Effect Media

Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R.
Howell
10.5 The Effect of Participating Media

10.5.1 Absorption, Emission and Scattering from a
Medium
 The intensity definition (Sec. 9.2.1) is used to determine
the energy striking dAs from the two equal area elements
dA1 and dA2, resulting in
dAs cos θ
deλ ,1 = I λ ,1dA1d Ω 1d λ = I λ ,1dA1 2
dλ (10.105)
S1
dAs cosθ
deλ ,2 = I λ ,2 dA2 d Ω 2 d λ = I λ ,2 dA2 dλ
(10.106) S 22
 Making these substitutions results in the intensity from
the two surfaces that reach dAs being
I λ ,1 = I λ ,2
(10.107)
Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell
dA2
d Ω2
dA1
θ S2
d Ω1
S1
dAs
Figure 10.26 Propagation of intensity

10.5.2 Properties of Participating Media

 Consider intensity Iλ that is propagating through a
medium in a particular direction (Fig. 10.27). The
spectral dependence is maintained in the relations being
developed, because the properties of many media,
particularly gases, are highly wavelength dependent. As
the intensity moves through an element of thickness dS,
it is attenuated by absorption into the medium, and by
scattering from the medium.
 The change in intensity is given by
I λ ( S + dS ) = I λ ( S ) + dI λ , attenuation = I λ ( S ) − β λ I λ ( S )dS (10.108)
so that
dI λ = − β λ I λ ( S )dS (10.109)
Iλ(S+dS)
Iλ(S)
dS
Figure 10.27 Attenuation of intensity in element of thickness dS

 Examination of Eq. (10.109) shows that ßλ. must have

units of inverse length, and is usually in (1/m).
β λ = κ λ + σ sλ (10.110)
 If the intensity change due to attenuation over a finite
distance is needed, then Eq. (10.109) can be rearranged
and integrated over a path from S = 0 to a final distance
I ( s ) dI λ , attenuation
S: S
∫ I ( S = 0) I λ = − ∫ S = 0 β λ (S )dS
λ
λ
(10.111)
 The result is
Iλ ( s ) dI λ , attenuation
∫ I λ ( S = 0) Iλ
= ln I λ ( S ) − ln I λ ( S = 0)
 Iλ (S )  S
= ln   = − ∫ S = 0 β λ ( S )dS (10.112)
 I λ ( S = 0) 
 Raising both sides to the exponential power gives

S
I λ ( S ) = I λ ( S = 0) exp[ − ∫ β λ ( S )dS ] (10.113)
S= 0
 Transmittance: If the attenuation coefficient is uniform
along S (which is assumed to be the case in this chapter;
if it's not, then calculation of radiative transfer in other
than the simplest geometries becomes quite
computationally intense), then Eq. (10.113) reduces to
I λ ( S ) = I λ ( S = 0) exp[− β λ S ] (10.114)
 The intensity is seen to decrease exponentially as it
travels along the path. We can define the transmittance
of the medium τλ(S) as
S
τ λ ( S ) = exp[− ∫ β λ ( S )dS ] = exp ( − β λ S ) [if β λ ≠ F ( S )] (10.115)
S= 0

 Absorptance: If the attenuation is due only to absorption

with no scattering, then the fraction of intensity absorbed
plus that transmitted must sum to unity. The absorptance
of the medium is then defined as
α λ ( S ) = 1 − τ λ ( S ) = 1 − exp ( − κ λ S ) [if κ λ ≠ F ( S )] (10.116)
 Emittance: Using a similar argument to that for
Kirchhoff's Law for surface properties, the ability of an
absorbing medium to emit radiation can be used to relate
the absorptance to the property emittance ελ(S):
ε λ ( S ) = α λ ( S ) = 1 − τ λ ( S ) = 1 − exp ( − κ λ S ) [if κ λ ≠ F ( S )] (10.117)
 The emittance is used to predict the intensity traveling in
a given direction due to emission from an isothermal
medium along a path of length S:
I λ ( S ) = ε λ ( S ) I λ b ( T ) = [ 1 − exp(− κ λ S )] I λ b ( T ) (10.118)
 For a differential element of medium dS,

