CIVIL SERVICES

MAIN EXAMINATION
GEOGRAPHY OPTIONAL

CLIMATOLOGY-5
(CYCLONES, THUNDERSTORMS,
AIR MASSES & FRONTS)
 Geography NOTES
TROPICAL CYCLONE STRUCTURE
Compiled by Vineet Thaploo
Anatomy of a Tropical Cyclone (Hurricane)
A Tropical Cyclone (Hurricane) is an intense storm of tropical origin, with sustained winds
exceeding 64 knots (74 mi/hr). Below on the left is a photo of Tropical Cyclone (Hurricane Elena).
The storm is approximately 500 km in diameter, which is about average for hurricanes. The area of
clear skies (with perhaps scattered clouds) in the center is its eye. Elena's eye is almost 40 km
wide. Within the eye, winds are light and skies are mostly clear of clouds. The surface pressure is
very low, nearly 955 mb. Notice that the clouds align themselves into spiraling bands (called spiral
rain bands) that swirl in toward the storm's center, where they wrap themselves around the eye.
Surface winds increase in speed as they blow counter clockwise and inward toward this center.

Hurricane Elena as photographed from the

Structure of a Tropical Cyclone (Hurricane)
space shuttle Discovery during September,
using a cut away side view.
1985.

Adjacent to the eye is the eye wall, a ring of intense thunderstorms that whirl around the storm's
center and extend upward to almost 15 km (49,000 ft) above sea level. Notice that the cloud tops
in the eye wall region extend above the other clouds. Within the eye wall we find the heaviest
precipitation and the strongest winds. Please take a look at Figure, which shows a top-down view
of a typical hurricane. While Figure provides numbers for the average size of a tropical storm, you
should realize that storm size can vary quite alot. The size of a tropical system can be defined as
the area over which tropical force winds or stronger are observed. Obviously, the larger the storm,
the greater potential damage it may cause. Both the maximum wind strength and the size of the
wind field are important. Super Typhoon Tip is the largest storm ever recorded, with tropical force
winds 2100 km (1300 miles) in diameter around the center of the storm. Indian Ocean storms are
called tropical cyclones, instead of hurricanes or typhoons.

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All strong tropical cyclones consist of the following components:
 Surface low pressure: Tropical cyclones rotate around an area of low atmospheric pressure NOTES
near the Earth's surface. The pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among
the lowest that occur on Earth's surface at sea level.
 Warm core: Tropical cyclones are characterized and driven by the release of large amounts of
latent heat of condensation as moist air is carried upwards and its water vapor condenses to
form clouds. This heat is distributed vertically, around the center of the storm. Thus, at any
given altitude (except close to the surface where water temperature dictates air temperature)
the environment inside the cyclone is warmer than its outer surroundings.
 Eye: A strong tropical cyclone will harbor an area of sinking air at the center of circulation.
Weather in the eye is normally calm and free of clouds (however, the sea may be extremely
violent). The eye is normally circular in shape, and may range in size from 8 km to 200 km (5
miles to 125 miles) in diameter. In weaker cyclones, the clouds may cover the circulation
center, resulting in no visible eye.
 Eyewall: The eyewall is a circular band of intense convection and winds immediately
surrounding the eye. It has the most severe conditions in a tropical cyclone. Intense cyclones
show eyewall replacement cycles, in which outer eye walls form to replace inner ones. The
mechanisms that make this occur are still not fully understood. In the eyewall replacement
process, the eyewall contracts to a smaller size, and outer rain bands form a new eyewall. This
new eyewall weakens the original eyewall, and eventually replaces it completely. During the
replacement cycle, the storm weakens, sometimes dramatically, but afterwards the storm will
often be stronger than before.
 Outer or Spiral Rain Bands: Focussed areas of low level convergence, rising motion, and
heavy rain that rotate counterclockwise around the storm. These may extend hundreds of
kilometers from the storm's center. The spiral rain bands are basically aligned with the low
level winds which rotate counterclockwise and spiral inward toward the storm's center.
 Outflow: The upper levels of a tropical cyclone feature winds headed away from the center of
the storm with an anticyclonic (clockwise) rotation. Winds at the surface are strongly cyclonic,
weaken with height, and eventually reverse themselves. Tropical cyclones owe this unique
characteristic to the warm core at the center of the storm.
NOTE : The EYE is an area of calm winds and low surface pressure with sinking air and generally fair
skies, but the reason for this has not been explained.
Tropical Cyclone (Hurricane) Formation and Dissipation
The formation of tropical cyclones is still a topic of intense research and is not fully understood,
although research has shown that certain factors must be present for cyclones to intensify to
hurricane strength. Hurricanes form over tropical waters where the winds are initially light, the
humidity is high in a deep layer, and the surface water temperature is warm, typically 26.5°C (80°F)
or greater, over a vast area. Moreover, the warm surface water must extend downward to a depth
about 200 ft (60 m) before hurricane formation is possible.
Hurricanes are powered by the latent heat energy released from condensation. Latent heat is the
energy that is released when the gas form of water, water vapor, condenses into liquid during
cloud formation in places where the air is forced to move upward. To form and develop hurricanes
must be supplied with a constant supply of warm humid air for this process. Surface air with
enough energy to generate a hurricane only exists over oceans with a temperature greater than
26.5°C. Moreover, the atmosphere above a developing storm must be unstable, i.e., the

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temperature must decrease rapidly with increasing altitude. This is condusive to thunderstorm
formation in general. You are not expected to understand the concepts of latent heat release when NOTES
water vapor (gaseous form of water) condenses into liquid droplets forming clouds or what is meant by
an unstable atmosphere.
Hurricanes cannot develop on or very near the Equator. In fact they do not form in the region
within 4° latitude either side of the equator. Within this region Coriolis force is negligible. Coriolis
force is required for the initiation of rotation. In fact it is relatively rare for hurricanes to form
within 10° of latitude from the Equator.
Finally, hurricanes will not form if there is significant wind shear, which is a change in wind velocity
and/or direction with increasing altitude. The concept of vertical wind shear is better explained in
the summary section below.
Tropical Cyclone (Hurricanes) grow stronger when there is more air exiting from the top of the
storm (the divergent outflow at the top of the storm) than surface air moving in toward the center
(inflow above the ocean surface at bottom of storm), since this causes the sea level air pressure to
lower. The strengthening is driven by the release of latent heat within the storm during the
formation of clouds by condensation of water vapor. This will covered more fully later in the
semester. They dissipate rapidly when they move over colder water or over a large landmass as
these conditions cut-off the supply of warm, humid air. Hurricanes will also weaken if they move
into an area that has strong vertical wind shear.
Below is a summary list of five requirements for tropical storm development and
intensification.
1. Warm, humid surface air and an unstable atmosphere
 Latent heat release during condensation is the driving energy for tropical storm
intensification.
2. (a) Warm ocean surface waters (Temperature > 26.5°C [80°F]). This is the "fuel" for
hurricanes.
(b) Depth of warm water > 60 m (200 ft)
 As cyclone develops, winds churn up water, bringing up water from below the ocean
surface. If this water is too cold, hurricanes cannot develop.
 The warm water requirement explains why hurricanes are most common in the late
summer and early fall ... the time of the year when sea surface temperature is greatest in
the oceans where tropical storms originate.

3. Pre-existing large-scale surface convergence and/or upper-level divergence

 For example, an area of low level convergence is present with easterly waves.
4. Must be further than 5° Latitude away from the Equator
 In order to get winds to rotate counterclockwise around an area of low pressure, there
must be a Coriolis effect. The Coriolis force at the equator is zero and gets larger as one
moves toward the poles.

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5. Absence of strong vertical wind shear (Minimum Vertical Wind shear) NOTES

 Wind shear inhibits deep

convection, essentially ripping
tropical storms apart. Generally,
tropical storms are best able to
strengthen when the rising warm
air near the center of the storm
goes straight up. Wind shear can
cause the updrafts to bend over,
which is not favorable for the
storm to strengthen.
 In contrast, vertical wind shear is
necessary for the development of
severe thunderstorms.
Only when all of these conditions are met do tropical cyclones develop into hurricanes. In addition,
once a hurricane has developed, if one or more of these five conditions go away, the storm will
usually weaken.
The main energy source is the release of energy that occurs when water vapour (gaseous form of
water) condenses to liquid water droplets during cloud formation.

CLASS NOTES

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 EYE OF THE CYCLONE
At the eye they spiral upwards, taking the warm, moist ocean air high into the atmosphere. As it NOTES
reaches cooler elevation, the air releases its latent heat, adding more energy to the storm.
So tremendous volume of air is converging from 360 degrees around the hundreds of miles of the
storm, all converging on the eye and spiraling up with an intense updraft, creating a very low
pressure near the surface in the eye/core.
High above the eye wall this upflow begins to spread out. This permits cool dry air above the eye
to sink down into the central core of the eye (that is why the eye is often clear and cloud free).

Q. So why is the hurricane core/eye low pressure when there is cool dry air subsiding down
into the core/eye?
Soundings taken within the eye show a low-level layer (at surface) that is relatively moist with an
inversion above, i.e., it appears that the sinking cool dry air (which warms somewhat as it is
compressed in descent) never reaches the ocean surface, but only reaches within 1 - 3 km (1 - 2
mi) of the surface.

