09 HPGD1103 T6

Topic 6
Curriculum Design
By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following:

1. Define curriculum design.
2. Recognise the criteria for the selection of content.
3. Explain the principles of a content organisation.
4. List the criteria for the selection of learning experiences.
5. Compare subject matter-centred, learner-centred, and
problem-centred curriculum design models.
In Topic 5, we discussed the initial step in the curriculum development process:

curriculum planning, in which decisions are made about what we want students
to do. The curriculum development process aims to produce a plan that stipulates
the kinds of studentsÊ engagement in learning experiences. This process is derived
from the educational philosophy and aims of education. It also includes the kinds
the objectives that are to be achieved by teachers or instructors at the classroom
level. Three well-known models were examined to guide the discussion of the
Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

156 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN
curriculum development process: the Tyler model, the Taba model, and the
Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model. In this topic, we will deal with the
curriculum development processÊs next phase, curriculum design.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Read the report Prevention is Better than Cure and answer the following
questions.
Prevention is Better than Cure

As society becomes increasingly Adopting the curriculum infusion
complex, the incidence of various approach, educators have designed
at-risk behaviours among students lesson plans to include prevention
has increased. These include issues in the regular curriculum.
substance abuse (tobacco and They have used real-life issues as
drugs), teen pregnancies, road the context for addressing the
safety, sexual promiscuity, critical health and social issues
violence, HIV infection, while teaching academic subjects.
gangsterism, bullying and others. In fact prevention strategies are
Parents and society have not ideally suited to infusion into
adequately taught students to academic subjects.
avoid such high-risk behaviours
and have passed on the task to Some educators are beginning to
schools. As such we see „add-on‰ resent having to be the sole
programmes which often are a ÂcustodianÊ of society with parents
series of brief, fragmented units on and the community not doing
critical life issues, squeezed into enough to prevent such negative
the regular curriculum. behaviours among students and
youths. Through the years, more
Unfortunately there is never and more societal issues have been
enough hours in a school day and brought into the curriculum and
they have to compete for valuable schools are expected to teach them
class time. So, instead of „doing in an already crowded curriculum.
more‰, curriculum planners have
decided to introduce prevention
programmes by using existing
school subjects.
Source: Adapted from Critical issues: Infusing prevention into the
curriculum, NCREL. Available at
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/
envrnmnt/drugfree/sa300.htnm

TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 157
(a) To what extent is this happening in your school?
(b) Give other examples of how schools deal with critical issues.
(c) Do you agree that prevention issues should be included in the

school curriculum? Justify.
Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
6.1
WHAT IS CURRICULUM DESIGN?
Curriculum design determines a curriculum planÊs „shape‰ or „configuration‰.

It involves a selection of content in line with the goals and objectives of the
curriculum. The selected content will have to be arranged in a form that will
help the teacher choose and organise appropriate learning experiences for
the classroom. Sometimes, curriculum design is also referred to as „curriculum
organisation‰. In short, designing the curriculum involves organising or
arranging the four components. These components are objectives, subject matter,
teaching-learning experiences, and evaluation procedures organised into a
cohesive and comprehensive plan that can be implemented with minimal
difficulties. According to Festus and Kurumeh (2010), these four components
are intertwined and interactive. Unfortunately, not all curriculum plans give
equal emphasis to each component. There are cases of plans that emphasise
the subject matter or the content. In contrast, others stress mainly the objectives
and evaluation procedures. Still, others primarily emphasise learning experiences
or activities (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
In this topic, we will focus on two main aspects of curriculum design:
• Selection and organisation of content (or subject matter) for learners
• Selection and organisation of learning experiences (or activities)

Among the questions to be addressed are: What content or subject matter

should be included? What learning activities should be planned for learners?
What teaching-learning or instructional strategies should be used? What
educational resources should be used in teaching-learning situations?
The selection of content and learning experiences will be based on a sound

theoretical framework. This selection involves oneÊs philosophical beliefs and
conceptions of human learning. This topic will be discussed in Topics 2 and 3.
Your philosophical stance and understanding of human learning will affect
your interpretation and selection of objectives. Your stance will influence the
selected content, how it will be organised, and how it will be taught or
delivered. This influence is what Ralph Tyler meant by his curriculum
development modelÊs philosophical and psychological screens (refer to Topic 5
on Curriculum Development Process).
6.2
CONTENT SELECTION
In this subtopic, we will discuss the definition of content, how should students
learn the content, and the criteria to guide the selection of content.
6.2.1 What is Content?