d
dI λ ,emitted = Iλ b ( T ) [ 1 − exp(− κ λ S )] = κ λ I λ b ( T ) dS (10.119)
dS
 Adding the intensity emitted by all elements parallel to
the one shown in Fig. 10.27 gives the average intensity
emitted in that direction by dV, or
dI λ ,emitted dAp = ∫ κ λ I λ b ( T ) dSdAs = κ λ I λ b ( T ) ∫ dSdAs = κ λ I λ b ( T ) dV (10.120)
pdA pdA
 To get the total energy emitted by the volume element,
we now use the definition of the intensity [Eq. (9.5)] to
find the energy emitted in one direction as
d 3eλ = dI λ ,emitted ( T ) dAp d Ω d λ = κ λ I λ b dVd Ω d λ
(10.121)

dV
dAp
dIλ,emitted
T
dS
dAs
Figure 10.28 Isothermal emitting volume element

 To get the emission into all directions, integrate over the

4p of solid angles:
d 2 eλ = κ λ I λ b ( T ) dVd λ ∫ d Ω = 4π κ λ I λ b ( T ) dVd λ = 4κ λ Eλ b dVd λ (10.122)
4π
 Finally, we can integrate over all wavelengths to get the

total emission from the volume element:
∞
de = 4dV ∫ κ λ Eλ b d λ (10.123)
λ =0
 If the spectral dependence of kλ is known, then the
integral in Eq. (10.123) can be evaluated, and we can
define a mean absorption coefficient (the Planck mean)
∞
as ∫ κ E dλ
λ =0 λ λb
κP=
σ T4 (10.124)
and Eq. (10.123) reduces to an equation for total emission
into all directions from dV:
de = 4κ Pσ T 4 dV (10.125)
 Scattering: If radiation is scattered from the direction S

into another direction (θ, Φ) defined relative to the
direction of S (Fig. 10.29) information is needed on how
much of the scattered intensity goes into a particular
direction. A function giving this information is defined as
the scattering phase function, Φ,
4π dI λ , s ( θ ,φ )
Φ λ (θ ,φ ) =
σ sλ I ( S )dS (10.126)
 The intensity scattered into direction (θ, Φ) is
Φ λ (θ , φ )σ sλ I ( S )dS
dI λ , s ( θ ,φ ) =
4π (10.127)

dIλ,s(θ,φ)
φ
dΩs
dΩi
θ
Iλ(S)
Forward
direction
dS
Figure 10.29 Scattering from a volume element

10.5.3 The Radiative Transfer Equation

 The fundamental equation that describes the change in
intensity at a local position S is found by combining the
relations found in Section 10.5.2. The change in intensity
is given by
Change in intensity =
- loss by attenuation (absorption + scattering) + gain by emission
+ gain by inscattering into direction S from other directions
 Using the mathematical forms for each term,

dI λ ( S ) =
− β λ I λ ( S ) dS
+ κ λ I λ b ( S ) dS
σ dS 4π (10.128)
+ sλ ∫ I λ ( θ ,φ ) Φ ( θ ,φ ) d Ω i
4π ω i = 0

 For isoptropic scattering (Φ = 1) and using dΩ = sinΘ dΘ

dφ, dI λ ( S ) = − β λ I λ ( S )dS
σ dS 4π
+ κ λ I λ b ( S ) dS + sλ
∫ I λ ( θ ,φ ) d Ω i
4π ω i = 0
= − β λ I λ ( S )dS
σ dS π 2π
+ κ λ I λ b ( S ) dS + sλ
∫ ∫ I λ ( θ ,φ ) sin θ dθ dφ
4π θ = 0 φ = 0
 Dividing through by ßλdS ≡ dτλ and defining ω λ = σ s ,λ / β λ ,