NOTE :- Model Answer

Tropical Cyclone formation

Tropical Cyclones need a lot of heat to form and a sea surface temperature of at least 26°C,
which is why they usually occur over tropical seas. They also need to be between 5 and 20°
north or south of the Equator.

It works like this:

The formation of a Tropical Cyclone

1. When this warm and wet air rises, it condenses

to form towering clouds and heavy rainfall. It also
creates a low pressure zone near the surface of
the water.

2. Rising warm air causes the pressure to decrease

at higher altitudes. Warm air is under a higher
pressure than cold air, so moves towards the
‘space’ occupied by the colder, lower pressure,
air. So the low pressure ‘sucks in’ air from the warm surroundings, which then also rises. A
continuous upflow of warm and wet air continues to create clouds and rain.

3. Air that surrounds the low pressure zone at the centre flows in a spiral at very high speeds -
anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere - at speeds of around 120 km/h (75 mph).

4. Air is ejected at the top of the storm – which can be 15km high – and falls to the outside of the
storm, out and over the top, away from the eye of the storm. As this happens, it reduces the
mass of air over the ‘eye of the storm’ - causing the wind speed to increase further. Some
ejected air also cools and dries, and sinks through the eye of the storm, adding to the low
pressure at the centre.

5. The faster the winds blow, the lower the air pressure in the centre, and so the cycle continues.
The Tropical Cyclone grows stronger and stronger.

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6. Seen from above, Tropical Cyclones are huge circular bodies of thick cloud around 450 km
(300 miles) wide. The cloud brings heavy rain, thunder and lightning. NOTES
7. In the centre is the eye of the Tropical Cyclone, about 45 km (30 miles) across across. Often
there will be no clouds in the eye. Seen from below it will seem calmer, with a circle of blue sky
above. The eye is formed because this is the only part of the Tropical Cyclone where cold air is
descending.

8. In the northern hemisphere, the prevailingeasterly tropical winds tend to steer Tropical
Cyclones toward land - although their course is unpredictable. As Tropical Cyclones move
inshore, their power gradually reduces because their energy comes from sucking up moist sea
air.

CLASS NOTES

Weather Phenomena Associated (do yourself)

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 TROPICAL CYCLONE NDMA GUIDELINES NOTES

India’s coastal regions in the North Indian Ocean Basin are extremely vulnerable to cyclones and
associated hazards such as storm tides.

STORM TIDES
Storm Tides refers to the combined effects of storm surge and astronomical tide. Storm surge is the
an abnormal rise in the level of water along a shore, primarily as a result of the high winds and low
pressures generated with tropical cyclones; generally affects only coastal areas but may intrude
some distance inland. Astronomical tides refers to tidal levels and character which would result
from gravitational effects, e.g., of the Earth, Sun and Moon, without any atmospheric influences.
About 8% of the area in the country is prone to cyclone-related disasters. Recurring cyclones
account for large number of deaths, loss of livelihood opportunities, loss of public and private
property and severe damage to infrastructure, thus seriously reversing developmental gains at
regular intervals.

REASONS FOR CYCLONE VULNERABILITY

There are several reasons for this vulnerability. India has a long coastline of around 7,516 km, its
coastal terrain is flat and continental shelf is shallow. Further, most coastal cities have high
population density. Although the frequency of Tropical Cyclones (TCs) in the NIO covering the Bay
of Bengal and the Arabian Sea is the least in the world (7% of the global total), their impact on the
east coast of India as well as the Bangladesh coast is relatively more devastating. This is evident
from the fact that in the last 270 years, 21 of the 23 major cyclones (with a loss of about 10,000
lives or more) worldwide occurred over the area surrounding the Indian subcontinent (India and
Bangladesh). This is primarily due to the serious storm tide effect in the area.

AFFECTED STATES AND UTS

Thirteen coastal states and Union Territories (UTs) in the country, encompassing 84 coastal
districts, are affected by tropical cyclones. Out of them, the most vulnerable on East coast are four
states viz. Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal and one UT (Puducherry) while on
west coast is one state Gujarat.

NATIONAL CYCLONE RISK MITIGATION PROJECT

The National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP), to be implemented with financial assistance
from the World Bank, is envisaged to have four major components:
 Component A: Improvement of early warning dissemination system by strengthening the Last
Mile Connectivity (LMC) of cyclone warnings and advisories.

 Component B: Cyclone risk mitigation investments.

 Component C: Technical assistance for hazard risk management and capacity-building.
 Component D: Project management and institutional support.
These components are highly interdependent and have to be implemented in a coherent manner.
The planned framework of activities under this project provides end-to-end solutions for effective
Cyclone Disaster Management (CDM) in all the 13 coastal states and UTs.

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 NATIONAL GUIDELINES OF MANAGEMENT OF CYCLONES
The NDMA had come up with its National Guidelines of Management of Cyclones in 2008. The
NOTES
basic premise of these guidelines is that the mitigation has to be multi-sectoral. Salient points in
these guidelines are as follows:

EARLY WARNING SYSTEM

Government would establish a state-of-the-art cyclone EWS involving observations, predictions,
warnings and customised local-scale advice for decision-makers (national/state/district level) for
managing the impact of cyclones.

AIRCRAFT PROBING OF CYCLONE (APC) FACILITY

The government would commission an Aircraft Probing of Cyclone (APC) facility for India with a
combination of manned aircraft and high altitude Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) which can
effectively fill the critical observational data gaps in the case of cyclones over the Bay of Bengal and
the Arabian Sea to a great extent. An actual flight by an aircraft into and around the tropical
cyclone during various stages of its development and movement can provide invaluable data for
studying and understanding the structure and movement of a cyclone, thus reducing track and
intensity prediction errors significantly.

NATIONAL DISASTER COMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE (NDCI)

Government would commission National Disaster Communication Infrastructure (NDCI) at the
NDMA/MHA, State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) of coastal states/UTs and District
Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs) of the 84 coastal districts vulnerable to cyclones with
the adoption of state-of-the-art operational infrastructure covering the following:
 High End Computing (scalable 30–50 Teraflops peak performance), Storage (800 Terabytes) and
Communication Network (Gigabit Ethernet) Infrastructure;
 3-D Virtual Reality Visual Studio (Virtual reality (VR) is an interactive computer-generated experience
taking place within a simulated environment, that incorporates mainly auditory and visual, but also
other types of sensory feedback like haptic. This immersive environment can be similar to the real
world or it can be fantastical, creating an experience that is not possible in ordinary physical reality.
Augmented reality systems may also be considered a form of VR that layers virtual information over a
live camera feed into a headset or through a smartphone or tablet device giving the user the ability to
view three-dimensional images);
 Centralised Comprehensive Databank for Cyclone Risk Management with nodes in various
coastal states over a fail-safe communication backbone between the OCs (Operation Centres) of
NDMA, SDMAs and DDMAs (for Information and Data Fusion involving collating, analysing,
interpreting, translating and monitoring of early warnings from line departments based on state-
of-the-art scientific and technological know-how); and
 Comprehensive state-of-the-art OC for effective coordination of Disaster Response Actions at the
state and local levels.

EXPANDING THE WARNING DISSEMINATION OUTREACH

Government would be expanding the warning dissemination outreach by using the services of
Direct-To-Home (DTH) transmission in remote and rural areas (Panchayats) which cannot be
otherwise covered, to introduce weather channel and broadcast cyclone warnings from high-
power coastal radio stations including the use of satellite radio service like World Space, Ham
radios, community radio and VHF network.

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 OTHER ACTIONS
NOTES
 Structural safety of lifeline infrastructure in coastal areas
 Establishing a robust system of locating multi-purpose cyclone shelters and cattle mounds
 Ensuring cyclone resistant design standards are incorporated in the rural/ urban housing
schemes in coastal areas
 Building all-weather road links to all coastal habitations, between habitations and cyclone
shelters/cattle mounds
 Maintaining the full designed carrying capacity of main drains and canals along with feeder
primary/secondary/ tertiary channels, creating additional flood flow canals in frequently
inundated areas
 Construction of saline embankments to prevent ingress of saline water associated with cyclonic
storm surge
 Encouraging public-private partnership with corporate/trusts.
 Mapping and delineation of coastal wetlands, patches of mangroves and shelterbelts,
identification of potential zones for expanding bio-shield spread based on remote sensing tools.
 Regulating infrastructure and development activities in coastal zones.
 Monitoring of water quality as well as the carrying and assimilative capacities of open waters with
institutionalised remedial measures.
 Developing Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) frameworks for addressing the
sustainability and optimal utilisation of coastal resources as also cyclone impact minimisation
plans.
 Evolving eco-system restoration plans for degraded ecological zones.
 Developing delta water management and freshwater recharge/management options.
 Coastal bio-shields spread, preservation and restoration/ regeneration plans.
 Implementing coastal flood zoning, flood plain development and flood inundation management
and regulatory plans.
 Groundwater development and augmentation of freshwater requirement in coastal urban
centres.
 Development of Aquaculture Parks in the identified potential zones.
 Setting up of an exclusive eco-system monitoring network to study the impact of changing
climate.
 Developing integrated hazard mitigation framework taking into account cyclone and associated
storm surge, wind hazard, rainfall-runoff, river flood and Geographical Information System (GIS)
models for estimating possible areas of inundation along with the depth of inundation (levels),
possible damage to infrastructure, crops, houses, etc., evaluating not only the vulnerability but
also the changing profile of vulnerability from time to time.
 Integrate ongoing efforts of the Survey of India, Department of Space under National Spatial
Data Infrastructure, National Database for Emergency Management and MoEF initiatives for
speedy completion of digital spatial data generation to cover 84 coastal districts that are
vulnerable to cyclones, for evolving holistic cyclone risk reduction strategies on priority. High
resolution (at least 0.5 m interval) coastal Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) are to be developed for
micro-scale delineation of cyclone risk, hazard and vulnerability.