All curriculum have content, and how individuals view content is affected by their
view of knowledge and philosophical position. There are varying conceptions
of content. Some curriculum designers conclude that content is another term
for knowledge consisting of a collection of facts, concepts, generalisations,
principles, and theories. However, a distinction has to be made between
disciplines and content. For example, an important concept in geography
would be spatial relationships, while in physics, it would be acceleration.
The disciplines such as biology, chemistry, sociology, and psychology are

concerned with advancing understanding and exploring the unknown. In contrast,
content found in school subjects (or even undergraduate courses) does not
provide students with opportunities for advancing understanding or creating
new knowledge in the strictest sense. The content selected is aimed towards
helping students understand the knowledge that may be new to them but is
already known by scholars and practitioners in the field. From this body of
knowledge or discipline, content is selected for educational purposes and
organised according to the cognitive level of learners.

6.2.2 How Should Students Learn Content?

Content is not just something told to students but rather something that students
personally construct. Some people feel that content should be prescribed and
transmitted to learners (behaviourism). In contrast, others feel learners should
construct content (constructivism) based on their experiences. In the former
setting, learners are passive recipients of a subjectÊs facts, concepts, and
generalisations. In contrast, in the latter situation, learners seriously engage in
constructing meaning.
Similarly, some educators argue that learning the processes of content is more
important than the products of the content itself. Such a view divides content into
product and process when both should be emphasised equally. We have already
discussed this matter in Topic 1. Cognitive psychologists refer to:
• content as declarative knowledge or what students should know (the facts,

concepts, and principles of a body of knowledge); and
• a process as procedural knowledge or what should be able to do (the

procedures, thinking skills, and methods of inquiry embedded in any body
of knowledge).
6.2.3 How Should Content be Selected?

There is so much pressure on selecting curriculum content from various
stakeholders. The stakeholders include parents, academics, the government, the
business community, religious institutions, non-governmental organisations
and so forth regarding what content should be selected and taught in schools.
In addition, there is great information, doubling at a very rapid rate. Schools
do not have the luxury of time to include all the concerns of society in their
curriculum. Choices have to be made on what to include in the curriculum.

Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) list the following five criteria to guide the selection
of content (refer to Table 6.1):
Table 6.1: Criteria of the Selection of Content
Criteria Description
Significance It is obvious that the content selected should be significant. However,

the definition of significance varies with an individualÊs beliefs.
For example, curriculum developers who favour subject matter
designs think of significance in terms of the concepts and principles
of each subject area. Those who favour learner-centred designs
think of significance in terms of the needs and interests of the learner.
In contrast, those who favour a problem-centred design would
regard the problems and issues in society as significant. Taba (1962)
further argues that we should not just select content based on the
cognitive aspects of learners but also their affective dimensions.
Utility Utility refers to the usefulness of content. This criterion, again,

depends on your philosophical beliefs. If you subscribe to the
subject-centred design, you believe the content learned from the
various subject areas will be useful in the workplace. If you subscribe
to the learner-centred design, you will consider the needs and
interests of learners, enabling them to realise their potential to
function effectively in the workplace. Alternatively, suppose you
subscribe to the problem-centred design. In that case, you believe
that learning about societal issues allows students to relate their
learning to daily and working lives.
Validity Validity refers to whether the information passed on to students is

authentic and obtained from credible sources. This criterion is
especially significant today with the deluge of information that is
easily accessible, which may not necessarily be credible or reliable.
How many of the billions of pages on the Internet are credible?
Content needs to be checked to determine its accuracy and constantly
updated.

Learnability It may seem strange that anyone would select the content that is
not learnable. Unfortunately, it does happen. For example, the
content selected for a particular age group might be too difficult.
Teachers need more time, but insufficient time is allotted. Eventually,
teachers will rush through the material, leaving some students
behind, not understanding the content. Can you give examples of
this happening?
Feasibility Educators who select content must consider the constraints of time,
staff expertise, funding and other educational resources that schools
might face when implementing the curriculum. For example, the
number of days allotted for teaching may be insufficient to cover
all the content. Perhaps it is because schools have to allocate time
for extra-curricular activities and other school events. Content
selection has to be considered within the existing context or reality
of economics and the role of the government.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. What is the difference between content and discipline?
2. What is the difference between significance and utility in the

selection of content?
3. What is the difference between validity and feasibility in the

selection of content?

