INTERNAL REGULATION 📍Osmosis

📌 Table of Content a. Hypotonic- Higher solute concentration inside

than outside. Water moves in, cell swell.
1. Temperature Regulation
b. Isotonic- Both has the same solute
● Homeostasis and Allostasis (Controlling
concentration.
Body Temperature-ectothermic and
c. Hypertonic- Higher concentration outside
endothermic)
than inside. Water moves out, cell shrink.
2. Thirst
● Osmotic Thirst
● Hypovolemic Thirst and Sodium-Specific
Hunger
● Mechanisms of Water Regulation
3. Hunger
● Digestion and Food Selection
● Short- and Long- Term Regulation of
Feeding

1. Temperature Regulation

● Homesotasis- It refers to temperature regulation

and other biological processes that keep certain body
variables within a fixed range.

● Allostasis- It refers to the adaptive way in which the 📌How our Brain Detects Osmotic Pressure
body changes its set point in response to changes in
life or the environment.

📍Two Systems for Body Regulation

a. Ectothermic (Cold-blooded)- Their internal

temperature varies with the environmental
temperature.
b. Endothermic (Warm-blooded)- They keep
body temperature constant irrespective of
environmental temperature.

2. Thirst

● It is the body’s defense mechanism to increase

water consumption in response to perceived deficits
of body fluids.

📍Two Types of Thirst

a. Osmotic Thirst- It is activated in response to

increases in tonicity when compensatory
mechanisms are unsuccessful in conserving
sufficient water to decrease serum osmolality
and restore fluid balance. *Thirst due to
sodium consumption*
b. Hypovolemic Thirst- It is caused by depletion
of the volume of extracellular fluid, as, for
example, by blood loss (i.e., hypovolemia) or
vomiting. Also called volumetric thirst. *Thirst c. Sodium-Specific Hunger
due to exercise, sweat* ● Loss of sodium or salts from the body triggers a
craving for salty tastes.
● Sodium-specific hunger depends partly on
hormones (Schulkin, 1991). When the body’s sodium
reserves are low, the adrenal glands produce
aldosterone, a hormone that causes the kidneys,
salivary glands, and sweat glands to retain salt (Verrey
& Beron, 1996).
d. Water Regulation
● 70% of the human body is water.
● Species differ in their strategies for maintaining
water.
● Mechanisms of water regulation vary for humans.
Human conserved water by;
- Excreting concentrated urine.
- Decreasing sweat and other autonomic responses.
3. Hunger
● Hunger is a sensation that motivates the
consumption of food.
📍Digestion and Food Selection
● Digestion- Is a process of breaking down of large
insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food
molecules so that they can be absorbed into the
watery blood plasma.
● Food Selection- the ability to select beneficial food.
Many animals are able to select the right kind of food
as a result of their innate preferences. Others are able
to learn rapidly what kinds of food are good for them
and what bad.
📍 Short- and Long-term regulation of feeding
● Short-term – Receptors in the liver and the brain are
involved in responding to short-term signals. In other
words, they respond to levels of available fuel in the
blood.
* Grelin- maipoproduce ng stomach para isignal ang
brain navgutom na.
* Arcuate Nucleus- signal that we see full
● Long-term – Are a consequence of the monitoring
of fat stores. When fat cells are full, they produce a
hormone called leptin. Leptin then inhibits the brain
mechanisms that control eating.
*Leptin- control eating
ACTIVATING EFFECTS OF SEX HORMONES
📌Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Males-Testosterone and Impotence
3. Females-Menstrual Cycle
4. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
5. Intersex Hermaphrodite
📌Introduction
● Sex hormones- are chemical messengers that play a
crucial role in the development and regulation of
sexual characteristics, reproductive functions, and
behavior in both males and females. These hormones
include testosterone, oestrogen, progesterone, and
others.
● Activating effects of sex hormones- refer to the
ways in which these hormones influence behavior
and physiological processes during specific
developmental periods. These effects can be long-
lasting and have significant implications for health
and well-being
📌Males-Testosterone
📍 Testosterone
● Is a hormone that is primarily associated with
males and plays a crucial role in various physiological
processes, including the development of male sexual
characteristics and muscle mass. However,
testosterone also has a significant
Impact on other aspects of male health, such as
Mood, cognition, and overall well-being.
📍 Impotence/Erectile Dysfunction
● A condition where a man is unable to achieve or
maintain an erection during sexual intercourse.
● Urologist- specialized professionals in the ED
● Causes of Impotence
- Physical causes include hormonal imbalances, nerve
damage, and cardiovascular disease.
- Psychological causes include stress, anxiety, and
depression.
 - However, one of the most significant factors
affecting male sexual function is testosterone levels. EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOURS

