Germplasm Conservation
CA Offord, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
This article is a revision of the previous edition article by B.V. Ford-Lloyd, volume 1, pp. 49–56, Ó 2003, Elsevier Ltd.
Nomenclature
Accession A sample of a crop variety collected at a
specific location and time, i.e., sample of seed in a seed
genebank
AMGRC Australian Medicago Genetic Resources Centre,
South Australian Research and Development Institute
Bioinformatics Computational biology, including the
design of field trials, analysis of phenotype images, and
genomic analysis
Bioversity International Formerly IPGRI (International
Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 1991–2006); formerly
IBPGR (International Board for Plant Genetic Resources,
1974–91)
Callus Undifferentiated mass of cells growing in tissue
culture
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
Cell suspension Single cells or small clumps of cells
growing in liquid tissue culture medium
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research
CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical
CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y
Trigo (International Maize and Wheat Improvement
Center)
Complementary conservation Combinations of
techniques (such as on-farm plus seed storage) to
maximize efficiency and safety of conservation
Ecogeographical study The gathering and synthesizing of
taxonomic, geographical, and ecological data for the
formulation of collecting and conservation priorities
Evaluation Undertaking field trials or experiments to
measure different characteristics (e.g., seed yield, disease
resistance, stress tolerance) of germplasm accessions
Ex situ conservation Germplasm conserved ‘away from the
site’ in seedbanks, tissue repositories, gardens, or farms
Introduction
Germplasm is the genetic material of an individual that may
be transmitted, sexually or somatically, from one generation
to another. In a general sense, germplasm may represent
a species, population, landrace, hybrid, or cultivar. Conserva-
tion of germplasm may take many forms but is generally
classed as ‘in situ,’ in natural or managed areas or farms, or
‘ex situ,’ in seedbanks, tissue repositories, or botanic gardens.
It should be collected, stored, and managed so that it
maintains its usefulness – that is, viability, quantity, and
diversity – for its intended use.
Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 2
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations
GEN (USA167) Plant Genetic Resources Unit, Cornell
University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station,
USDA, ARS
Genetic diversity The range of differences among
individual plants or organisms shown in particular DNA
sequences (can be genes or noncoding regions)
Germplasm All the genetic material that comprises the
inherited characteristics of an organism or species
GSPC Global Strategy for Plant Conservation
In situ conservation Germplasm conserved in natural or
managed areas
In vitro culture Plant organs, cells, or tissues grown in glass
or other culture vessels
INERA Institut National pour l’Etude et la Recherche
Agronomique (Democratic Republic of Congo)
IRRI International Rice Research Institute
Meristem A growing point of a shoot or root made up of
actively dividing cells, cells undergoing cell division, and
one or two differentiated organs such as leaves (in the case
of a shoot meristem)
Passport data Data that are required to describe the time
and place of origin and botanical identification of an
accession (e.g., accession number, country of collection,
date of collection)
PGRFA Plant Genetic Resources for Agriculture
Somatic embryo A very young plant possessing a shoot
and root axis that is derived from a single somatic cell (as
opposed to a zygote)
Subculture The transfer of small groups of cells or organs
growing in vitro to a new culture
VIR Vavilov Institute (Russian Federation)
The uses of germplasm conservation are varied and include
plant breeding for agriculture, horticulture, and forestry, as
well as restoration of damaged habitats. Genetic resources
of agriculture and food plants are the ‘total genetic diversity
of cultivated species and their wild relatives.’ Specifically
they will be made up of the diversity found in any modern
cultivated, domesticated, or semidomesticated plant species
and its component cultivars (currently in use or obsolete),
older traditionally grown varieties or ‘landraces,’ and the
related wild species, which may be the immediate or more
distant evolutionary relatives of the cultivated forms. The
continued use of novel genetic diversity from crop wild
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394807-6.00046-0 281
282 Reproduction and Biodiversity j Germplasm Conservation
relatives (CWRs) in plant breeding is seen to be key to the
future of global food security.