Eq. (10.129) becomes
dI λ (τ λ ) ω λ π 2π
= − I λ (τ λ ) + (1 − ω λ ) I λ b (τ λ ) + ∫ ∫ I λ ( θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ (10.130)
dκ λ 4π θ = 0 φ = 0
 Often, the form of the RTE is further simplified by

defining the source function , which is the sum of the
sources of intensity due to emission and in-scattering,
ω π 2π
iλ ( τ λ ) ≡ (1 − ω λ ) I λ b (τ λ ) + λ ∫ ∫ I λ ( θ ,φ ) sin θ dθ dφ (10.131)
4π θ =0 φ=0

so that Eq. (10.130) becomes

dI λ (τ λ )
= iλ (τ λ ) − I λ (τ λ )
dτ λ (10.132)
 It can be formally integrated by multiplying through by
the integrating factor exp(τλ), giving
dI λ (τ λ )
I λ (τ λ ) exp(τ λ ) +
dτ λ
(10.133)
exp(τ λ ) = iλ (τ λ ) exp(τ λ )
 Integrating with respect to optical thickness from τλ = 0 to
τλ (S) results in τ
I λ (τ λ ) = I λ (0)exp ( − τ λ ) + ∫ i ( τ *λ ) exp  − ( τ λ − τ *λ )  dτ *λ
λ
τ *λ = 0 λ (10.134)

τλ* τλ - τλ *
Iλ(0) Iλ(τλ)
d τλ∗
τλ
Figure 10.30 Propagation of intensity

 Example 10.12: A black surface at T = 1000 K bounds a

nonscattering medium with absorption coefficient kλ = 20
cm-1. The medium is also at T = 1000K (Fig. 10.31). Find
the intensity in the medium at a distance of S = 20 cm
from the boundary at wavelength λ.
κλ = 0.2 cm-1
T = 1000K
T = 1000 K
Iλb(T) Iλ(S)
S=20 cm
Figure 10.31 Propagation of intensity (T = 1000 K)

 Solution: For the black boundary, Iλ (S = 0) = Iλb(T =

1000 K) . The source function [Eq. (10.131)] is, for no
scattering (ω=0) iλ ( τ λ ) = I λ b (τ λ ) = constant = I λ b (T = 1000 K )
and the RTE [Eq. (10.134)] gives
I λ (τ λ ) = I λ (0) exp ( − κ λ S )
S
+ ∫ κ λ I λ b (T = 1000 K ) exp  − κ λ ( S − S *)  dS *
S *= 0
= I λ b (T = 1000 K ) exp ( − κ λ S )
 − 1
+ κ λ I λ b (T = 1000 K )   ( 1 − exp ( − κ λ S ) )
κλ 
= I λ b (T = 1000 K )
The intensity in this particular case is independent of S and
the value of kλ. This occurs because the attenuation of
the intensity leaving the boundary is exactly
compensated by the emission along theChapterpath.
10: Heat Transfer by Radiation
θ s
dA
dΩ
Iλ
Figure 10.32 Finding the radiative flux from the intensity.

 The flux in the n direction is

4π 4π
′′ ,λ = ∫ I λ sgnd Ω = ∫ I λ ( θ ) cos θ d Ω
qrad (10.135)
Ω =0 Ω =0
 Considering the differences in radiative flux crossing
each face of a volume element in a Cartesian coordinate
system gives ′′ , y ∂ qrad
′′ , x ∂ qrad
∂ qrad ′′ , z
∇ gq′′rad = + + (10.136)
∂x ∂y ∂z

T2
H
x
θ S
T1
Figure 10.33 Geometry for diffusion solution

10.5.4 Some Limiting Solutions for Radiative

Transfer
 The Diffusion Solution: If the participating medium is
optically thick, then the solution of the RTE reduces
considerably in form.
 Consider a 1-dimensional system of infinite parallel
plates containing a participating, isotropically scattering
medium with wavelength dependent attenuation
coefficient ßλ (Fig. 10.33).
 If the plates are separated by a distance H, the RTE, Eq.
(10.132), reduces in this one-dimensional case to
cosθ dI λ ( x,θ ) cosθ dI λ ( x,θ )
= = iλ ( x / H ) − I λ ( x / H ,θ ) (10.137)
βλ dx H β λ d (x / H )