6.3
PRINCIPLES OF CONTENT ORGANISATION
After deciding on the content, the next step is to organise the content in a form
that will facilitate learning. The following principles have been proposed
when deciding on a content organisation (Sowell, 2000; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998):
6.3.1 Scope
Scope refers to the breadth and depth of content. It includes all topics, learning
experiences, and organising threads in the curriculum plan. Scope refers to
cognitive and affective learning, and some argue spiritual learning (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 1998). Sometimes the scope of a curriculum is narrow, consisting of
just a simple listing of key topics and activities.
When curriculum developers decide how much content should be included,

they determine the curriculumÊs scope. When we talk of scope, we are concerned
with questions such as: How much science should students in primary school
know? and What is the level of mathematics required of students before they
graduate from secondary school? When deciding about the scope of a curriculum,
the following guidelines may be useful (refer to Figure 6.1):
Figure 6.1: Guidelines in Deciding the Scope of a Curriculum

ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Is the scope (breadth and depth) of the subject you teach (or are
familiar with) appropriate?
2. Give examples of subjects in which you think the scope is

inappropriate.
Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
6.3.2 Sequence
Sequence refers to the organisation of content and the extent to which it fosters
cumulative and continuous learning (the vertical relationship among curriculum
sections). It is important that the sequencing of content lead to the cumulative
development of intellectual and affective processes. Do students have the
opportunity to make connections and enrich their understanding of content?
The sequence of content and experiences should be based on the logic of the subject
matter and how individuals learn. It should be based on psychological principles
and understanding human development and learning (refer to Topic 3 on
Psychological Foundations of Curriculum). According to Ornstein and Hunkins
(1998), Taba (1962) and Bruner (2009), the following principles are guidelines
for sequencing the curriculum (refer to Table 6.2).

Table 6.2: Guidelines for Sequencing the Curriculum
Principle Description
Simple to The content is organised, going from simple subordinate

complex components to complex components depicting interrelationships
among components. Optimal learning occurs when students are
presented with easy, often concrete content and with more difficult
and abstract content.
Spiral In a „spiral curriculum,‰ concepts may be introduced on a superficial

level in the early grades, then revisited with more and more
complexity and application later on (Bruner, 2009).
Prerequisites It assumes that bits of information or learning must be grasped

before other bits of information can be understood.
Whole-to-part The content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first

presented to show the connections between the parts.
Chronology It is a useful organiser for sequencing content, especially in subjects

such as history, political science, and world events.
Vertical This means that content and skills are arranged to build on one
organisation another and align with the general sequence of cognitive
development. They indicate what students have learned and what
they will learn later.
Horizontal It involves how skills and content taught at one level or one time
organisation relate to another. For example, in a social science course, you might
consider particular issues from a historical, sociological, political,
and economic point of view.

6.3.3 Integration
Integration is the bringing together concepts, skills, and values of different
subject areas to reinforce each other. Bits of information from different subject
areas are brought together. This way, it can present the learner with a unified
knowledge picture. Some have argued that curriculum planners try to integrate
information, and the learners integrate what they are learning in their minds.
It is something that happens within the individual learner.
The idea of integration was popularised in the 60s by Hilda Taba because of
concern that the school curriculum was too disjointed, fragmented and detached.
Lately, there has been a surge of interest in curriculum integration due to the rapid
accumulation of information doubling in a shorter period. Increasingly, there is a
realisation that knowledge has to be viewed much broader, particularly in dealing
with ideas that cut across disciplines. When faced with real-world situations,
seldom is one area of content sufficient to explain complex phenomena. The need
to examine phenomena from various disciplines has intensified interest in the
integrated curriculum. Examples of the integrated curriculum include science-
technology-society and reading across the curriculum. The science-technology-
society (STS) curriculum combines science with social sciences to solve practical,
everyday problems. The integrated approach takes the student outside the
laboratory and from the textbook into the local community.
6.3.4 Continuity
Continuity ensures that ideas, themes and skills are repeated as the learner
progresses through the grades. Why? This process is necessary because students
may not grasp certain concepts and skills in one experience. They must be
presented again before they become clear. For example, students in the primary
grades are taught the principles of essay writing. The same principles are
repeated in the succeeding years. Continuity ensures the reappearance of
certain major ideas at different grade levels at increased depth and complexity
over the length of the curriculum. For example, doing experiments is a learning
experience repeated throughout science teaching at increasing levels of
complexity and abstraction.

SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. Name the different ways of sequencing content.
2. Why is there a need to ensure continuity in content organisation for

certain concepts and skills?
ACTIVITY 6.3
1. What do you understand by integration as one of the principles of

content organisation?
2. Give examples of continuity other than those given in the text.
Post your answers in the myINSPIRE online forum.
6.3.5 Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum

The integrated curriculum is receiving much attention even though it is not
necessarily a new way of looking at teaching and learning. The expanding body
of knowledge concerns curriculum relevancy. The lack of connection among
subjects and the need for future workers that can be drawn from many fields
in solving problems have been cited as the cause for integrated curriculum.
The integrated curriculum is organised so that it cuts across subject matter,
bringing together various aspects of content to focus upon broad areas of study.
It views teaching and learning holistically, reflecting the real world.
Among the common areas of integration are:
• Art, mathematics and reading;
• Writing across the curriculum;
• History, science and mathematics;
• History and literature;
• Integrated humanities;