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 THUNDERSTORM NOTES

What is a thunderstorm?

A thunderstorm is a rain shower during which you hear thunder. Since thunder comes from

lightning, all thunderstorms have lightning.

What kinds of damage can thunderstorms cause?

Many hazardous weather events are associated with thunderstorms. Under the right conditions,

rainfall from thunderstorms causes flash flooding, killing more people each year than hurricanes,

tornadoes or lightning. Lightning is responsible for many fires around the world each year, and

causes fatalities. Hail up to the size of softballs damages cars and windows, and kills livestock

caught out in the open. Strong (up to more than 120 mph) straight-line winds associated with

thunderstorms knock down trees, power lines and mobile homes. Tornadoes (with winds up to

about 300 mph) can destroy all but the best-built man-made structures.

How does a thunderstorm form?

Three basic ingredients are required for a thunderstorm to form: moisture, rising unstable air (air

that keeps rising when given a nudge), and a lifting mechanism to provide the “nudge.”

The sun heats the surface of the earth, which warms the air above it. If this warm surface air is

forced to rise—hills or mountains, or areas where warm/cold or wet/dry air bump together can

cause rising motion—it will continue to rise as long as it weighs less and stays warmer than the air

around it.

As the air rises, it transfers heat from the surface of the earth to the upper levels of the

atmosphere (the process of convection). The water vapor it contains begins to cool, releases the

heat, condenses and forms a cloud. The cloud eventually grows upward into areas where the

temperature is below freezing.

As a storm rises into freezing air, different types of ice particles can be created from freezing liquid

drops. The ice particles can grow by condensing vapor (like frost) and by collecting smaller liquid

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drops that haven't frozen yet (a state called "supercooled"). When two ice particles collide, they

usually bounce off each other, but one particle can rip off a little bit of ice from the other one and NOTES
grab some electric charge. Lots of these collisions build up big regions of electric charges to cause

a bolt of lightning, which creates the sound waves we hear as thunder.

The Thunderstorm Life Cycle

Thunderstorms have three stages in their life cycle: The developing stage, the mature stage, and

the dissipating stage. The developing stage of a thunderstorm is marked by a cumulus cloud that is

being pushed upward by a rising column of air (updraft). The cumulus cloud soon looks like a

tower (called towering cumulus) as the updraft continues to develop. There is little to no rain

during this stage but occasional lightning. The thunderstorm enters the mature stage when the

updraft continues to feed the storm, but precipitation begins to fall out of the storm, creating a

downdraft (a column of air pushing downward). When the downdraft and rain-cooled air spreads

out along the ground it forms a gust front, or a line of gusty winds. The mature stage is the most

likely time for hail, heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong winds, and tornadoes. Eventually, a large

amount of precipitation is produced and the updraft is overcome by the downdraft beginning the

dissipating stage. At the ground, the gust front moves out a long distance from the storm and cuts

off the warm moist air that was feeding the thunderstorm. Rainfall decreases in intensity, but

lightning remains a danger.

Life cycle of a thunderstorm [+]

What does a thunderstorm look like?

Thunderstorms can look like tall heads of cauliflower or they can have “anvils.” An anvil is the flat

cloud formation at the top of the storm. An anvil forms when the updraft (warm air rising) has

reached a point where the surrounding air is about the same temperature or even warmer. The

cloud growth abruptly stops and flattens out to take the shape of an anvil

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Thunderstorm Detection

SATELLITES NOTES
We can see thunderstorms with a variety of tools. Most areas of Earth can be seen by weather

satellites. Satellites take pictures of Earth at regular intervals from space, telling us where clouds

are located. Meteorologists watch these pictures over time to watch for rapidly growing clouds, a

clue to a possible thunderstorm. Satellites also can tell us the temperature of the clouds. Clouds

with cold tops are usually very high up in the atmosphere, and could mean the cloud is tall enough

to be a thunderstorm. Meteorologists also track how these clouds move to see what areas will be

affected by the storm next.

RADARS

Weather radar is very important to meteorologists because it can detect rain and severe weather

even when it is cloudy or dark.

Doppler radar sends out electromagnetic wave fields that can be reflected back to the radar by

things in the air like precipitation. The amount of energy that is reflected back can tell us how

heavy the rain might be or tell us there is hail. Doppler radar can also show us how the wind is

blowing near and inside the storm. This is helpful in understanding what kinds of hazards the

thunderstorm might have (tornado, microburst, gust fronts, etc.) associated with it. It also helps us

understand how the thunderstorm is feeding itself.

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 TORNADOES FORMATION NOTES

How are tornadoes formed?

While no two tornadoes are the same, there are certain conditions that are required for their
formation. A tornado's development can be described by a sequence of distinct phases.
There are two important aspects needed in the formation of a tornado, geography and rotation.
The formation and life cycle of tornadoes can be explained in a series of stages:
Stage 1 - Storm development
Sunshine heats the ground which in turn heats the air near ground level. Localised pockets of air
become warmer than their surroundings and begin to rise.
Where these warm bubbles of air (thermals) rise to sufficient height, shallow cumulus clouds
develop.
If the temperature in the surrounding atmosphere decreases rapidly with height (an unstable
atmosphere), the warm bubbles may rise to much greater heights, resulting in the development of
much deeper, stronger currents of ascending air (updraughts) and associated deep cumulus and
cumulonimbus clouds (i.e. thunder clouds).

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Stage 2 - Storm organisation
When the above process occurs in an environment where winds increase strongly with height NOTES
(strong vertical wind shear), the thunderstorm updraught may begin to rotate.
This happens because the strong wind shear creates a horizontal spin in the atmosphere.
The strong updraught tilts this rolling motion into the vertical, so that the spin occurs about a
vertical axis, in the same sense as the rotation of a merry-go-round.
Thunderstorms that exhibit persistent and deep rotation are called 'supercells'.

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Stage 3 - Tornado formation
Downdraughts within the supercell storm (descending currents of relatively cold, dense air) help to NOTES
concentrate the rotation and to bring it down to lower levels.
Eventually the rotation may become so strongly-focused that a narrow column of violently rotating
air forms. If this violently-rotating column of air reaches the ground a tornado is born.
The tornado is often visible because of the presence of a condensation funnel - a funnel-shaped
cloud which forms due to the much-reduced pressure within the tornado vortex.
Dust and other debris lofted by the intense winds can also help to make the tornado visible.

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Stage 4 - Tornado dissipation
Cold downdraughts eventually wrap around the tornado, cutting off the supply of warm air. The NOTES
tornado typically narrows during this stage, and eventually the vortex dissipates.

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 NOTES
MEANING OF AIR MASS
Meaning of Air Mass:
“An air mass may be defined as a large body of air whose physical properties, especially
temperature, moisture content, and lapse rate, are more or less uniform horizontally for
hundreds of kilometres”.

According to A.N. Strahler and A.H. Strahler (1978) “a body of air in which the upward gradients
of temperature and moisture are fairly uniform over a large area is known as an air mass.”
An air mass may be so extensive that it may cover a large portion of a continent and it may be so
thick in vertical dimension that it may vertically extend through the troposphere.

It may be pointed out that since a single air mass is so large that it may cover hundreds of
thousands to millions of square kilometres of the earth’s surface, and hence horizontal
homogeneity of an air mass in terms of its physical properties may not be practically
possible because the nature and degree of uniformity of air mass properties are determined
by:-
(i) the properties of the source area and the direction of its movement,
(ii) changes introduced in the air mass during its journey away from the source area, and
(iii) the age of the air mass.

The vertical distribution of temperature in an air mass, and moisture content of the air are two
basic properties of an air mass which control the weather conditions of the area affected by that
air mass.

An air mass is designated as cold air mass when its temperature is lower than the underlying
surface while an air mass is termed warm air mass when its temperature is higher than the
underlying surface.

The boundary between two different air masses is called FRONT. The physical properties of an
air mass are determined on the basis of the characteristic features of the surface through which it
travels.
An air mass also affects and modifies temperature and moisture conditions of the areas visited by
it and in turn it is also modified by the local conditions of the visited areas.

SOURCE REGIONS OF AIR MASS

The extensive areas over which air masses originate or form are called source regions whose
nature and properties largely determine the temperature and moisture characteristics of air
masses.
An air mass originates when atmospheric conditions remain stable and uniform over an extensive
area for fairly long period so that the air lying over that area attains the temperature and moisture
characteristics of the ground surface. Once formed, an air mass is seldom stationary over the
source region, rather it moves to other areas.