 If 1/Hßλ << 1 (optically thick), then the intensity can be

expanded in a series,
2
1 ( 1)  1 
I λ ( x, θ ) = I λ ( 0)
+ Iλ +  ( 2)
 λ + ......
I
βλH  βλH
(10.138)
 Substituting the expansion into Eq. (10.137) and using
Eq. (10.131) for the source function iλ(x/H),
cos θ  ∂ I λ( 0) ( x,θ ) 1 ∂ I λ( ) ( x,θ )
1

 + + ...
Hβ λ  ∂ ( x / H ) H β λ ∂ ( x / H ) 
ω λ π 2π  ( 0 ) 
2
1 ( 1)  1  ( 2)
4π ∫ θ = 0 ∫ φ = 0 
= (1 − ω λ ) I λ b (τ λ ) +  Iλ + Iλ +   I λ + ...... d Ω i (10.139)
βλH β
 λ H 

 0 1  1 
2

( ) ( 1) ( 2)
−  Iλ + Iλ +   I λ + ......
 βλH  βλH 

 Collecting all terms of zero order in 1/Hßλ gives

ωλ 4π (0)
Iλ = ( 1 − ω λ ) Iλ b ( τ λ
( 0)
) + ∫ I dΩ i
(10.140)
4π Ω 1= o λ
 Because neither term ( 0)

on the right-hand side depends on
Ωi, it follows that I λ also cannot depend on Ωi. In that
case, the integral in Eq. (10.140) can be evaluated, and
the result is
I λ( 0 ) = I λ b ( τ λ )
(10.141)
 Now the first order terms are collected in Eqs. (10.139),
giving  ∂ I λ b ( x )  ω λ 4π ( 1) ( 1)
cos θ 
 ∂ ( x / H )  4π
 = ∫ dΩ = 0
i
I λ d Ω i − I λ
(10.142)
 Multiply through 4by π and integrate
( 1) 4π over dΩi. The result is
( 1)
0= ∫ I dΩ i − ω λ
Ω i= 0 λ ∫ I dΩ
Ω i=0 λ i
(10.143)
 Because Ωλ ≠0, the integral in Eq. (10.143) must be equal to zero. In

that case, Eq. (10.142) reduces to
( 1)  ∂ I λ b ( x) 
Iλ = − cos θ  
 ∂ ( x / H ) 
(10.144)
 Now, the first two terms in the series for intensity [Eq. (10.138)] are
known. If the series is truncated after these two terms, the result is
1 ∂ I λ b ( x)
I λ ( x, θ ) = I λ b ( x ) − cos θ
βλ ∂x (10.145)
 Now the local spectral radiative flux is found by substituting Eq.
(10.145) into Eq. (10.135):
4π 4π  1 ∂ I λ b ( x) 
′′ ,λ ( x ) = ∫
qrad I ( θ ) cos θ d Ω = ∫  Iλ b − cos θ  cos θ d Ω i
Ω i=0 λ Ω i=0 βλ ∂x 

π /2 2π π /2 2π 1 ∂ I λ b ( x)
= ∫ ∫ I λ b cos θ sin θ dθ dφ − ∫θ = − π /2 ∫φ = 0 β λ ∂ x θ sin θ dθ dφ
2
cos
θ = − π /2 ϕ = 0
4π ∂ I λ b ( x) 4 ∂ Eλ b ( x)
= 0− = − ( 10.146 )
3β λ ∂ x 3β λ ∂x
 If the properties of the participating medium are gray,

then integrating over all wavelengths gives
4 dEb ( x) 4σ dT 4 ( x ) 16σ T 3 dT ( x) (10.147)
′′ = −
qrad = − = −
3β dx 3β dx 3β dx
 This is the same form as the Fourier equation for heat
conduction, and the radiative conductivity can be defined
as 16σ T 3
krad =
3β (10.148)
 If the medium is non-gray, then Eq. (10.146) can be
integrated over wavelength to find the total heat flux:
4 ∞ 1 ∂ Eλ b ( x) 4 dEb
qrad = − ∫
′′ dλ ≡ − (10.149)
3 λ=0 β ∂x
λ 3β dxR