• Health and reading;
• Social studies, health and the arts;
• Physical education, the arts, health and literature; and
• Science, social studies, health and the arts.
For example, „water‰ as a theme can be studied from the following areas: science
(composition of water), geography (distribution of water resources), literature
(poems on water), language (vocabulary related to water), history (disputes
related to water), economics (supply and demand of water) and so forth.
Education journals and teachersÊ anecdotal records report many examples of

educators linking subject areas to provide meaningful learning experiences.
An integrated curriculum helps students to apply skills, leads to faster retrieval
of information, encourages depth and breadth in learning, and promotes positive
attitudes (improved team spirit and work habits).
Successful implementation of an integrated curriculum requires a great deal of

planning. It requires teachers to go out into the community to see what
mathematics, science, social sciences, language arts, artistic and occupational
skills are required in the contemporary workplace. Representatives from
business, industry, government, and labour must provide suggestions for
curriculum redesign.
Source: Lake, K. Integrated curriculum.

Available at https://educationnorthwest.org/sites/default/files/integrated-
curriculum.pdf

ACTIVITY 6.4
Refer to the Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum and answer the
following questions:
(a) Why is there a revival of interest in the integrated curriculum?
(b) What are some positive effects of curriculum integration?
(c) Suggest ways in which the subjects or courses in your institution

may be integrated.

forum.
6.4
SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES
In this subtopic, we will learn what it mean by learning experiences and the
criteria for selection of learning experiences.
6.4.1 What are Learning Experiences?

While content is the „meat‰ of the curriculum plan, we can consider learning
experiences planned for the students as the „heart‰ of the plan (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 1998). The learning experiences are the means towards achieving the
goals and objectives of the curriculum. Tyler (1960) used the term learning
experiences in his curriculum development model (discussed earlier in Topic 5).
Learning experiences is the instructional component of the curriculum providing
for the interaction between teacher, student, and the content. Learning experiences
designed to achieve the goals and objectives of the curriculum plan can be
divided into:
• teaching methods adopted; and
• learning activities.

There are many teaching methods, such as inquiry, discovery, lecture, small
group discussion, role-playing, fieldwork, etc. Taba (1962) used the term
„learning activities‰ in her curriculum development model (discussed in Topic 5).
Learning activities are opportunities for students to question, clarify, create, and
apply knowledge. Examples of learning activities are answering questions,
solving problems, journal writing, viewing videos, doing experiments, playing
games and so forth. Both teaching methods and learning activities are equally
important parts of the learning experience and should be carefully planned.
In many instances, there is an overlap between teaching methods and learning
activities, and some people may find the distinction problematic.
ACTIVITY 6.5
Read the following text and answer the questions.
Malaysian Primary 6 Science
Topic: Conservation
Learning objectives:
• List waste materials that can be reused and recycled.
• Explain the paper recycling paper.
• Carry out recycling projects.
Content:
• Concept of recycling and reusing.
• Components of the paper recycling process.

Read the following text and answer the questions.
Learning Experiences:
• View photos and videoclips on recycling of waste materials.
• Class project on collecting newspapers for recycling.
• Visit a paper recycling plant.
Source: Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education

Malaysia (July, 1997). Curriculum specifications for SMART
SCHOOLS. Kuala Lumpur: Author.
(a) How are learning objectives, the content selected and learning
experiences related?
(b) Suggest other learning experiences for the same content.
(c) Does the subject or course you teach distinguish between content
and learning experiences?
Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
6.4.2 Criteria for Selection of Learning Experiences

Learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities) are selected to
translate the goals and objectives of the curriculum plan. It includes all teachersÊ
actions necessary to influence student behaviour and learning. The particular
actions of the teacher may vary according to the teaching method adopted and
the learning activities used. Still, they all are aimed towards bringing about
learning.
Will the learning experiences selected achieve the objectives of the curriculum?
The most important criterion for the selection of learning experiences is to ensure
that there is alignment between objectives, content, and learning experiences.
This criterion is termed validity. Learning experiences should also be selected in

terms of feasibility. In other words, whether the experiences suggested can be

carried out given the time, available facilities, and expertise of teachers. It would
be futile to propose learning experiences which may be good on paper. However,
it is difficult to implement in the classroom because teachers are not trained
and facilities are inadequate. For example, learning experiences require internet
use when the school lacks an internet connection.
Learning experiences should also be selected based on whether they will enhance
studentsÊ learning of the content and motivate them to continue learning. Learning
experiences should foster the learnerÊs cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and
spiritual development. The learning experiences should also attempt to develop
studentsÊ thinking skills and stimulate a greater understanding of their existence
as individuals and as members of groups. In other words, the selected learning
experiences should encourage group interaction and collaborative learning,
skills required in the world of work.
In the selection of learning experiences, educators should not separate content