● Low testosterone levels can lead to decreased libido, 📍EMOTION

fatigue, and difficulty achieving or maintaining an ● Emotions are conscious mental reactions (such as
erection. This is because testosterone plays a vital anger or fear) subjectively experienced as strong
role in regulating sexual function, and a decrease in feelings usually directed toward a specific object.
testosterone levels can result in a decrease in sexual
desire and performance. 📌COMPONENTS OF EMOTION
1. Cognition – Assessment of the situation.
📌 Females-Menstrual Cycle 2. Feelings – Labeling of what you feel
● The menstrual cycle- a complex process that occurs 3. Actions – Physical response to the situation.
in the female body, involving the release of hormones 4. Physiological change – changes in the body
and the shedding of the uterine lining.
* Menarche- first occurrences of menstruation. 📌Common sense view
* Spermarche- first ejaculation
A. The Follicular Phase – is the first stage of the
menstrual cycle, lasting from day 1 to approximately
day 14.
B. The Luteal Phase- is the second stage of the
menstrual cycle, lasting from approximately day 15 to
day 28.

📌Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

● A glycoprotein hormone that plays a crucial role in
the reproductive system of both males and females. It 📌 James- Lange Theory
is produced by the pituitary gland and regulates the
growth and maturation of follicles in the ovaries and
testes.
A. FSH and Female Reproduction- In females, FSH
plays a critical role in the growth and maturation of
ovarian follicles. During the menstrual cycle, FSH
levels rise at the beginning of the cycle, triggering the
growth of several follicles.
B. FSH and MALE Reproduction - In males, FSH
stimulates the production of sperm in the testes. FSH
acts on the Sterol cells in the seminiferous tubules,
which support the development of sperm cells. FSH
📌Automatic Nervous System
also stimulates the production of androgen-binding
protein (ABP), which binds to testosterone and helps
to maintain high levels of testosterone in the testes.

📌Intersex-Hermaphrodite
● Intersex- used to describe individuals who are born
with physical sex characteristics that do not fit typical
male or female classifications.
● Hermaphrodite- A person having both male and
female sexual characteristics and genital tissues.

● 46 xx intersex- female genital male

● 46 xy intersex- male genital female
● True Gonadal intersex-
● Complex Intersex-
 📍The Lifeboat Dilemma

📌FUNCTION OF EMOTIONS 📍The Hospital Dilemma (5 Patients, 1 newly

● Emotional expressions help us communicate our admitted)
needs to others and understand other people’s needs
and probable actions. Emotions provide a useful
guide when we need to make a quick decision.

📌EMOTIONS AND MORAL DECISIONS

📍The Trolley Dilemma

📌TWO ASPECTS IN MAKING MORAL DECISIONS

1. Utilitarian Aspect
2. Emotional Aspect

📌Attack and Escape Behavior

📍Attack Behavior
● Pain, threat or other unpleasant stimuli usually
trigger an attack behavior.
📍The Footbridge Dilemma ● Attack behaviors are associated with increased
activity in the corticomedial area of the amygdala.
● After experiencing a provocation, people are more
likely to attack for a period of time afterwards.
● An initial attack behavior increases the probability
of a second attack behavior.
● Hereditary vs. Environment- Twin studies suggest a ● Ethyl alcohol has behavioral effects similar to
genetic contribution to the likelihood of violent benzodiazepines.
behavior. ● Alcohol enhances GABA effects.
● Serotonin Synapses
- studies suggest a connection between aggressive
behaviour and low serotonin release.
- Turnover is the amount of release and resynthesis of
a neurotransmitter bypresynaptic neurons.
- In human and animal studies, low serotonin
turnover has been linked to:
- violent behavior and violent crime
- suicide by violent means

● Hormonal Effects

VARIATION OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOURS

🧠Alfred Kinsey
● The first person to explore sexuality from a scientific
perspective.