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 An ideal source region of air mass must possess the following essential
conditions NOTES
(a) There must be extensive and homogeneous earth’s surface so that it may possess uniform

temperature and moisture conditions. The source region should be either land surface or

ocean surface because irregular topography and surface comprised of both land and water

cannot have uniform temperature and moisture conditions.

(b) There should not be convergence of air, rather there should be divergence of air flow so

that the air may stay over the region for longer period of time and thus the air may attain the

physical properties of the region.

It is thus, apparent that anticyclonic areas characterised by high barometric pressure and low

pressure gradients are most ideal regions for the development of air masses.

(c) Atmospheric conditions should be stable for considerable long period of time so that the air

may attain the characteristics of the surface.

There are 6 major source regions of air masses on the earth’s surface e.g.:

1. Polar oceanic areas (North Atlantic Ocean between Canada and Northern Europe, and North

Pacific Ocean between Siberia and Canada-during winter season),

2. Polar and arctic continental areas (snow-converted areas of Eurasia and North America, and

Arctic region-during winter season),

3. Tropical oceanic areas (anticyclonic areas – throughout the year),

4. Tropical continental areas (North Africa-Sahara, Asia, Mississippi Valley zone of the USA – most

developed in summers),

5. Equatorial regions (zone located between trade winds – active throughout the year), and

6. Monsoon lands of S.E. Asia.

18
 Classification of Air Masses
Any classification of air masses must consider the fact that all of their weather characteristics NOTES
(mainly temperature, humidity and lapse rate) are properly represented and incorporated. Thus,
the weather conditions of air masses at their source regions and thermodynamic and mechanical
modification introduced in them during their journey away from their respective source regions
must be taken into consideration while classifying them into definite categories.

There are two approaches to the classification of air masses e.g.:

1. Geographical classification
2. Thermodynamic classification.

1. Geographical Classification
The geographical classification of air masses is based on the characteristic features of the source
regions.
Trewartha has classified air masses on the basis of their geographical locations into two
broad categories viz.:
(a) Polar air mass (P), which originates in polar areas. Arctic air masses are also included in this
category.
(b) Tropical air mass (T), which originates in tropical areas. Equatorial air masses are also
included in this category.

These two air masses have been further divided into two types on the basis of the nature of
the surface of the source regions (whether continental or oceanic areas) e.g.:
(a) Continental air masses (indicated by a small letter c),
(b) Maritime air masses (indicated by a small letter m).
It may be pointed out that a continental air mas§ gets modified and is transformed into maritime
type while passing through ocean surface but maritime air mass is seldom transformed into
continental type while passing through land surface.

Based on above facts air masses are classified into the following four principal types
according to their geographical locations:
(i) Continental polar air mass (cP).
(ii) Maritime polar air mass (mP).
(iii) Continental tropical air mass (cT).
(iv) Maritime tropical air mass (m t).

19
 2. Thermodynamic Modifications and Classification of Air Masses
Thermodynamic modification of an air mass involves its heating or cooling from below while NOTES
passing through different surfaces away from the source region. Heating of an air mass causes
decrease in the vertical stability of the atmosphere.
After being originated the air masses move out of their source regions to other regions and in the
process they modify the weather conditions of the areas travelled by them and in turn they also
get modified by the surface conditions over which they move.
The thermodynamic modifications of air masses, besides heating from below, also include
evaporation of water into the air from below or into intermediate layer by precipitation
from moist air aloft.

The modification of air masses depends on 4 factors e.g.:

(i) Initial characteristics of air mass in terms of temperature and moisture content,
(ii) Nature of land or water surface over which a particular air mass moves,
(iii) Path followed by the air mass from the source region to the affected area, and
(iv) Time taken by the air mass to reach a particular destination.

An air mass while moving over the surface whose temperature is greater than the lower layer of
the moving air mass, is heated from below and becomes unstable due to resultant steepened
lapse rate and upward movement of air.

This mechanism causes condensation, cloud formation and precipitation if the moving air mass
contains sufficient amount of moisture content.

On the other hand, if the moving air mass is warmer than the surface over which it travels, it is
cooled from below resulting into atmospheric stability which restricts upward movement of the air
and thus there is no chance for condensation, cloud formation and precipitation.

It is, thus, obvious that cold polar air masses while moving from their source regions to relatively
warmer surfaces become unstable because they are warmed from below.

On the other hand, warm tropical air masses, when move out of their source areas and reach
colder surfaces, are cooled from below, causing atmospheric stability and dry weather.
A warm air mass (w) is that whose temperature is greater than the surface temperature of the
region visited while if the air mass is colder than the surface temperature it is called cold air mass
(k).
It is apparent that the warmness or coldness of an air mass is determined by the temperature of
the underlying surface. Air mass also undergoes thermodynamic modification when evaporation is
added to it from outside.
An air mass is termed stable air mass when air descends while an air mass becomes unstable
when upward movement of air is operative. Such mechanical modifications in an air mass are
introduced due to cyclonic and anticyclonic conditions.

20
 Besides, mechanical modifications are also introduced due to
(a) Turbulent mixing caused by eddies or convection, NOTES
(b) Divergence and convergence of air masses and their effects on lapse rate of temperature,
(c) Subsidence of air and lateral expansion on the ground surface (anticyclonic condition),
(d) Lifting of air and convergence of air at the ground surface (cycolnic condition), and
(e) Advection.

Based on thermodynamic and mechanical (dynamic) modifications air masses are divided
into:
(i) cold air mass
(ii) warm air mass, each of which is further divided into:
(a) stable air mass
(b) unstable air mass.

Cold air masses originate in the polar and arctic regions.

They are characterized by the following properties in their source regions:

(i) Temperature is very low because of loss of heat through outgoing long-wave terrestrial
radiation.
(ii) Specific humidity is extremely low.
(iii) Stability increases and normal lapse rate of temperature is low.

Cold air masses after moving out from their source regions and reaching other areas have
the following properties:
(i) The temperature of the areas where cold air masses reach starts decreasing.
(ii) The air mass is warmed from below and thus normal lapse rate increases and the air becomes
unstable. This mechanism causes convective currents.
(iii) If the cold air mass lies over warm ocean surface, then its specific humidity increases and cu-
mulonimbus clouds are formed.
(iv) The usual visibility in the air mass is maintained.
(v) Precipitation occurs only when the air mass lies over warm ocean surface but if it lies over
warm continent, there is clear weather.
(vi) If the cold air mass lies partly over warm ocean surface and partly over adjoining cold land
surface, then cyclonic conditions are induced.

21
 Cold air masses are further divided into
NOTES
(a) continental cold air mass (b) maritime cold air mass.
Warm air mass is that whose temperature is greater than the surface temperature of the areas
over which it moves. Such air mass is cooled from below and thus its lower layer becomes stable
due to which its vertical movement stops.
Warm air masses generally originate in the subtropical regions characterized by anticyclonic
conditions. They are further divided into
(a) continental warm air mass, and
(b) maritime warm air mass.

Based on thermodynamic and mechanical (dynamic) modifications and some other

considerations air masses are divided into 16 types as follows:
NOTE: c = continental, T = tropical, m = maritime, K = cold, W = warm, u = unstable, s = stable
(A) Continental Polar Air Masses:
(a) Continental Polar Cold Stable Air mass (cPKs)
(b) Continental Polar Cold Unstable Air Mass (cPKu)
(c) Continental Polar Warm Stable Air Mass (cPWs)
(d) Continental Polar Warm Unstable Air Mass (cpWu)
(B) Maritime Polar Air Masses (mp):
(e) Maritime Polar Cold Stable Air Mass (mPKs)
(f) Maritime Polar Cold Unstable Air Mass (mPKu)
(g) Maritime Polar Warm Stable Air Mass (mPWs)
(h) Maritime Polar Warm Unstable Air Mass (mPWu))
(C) Continental Tropical Air Masses (cT):
(i) Continental Tropical Cold Stable Air Mass (cTKs)
(j) Continental Tropical Cold Unstable Air Mass (cTKu)
(k) Continental Tropical Warm Stable Air Mass (cTWs)
(l) Continental Tropical Warm Unstable Air Mass (cTWu)
(D) Maritime Tropical Air Masses (mT):
(m) Maritime Tropical Cold Stable Air Mass (mTKs)
(n) Maritime Tropical Cold Unstable Air Mass (mTKu)
(o) Maritime Tropical Warm Stable Air Mass (cTWs)
(p) Maritime Tropical Warm Unstable Air Mass (cTWu)

22
 NOTE
What is an Air Mass?
NOTES
An air mass is an immense body of air moving over the earth’s surface as a recognisable entity,

having uniform physical properties at a given altitude. Air masses form an integral part of the

global planetary wind system. Therefore, they are associated with one or other wind belt.

Cold Air Mass:

A cold air mass is one which is colder than the underlying surface and is associated with instability

and atmospheric turbulence.

Warm Air Mass:

A warm air mass is one which is warmer than the underlying surface and is associated with stable

weather conditions.

Source Region:
Of an air mass is one which establishes heat and moisture equilibrium with the overlying air mass

due to prolonged contact. The nature of source region determines the temperature and humidity

characteristics of an air mass. An ideal source region should be extensive, broadly uniform with

gentle, divergent air circulation. Areas with high barometric pressure and low barometric gradients

are ideal source regions. There are no major source regions in the mid-latitudes as these are

dominated by cyclonic and other disturbances.