Brief History of Germplasm or Genetic Resources
Conservation
In 1926, the Russian geneticist and plant breeder N.I. Vavilov
proposed that crop improvement drew from wide genetic vari-
ability, and to this end he collected cultivated plants and their
wild relatives from many parts of the world. It was Vavilov who
first focused attention on the diversity to be found in crop
plants and the fact that it was concentrated in what he termed
‘centers of diversity.’ He investigated the distribution of the
major crop plants and determined areas where there were
concentrations of botanical varieties, using detailed studies of
their morphology, cytology, genetics, resistance to pests and
diseases, and adaptation to climatic conditions.
Much later, in the 1960s, international genetic conservation
of crops and crop relatives gained momentum. This was spear-
headed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), and in the 1970s by the International Board for
Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) and its successor organization
the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI),
now known as Bioversity International. Further impetus was
provided by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in
1992, its objectives being stated as “the conservation of biolog-
ical diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair
and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisa-
tion of genetic resources.” Article 1 of the FAO International
Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources (adopted 2001)
echoes the wording of the CBD for all three main aims and
the CBD, together with FAO promotes the adoption of
a complementary approach to conservation of plant genetic
resources for agriculture (PGRFA) that incorporates both
ex situ and in situ techniques. The International Treaty on Plant
Genetic Resources came into force in 2004 giving breeders
access to crops and wild relatives held in public collections.
More than 100 countries are signatories to the Treaty.
The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) was
evolved in the early 2000s as an instrument of the CBD. Its
vision is of a “positive, sustainable future where human activi-
ties support the diversity of plant life (including the endurance
of plant genetic diversity, survival of plant species and commu-
nities and their associated habitats and ecological associa-
tions), and where in turn the diversity of plants support and
improve our livelihoods and well-being.” The strategy aims
by the year 2020 to have conserved:
l At least 75% of threatened plant species in ex situ collec-
tions, preferably in the country of origin, and at least 20%
available for recovery and restoration programs (Target 8).
l 70% of the genetic diversity of crops including their wild
relatives and other socioeconomically valuable plant species
conserved, while respecting, preserving, and maintaining
associated indigenous and local knowledge (Target 9).
The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and
the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their
Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity came
into force in 2014. It is a supplementary agreement to the
CBD which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utiliza-
tion of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way.
Global Germplasm Conservation Programs
In response to the CBD and GSPC and its driving concerns,
such as loss of habitat, climate change, genetic erosion, and
future food security, there has been a burgeoning of germplasm
conservation particularly in seedbanking efforts to comple-
ment traditional germplasm conservation in major crop
species. There are many seedbanks and other germplasm repos-
itories throughout the world dedicated to different crops. In
recent times, germplasm conservation has broadened to
include noncrop species and specifically native floras which
may include CWRs and threatened species.
The Global Crop Trust has programs supporting major
crops in more than 80 countries and has developed a ‘back-
up’ seedbank under the Arctic ice in Svalbard (Norway). The
Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP) has been instru-
mental in the establishment of a global network for conserva-
tion of native plant species (including CWR) and capacity
building. A key strength of these cooperative programs is the
duplication of collections which act as insurance against loss
at one genebank. In 2015, collections held in the ICARDA seed-
bank in Syria became inaccessible to plant breeders due to civil
war. Backup collections held at Svalbard have been made avail-
able to continue breeding efforts on cereal crops suitable for
dry regions.
Current Status of Germplasm Conservation
There may be more than 500 000 species of vascular plants in
existence, only 350 000 of which have been formally identified.
Of these perhaps as many as 60 000 to 100 000 species are
faced with extinction (15–20%).
Approximately 7000 plant species have been collected or
cultivated by humans for food and all of these should, there-
fore, be considered as important PGRFA. Most attention has
focused upon the 30 crops that currently feed the world, and
within those 9 crops that directly supply 75% of all humans’
dietary energy, i.e., wheat (Triticum aestivum), rice (Oryza sat-
iva), corn/maize (Zea mays), Sorghum species, millet (Setaria
italica), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), sweet potatoes (Ipomoea
batatas), soybean (Glycine max), and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris)/
sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum). However, minor crops
and underutilized species include plants that serve a wide range
of functions and may be of considerable importance in specific
regions of the world, e.g., yams (Dioscorea spp.), oca (Oxalis
spp.), cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule), breadfruit (Artocarpus
altilis), and buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.). Vegetables, fruits, and
other species, including wild plants gathered for food, are often
important for nutrition and dietary diversification, while multi-
purpose trees and other crops can contribute to agricultural
diversification. A range of forage species where legumes and
grasses are a main focus of attention are highly significant
because of their importance in supporting livestock as a critical
component of many farming systems and their indirect contri-
bution to human dietary energy.