and experiences. In reality, both content and learning experiences do not exist
in isolation. For example, students cannot just learn or study without experiencing
some activity and content. Likewise, teachers cannot deal with content without
being engaged in some experience or activity. You will notice that each topic
in this course has many learning activities such as „self-test‰ and „activity‰ to
encourage you to „play‰ with the content.
6.5
CURRICULUM DESIGNS
Most curriculum designs can be grouped into three basic designs: subject-centred,
learner-centred and problem-centred (refer to Table 6.3). Subject-centred designs
include five types of designs: academic subject designs, discipline designs, broad
field designs, correlation designs and process designs. Learner-centred designs
include child-centred, romantic or radical, and humanistic. Problem-centred
designs include three types of design: life-situations design, core design and
social problems design (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).

Table 6.3: Summary of Major Curriculum Designs
Basic Design Type Detail
Academic subjects • Separate subjects or courses

design
Discipline-based • Use the structure of the discipline

design
• Approach physics as a physicist
• Use inquiry methods of the discipline
Broad fields • Interdisciplinary or cross-disciplinary

design
Subject-centred • E.g. integrated science, whole
designs language
Correlation • Relate one subject to another,

design with each keeping its identity
• Thematic approach or team teaching
Process design • Teaching thinking processes such as

critical and creative thinking and
problem-solving
• Metacognitive training
Child-centred • The childÊs interest, need, and

design experiences are emphasised
• E.g. project method
Radical design • Learning is reflective and not

externally imposed
Learner-centre
designs • Society is flawed, and the curriculum
should emancipate the learner
Humanistic design • Stress development of the self-concept

of students
• The uniqueness of individuals and

the importance of self-actualisation

Life situations • Life situations design

design
• The subject matter focuses on pressing
social issues and solutions
Core design • Social functions core

Problem-centred
• Students work on problems crucial
designs
in todayÊs society
Social problems • Social problems and reconstructionist

design designs
• Analyse severe problems confronting

humankind
Source: Adapted from Ornstein & Hunkins (1998)
6.5.1 Subject-centred Designs

Subject-centred designs are by far the most popular and widely used curriculum
design. It is the most popular because knowledge and content are well-accepted
as integral parts of the curriculum. Since acquiring a body of content is integral
in any school system, much thought has focused on presenting the knowledge,
skills, and values of subjects to learners.
The five proposed approaches are as follows:
(a) Academic Subject Design

The academic subject design is the oldest and best-known design to most
people because it was how many of them were educated. This design
believes that humans are unique because of their intellect and the quest for
knowledge acquisition to feed this intellect. Is this true of you? In the 1930s,
Robert Hutchins (n.d) indicated that the American schoolsÊ academic
subject design model should have language and its uses (reading, writing,
grammar, literature). Others include mathematics, science, history, and
foreign languages. Has it changed today?

Why is this curriculum model design widely adopted? One reason is that it
is much more easily interpreted in textbooks and commercially available
support materials. Teaching is essentially a verbal activity (lecture, recitation,
or group discussion). Teachers find it easier to communicate ideas and
subject knowledge in verbal form from textbooks. Also, people are familiar
with this format, having gone through it themselves in school.
Stress on subject matter fails to foster social, psychological and physical

development and, to some extent, fosters an elite ruling class based on
knowledge (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). However, critics argue that this
design deemphasises the learner by taking away their rights to choose the
content that is most meaningful to them. Do you agree?
(b) Discipline Design

A discipline is a specific body of knowledge with its methods of inquiry,
specialised words and terminology, tradition, and collection of literature
and people involved in the field as theoreticians and practitioners.
Proponents of the discipline design model emphasise teaching the
disciplines in their pure form. In other words, a biology student would
approach the subject as a biologist. At the same time, those who study
history will study it as historians. What is the rationale for teaching the
disciplines? According to its proponents, the school is a mini version of
a world of intellect, and the disciplines reflect that world.
(c) Broad Fields Design

The overall field design is also known as the interdisciplinary design.
The main reason for this design arose from the concern that the subjects
taught were too compartmentalised and fragmented – for example,
geography, geometry, literature, algebra, etc. The suggestion was to combine
content from different subjects to form one logical subject. For example,
economics, sociology, political science, geography, and history were
combined to form social studies. Another example is language arts
(composed of literature, grammar, linguistics, and spelling) and general
science (composed of biology, chemistry, and physics). At one time, a subject
called „man and the environment‰ (alam dan manusia) was implemented
in Malaysian primary schools.