When an air mass moves away from a source region, the upper level maintains the physical

characteristics for a longer period, because convection is not possible in stable, stagnant air,

conduction is slow, and radiation is not effective in free air.

Influence of Air Masses on World Weather:

The properties of an air mass which influence the accompanying weather are vertical distribution

temperature (indicating its stability and coldness or warmness) and the moisture content.

The moving air masses undergo the following modifications:

THERMODYNAMIC which depends on the initial temperature, moisture conditions, path taken,

underlying area and the time taken?

MECHANICAL by eddies, convection in lapse- rate, subsidence, ascent, lateral spreading,

divergence and convergence.

The air masses carry atmospheric moisture from oceans to continents and cause precipitation

over landmasses. They transport latent heat, thus removing the latitudinal heat balance. Most of

the migratory atmospheric disturbances such as cyclones and storms originate at the contact zone

between different air masses and the weather associated with these disturbances is determined

by characteristics of the air masses involved.

23
Classification of Air Masses:
Broadly, the air masses are classified into polar and tropical air masses. Both the polar and the NOTES
continental air masses can be either of maritime or continental types. The four types of air masses

with their source- regions are shown in Fig. 2.19, and their characteristic features are discussed

below.

1. Continental Polar Air Masses (CP):

Source- regions of these air masses are the Arctic basin, northern North America, Eurasia and

Antarctica. These air masses are characterised by dry, cold and stable conditions with very cold

and dense air during winter at the source-region due to prolonged terrestrial radiation and

distance from warm oceans.

The wind circulation is gentle and divergent. The weather during winter is frigid, clear and stable

with meager cloudiness and precipitation. During summer, the weather is less stable with lesser

prevalence of anticyclonic winds, warmer landmasses and lesser snow.

2. Maritime Polar Air Masses (MP):

The source-region of these air masses are the oceans between 40″ and 60° latitudes. These are

actually those continental polar air masses which have moved over the warmer oceans, got heated

up and have collected moisture. The conditions over the source-regions are cool, moist and

unstable. These are the regions which cannot lie stagnant for long. The weather during winters is

characterised by mild temperatures, high humidity, overcast skies and occasional fog and

precipitation. During summer, the weather is clear, fair and stable.

3. Continental Tropical Air Masses (CT):

The source-regions of these air masses include tropical and sub-tropical deserts of Sahara in

Africa, and of West Asia and Australia. These air masses are dry, hot and stable at source-region

and do not extend beyond the source. They are thus localised. They are dry during both summer

and winter and very hot during summer with scanty rainfall throughout.

4. Maritime Tropical Air Masses (MT):

The source-regions of these air masses include the oceans in tropics and sub-tropics such as

Mexican Gulf, the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans. These air masses are warm, humid and unstable

over the source-regions. Instability is prominent over the western margins of oceans. The weather

during winter has mild temperatures, overcast skies with fog and occasional drizzle. During

summer, the weather is characterized by high temperatures, high humidity, cumulous clouds and

convectional rainfall.

24
THE WINTERTIME AIR MASSES OF NORTH NOTES
AMERICA

Wintertime Air Masses

i. Continental Polar Air Mass (cP):
Continental polar air mass is cold (K), dry and stable (s), and originates over the snow-covered
central Canada to the north of 50°-60°N latitude, and Alaska while continental arctic air
masses originate over arctic basin and Greenland ice cap. These air masses move out of their
source regions and enter the USA between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Lakes.

Extensive land surface with topographic homogeneity and slow anticyclonic circulation provide
most ideal conditions for the origin and development of continental polar air mass. This air
mass moves in southerly and south-easterly directions and brings extreme cold conditions. In
fact, the arrival of this cP air mass produces intense cold waves in the vast area of the USA,
with the result most of the places record temperature below freezing point.
After reaching the southern and south-eastern shores of the Great Lakes the continental polar
cold air mass (cPK) is modified and thus becomes moist and unstable and yields heavy
precipitation in the form of snowfall locally known as lake-effect snow. The modified air mass,
when moves eastward, is forced to move upward along the Appalachians, becomes unstable,
clouds are formed and the western slopes of the Appalachian mountain receive heavy
snowfall.
It may be pointed out that so long as the cold continental polar air mass moves over the snow-
covered surface, it is least modified but as it crosses middle Illinois and enters the snow-free

25
surface it is warmed from below and thus the cold air mass is modified to warm continental
polar air mass (cPW) and the stability of the air mass decreases. NOTES
The continental polar warm air mass (cPW) while moving through east-central USA meets
maritime tropical (mT) air mass and polar front is formed which induces cyclonic conditions
and winter precipitation occurs to the east of the Rocky Mountains.

The cPW air masses are modified in the south-eastern USA due to:
 Mechanical turbulence produced by corrugated terrains of the southern Appalachians,
 Subsidence of air from above and resultant stability, and
 Instability in the lower layer of the air masses caused due to addition of heat and
moisture.

ii. Maritime Polar Pacific Air Masses (mP):

These air masses are called maritime polar pacific air masses because these originate in the
northern parts of the North Pacific, mainly near Aleutian Islands where winter low pressure is
formed. This region is surrounded by continental polar air mass from all sides except in the
south. The water surface is warmer than the air lying over it. Consequently, when the cold
maritime polar air mass comes over this area it is warmed from below and thus becomes
unstable.
This mPKu air mass (maritime polar cold unstable air mass) picks up moisture throughout its
journey south-eastward to the west coast of North America. This moist air mass gives
sufficient precipitation while rising along the western slopes of the Coast Ranges. During
summer season polar Pacific air mass becomes stable.
When polar Pacific air mass reaches the Great Plains of the USA after crossing over the coastal
ranges and the Rocky mountains, it undergoes the process of thermodynamic modifications
and thus is transformed into cold, stable and dry continental polar air mass (cPWs) which
induces anticyclonic conditions in the central states of the USA, with the result sky becomes
clear and air circulation becomes slow and temperature returns to normal.

iii. Maritime Polar North Atlantic Air Mass (mP):

This air mass originates over the North Atlantic Ocean mainly in the region between
Greenland, Newfoundland, and Labrador where winter temperature ranges between 5°F and
40°F while during summer season it becomes 50° to 60°F. Since the general air circulation in
this region is from west to east and hence this air mass has little influence on North America.
Sometimes cyclonic winds draw maritime polar North Atlantic air mass in the north-eastern
parts of the USA mainly to the east of the Appalachians and to the north of Cape Hatteras. This
air mass is dry and stable in its upper layers while it is moist and unstable in the lower parts.
This air mass brings in bad weather which is locally known as ‘north-eastern’ characterized by
strong northeast cold winds, exceedingly low temperature well below freezing point, high
moisture content in the air and possible precipitation mainly in solid forms such as snowfall,
sleet and hailstorms.

26
iv. Tropical Maritime Atlantic Air Masses:
These air masses (MT) originate over Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea and subtropical western NOTES
portion of the North Atlantic Ocean. They are hot, moist and unstable and are capable of
unleashing heavy showers. These air masses affect most parts of the USA east of the Rocky
Mountains. Temperature ranges between 21°C and 26°C and remains almost uniform in the
source regions, with the result tropical maritime Atlantic air mass becomes warm and moist air
mass.
It may be pointed out that it becomes very difficult to this air mass to enter the southern and
central USA in winters because there is complete dominance of continental polar air mass over
these areas. Whenever tropical maritime Atlantic air mass enters the USA it is cooled from
below because it is much warmer than the ground surface and thus becomes dry and stable.
This modified air mass is known as maritime tropical stable warm air mass (mTWs). This stable
air mass is incapable for precipitation but whenever it comes in contact with continental polar
air mass, the upper air instability increases and the air mass is modified to maritime tropical
warm unstable air mass (mTWu).
As this air mass rises along the mountain barriers it yields heavy showers. In summer the
maritime tropical warm air mass coming from over Mexican Gulf brings hot and sultry weather
in the southern and south-eastern states of the USA. This air mass also produces several thun-
derstorms.

v. Tropical Maritime Pacific Air Masses:

Pacific air mass originates over the subtropical portions of the East Pacific west of USA and
Mexico mainly over the high pressure area located to the southwest of California. The air mass
becomes stable because of subsidence of air from above due to anticyclonic circulation. This
maritime tropical stable (mTks) air mass is dry, cold and stable near the Pacific coast of the
USA. Whenever this air mass is associated with cyclonic circulation it becomes unstable and
brings rains. This air mass seldom crosses the Rockies.

27
 SUMMERTIME AIR MASSES OF NORTH NOTES
AMERICA

Summertime Air Masses

i. Polar Continental Air Mass (cP):

This air mass originates over the snow-covered central Canada and Alaska. The temperature

becomes relatively higher in summers than in winters but adjoining oceanic areas have

relatively low temperature. This air mass is cold, dry and unstable in the source regions but the

air mass originating on cold Arctic Ocean during summer season is initially cold and stable.