 Reproduction and Biodiversity j Germplasm Conservation 283

Table 1 Some examples of major ex situ collections of crops and wild species held in genebanks throughout the
world, and the genebank which holds the largest number of collections of that crop (percentage of world germplasm held)

No. of world % of world

Crop accessions Major genebank Country germplasm

Wheat (Triticum) 856 168 CIMMYT Mexico 13

Rice (Oryza) 773 948 IRRI Philippines 14
Maize (Zea) 327 932 CIMMYT Mexico 8
Bean (Phaseolus) 261 963 CIAT Colombia 14
Apple (Malus) 59 922 GEN (USA167) USA 12
Palm (Elaeis) 21 103 INERA D.R. Congo 84
Medicago (Medicago) 91 922 AMGRC (AUS006) Australia 30
Cacao (Theobroma) 12 373 ICGT Trinidad 19

Based on FAO, 2010. The Second Report on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Rome).

What of the quantity of germplasm that is being conserved?
The Second Report on the State of the World’s PGRFA shows that
by 2010 there were around 7.4 million accessions held ex situ, an
increase of 20% since 1996. Of these, however, only around
30% are distinct accessions. For the major crops, germplasm
collections are substantial (Table 1). For instance, well over
800 000 accessions of wheat, over 700 000 samples of rice and
just over one quarter of a million accessions of corn are being
conserved. Over 100 000 seed samples of rice have been
collected and stored in one institute alone (International Rice
Research Institute in the Philippines). However, there is extreme
variation between crops and species in the numbers of samples
that have been acquired and conserved, with the more underu-
tilized crops and many wild species often being inadequately
represented. While collections of crop species might be consid-
ered to be at least partially well conserved in genebanks, CWRs
are poorly conserved and require concerted efforts.
Numbers of samples do not necessarily give a reliable
assessment of how much genetic diversity is being conserved,
so in order to accurately identify gaps in world collections of
germplasm, the genetic diversity of existing collections must
be ascertained. This can only be done once passport data
cultivars of crop plants for growth on increasingly larger scales.
This has inevitably involved the replacement of more variable,
possibly lower yielding, locally adapted varieties (or landraces)
grown in traditional agricultural systems (Table 2). As far back
as 1969, fewer than five varieties of each of several major crops
(common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), cotton (Gossypium spp.),
pea (Pisum sativum), potato, rice, sweet potato) occupied
more than 50% of the planting area in the United States.
Increasingly, every major crop has had a decreasing genetic
Table 2 Examples of loss of genetic resources
Genetic vulnerability
l A new race of corn/maize leaf blight destroyed over 15% of the US
crop in 1970 because the same cytoplasmic genes were used to
produce all major varieties.
l In 1972, the winter wheat cultivar ‘Bezostaya’ was grown on 15 million
hectares in the Soviet Union. Its use had spread beyond its original
area of cultivation into much colder regions and the crop was wiped
out completely by one severe winter. It was uniformly cold
susceptible.
l In 1979–80, 1 million tons of sugar was lost in Cuba because rust

have been analyzed and evaluation of germplasm has been
carried out. Unfortunately, complete sets of passport data are
often unavailable, and germplasm evaluation is often inade-
quate. Information from ecogeographical surveying work and
taxonomic studies is equally important, but again often inade-
quate, as are estimates of genetic diversity using molecular
markers, all of which are important tools for conserving,
managing, and using PGRFA genes.
Advances in bioinformatics are significantly improving
germplasm breeding programs, allowing CWR and existing
attacked the one variety of sugar cane being grown on 40% of the
agricultural land.
l All F1 hybrid rice in China shares the same genes for male sterility
(1990).
l Commercial production of bananas relies upon five varieties all
derived from one parent variety, ‘Cavendish.’ These varieties are highly
susceptible to a serious fungal disease called ‘Black Sigatoka.’