What do you see as some problems with this model? One is the issue of
breadth versus depth. For example, in studying social studies over one year,
students are exposed to a variety of social science concepts compared to
only studying economics concepts for one year. Certainly, treatment of
the various social science concepts will be superficial. A year of economics
will surely expose students to more economics concepts and principles
than a year of social studies. However, some may argue whether students
need an in-depth knowledge of a particular subject. Suppose the educational
philosophy is to give students an overview of the social sciences. In that case,
social studies might be a logical choice.
(d) Correlation Design

The correlation design model lies in between the academic design model
and the broad fields design. Suppose you do not want your curriculum to
consist of five separate subjects. Nor do you want the five different subject
areas to be fused into one subject. Hence, the correlation design model
might be an option. You may want to fuse or correlate secondary school
history with literature. For example, in a history lesson, the class learns
about the Japanese occupation of Malaysia. During the literature class,
students read novels about life during that time. However, each subject
retains its own distinct identity.
(e) Process Design

In the discipline-based design discussed earlier, students learn the methods
of inquiry used by experts in the respective discipline. For example,
in studying anthropology, students will learn the various ethnographic
procedures used in the field. The process design model stresses learning
general procedures and processes that are not applicable to any discipline.
The most popular example of the process design model is the teaching of
thinking skills. Various educators have suggested that students should be
taught to think. The curriculum has focused on teaching decision-making,
problem-solving, and creative thinking. Ennis (1963) identified a list of
critical thinking skills that should be taught, such as identifying fallacies,
checking the credibility of sources, etc.
In the process of design and curriculum, students are also taught to be

aware of their thinking and to take necessary action. A good thinker can
monitor their thinking and take steps to remedy faulty thinking. The general
assumption is that general thinking skills, and processes are common
regardless of the subject area. The curriculum aims to enhance these process
skills applicable to all disciplines. Critical thinking is not unique to
geography or physics. Neither is thinking the sole domain of art or literature
creatively.

SELF-CHECK 6.3
1. Why is a curriculum based on the academic subject design model

popular even today?
2. What is the main difference between the academic subject design

model and the discipline-based design model? Give examples.
3. What is the main difference between the broad field and correlation
design models? Give examples.
4. How is the teaching of thinking skills in the discipline-based and

process design models different?
6.5.2 Learner-centred Designs

While subject-centred designs are popular, there is also an emphasis on
learner-centred designs. The early supporters of the child-centred curriculum
were largely the progressives. We have covered this in Topic 2. Emphasis was
on the development of the whole child, which was most evident in primary
schools.
(a) Child-centred Design

Proponents of the child-centred design believe that learners should actively
participate in the teaching-learning process. Learning should be related
closely to studentsÊ daily lives, unlike the subject-centred design, which
tends to separate content from the daily lives of a learner. In the child-centred
design, the focus is on the needs and interests of learners. An early advocate
of the child-centred curriculum was French philosopher Jean-Jacques
Rousseau (1712–1778), who made the child the focus of the educational
process in his book Emile. He said that „Living is the business that I wish
to teach him. When he leaves my care he, I grant, be neither magistrate,
nor soldier, nor priest: he will be, primarily, a man‰ (Rousseau 1712–1778
cited in Jergus, 2018). This did not mean, however, that children were
allowed to run free. Children need to be guided by the teacher according
to their level of development.

Perhaps, the most well-known advocate of child-centred design is John

Dewey. We have discussed some of his ideas in Topic 2 on progressivism.
He argued that children are not blank slates; they bring four basic impulses
– the impulse to communicate, compare and contrast, inquire, and express
themselves through language. In the child-centred design, teaching and
learning draw on the experiences of learners and the vast amount of
information they bring to the classroom. Teachers and students negotiate
what interests learners and what content should be included in the
curriculum. Teachers and students participate in planning lesson units,
their purposes, the focus of the content, and the learning activities to be
introduced in the teaching-learning situations. Hence, the child-centred
curriculum will constantly be changing to meet the studentÊs needs.
In the child-centred model, the learnerÊs interests and experiences become

the curriculumÊs subject matter. Children are free to discover first-hand
by doing things for themselves rather than being told how to do something.
The „project method‰ became a popular pedagogical strategy in
child-centred design. Children solved problematic situations calling on
their knowledge and skills of science, history, art and so forth. In other
words, the traditional subjects are not rejected but rather used to solve
problems that interest learners.
(b) Radical Design