The stability of the cold and stable arctic air mass disappears when this air mass moves

southward over relatively warm ground surface and hence is heated from below. The

continental cold air mass (cPK) becomes warm due to thermodynamic modification when it

moves over the ocean. When this air mass moves southward from its source areas, it does not

cover long distances but it extends for long distances in the east.

The southward movement of continental polar air mass brings chilly weather in the eastern

and central USA due to which the effects of summer heat waves are eliminated and fine

weather sets in. Whenever the continental polar air mass is associated with cyclonic

circulation, it produces sporadic rainfall in the north-central and eastern parts of the USA.

ii. Maritime Polar Atlantic Air Masses:

These air masses originate over the area located between Cape Cod and Newfoundland.

Initially, these are cold and stable. These reach as far south as northern Florida where

temperature is reduced by 15° to 25°F. Low temperature, clear sky and full visibility are the

weather characteristics associated with these air masses.

Thus, these air masses produce fine and pleasant weather in the region extending from

Newfoundland to Cape Hatteras. There is no ground fog due to dry condition.

iii. Maritime Polar Pacific Air Masses (mP):

Maritime polar Pacific air masses originate in the area near Aleutian Islands in the North

Pacific Ocean. The air mass becomes stable because of subsidence of air from above during

summer season. Thus, this air mass becomes cold and stable (mPs). It may be pointed out that

the continental surfaces are warmer than the water surfaces of the Pacific Ocean.

Thus, the maritime airmasses are warmed from below when they reach the continental areas.

This causes greater turbulence in the lower layer, marked decrease in relative humidity,

disappearance of clouds and dry weather. No doubt, the temperature of the west coastal

areas of the USA, mainly Californian coasts, is reduced during summer season with the arrival

28
of these air masses. After crossing over the Rocky Mountains maritime polar Pacific air masses

are modified and resemble continental polar air masses (cP) in physical characteristics. NOTES
iv. Maritime Tropical Pacific Air Masses (mT):

These air masses originate in the tropical North Pacific Ocean off the west coast of Central

America. These air masses are marginalized because of the prevalence of maritime polar

Pacific air masses along the west coasts of North America in summers.

v. Continental Tropical Air Mass (cT):

This air mass originates in the source region comprising Mexico, western Texas (USA) and

eastern New Mexico (USA). The daytime characteristics are high temperature, significantly low

humidity and scant rainfall. This air mass moves to Great Plains and causes extreme arid

conditions. It produces drought conditions if it stays for a long period over an area.

29
 NOTES
AIR MASSES OF EUROPE

An air mass is a large volume of air which travels from one area to another. The weather an air
mass brings is determined by the region it has come from and the type of surface it has moved
over.

There are five main air masses which affect the UK as detailed by the map below.

The following questions help to describe and explain the weather that brings air masses together.

1. Where has the air mass come from - is it the Arctic Circle, the North Pole or the Tropics?

2. Has the air mass passed over sea or land?

These two pieces of information will help you name the air mass and describe its characteristics.
The basic ideas are shown in the table below.

Source area Characteristics

Land Dry

Oceans Wet

30
 Source area Characteristics
NOTES

Tropics Warm

Arctic Cold

Weather characteristics

You should memorise the information in the table below to make sure that you can correctly
identify the weather characteristics of air masses from each source area.

Name Source area Weather characteristics

Tropical Maritime (mT) Atlantic Ocean Warm and wet

Tropical Continental Southern Europe and North

Warm and dry
(cT) Africa

Polar Maritime (mP) North Atlantic Cold and wet

Polar Continental (cP) Northern Europe Cold and dry

Very cold. Not always wet due to

Arctic Maritime (mA) Arctic Ocean
low humidity.

The temperature of an air mass is also determined by seasonal changes. Temperatures in the
summer months are always higher than in winter months.

The air mass known as the Arctic Maritime does not occur very often, but when it does it brings
with it heavy snow.

31
 NOTES
AIR MASSES OF EUROPE

Air mass types

Air masses are classified into
groups depending on their
basic temperature and
humidity characteristics.
There are six main types of air
masses that affect the British
Isles. We classify these air
masses primarily by the area in
which they originate.
They are classified as
continental or maritime -
dependent on whether they
originate over land or sea - and
arctic or antarctic, equatorial,
tropical, or polar, depending
on the particular region in
which they form.
There are a total of six air
masses that affect the British
Isles, they are classified as
follows:

Tropical continental
This air mass originates over North Africa and the Sahara (a warm source region). It is most
common during the summer months June, July and August, although it can occur at other times of
the year.
Our highest temperatures usually occur under the influence of tropical continental air (over 30 °C
by day and around 15 to 20 °C at night).
Visibility is usually moderate or poor due to the air picking up pollutants during its passage over
Europe and from sand particles blown into the air from Saharan dust storms. Occasionally, the
Saharan dust is washed out in showers producing coloured rain and leaving cars covered in a thin
layer of orange dust.

Tropical maritime
The source region for this air mass is warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean between the Azores and
Bermuda. The predominant wind direction across the British Isles, in a tropical maritime air mass,
is south-westerly.
Tropical maritime air is warm and moist in its lowest layers and, although unstable over its source
region, during its passage over cooler waters becomes stable and the air becomes saturated.
Consequently when a tropical maritime air mass reaches the British Isles it brings with it low cloud
and drizzle, perhaps also fog around windward coasts and across hills. To the lee of high ground
though, the cloud my break up and here the weather, particularly in the summer months, can be
fine and sunny.

32
This is a mild air stream and during the winter month in particular, can raise the air temperature
several degrees above the average. NOTES
Polar continental
This air mass has its origins over the snow fields of Eastern Europe and Russia and is only
considered a winter (November to April) phenomena.
During the summer with the land mass considerably warmer, this air mass would be classed as a
tropical continental.
The weather characteristics of this air mass depend on the length of the sea track during its
passage from Europe to the British Isles: this air is inherently very cold and dry and if it reaches
southern Britain with a short sea track over the English Channel, the weather is characterised by
clear skies and severe frosts. With a longer sea track over the North Sea, the air becomes unstable
and moisture is added giving rise to showers of rain or snow, especially near the east coast of
Britain.
The lowest temperatures across the British Isles usually occur in this air mass, lower than -10 °C at
night, and sometimes remaining below freezing all day.

Polar maritime
This air mass has its origins over northern Canada and Greenland and reaches the British Isles on
a north-westerly air stream.
Polar maritime is the most common air mass to affect the British Isles. This air mass starts very
cold and dry but during its long passage over the relatively warm waters of the North Atlantic its
temperature rises rapidly and it becomes unstable to a great depth.
This air mass is characterised by frequent showers at any time of the year. In the winter months
when instability (convection) is most vigorous over the sea, hail and thunder are common across
much of the western and northern side of the British Isles. However, eastern Britain may see fewer
showers as here the surface heating is reduced. During the summer, the reverse is true, land
temperatures are higher than sea temperatures and the heaviest showers occur over eastern
England.

Arctic maritime
An arctic maritime air mass has similar characteristics to a polar maritime air mass, but because of
the shorter sea track the air is colder and less moist.
Arctic air is uncommon during the summer, but when it does occur it may bring heavy showers or
thunderstorms and unseasonably low temperatures.
Between October and May, the air is cold enough to produce hail showers or snow, and these are
most frequent over Scotland and along the coasts exposed to northerly winds.
An arctic maritime air mass has its origins over the North Pole and the Arctic Ocean.
Polar low-pressure systems forming in this air mass can sometimes lead to widespread and heavy
snowfall, but otherwise inland areas remain free of cloud in the winter months. In northern
Scotland, arctic maritime is usually the coldest air mass, but over the rest of Britain, this air mass is
not as cold as polar continental.

Returning polar maritime

Returning polar maritime is another version of polar maritime, but this time with a longer sea track
which takes the air first southwards over the North-Atlantic, the north-eastwards across the British
isles.

33
During its passage south, the air becomes unstable and moist but on moving north-east it passes
over cooler water making it stable in its lowest layers. NOTES
Although the weather across the British Isles in this air mass is largely dry, there can be extensive
cloud cover.

NOTE

34
 AIR MASSES OF BRITISH ISLES (EUROPE) NOTES

The weather of the British Isles and surrounding countries is influenced by several different air
masses. Broadly speaking there are four main ones:

 Tropical Continental (Tc): This type of air mass is mainly from the south-east and south, i.e.
the tropics. The air travels
over a warm land mass
(hence the term 'continental'
). In summer air masses from
the east that have travelled
over central Europe can be
classed as Tropical
Contintental. The air is
usually warm and dry.

 Tropical Maritime
(Tm): These air masses
generally originate from the
south-west and travel over a
warm sea (hence 'maritime').
The air is usually warm and
moist because the air picks
up moisture from the sea.

 Polar Continental (Pc): This kind of air mass comes from polar regions, travelling over a cold
land mass. In the UK this means air from the north-east that has travelled over Russia and
Scandinavia. Such air masses tend to be cold and relatively dry.

 Polar or Arctic Maritime (Pm or Am): These air masses originate from the Canadian Arctic
or from around Greenland and arrive in the British Isles from the north or north-west. The air
has travelled over a cold sea. This is the most common air mass affecting Britain. The air is
typically cool and fairly moist.

Note: an air mass that originates in polar areas but travels southward before turning north to
reach the British Isles is called a returning polar maritime.