Genetic erosion
l In Korea, 74% of varieties of 14 crops being grown on particular farms
in 1985 had been replaced by 1993.
l In China, nearly 10 000 wheat varieties were in use in 1949. Only 1000

germplasm collections to be explored for traits of interest as were still in use by the 1970s.
l The majority of varieties of agricultural plants documented historically
identified under marker-based technology. A huge amount of
in the USA can no longer be found. For example, documentation and
information on genome sequences is available on GenBank,
descriptions exist for 7098 apple varieties (used between 1804 and
an open access database. For example, over 5 billion base pairs 1904), but now, 86% of these have been lost, along with 95% of
of maize are found on the database. cabbage, 91% of field corn/maize, 94% of peas, and 81% of tomato.
l In the UK, many older varieties of Brussels sprout (Brassica oleracea
gemmifera) disappeared after the release of hybrid varieties in the
Why Conserve Germplasm: Genetic Erosion 1960s.
l Comparison of current data with an inventory taken in 1930 shows
and Genetic Vulnerability?
that in Mexico only 20% of the landraces are still grown; this is the
result of a decrease in area of land planted with corn/maize, and its
Over the last 70 or 80 years, scientists throughout the world replacement with other more profitable crops.
have been engaged in developing better and higher yielding
284 Reproduction and Biodiversity j Germplasm Conservation
base, and diversity within cultivated plants has been replaced
by genetic uniformity, a situation that may give rise to uniform
susceptibility to a pest or pathogen. This loss of diversity in the
crops themselves has also been accompanied by further loss of
genes found in wild and weedy species related to the crop
plants, because of improved crop husbandry and the destruc-
tion of natural ecosystems by human development (see
Table 3). The paradox is that in order to be able to develop
new cultivars of crop plants in the future (Table 4; Figure 1),
plant breeders will need to have access to the wealth of genes
that are being lost: hence, the urgency for conservation.
Conservation Strategies
There are two basic conservation strategies, namely ex situ and
in situ, each of which is composed of various techniques. Ex situ
conservation involves the conservation of PGRFA outside their
natural habitats. Samples are maintained as living collections
of plants in field genebanks, botanic gardens, or arboreta, or
samples of plants are stored as seeds, tubers, tissue cultured
explants, or DNA using special artificial conditions. In situ, on
the other hand, implies conservation of whole ecosystems
and natural habitats and the genetic resources that exist in their
natural surroundings, and in the case of domesticates or
Table 3 Important causes of genetic erosion
Direct
l Replacement of local varieties
l Overexploitation of species
l Overgrazing
l Reduced fallow
l Changing agricultural systems
Indirect
l Land clearing
l Population pressure
l Environmental degradation
l Legislation/policy change
l Pests/weeds/diseases
l Civil strife
l Climate change
Table 4 Selected examples of the value of plant genetic resources
for agriculture for crop improvement
l K20, a bean variety grown on 16% of sub-Saharan Africa, is derived
from a cross between a local Ugandan variety and a Colombian
landrace.
l Hundreds of improved rice varieties have been released in India, which
are the result of selection from landraces.
l In Bangladesh, landraces have contributed directly to 20 out of 23 jute
varieties and about 90% of all leafy vegetables.
l In Venezuela, 30% of the material used to develop new varieties is
native.
l Resistance to brown plant hopper, yellow stem borer, bacterial leaf
blight, and tungro tolerance has been transferred to cultivated rice
from a range of wild rice species.
l
The wild rice species Oryza rufipogon increased yield by 17% when
introgressed into cultivated rice.
cultivated forms, in the surroundings where they have devel-
oped their distinctive properties.
Ex situ : Seed Storage
The most convenient way of maintaining most plant germ-
plasm is by storing seeds. The main exceptions to this are plants
that are normally vegetatively propagated and do not produce
viable seeds (e.g. banana, Musa sapientum), and crops where the
seeds produced are very short-lived (cacao, Theobroma cacao).
