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CHED-GET: ETHICS
Department of Philosophy
School of Humanities
Ateneo de Manila University

Topic: Kant and Rights Theorists

Instructor: Michael Ner E. Mariano

Immanuel Kant:
• 1724-1804
• A "German" philosopher from Konigsberg, East Prussia
• Wrote among other things, Critique of Pure Reason (1781), The Fundamental Principles
ofI Foundations of/Groundwork of/ Grounding for the Metaphysics ofMorals (1785),
Critique of Practical Reason (1788), and Critique ofJudgment (1790)

Kant's Project:
• An ethics with an Cl priori foundation
• Genuine morality is based on the moral law, which is valid for all people because it is
completel~rati onal.
• Kant's test~or the rational consistency of a moral principle is the categorical imperative.

Kant's Moral Theory:

• .Only the good will is absolutely good, and not the "gifts of nature" (such as "talents of
the mind" or "qualities of temperament") nor the "gifts of fortune."
• A good will is good, not because of its effects, but is good in itself.
• A good will is good because it is done out of duty.
• Actions that only accord with duty-if done out of inclination .or self-interest-a re merely
"praiseworthy."
• A possible categorization of actions based on Kant:
1) Morally "good"/ "valuable"-if done for"the sake of duty
2) Morally "bad"-ifdone in direct opposition to duty
3) Morally "neutral"-if, though not in direct opposition to duty, is also not for the sake
of duty, but is still not in accordance with duty
4) Praiseworthy- if, though in accordance with duty, is still done for some other reason
than duty itself

Kant's 3 Ethical Propositions : . .

1) An act must be done from duty in order for it to have inner moral worth.
2) An act done from duty derives its moral worth, not from the purpose, which is to be
attained by it, but from the maxim by which it is determined.
-" maxim": the principle [or general rule] of volition, i.e., will, one's power of choice, or
the act of choosing itself .
3) Duty is the necessity of acting from resp~ct for the law.

Kant's Categorical Imperative:

• The supreme principle of the moral law is the "categorical imperative"
• Versus "hypothetical imperatives," which can either be imperatives of skill or
imperatives of prudence
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• If you want A, then do B. -vs- Do B.

Kant's Formulations oftl1e Categorical Imperative:

1) Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a
universal law. [Principle of Universality] .
vi) Act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other, in every
case as an end in itself, not as means only. [Principle of Humanity as End-in-
ltselt]
3) Act so that your will is what makes universal law. [Principle of Autonomy; vs.
"heteronomy"] .
• Autonomy is from the Greek: autos: "self' + nomos: "law'' [The law comes from
one's self. One's self is the law-maker, the legislator (of moral.law).]
• Heteronomy: heteros: "other, different" + nomos: "law" [The law comes from
outside one's self, i.e., from other people (individuals, institutions, societies,
cultures, etc.).]

- -Kant's Examples to Illustrate the Categorical Imperative:

1) Suicide because of misfortune .
Maxim: Shorten one's life when it's unsatisfactory to end it
➔ Kant: cannot be a universal law
2) Promising to repay debt when one knows one cannot
Maxim: Promise whatever if one is in a difficult situation
➔ Kant: cannot be a universal law
3) Not cultivating one's natural gifts
Maxim: Give in to one's indulgence of pleasure or enjoyment instead of cultivating one's
gifts .
➔ Kant: cannot be a universal law
4) Not helping those in need when one is prosperous
Maxim: One must only think of one's happiness
➔ Kant: cannot be a universal law

"Deontological Ethics":
...,. Scholars classify Kant's theory as "deontological," which means an ethics centered on
"duty'' (Greek: deone, meaning "duty"): Actions are right or wrong in and of themselves,
based on whether they are done in the name of duty or go against duty, regardless of
outcome.
Vs. Consequentialist (e.g., Utilitarianism), in which actions are right or wrong depending
on their consequence or outcome ·

Additional Discussions to Clarify Kant's Theory:.

_o. Stanley Milgram's experiment on obedience to authority:
.., P / Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development: Kant's theory occupies the 6'h and
highest stage, the "Universal Ethical Principles orientation"

Rights Theorists:
/ . A "right" is a "justified.claim on others"
/~ There are negative rights and positive rights
A Kant's principle of treating humanity as "end-in-itself' is the source of much of current
thinking on the reality of rights