35
 AIR MASSES OF ASIA NOTES

1. Wintertime Air Masses

i. Continental Polar Air Masses:
These air masses originate over extensive areas comprising Siberia
and outer Mongolia having very cold ground surface. Initially, the air
masses are very cold and dry in their source regions. The lower
portion upto the height of one kilometre is characterized by inversion
of temperature.

The air masses move eastward and after covering long distances are
mechanically modified as mechanical turbulence is produced when
these air masses cross over the mountain barriers. This process leads
to the disappearance of inversion layer resulting into increase of
temperature and humidity in the lower layer.

Refer the given Map for Air Masses of Asia

36
These air masses enter China through two routes viz.:
NOTES
(i) Through land surface, and

(ii) Through water surface.

When high pressure lies over Mongolia and North China, then these air masses enter China by
land route. They are much warmer in China than in their source areas. These air masses are
associated with clear sky and dry weather and cold air.

When these air masses come with high velocity, they bring with them immense quantity of dust
and sands and deposit them as loess. The continental polar air masses in their modified forms
affect the weather conditions of most parts of Asia during winter season. These air masses do not
enter the Indian subcontinent because of effective barrier of the Himalayas.

When high pressure lies over Manchuria and Japan Sea, the continental polar air masses enter
China by sea route after moving over Japan Sea, and Yellow Sea and thus pick up abundant
moisture. These air masses are relatively warmer and more humid than the continental polar air
masses coming by land route.

Until they are associated with fronts, they are characterized by clear sky and pleasant weather. The
lower portion is unstable and thus they give precipitation when they ascend along the mountain
barriers. The continental air masses coming through sea and land routes converge along the
eastern coasts of Asia and form cyclones through frontogenesis and cause precipitation.

ii. Maritime Polar Air Masses (mP):

These air masses after originating over the Sea of Okhotsk influence only the coastal margins of
Siberia, Manchuria and South Korea while the eastern coasts of Asia south of Korea are deprived
of their influences because (i) the winter air circulation is off shore i.e., from west to east due to
which the westward advance of maritime polar air masses is blocked, and (ii) continental polar air
mass while entering China through sea route attains the characteristics of maritime polar air mass
(mP). These air masses (mP) also invade Japan in early summer and form fronts when they
converge with overlying maritime tropical air masses and bring moist weather with overcast sky
and light precipitation.

iii. Maritime Tropical Air Masses (mT):

Maritime tropical air masses do not effectively influence the weather conditions of the eastern Asia
during winters because of the dominance of continental polar air masses. These air masses are
experienced only up to southern China. They are warmer and more humid than all of the
wintertime air masses. Unstable maritime tropical air masses are more effective in south-west
Pacific Ocean and in eastern Indonesia.

2. Summertime Air Masses

i. Continental Polar Air Masses (cP):
The source areas of polar air masses extend further northward in central Asia because of high
temperature during summer season due to northward migration of the sun. The air becomes
relatively warm but continental polar air masses do not effectively influence the weather
conditions of eastern and southern Asia because maritime tropical air masses become more
dominant during summer season.

37
The continental polar air masses enter China only through sea route from Japan Sea and Yellow
Sea. These air masses are colder than maritime tropical air masses. They are associated with clear NOTES
weather, scant precipitation, and negligible thunderstorms. They produce cyclonic conditions
whenever they converge with maritime tropical air masses.

ii. Maritime Tropical Air Masses (mT):

The weather of south and south-east Asia is controlled by maritime tropical air masses which are
known as summer monsoons. They are warm, more humid and unstable. They yield torrential
rainfall when they are forced to ascend by mountain barriers largely. After being originated in
southern oceans they move north and north-eastward and after entering the mainland they are
heated from below because of warm ground surface and hence they become unstable and
convectional currents are produced.

The south-west summer monsoons of Indian subcontinent are typical representatives of maritime
tropical summer air masses. These air masses produce cyclonic conditions when they converge
with continental polar air masses during springs in central China and during middle summer in
Manchuria.

iii. Maritime Polar Air Masses (mP):

These air masses originate over Okhotsk Sea from where they move westward and influence the
weather conditions of eastern Asia north of 40°N latitude. These air masses are more active during
summers than during winters. They are more effective in Manchuria and east Siberia. Though
these air masses extend up to southern Japan in early summer but later they are pushed
northward by maritime tropical air masses.

38
NOTE
NOTES
Air masses are large bodies of slow moving air extending up to troposphere and cover a large
area. Their characterizes are dependent upon the surface, latitudinal position, size and speed.

They acquire a distinct identity by their humidity, orgin and movement.

They are classified based on,

a. Latitudinal origination - Arctic, Tropical, Equatorial, Antarctic, etc.

b. Continental air mass/ Oceanic air mass.

They have huge impact on the macro – climate of region. Air masses cause,

Desertification:

They cause arid conditions when dry air mass is present in a region. Sahel region of Africa is
impacted by this.

Precipitation:

The Monsoon trough present in North India is an important factor in attracting the south west
monsoon winds. The creation of this trough is aided by Tibetan plateau.

Frontal Precipitation – when warn air mass and cold air mass come in contact frontal
precipitation occurs. It is widely witnessed in temperate region.

The Air masses when pass through warm water or currents acquire their moisture and cause
rainfall in coastal regions.

Cyclonic and Anticyclone conditions:

Air masses also significantly impact them. Cyclonic rainfall is prevalent is Temperate region but not
as destructive tropical cyclones.

Thus air masses play a significant role is influencing macro-climate of a region.

39
 SAHEL REGION
NOTES
The Sahel region of Africa is a 3,860-kilometre arc-like land mass lying to the immediate south of

the Sahara Desert and stretching east-west across the breadth of the African continent.

A largely semi-arid belt of

barren, sandy and rock-

strewn land, the Sahel marks

the physical and cultural

transition between the

continent’s more fertile

tropical regions to the south

and its desert in the north.

Geographic definitions of the

Sahel region vary.

Commonly, the Sahel

stretches from Senegal on

the Atlantic coast, through

parts of Mauritania, Mali,

Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, Chad and Sudan to Eritrea on the Red Sea coast.

Culturally and historically, the Sahel is a shoreline between the Middle East and sub-Saharan

Africa. This means it is the site of interaction between Arabic, Islamic and nomadic cultures from

the north, and indigenous and traditional cultures from the south.

Concerns abound over the region’s vast spaces, often beyond the reach of the state, in an era of

violent criminal and political movements operating across borders. The Sahel also suffers from

ethno-religious tensions, political instability, poverty and natural disasters.

In recent years, the Sahel has been in the global spotlight due to famines, religious terrorism, anti-

state rebellions, and arms, drugs and human trafficking. These developments are the product of

both local and global dynamics. They remain substantial challenges for the region in 2017.

40
 FRONTS NOTES

Meaning of Front:

Front is that sloping boundary which separates two opposing air masses having contrasting

characteristics in terms of air temperature, humidity, density, pressure, and wind direction. An

extensive transitional zone between two converging air masses is called frontal zone or frontal

surface which represents zone of discontinuity in the properties of opposing contrasting air

masses.

Frontal zone is neither parallel nor vertical to ground surface; rather it is inclined at low angle.

Though fronts differ from each other in terms of their location, types, and areal extent but they are

characterized by the following common characteristics e.g., large differences in air temperature

across a front, bending isobars, abrupt shift in wind direction, cloudiness and precipitation.

Creation of Fronts:

When two contrasting air masses converge in deformation circulation, they spread horizontally

along the axis of outflow or dilation. In such situation the creation of front depends on the angle

between the axis of outflow and isotherms. Fronts do not form when this angle exceeds 45

degrees.

As the convergence of air continues, this angle decreases and isotherms try to become parallel to

the axis of outflow and frontogenesis is activated. The steepness and intensity of fronts depends

on temperature gradient. If two contrasting air masses are parallel to each other and there is no

upward displacement of air, stationary front is formed. Such fronts are climatically insignificant

because they are not conducive for cloud formation and precipitation.

But such situation is not very common because two contrasting and converging air masses are

generally separated by sloping boundary due to deflective force (coriolis force) of the earth and

cold and dense air mass pushes warm and light air mass upward. It may be pointed out that fronts

are not linear between two converging contrasting air masses but are zonally in character having a

width of 5 to 80 kilometres.

41
Classification of Fronts:

Fronts are classified into four principal types on the basis of their different characteristic features NOTES
e.g.:

1. Stationary front.
2. Warm front,
3. Cold front,
4. Occluded front,

1. Stationary Front:

Stationary front is formed when two contrasting air

masses converge in such a way that they become

parallel to each other and there is no ascent of air.

In fact, the surface position of stationary front does

not move either forward or backward.

42
2. Warm Front:
NOTES
Warm front is that gently sloping frontal surface

along which warm and light air becomes active and

aggressive and rises slowly over cold and dense air.

The average slope of warm fronts in middle

latitudes ranges between 1:100 to 1:400. The

gradually rising warm air along the gently sloping

warm front is cooled adiabatically, gets saturated

and after condensation precipitation occurs over a

relativel y large area for several hours in the form of moderate to gentle precipitation.