The latter are often referred to as being ‘recalcitrant’ because
they will not withstand drying below some relatively high
moisture content without loss of viability. There are also
species with intermediate storage behavior, where the seeds
can be dried to relatively low moisture levels (7–12%), low
enough to qualify as orthodox, but that are sensitive to the
low temperatures typically employed for storage of orthodox
seeds. Many temperate and tropical tree species, including oil
palm (Elaeis guineensis), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), cacao, and
coffee (Coffea spp.), fall into the recalcitrant category. Fortu-
nately, the majority of crop plants that produce seeds show
‘orthodox’ behavior, so allowing storage for relatively long
periods.
The two most important factors for effective conservation of
orthodox seeds are therefore seed moisture content and
temperature. Roughly speaking, longevity is doubled for each
5  C reduction in temperature or for each 1% reduction in
moisture content. This is now known as Harrington’s ‘rule of
thumb.’ Orthodox seeds stored in a seed genebank are dried
to 5–6% moisture content and placed in sealed containers
stored at temperatures below 181  C. The minimum require-
ment and standard for genebanks is that seeds should be stored
under conditions ‘which would ensure that the accession’s
viability would remain above at least 85% for 10–20 years.’
Ex Situ : In Vitro Conservation
There are genetic resources for which seed storage is not appro-
priate or even possible. Those crops that are normally vegeta-
tively propagated (e.g., potatoes), or that do not produce
viable seed (e.g., bananas), or that produce very short-lived
seeds (recalcitrant, see above) must be conserved by other
means. For this reason, much interest has focused on the appli-
cation of tissue culture or in vitro techniques. It is possible to
store plants in vitro for short periods of time, or longer if subcul-
turing is carried out after certain intervals. Such slow-growth
storage has proved extremely successful for shoot cultures of
potato, cassava (Manihot spp.), fruit crops, such as banana,
apple (Malus pumila), pear (Pyrus communis), and strawberry
(Fragaria  ananassa), and many other horticultural species.
Strawberry has been stored for 6 years with occasional addition
of water to the culture medium, and garlic shoots can be stored
for short periods if subcultured every 18–24 months.
In vitro technology also opens up the possibility of ultralow
temperature storage or cryopreservation at 196  C for indefi-
nite storage of germplasm. Cell suspensions, callus cultures,
meristems, and somatic embryos of many species can now be
cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen. Somatic embryos of species
such as cassava can be desiccated and encapsulated to form
‘artificial seeds’ for commercial purposes, and it is likely that
 Reproduction and Biodiversity j Germplasm Conservation 285

Figure 1 (a) Oryza rufipogon, a wild rice used for rice improvement, particularly the introduction of tungro virus resistance into the ‘New Plant Type’
(NPT); and (b) breeding line of the NPT of rice in the process of development at the International Rice Research Institute.

these novel man-made propagules will be important units of
conservation in the future.
Ex Situ : DNA Storage
The storage of DNA, or of parts of plants such as leaves from
which DNA can be extracted, can be achieved easily and
cheaply. Genes can be stored virtually indefinitely in the form
of DNA affording long-term conservation. However, it cannot
be envisaged, with present technology at least, that a whole
plant could be retrieved from storage. The current use of genes
for PGRFA stored in this way would be limited to their isola-
tion, cloning, and transfer to a recipient plant, i.e., via the
production of a transgenic plant.
DNA storage is primarily considered to be complementary to
germplasm conservation in that it provides a source of genomic
material for understanding the identity of a species or diversity
of a population. DNA banking through partnerships such as the
Barcode of Life (BOL) provides the source of documented mate-
rial for reference. The decreasing costs and increased power of
genetic sequencing, through next-generation techniques, and
the availability of sequence information for comparison from
databases such as Genbank, allows genebank managers and
breeders tools for decision-making. It is envisaged that genomic
information will be the most common ‘currency’ of germplasm
conservation and use. Even if other passport data such as pheno-
type and site data are not known, genomic data are possible on
any material.