This design focuses on the learner, similar to the child-centred design.
The difference is that greater emphasis is placed on the need for the
curriculum to reform society. We have discussed reform society in Topic 2
on Reconstructionism. Proponents of the radical design operate on the
assumption that society is corrupt and repressive. Children should be
educated towards the goal of social reform. A well-known proponent of
the radical design was Paulo Freire, who opposed treating students as
empty vessels to be filled with knowledge by the teacher. He objected to
the teacher-student dichotomy and proposed the relationship between
teacher and student be reciprocal: the teacher who learns and the learner
who teaches.
According to proponents of radical design, learning is reflective and not

externally imposed by those in power. The curriculum should be so designed
to free the learner from indoctrination. Knowledge is not the finished
product to be acquired by learners because this is indoctrination. Learning
is something that results from the interaction between and among people.
Learners should challenge content and be allowed to give their opinions

about the information given to them. Learners will value what they learn
if they can construct their knowledge. When learners create meaning, they
have ownership over what they have learned, resulting in genuine thought.
These ideas have been discussed in Topic 3 on Constructivism.
(c) Humanistic Design

Humanistic design became popular in the 60s and 70s. It was introduced
in the United States in response to an extreme overemphasis on disciplines
during this time. Greater emphasis was placed on the affective domain
to permit students to feel and value. The humanistic design is based on
humanistic psychology principles. We have discussed this in Topic 3 on
Humanistic Psychology. A basic question is whether the curriculum has
truly allowed a person to achieve their full potential. The curriculum
should be designed to empower learners to be involved in the process of
realising their potential.
One of the humanistic curriculum design proponents was Carl Rogers

(1902–1987), who argued that education aims to facilitate learning.
To facilitate learning, the teacher accepts learners as people, placing
importance on their feelings, their opinions and caring for them. In other
words, the teacher can view the world through the studentÊs eyes. With
such a curriculum, learners will be able to become fully functional people,
capable of intelligent choice, critical learners and able to approach
problems and situations with flexibility and work cooperatively with others
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). The cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
domains are interconnected in this curriculum design. It stresses studentsÊ
development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills. The
humanistic curriculum requires teachers with great skills and competence
in dealing with individuals. These skills may not be easy to obtain for
all teachers. There is also a tendency to overemphasise the individual and
ignore the needs of society.
SELF-CHECK 6.4
1. What is the main focus of the curriculum based on learner-centred

designs?
2. What is the main difference between the child-centred and radical

design models?
3. What is the main feature of the humanistic design model?

6.5.3 Problem-centred Designs

Besides the subject-centred and learner-centred curriculum design models, a third
design, the problem-centred design, is proposed. The focus of this model is the
problems faced by society. It aims to prepare students with relevant knowledge
and skills to fit into society when they leave school. Problem-centred designs
are pre-determined before the arrival of students. In other words, genuine life
problems are selected, and teaching-learning activities are organised around
these issues. The learner is placed in the social setting to address the problem.
Unlike learner-centred designs, the problems or issues discussed originate
from issues of concern to society.
(a) Life-centred Situations

In any society, persistent life situations are crucial to a societyÊs successful
functioning. Examples of such life situations are healthy living, use of
leisure time, ethical character, racial tolerance, citizenship skills and so
forth. Its advocates argued that organising a curriculum around such life
situations makes educational sense. Students will see direct relevance in
studying social issues related to their world. Also, having students study
social or life situations will encourage them to see ways to improve society.
The life situations that need to be emphasised in schools will depend on
what students need before entering the world of work and assuming
adult responsibilities. However, family, religious institutions, and other
community organisations have already met some needs and interests.
So, the school should address those needs not met through these institutions.
This life-centred situations curriculum has been criticised because students

do not learn much subject matter. However, proponents of the model state
that this is not true because the design draws heavily from traditional
subject areas. The content is organised in a manner that allows students
to see problems faced by society. In addressing societyÊs pressing problems,
content is drawn from different subject areas to explain and find solutions
to current issues.
(b) Core-design
A variation of the design of the life-centred situation is the core-design
model. The focus is still on the pressing problems of society. The difference
is that certain problems are selected to form the core. It is carefully planned
before students enter school and adjusted when necessary. The core
problems are taught to all students in a block-time format whereby two or
more periods of class time are used. A problem-solving approach is adopted
in analysing social problems. Students select a problem through consensus

and work either individually or in groups. Data is collected, analysed,

interpreted, and presented in class. Findings are then evaluated and
discussed.
SELF-CHECK 6.5
1. What is the main focus of the curriculum based on the

problem-centred designs?
2. What is the main difference between the life-centred and

core-design models?
ACTIVITY 6.6
1. Choose a course or subject you teach or have taken. Explain

how the content in the course is organised.
2. „The content selected and organised in a particular curriculum

is closely related to the textbook‰. How does this affect the scope
of the curriculum? Its sequence? Its continuity? Its integration?
Justify.
3. Would a learner-based design be easier or more difficult to

implement than a subject-based design for your subject or course?
4. Which curriculum design model is more prevalent in your

institution? Explain.
5. What is your preferred curriculum design? Why?
6. How much freedom are you given to change the curriculum

design for the course or subject you teach?

