 5.13 kg projectile.

23
S.K. Tak and M.A. Iqbal
Fig. 21. Energy absorption versus axial compression of equivalent cross-section tubes (80 mm circular and 63.05 mm square) at different velocities under axial
impact by 350 kg hammer.
Under dynamic loading, the axial compression of the tubes with
square sections was found to be higher than the equivalent circular
section. The energy absorption was higher in the circular tube. As the
size of the tube reduced the difference of energy absorption between the
two sections increased.
Under quasi-static loading, the axial compression was higher in the
square section. The energy absorption was found higher in the circular
section as compared to that in the square section. In general, the dif­
ference between the absorbed energies of the two sections was higher
under quasi-static loading in comparison to that under dynamic loading.
Authors statement
S. K. Tak, Methodology, Software, Validation, Investigation, Formal
analysis. M. A. Iqbal, Conceptualization, Writing - original draft, Visu­
alization, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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