Ex Situ : Botanic Gardens, Arboreta, and Field Genebanks
The conservation of germplasm in field genebanks or planta-
tions involves the collecting of material from one location
and its transfer and planting in a second location. Field gene-
banks have traditionally provided the answer to the conserva-
tion of recalcitrant species and vegetatively propagated
species and are used to conserve cacao, rubber, coconut (Cocos
nucifera), mango (Mangifera indica), coffee, banana, cassava,
sweet potato, and yam.
The maintenance of large living collections in field genebanks
requires large inputs of labor and land. Likewise the conservation
of fruit trees in the form of orchards is beset by many problems,
286 Reproduction and Biodiversity j Germplasm Conservation
including space considerations associated with the need to
conserve an adequate sample of genetic variation.
There are two other ex situ conservation techniques that
have been widely used to conserve the entire range of plant
diversity: botanic gardens and arboreta. These are living
collections of plants held for public display, educational
benefit, economic exploitation, and scientific enquiry. There
are approximately 1700 botanic gardens worldwide, contain-
ing over 3.2 million living accessions of as many as 100 000
species. It has been estimated that between 10% and 15% of
these species are threatened in the wild and about half of
these botanic gardens have some form of conservation
program. Some botanic gardens have specialist collections
of economically important plants and their wild relatives,
medicinal and forest species, and many have sections
devoted to the flora of particular regions of the world. Bota-
nic gardens have long been repositories of genetic resources,
mainly as living plants. Since the advent of the first botanic
garden in Pisa, Italy, in the sixteenth century, they have ful-
filled multiple roles as places of study on plant taxonomy
and horticultural development. Modern botanic gardens
continue to provide these traditional services, but often
now include molecular biology and greatly expanded seed
conservation programs.
In Situ Conservation
In situ conservation involves the maintenance of the genetic
variation making up PGRFA in the location where it is encoun-
tered naturally, either in the wild or within a traditional
farming or domestic situation. While existing nature reserves
or national parks are designed for the purpose of in situ conser-
vation, this is normally targeted at animal species, habitats, or
ecosystems rather than specific PGRFA. Few have as their
primary goal the conservation of plant species, let alone plant
genetic resources. Furthermore, the conserved material is not
immediately available for exploitation, and in reality little
guarantee can be given as to the likely ‘longevity’ of the germ-
plasm being conserved. However, awareness of the importance
of in situ conservation is increasing for a number of reasons
(Table 5), and it is seen as an important component of
‘complementary conservation strategies.’
Natural Reserves or Genetic Reserves
The objective of the conservation process should be to maxi-
mize the genetic diversity represented within a minimum
Table 5 Some factors promoting the use of in situ conservation
l Greater public awareness of conservation resulting from the
environmental movement
l Increasing importance of wild species as a source of genes for crop
improvement
l The impracticality of conserving all plant genetic resources for
agriculture (PGRFA) genes ex situ
l The need for PGRFA to continue to adapt and evolve under changing
environmental conditions
l Increasing recognition by countries that plant diversity has political,
social, and economic use
number and size of genetic reserves. To achieve this, informa-
tion is needed on the amount of genetic variation, population
structure, breeding system, habitat requirements, and
geographical distribution of the target taxa. Conservation of
the wild species component of PGRFA should therefore involve
the location, designation, management, and monitoring of
genetic diversity in a particular natural location; a basic model
for this is provided in Table 6.
A comprehensive example of setting and monitoring of
a natural reserve is provided by the ‘Ammiad’ experiment in
Israel. This focused upon naturally occurring wild relative
germplasm of emmer wheat (Triticum turgidum). A study of
the natural dynamics of wild emmer populations has been
undertaken to serve as a precursor to conservation of wild
cereals in their native ecosystems. Biological aspects, demog-
raphy, ecological affinities, and genetic and phenotypic varia-
tion of the species were examined. Numerous localities were
surveyed initially, before the target site was selected near the
settlement of Ammiad in Eastern Galilee. On the site, phys-
ical, edaphic, climatic, floristic, demographic, and phytopath-
ological features were recorded. Detailed ecological data were
recorded for each sampling point. Seedling and whole-plant
demography was assessed, and spatial and temporal genetic
variation was measured using various molecular markers.