📌SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
● refers to a broad spectrum of behavior in which
📌FEAR AND ANXIETY humans display their sexuality.
● “Fear” is associated with a strong tendency to ● May also include activities to arouse the sexual
escape from an immediate threat. interest of others or attract partners.
● “Anxiety” is a general sense that something
dangerous might occur. 📍Masturbation
● The startle reflex is the extremely fast response to ● the self-stimulation of your genitals or other
unexpected loud noises. sensitive areas of your body for sexual arousal or
pleasure.
📌Relief from Anxiety
● Excessive fear and anxiety 📍Oral Sex
disorders are associated ● using your mouth, lips or tongue to stimulate your
with hyperactivity in the partner’s genitals or anus.
amygdala. Drugs intended to
control anxiety alter activity 📍Penile-Vaginal Intercourse
at amygdala synapses. ● when the penis, which is typically erect, is forced
● The main excitatory into the vagina
neuromodulator in the
amygdala is CCK, and the 📍Anal Stimulation or Anal Intercourse
main inhibitory transmitter ● the act of pushing and inserting the erect penis for
is GABA. sex purposes into the anus or anus and rectum of
- Injections of CCK-stimulating drugs into the another person
amygdala enhance the startle response.
- Drugs that increase GABA activity decrease panic. 📌SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE
● Benzodiazepines are the most commonly used anti- ● describes the series of mental and emotional
anxiety drugs (anxiolytics or tranquillizers). transformations that take place as a person becomes
sexually aroused and engages in sexually stimulating
activities
📍 4 Phases
● Excitement
● Plateau
● Orgasm
● Resolution
These phases affect both men and women, though
typically at separate times.
1. PHASE 1: EXCITEMENT
● Muscle tension increases.
● Heart rate quickens and breathing is accelerated.
● Skin may become flushed (blotches of redness
appear on the chest and back).
● Nipples become hardened or erect.
● Blood flow to the genitals increases, resulting in
swelling of the woman’s clitoris and labia minora
(inner lips), and erection of the man’s penis.
● Vaginal lubrication begins.
● The woman’s breasts become fuller and the vaginal
walls begin to swell.
● The man’s testicles swell, their scrotum tightens and
begin secreting a lubricating liquid.
PHASE 2: PLATEAU
● The changes begun in phase 1 are intensified.
● The vagina continues to swell from increased blood
flow, and the vaginal walls turn a dark purple.
● The woman’s clitoris becomes highly sensitive (may
even be painful to touch) and retracts under the
clitoral hood to avoid direct stimulation from the
penis.
● The man’s testicles tighten.
● Breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure continue
to increase.
● Muscle spasms may begin in the feet, face, and
hands.
● Muscle tension increases.
PHASE 3: ORGASM
● Involuntary muscle contractions begin.
● Blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are at
their highest rates, with a rapid intake of oxygen.
● Muscles in the feet spasm.
● There is a sudden, forceful release of sexual tension.
● In women, the muscles of the vagina contract. The
uterus also undergoes rhythmic contractions.
● In men, rhythmic contractions of the muscles at the
base of the penis result in the ejaculation of semen.
● A rash, or “sex flush” may appear over the entire
body.
PHASE 4: RESOLUTION
● the body slowly returns to its normal level of
functioning, and swelled and erect body parts return
to their previous size and color
● Some women are capable of a rapid return to the
orgasm phase with further sexual stimulation and may
experience multiple orgasms
● Men need recovery time after orgasm, called a
refractory period, during which they cannot reach
orgasm again
PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS OF SUBSTANCE USE
DISORDER
📌Psychosocial Factor
● Psychosocial factors are a major contributor to
substance abuse/use. Peer pressure, media portrayal
of substance-use by celebrities, lucrative
advertisements, attractive packaging and
expectations of joy are commonly associated with
harmful use of substances by the young adolescents
and adults.
● Peer influence
● Family
● Social Environment
📌 Motivational Interview ?
● It was introduced by psychologist William R. Miller
in 1983 and further developed by Miller and
psychologist Stephen Rollnick.
● Motivational interviewing is a counseling approach
that aims to help individuals resolve ambivalence and
enhance motivation for change. It involves
empathetic listening, asking open-ended questions,
and reflecting back on what the person has said to
help them explore their own reasons for change.
(evolved from Carl Roger’s person-centered, or client-
centered, approach to counseling and therapy.)
📍Key Skills in Motivational Interviewing