 If attenuation is due only to absorption (nonscattering

medium), the value of kR is found from
∞ 1 ∂ Eλ b ( x)
1 ∫λ =0κ λ
dλ
∂x
=
κR dEb
dx (10.150)
∞ 1 dEλ b 1 ∞ 1 dEλ b
= ∫ dλ = ∫ dλ
λ =0κ σ κ λ dT 4
λ dEb
λ = 0

 Example 10.13:
A slab of plate glass has thickness L = 1 cm. The
temperature on one face of the glass is measured to be
800K, and the other face is at 300 K. The thermal
conductivity of this glass is k = 1.4 W/m-K, and the
absorption coefficient of the this glass over the important
wavelength range is k = 2.3 cm-1. What is the
temperature distribution in the glass? (Assume the glass
is non-scattering.)

 Solution:
The energy equation within the glass is
16σ
k ∇ T + ∇ g(krad ∇ T ) = k ∇ T +
2 2
∇ g(T 3∇ T ) = 0
3κ
or, in one dimension
d 2T 16σ d 3 dT
k 2 + (T )= 0
dx 3κ dx dx
Integrating once gives
dT 16σ T 3 dT dT
k + = (k + krad ) = C1
or dx 3κ dx dx
16σ T 3
(k + ) dT = C1dx
3κ
Integrating a second time between T1 = 300K at x = 0 and T2 = 800 K at
16σ
x = L gives k (T − T ) +
2 1
3κ
(
T4 − T4 = C L
2 1 ) 1

 This allows evaluation of C1, and then dividing through by the
thermal conductivity
T ( x) 16σ T 3 16σ
∫ T = 300 K (1 + ) dT = 
 T ( x ) − 300 
 +  T 4 ( x ) − 3004 
3κ k 3κ k
 16σ 
=  (T2 − T1 ) +
 3κ k
( T24 − T14 )  ( x / L )

 Substituting numerical values
16σ 16 × 5.67 × 10− 8 ( W / m 2 ⋅ K 4 )
= −1
= 9.39 × 10− 10 (1/ K 3 )
3κ k 3 × 2.3(cm ) × 1.4(W / m ⋅ K ) × 100(cm / m)
gives
[T ( x) − 300] + 9.39 × 10− 10 (1/ K 3 )[T 4 ( x ) − 3004 ] = 877( x / L )
 Solving for the temperature distribution (the easy way is to pick T
values between 300 and 800K and find the corresponding value of
x/L) gives the graph shown in Fig. 10.34.

Figure 10.34
Temperature
distribution

 The Slip Boundary Conditions. In the absence of

conduction or convection, radiation problems have
unfamiliar behavior near boundaries. The medium
temperature does not approach the boundary
temperature as a solid boundary with fixed temperature
is approached.
 This can be seen for the case of a gray medium near a
gray boundary (Fig. 10.35).
q"-x
q"+x
Figure 10.35 Derivation of slip boundary condition

 The flux in the negative x direction comes from the

optically thick medium and can be found by integrating
Eq. (10.145) over the hemisphere of directions with
intensity having negative x components. This gives
2π − π /2
q−′′ x = ∫ ∫
φ =0 θ =π
I ( x,θ ) cos θ sin θ dθ dφ
2π − π /2  1 ∂ I b ( x = 0) 
= ∫ ∫  I b ( x = 0 ) − cos θ  cos θ sin θ dθ dφ
φ =0 θ =π
 β ∂x 
− π /2
2π ∂ I b ( x = 0)  cos θ 
3
2π ∂ I b ( x = 0)
= π Ib ( x = 0) −   = Eb ( x = 0 ) +
β ∂x  3  θ =0
3β ∂x
2 ∂ Eb ( x = 0) q′′ ( x = 0)
= Eb ( x = 0 ) + = Eb ( x = 0 ) −
3β ∂x 2 (10.151)

 Substituting into an energy balance across the area dA

adjacent to the boundary,
q′′ ( x = 0 ) = q+′′ x − q−′′ x =  ε σ Tw4 + ( 1 − ε ) q−′′ x  − q−′′ x = ε ( σ Tw4 − q−′′ x )
  q′′ ( x = 0 )   (10.152)
= ε  σ Tw −  σ T ( x = 0) −
4 4

  2  
 Substituting Eq. (10.151),
q′′ ( x = 0 )  1 1  (10.153)
T ( x = 0) = T −
4
w
4
 − 
σ  ε 2

 Example 10.14
Find an expression for the radiative heat flux between two
infinite parallel plates at T1, ε1 and T2, ε2 separated by a
gray medium of optical thickness τ. Use the diffusion
approximation.