Additionally, morphological characters were measured and
fungal diseases recorded. The conclusion drawn after 10 years
of study was that centrally located emmer populations were
genetically stable. These would be suitable for in situ conserva-
tion with two provisos, namely, that major environmental
catastrophes did not occur and that dynamic shifts in popula-
tion structure did not take place over a much longer time
period.
On-Farm and Home-Garden Conservation
These conservation techniques involve the maintenance of
traditional crop varieties or cropping systems by farmers or
gardeners within traditional agricultural systems. For example,
landraces are sown and harvested and every so often the farmer
keeps a portion of harvested seed for resowing in subsequent
seasons. In this case, it is the farmer who will intentionally or
Table 6 Basic model for natural reserve conservation
Plan and establish the reserve
l Assessment of site
l Assessment of socioeconomic and political factors
l Design of reserve
l Assessment of taxon and reserve sustainability
l Management plan formulation
Manage and monitor reserve
l Initiation of reserve management plan
l Monitoring of reserve
l Assessment of community relationships
Utilize the reserve
l Use of reserve traditionally or professionally
l Linkage to ex situ conservation (complementary), research
programs, educational organizations
After Maxted, N., Ford-Lloyd, B.V., Hawkes, J.G. (Eds), 1997. Plant
Genetic Conservation: The In-Situ Approach. Chapman & Hall, London.
 Reproduction and Biodiversity j Germplasm Conservation
Table 7 Some of the factors on which farmers choose rice
landrace seed to save for future sowing
Agroecological Use
Field adaptation Yield
Maturity Eating quality
Drought tolerance Price
Lodging resistance Volume expansion
Dependability Texture (glutinous, vitreous, viscous)
unintentionally conserve germplasm. The conservationist can
monitor the situation, but may have little to do with the actual
conservation. While it is desirable that landraces be conserved
in this way, it is precarious in the sense that farmers will always
be in a position to move from growing landraces to modern
cultivars, and may require economic incentives not to make
that change, a situation which in itself may affect the germ-
plasm being conserved. Studies of how traditional agricultural
systems work and how farmers’ choices may affect diversity in
those landraces are very informative, but do not improve the
reliability of on-farm conservation (Table 7).
The Future
Comparative genetics has already indicated that evolution-
arily related taxa have highly similar genome organization;
at the fundamental level of the gene, which in reality is
what we are concerned with conserving, the nucleotide
sequences are highly conserved. While acknowledging this,
there is now a major impetus to research allelic diversity at
the DNA sequence level. ‘Allele mining’ of the conserved
diverse genetic resources and at economically important
gene loci uncovers the fact that very small changes in nucleo-
tides can result in dramatic phenotypic changes. Under-
standing of the conserved nature of genomes and allelic
diversity will increasingly enable us to utilize germplasm
whatever its form, and wherever it comes from, taxonomically
speaking, which in turn implies that PGRFA, not just of the
relatively small number of major crops, but of more or less
any plant species should be our focus of conservation. Plant,
animal, and microbial genetic resources have each been com-
partmentalized, and they now need to be considered as
a unified source of genetic resources. DNA technology is
rapidly being developed for more efficient plant breeding
and aims to more targeted screening of germplasm collec-
tions. This will, however, place a vastly increased burden
upon the curators of germplasm, not only because they may
be faced with managing rapidly increasing quantities of
gene resources, but also because they may need to make
choices about what germplasm to prioritize for conservation.
Biostatistical or biometrical support is vital as the develop-
ment of large-scale data analysis and computational power
needed for next-generation DNA sequencing (NGS) and
high-throughput phenotyping. Bioinformatics will become
increasingly important in the context of germplasm manage-
ment and exploitation. Effective data management or lack of
it has been recognized as an important concern for some
time. We shall need to draw on the massive bioinformatics
287
advances that have been made over the last few decades asso-
ciated with genomics and proteomics to revolutionize the way
in which genetic resources data are viewed if PGRFA are to be
effectively conserved and utilized in the future. As of 2014,
there are only a few species, such as rice, for which biotech-
nology is at a very advanced level.