1. Open-ended questions - questions that allow
patients to give more information including their
feelings, attitudes and understanding.
2. Affirmation - Affirm the client’s genuine skills and
strengths, to help overcome self- sabotaging or
negative thoughts.
3. Reflective listening - Reflect the client’s statements SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORSVOF SUBSTANCE USE
to check for meaning. DISORDER
4. Summarizing - Recap sessions to come to shared
conclusion. 📌Sociocultural Factors
● Sociocultural factors play a significant role in the
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF SUBSTANCE USE etiology of substance use disorder (SUD). These
DISORDER factors refer to the social and cultural influences that
can contribute to the development and maintenance
📌Psychological Factor of SUD.
● Functional factors—as opposed to biological
(constitutional, hereditary) factors—that contribute to 📌Substance use disorder (SUD)
the development of personality, the maintenance of ● Substance use disorder (SUD) is a treatable mental
health and well-being, and the etiology of mental and disorder that affects a person’s brain and behavior,
behavioral disorder. A few examples of psychological leading to their inability to control their use of
factors are the nature of significant childhood and substances like legal or illegal drugs, alcohol, or
adult relationships, the experience of ease or stress in medications.
social environments (e.g., school, work), and the
experience of trauma. ● Friends and Peer Pressure
● Family Environment
● Impulsivity ● Neuroticism ● Socioeconomic Status
● Sensation Seeking ● Age ● Cultural Beliefs
● Risk Sensitivity ● Media Influence
● Traumatic Experiences
📌Etiology
● Many who develop a substance use problem have 📌INTERVENTION
depression, attention deficit disorder, post-traumatic ● Behavioral therapy
stress disorder, or another mental problem. A stressful ● Individual therapy
or chaotic lifestyle and low self-esteem are also ● Group therapy
common.
● Children who grow up seeing their parents using 📌Family Therapy
drugs may have a high risk of developing substance ● Everyone is Involved
use problem later in life for both environmental and ● Understanding Substance Use
genetic reasons. ● Better Communication
● Addressing Problems
📌RELAPSE PREVENTION THERAPY ● Coping Skills and Support
● A type of cognitive-behavioral therapy. RPT aims to ● Preventing Relapse
limit or prevent relapses by helping the therapy ● Building a Support Network
participant to anticipate circumstances that are likely
to provoke a relapse. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
● You can develop strategy to cope with these high- 📍Genetic Vulnerability
risk situations in advance. This is termed a ‘relapse ● Family historyof substance use disorder.
prevention plan’. 1. If you have a family history of addiction, such as a
parent, an uncle, or maybe a grandparent with a
📌3 Stages of Relapse drinking or drug problem, you probably have one or
● Emotional- During emotional relapse, individuals more genes related to the disease.
are not thinking about using. They remember their 2. First-degree relatives (i.e., a sibling, parent, or child)
last relapse and they don’t want to repeat it. of someone with a history of addiction are between 4
● Mental- In mental relapse, there is a war going on to 8 times more likely to develop problems with
inside people’s minds. Part of them wants to use, but addiction themselves when compared to those who
part of them doesn’t. do not have a family member with an addiction.
● Physical- Physical relapse when an individual starts
using again. 📍Biochemical Factor
● Role of Dopamine on substance use disorder.
■ DOPAMINE- A feel-good hormone which gives you a
sense of pleasure.
1. Dopamine deficiency means having a low level of
dopamine. Low dopamine levels make an individual
more susceptible to taking risks or developing
addictions.
2. Many drugs of abuse—such as opioids, cocaine, or
nicotine—cause dopamine to flood the reward
pathway, 10 times more than a natural reward.
■ NATURAL REWARDS - Such as the food, positive
social relationship, sex, and even humor.

📌FACILITY- BASED INTERVENTION

📍 Facility-based Out-patient Facility- Patients
diagnosed with moderate substance use disorder are
oftentimes referred to this center.
1. A health facility that provides diagnosis, treatment
and management of drug dependents on an
outpatient basis.
2. It may be a drop-in/walk-in center, recovery clinic,
or any other facility with consultation and counseling
as the main services provided.

📍 Facility-based In-patient Center- Patients

diagnosed with severe substance use disorder are
oftentimes referred to this center.
1. A health facility where clients are admitted, that
provides comprehensive rehabilitation services
utilizing any of the accepted modalities.