 Solution:
The diffusion solution, Eq. (10.147) is
4σ dT 4 ( x) 4σ dT 4 ( x)
′′ = −
qrad = −
3β dx 3 dτ
For the one-dimensional case, the heat flux is constant, so the equation
can be integrated between the medium boundaries to give
τ 4σ T (τ ) 4σ
′′ ∫ dτ = −
qrad *
∫ T = T (τ = 0)
4
dT = − 
 T 4
( τ ) − T 4
( 0 )  = qrad
′′ τ
τ =0 3 3
Using the slip boundary condition Eq. (10.153) to eliminate the medium
temperatures at the boundaries, T4(0) and T4(τ) in terms of the
boundary temperatures,
4σ
′′ =
qrad  T 4 ( 0 ) − T 4 ( τ ) 
3τ
4σ   4 qrad ′′  1 1    4 qrad ′′  1 1   
=   T1 −  −   −  T2 −  − 
3τ   σ  ε1 2  σ  ε 2 2   

σ ( T14 − T24 )
′′ =
qrad
3τ 1 1
+ + −1
4 ε1 ε2
 Comparing with the result of Example (10.5) for no participating

media, it is seen that for the radiation diffusion case, the presence of
the participating medium adds a radiative resistance of 3τ/4.

 The Nearly Transparent Gas: If the medium has a small

(but non-zero) absorption coeffficient, then it will still emit
from a volume element in accordance with Eq. (10.125).
However, minimal attenuation due to absorption will
occur as the emitted intensity travels along a path, and
absorption by and within the volume element can be
neglected.
 This observation is often used in analyzing radiation loss
from nonscattering small flames such as for laboratory
burners, since the radiation energy loss from the element
becomes
qrad = 4κ Pσ TdV4 dV (10.154)

 Isothermal Media. Consider a hemisphere containing a

nonscattering uniform isothermal medium at temperature
T (Fig. 10.36). At the center of the base of the
hemisphere is an element dA.
 The intensity striking dA from the direction of the ring
element on the surface of the hemisphere is given by Eq.
(10.134):
κ
I λ (κ λ R) = I λ (0) exp ( − κ λ R ) + ∫ κ i ( κ λ r ) exp  − κ λ ( R − r )  dr (10.155)
λ
κ* =0 λ λ λ
 For the nonscattering isothermal medium, the source

function iλ(kλr) reduces to [Eq. (10.131)]
iλ ( κ λ r ) = I λ b (κ λ r ) = I λ b (T )
(10.156)
and Eq. (10.155) becomes a R
I λ (κ λ R ) = I λ b ( T ) ∫ κ exp  − κ λ ( R − r )  dr
λ
a r= 0 λ
λ
=I λ b ( T ) exp(− κ λ R) [ exp(κ λ R) − 1] = I λ b ( T ) [ 1 − exp(− κ λ R )]

(10.157)
θ R
R dA
Figure 10.36 Black cold hemisphere enclosing a participating isothermal

nonscattering medium with uniform absorption coefficient a.

 Note that the term containing the exponential is the

spectral emittance ελ(R) of the medium [Eq. (10.117)].
The heat flux on dA is now found from Eq. (10.158)
4π 4π
′′ ,λ =
qrad ∫ I ( θ ) cos θ d Ω = ∫ ε λ ( R ) I λ b ( T ) cos θ d Ω
ω =0 λ ω =0
4π
= ε λ ( R) I λ b ( T ) ∫ cos θ d Ω
ω =0
2π π /2
= ε λ ( R) I λ b ( T ) ∫ ∫ cos θ sin θ dθ dφ = ε λ ( R )π I λ b ( T ) (10.158)
φ=0 θ =0
= ε λ ( R ) Eλ b
 The spectral radiative heat flux is then found from
′′ ,λ = ε λ ( Le ) Eλ b
qrad
(10.159)
 Integrating over all wavelengths and substituting the
Planck mean emittance∞
∫ ε ( Le ) Eλ b ( T , λ ) d λ
λ=0 λ
ε ( Le , T ) = 4
σT Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation
 The total heat flux