The Report on the State of the PGRFA (2010) identifies the
following gaps and needs to be addressed relating specifically
to germplasm conservation at local, national, and international
levels:
1. Step up efforts to conserve landraces, farmers’ varieties,
and CWR before they are lost as a result of changing
climates. Special efforts are needed to identify those
species and populations that are most at risk and that are
most likely to harbor traits that will be important in the
future.
2. More efficient, strategic, and integrated approaches to the
management of PGRFA at the national level. Links need to
be strengthened between those individuals and institutions
in both the private and public sectors who are primarily
responsible for conservation and those who are primarily
concerned with genetic improvement and seed production
and distribution.
3. At the international level, there is also a need for greater
coordination and cooperation among agencies and insti-
tutions concerned with international and intergovern-
mental aspects of the conservation and use of PGRFA and
those concerned with agricultural production, protection,
sustainability, and food security, as well as related areas
such as health and the environment.
See also: Bioethics: Food Security. Crop Diseases and Pests:
Genomic Selection in Crop Plants. Plant Breeding and
Genetics: Plant Breeding, Practice; Plant Breeding, Principles;
Plant Genomes. Reproduction and Biodiversity: Plant Diversity,
Conservation and Use; Seed Banks. Seed Development and
Germination: Recalcitrance.
Further Reading
Baute, G.J., Dempewolf, H., Rieseberg, L.H., 2015. Using genomic approaches to
unlock the potential of CWR for crop adaptation to climate change. In: Redden, R.,
Yadav, S.S., Maxted, N., Dulloo, M.E., Guarino, L., Smith, P. (Eds.), Crop Wild
Relatives and Climate Change. Wiley Blackwell, New Jersey.
Brown, A.H.D., Clegg, M.T., Kahler, A.L., Weir, B.S. (Eds.), 1990. Plant Population
Genetics, Breeding, and Genetic Resources. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass.
Callow, J.A., Ford-Lloyd, B.V., Newbury, H.J. (Eds.), 1997. Biotechnology and Plant Genetic
Resources. Biotechnology in Agriculture Series, No. 19. CAB International, Oxford.
Castaneda-Alvarez, N.P., Khoury, C.K., Achicanoy, H.A., Bernau, V., Dempewolf, H.,
Eastwood, R.J., Guarino, L., Harker, R.H., Jarvis, A., Maxted, N., Muller, J.V.,
Ramirez-Villegas, J., Sosa, C.C., Struik, P.C., Vincent, H., Toll, J., 2016. Global
conservation priorities for crop wild relatives. article number 16022 Nat. Plants 2.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2016.22.
Cooper, H.D., Spillane, C., Hodgkin, T. (Eds.), 2001. Broadening the Genetic Base of
Crops. CABI Publishing, Wallingford.
Engels, J.M.M., Rao, V.R., Brown, A.H.D., Jackson, M.T. (Eds.), 2002. Managing Plant
Genetic Diversity. CABI Publishing, Oxford.
Evenson, R.E., Gollin, D., Santaniello, V. (Eds.), 1998. Agricultural Values of Plant
Genetic Resources. CABI Publishing, Wallingford.
FAO, 2010. The Second Report on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources
for Food and Agriculture (Rome).
288 Reproduction and Biodiversity j Germplasm Conservation
Frankel, O.H., Brown, A.H.D., Burdon, J.J., 1995. The Conservation of Plant Biodi-
versity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Guarino, L., Rao, V.R., Reid, R. (Eds.), 1995. Collecting Plant Genetic Diversity. CAB
International, Wallingford.
Hawkes, J.G., Maxted, N., Ford-Lloyd, B.V., 2000. The Ex Situ Conservation of Plant
Genetic Resources. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Hawkes, G., 1983. The Diversity of Crop Plants. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, Mass.
Maxted, N., Ford-Lloyd, B.V., Hawkes, J.G. (Eds.), 1997. Plant Genetic Conservation:
The In-Situ Approach. Chapman & Hall, London.
Offord, C.A., Meagher, P.F. (Eds.), 2009. Plant Germplasm Conservation: Strategies
and Guidelines for Developing, Managing and Utilising Ex Situ Collections.
Australian Network for Plant Conservation, Canberra.
Vavilov, N.I., 1992. Origin and Geography of Cultivated Plants (English ed. D. Love,
Trans.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.