3. Cold Front:

Cold front is that sloping frontal surface along

which cold air becomes active and aggressive and

invades the warm air territory and being denser re-

mains at the ground but forcibly uplifts the warm

and light air.

Since the air motion is retarded at the ground

surface due to friction while the free air above has

higher velocity and hence the cold front becomes much steeper than warm front. This is why the

slope of cold front varies from 1:50 to 1:100 (which means the rise of the wedge of cold air at the

rate of one kilometre for every 50 to 100 kilometres).

A cold front is associated with bad weather characterized by thick clouds, heavy downpour with

thunderstorms, lightning etc. Sometimes,

cold frontal precipitation is also associated

with snowfall and hailstorms.

4. Occluded Front:

Occluded front is formed when cold front

overtakes warm front and warm air is

completely displaced from the ground

surface.

43
 Changing Weather Associated With Fronts
NOTES
Since fronts are formed due to convergence of two air masses of contrasting temperatures and

hence contrasting weather conditions are found from north to south or south to north.

Differences in terms of temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, and wind direction are

experienced along different fronts e.g., warm and cold fronts.

1. Weather Associated With Warm Fronts:

Warm air becomes active and aggressive along warm front as it invades cold air zone and thus

being lighter it gradually rises over cold air and is cooled adiabatically from below. Cooling of warm

air causes condensation and cloud formation followed by precipitation. If the aggressive warm air

is stable and less humid, condensation occurs at great height and hence much lifting of air is

required.

On the other hand, if the warm air is moist and unstable, only a slight lifting causes condensation

and precipitation. The warm front precipitation is of long duration, moderate but widespread

because of gentle slope of warm front. There are frequent changes in cloud types. The sequence

of clouds from above downward comprises cirrus, cirrostratus, alto-stratus and nimbostratus.

When warm front advances forward, the warm sector comes over the observation place. There is

sudden change in weather conditions with the arrival of warm sector e.g., sudden increase in

temperature and specific humidity, decrease in air pressure, disappearance of clouds, clear sky,

and break in precipitation.

2. Weather Associated With Cold Front:

Cold and dense air becomes active and aggressive along cold front wherein cold air invades warm

air region and pushes it upward while it, being denser, settles downward. If cold front passes away

soon, weather also becomes clear soon, otherwise if the front becomes stationary, the sky

becomes overcast with cumulonimbus clouds provided that cold air is moist and unstable, and

frontal thunderstorms are formed. Heavy precipitation occurs but is of short duration.

The consequent weather is characterized by decrease in air temperature, increase in air pressure,

decrease in specific and relative humidity and change in wind direction from 45° to 180°.

Precipitation is accompanied by lightning and cloud thunder. Sometimes, rainfall is associated with

hailstorms. After the passage of cold front, clouds disappear, precipitation terminates and weather

becomes clear and north-west cold winds set in.

44
 NOTES

CLASS NOTES

45
 NORWEGIAN CYCLONE MODEL NOTES
Temperate / Extra Tropical Cyclone

If you track low pressure areas and fronts you will often notice a particular cycle these systems
undergo. The Norwegian cyclone model, so named to honor the Norwegian meteorologists who
first conceptualized the typical life cycle of cyclones in the 1910s and 1920s.
Initial Condition
In this model, there will initially be a boundary, or front, separating warm air to the south from
cold air to the north. The front is often stationary.

Norwegian cyclone model initial stage - weather

map view
Norwegian cyclone model initial stage - 3D view

Beginning Stage
A wave develops on the front as an upper level low pressure system, embedded in the jet stream
moves, over the front. The front develops a "kink" where the wave is developing. The stationary
front changes into a cold front and warm front as the air masses begin to move. Precipitation will
begin to develop with the heaviest occurrence along the front (dark green).

Wave forms on front - weather map view

Wave forms on front - 3D view

Intensification
As the wave intensifies, both cold and warm fronts become better organized.

Wave intensifies - 3D view

Wave intensifies - overhead view

46
Mature Stage
The wave becomes a mature low pressure system, while the cold front, moving faster than the NOTES
warm front, "catches up" with the warm front. As the cold front overtakes the warm front, an
occluded front forms.

A mature low pressure system - 3D view

A mature low pressure system - overhead view

Dissipation
As the cold front continues advancing on the warm front, the occlusion increases and eventually
cuts off the supply of warm moist air, causing the low pressure system to gradually dissipate.

Dissipating stage of cyclone - overhead view

Dissipating stage of cyclone - 3D view

47
 TEMPERATE CYCLONES NOTES

They are formed due to convergence of contrasting air masses in mid latitudes (35°-65° latitudes in both
the hemispheres). They are most intensified and frequent primarily during winters (as thermal contrast
is high during winters).
ATMOSPHERIC AND SURFACE CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ORIGIN OF TEMPERATE
CYCLONES
We have already studied about fronts and related frontogenesis in the previous part of this
chapter. Understanding of front formation process is necessary to understand the atmospheric
and surface conditions required for a temperate cyclone and the related stages of a temperate
cyclone.
Polar front theory discuses and explains origin of temperate cyclones. According to this theory,
frontogenesis is a pre-condition for formation of temperate cyclones. Hence, the conditions
necessary for development of a front are also necessary for development of a temperate cyclone.
The necessary conditions for frontogenesis include:

(i) The presence of two opposing air masses having contrasting properties of air temperature, air
pressure, density and humidity. Two opposing air masses must have contrasting temperatures
i.e. one air mass should be cold, dry and heavier while the other should be hot, humid and
light.

(ii) The two air masses must move in face to face direction.

HORIZONTAL EXPANSION OF TEMPERATE CYCLONES

 Temperate Cyclones cover large area as these are formed due to convergence of large,
contrasting air masses. Sometimes, temperate cyclones are so large and extensive that they
cover an area of 1,000,000 square kilometers.

VERTICAL EXPANSION OF TEMPERATE CYCLONES

 Temperate Cyclones extend upto 10 km from sea level in the upper troposphere.

SOURCE OF ENERGY OF TEMPERATE CYCLONES

 Moisture present in hot, humid and lighter air mass is source of energy in temperate cyclones.

 This moisture later becomes source of cooling, condensation, cloud formation and rainfall.
Since source of energy in temperate cyclones is moisture present in warm air mass, they can
occur and develop over both oceanic and continental surface.

MOVEMENT OF TEMPERATE CYCLONES

 Temperate Cyclones are cyclones of mid-latitudes and hence are primarily under influence of
permanent winds of mid-latitudes i.e. westerlies. Their movement is therefore eastwards of
their origin with average velocity of 32km per hour in summers and 48km per hour in winters.

EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPERATE CYCLONES

It may be pointed out that though the formation and development of temperate cyclones is a
quick process but it passes through a series of successive stages. The period of a cyclone from its
inception (cyclogenesis) to its termination (frontolysis or occlusion) is called the 'life cycle of cyclone'

48
which is completed through six successive stages. These six stages are described by the polar front
theory. Following are the six stages: NOTES
 Stage 1: It involves the convergence of two air masses of

contrasting physical properties and directions. Initially, the

air masses (warm and cold) move parallel to each other and

a stationary front is formed. This is called initial stage.

 Stage 2: It is also called as incipient stage, during which

the warm and cold air masses penetrate into the territories of each other and thus a wave-like

front is formed under influence of Coriolis force.

 Stage 3: It is the mature stage when the cyclone is fully developed and isobars become

almost circular. Energy and intensity of the cyclone is greatest in this stage. Rainfall is

generated by nimbostratus clouds along the warm front and cumulonimbus clouds generate

high intensity rainfall at cold fronts.

 Stage 4: The warm sector of

cyclone is narrowed due to the

more advancement of cold front

than warm. As warm front

declines, energy reservoir of the

cyclonic system starts declining.

This is because the warm air

mass is the source of energy of the temperate cyclone.

 Stage 5: It starts with the occlusion of cyclone when the advancing cold front finally overtakes

the warm front and an occluded front is formed. Intensity of rainfall and winds further

declines.

 Stage 6: In this warm sector completely disappears, occluded front is eliminated, cold air mass

covers the surface and ultimately cyclone dies out.

49
PREDICTABILITY OF TEMPERATE CYCLONES
Temperate Cyclones are relatively more regular and predictable compared to tropical cyclones and NOTES
are primarily observed in winter seasons.

DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATE CYCLONES GLOBALLY

Temperate cyclones mostly develop 35°-65⁰ latitudes in both the hemispheres and influence weather of
mid-latitudes.
Following are the major belts of temperate cyclones viz.

1. USA and Canada – extend over Colorado, Eastern Canadian Rockies and the Great Lakes
region,

2. the belt extending from Iceland to Barents Sea and continuing over Russia and Siberia,

3. winter storms over Baltic Sea,

4. Mediterranean basin extending up to Russia and even up to India in winters (called western
disturbances) and the Antarctic frontal zone.

50
 NOTES

Western Disturbances:

 Wave cyclones originating over Mediterranean Sea and Caspian Sea flow eastward under
influence of sub-tropical westerly jet stream.

 These cyclones enter into northwestern parts of India during winter season to generate
snowfall on Himalayan Mountain ranges of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
uttarakhand.

 They also cause rainfall in plains of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and
Northern Rajasthan and support Rabi crops.

51