7. The following are some problems with the problem-centred

designs:
• The difficulty in determining the scope and sequence of

social problems faced by society.
• Textbooks and other teaching materials do not support the

problem-centred design.
• Teachers are uncomfortable with the design because it departs

too much from their training.
• The design requires an exceptional teacher versed in the

subject matter, problem-solving skills and general knowledge.
You are leading a team in designing a curriculum for the primary

school using a problem-centred design. Suggest how you would
overcome the problems listed above.

forum.
• Curriculum design involves making decisions about the selection and

organisation of content and learning experiences in line with the goals and
objectives of the curriculum.
• Content is usually selected from a body of knowledge or discipline for

educational purposes and organised to meet the cognitive level of learners.
• Content is selected based on significance, validity, feasibility, learnability,

and utility.
• The principles guiding content organisation are scope, sequence, integration

and continuity.

• Content may be sequenced horizontally, vertically, chronologically, simple

to complex, spirally, and whole-to-part.
• Most curriculum design models may be classified as either subject-centred

models, learner-centred models or problem-centred models.
Content organisation Problem-centred designs

Content selection Scope
Continuity Selection of learning experiences
Curriculum design Sequence
Feasibility Significance
Integration Subject-centred designs
Learnability Utility
Learner-centred designs Validity
Learning experiences
Bruner, J. S. (2009). The process of education. Harvard University Press.
Ennis, R. H. (1963). Needed: Research in critical thinking. Educational

Leadership, 21(1), 17–20.
Festus, A. B., & Kurumeh, M. S. (2015). Curriculum planning and development

in Mathematics from the formative stages. Journal of Education and
Practice, 6(2), 62–66.
Hutchins, R. M. An introduction to curriculum integration and inquiry

learning. Western Washington University. Pamela Morehouse is a retired
Washington state elementary school teacher. She is an active trainer
of teachers, recently returning from Pakistan where she volunteered to
train teachers and administrators for The Citizens Foundation, a non-profit
NGO. The text, 1.

Jergus, K. (2018). Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). In International handbook

of philosophy of education, 395–406.
Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations. Principles,

and Issues, (3rd), 237–240.
Sowell, E. J., & Stollenwerk, D. A. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction.

Prentice Hall.
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice (No. 37.013 TAB).
Tyler, F. T. (1960). Teachers personalities and teaching competencies. The School

Review, 68(4), 429–449.
Wragg, T. (1997). Cubic curriculum. Routledge.

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Topic 6

By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following:

In Topic 5, we discussed the initial step in the curriculum development process:

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Prevention is Better than Cure

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(a) To what extent is this happening in your school?

(c) Do you agree that prevention issues should be included in the

Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

WHAT IS CURRICULUM DESIGN?

Curriculum design determines a curriculum planÊs „shape‰ or „configuration‰.

In this topic, we will focus on two main aspects of curriculum design:

• Selection and organisation of content (or subject matter) for learners

• Selection and organisation of learning experiences (or activities)

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Among the questions to be addressed are: What content or subject matter

The selection of content and learning experiences will be based on a sound

6.2.1 What is Content?

The disciplines such as biology, chemistry, sociology, and psychology are

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6.2.2 How Should Students Learn Content?

• content as declarative knowledge or what students should know (the facts,

• a process as procedural knowledge or what should be able to do (the

6.2.3 How Should Content be Selected?

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Table 6.1: Criteria of the Selection of Content

Significance It is obvious that the content selected should be significant. However,

Utility Utility refers to the usefulness of content. This criterion, again,

Validity Validity refers to whether the information passed on to students is

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1. What is the difference between content and discipline?

2. What is the difference between significance and utility in the

3. What is the difference between validity and feasibility in the

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PRINCIPLES OF CONTENT ORGANISATION

When curriculum developers decide how much content should be included,

Figure 6.1: Guidelines in Deciding the Scope of a Curriculum

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2. Give examples of subjects in which you think the scope is

Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

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Table 6.2: Guidelines for Sequencing the Curriculum

Simple to The content is organised, going from simple subordinate

Spiral In a „spiral curriculum,‰ concepts may be introduced on a superficial

Prerequisites It assumes that bits of information or learning must be grasped

Whole-to-part The content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first

Chronology It is a useful organiser for sequencing content, especially in subjects

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1. Name the different ways of sequencing content.

2. Why is there a need to ensure continuity in content organisation for

1. What do you understand by integration as one of the principles of

2. Give examples of continuity other than those given in the text.

Post your answers in the myINSPIRE online forum.

6.3.5 Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum

Among the common areas of integration are:

• Art, mathematics and reading;

• Writing across the curriculum;

• History, science and mathematics;

• History and literature;

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• Health and reading;

• Social studies, health and the arts;

• Physical education, the arts, health and literature; and