′′ = ε ( Le )σ T 4
qrad (10.160)
Table 10.1 Mean Beam Lengths for Common Geometries

Geometry Characterizing Dimension Mean Beam Length Le
for Finite Optical Thickness
Sphere radiating to surface Diameter D 0.65D
Circular cylinder of infinite length radiating to Diameter D 0.95D
interior surface
Circular cylinder of height equal to two Diameter D 0.60D
diameters radiating to: 0.76D
Plane end 0.73D
Concave surface
Entire surface
Infinite slab of medium radiating to: Slab thickness H 1.8H
Element on one face 1.8H
Both bounding planes
Rectangular parallelepiped: Shortest side X 0.82X
1x1x4 volume radiating to: 0.71X
1x4 face 0.81X
1x1 face
All faces

 General geometries: Eq. (10.125) indicates that the total

energy emitted by an isothermal volume element is
de = 4aPσ T 4 dV (10.161)
 If the medium is optically thin, then there is no
attenuation of this energy before striking the cold black
boundary, so the average radiative flux over the entire
boundary is
e 4κ Pσ T 4V
′′ = =
qrad (10.162)
A A
 Also, for the optically thin case, the emittance of the gas
can be rewritten using a series expansion of the
exponential term to give
 ( e)

2
κ L
ε ( Le ) = 1 − exp(− κ Le ) = 1 −  1 − κ Le + − ... ≈ κ Le ,0
 2!  (10.163)

 Substituting this result into Eq. (10.160) gives

′′ = κ Le,0σ T 4
qrad (10.164)
 Comparing Eqs. (10.164) and (10.162) shows that for an
optically thin medium radiating to a cold black boundary,
the mean beam length is
4V
Le ,0 = (10.165)
A
 By comparison of the result of Eq. (10.165) with values
of mean beam length computed using complete
integration over the volume of a gas that is not optically
thin, it is found that to correct the optically thin
approximation for absorbing gases, reasonable values
for the mean beam length for most geometries are
3.6V (10.166)
Le = 0.9 Le ,0 =
A
 Example 10.15
A participating medium is contained in a right circular
cylinder of height equal to its base diameter, which is D =
4 m. The gas has emittance of ε(Le) =0.35+Le/20 (for Le <
10 m) at a temperature of 1200K. Find the average
radiative heat flux on the cold black enclosure boundary.
Find the mean beam length from Table 10.1, and
compare the value with that from Eq. (10.166).

 Solution:
From Table 10.1, Le = 0.6D = 2.4 m. From Eq. (10.166),
3.6V 3.6 × π D 2 L / 4 1.8 × DL
Le = = = = 2.4m
A  2 ( π D / 4 ) + π DL   ( D ) + 2 L 
2
 
giving some confidence in the approximate relation of Eq.
(10.166). Then ε(Le) = 0.35 + 2.4/20 = 0.47 and
′′ = ε ( Le )σ T 4 = 0.47 × 5.6704 × 10− 8 (W / m 2 K 4 ) × 12004 ( K 4 )
qrad
= 55,300 W/m 2

 Gas Emittance Values: Participating media have

extremely varying wavelength dependence, and the
assumption of a gray gas is much less applicable than
the assumption of gray surfaces.
 The absorption of radiation results in a transition
between a pair of quantized energy states Ei and Ej, and
this appears as an absorption line in the absorption
spectrum. The wavelength of absorption that causes this
transition is given by
hc
E j − Ei = hν i − j =
λ i− j (10.167)

Band designation, wavelength
αλ(T,P,L)
Wavelength, λ (µm)
Figure 10.37 Low resolution absorption spectrum for CO2 gas at 830K, 10 atm., path
length of 0.388 m (Adapted from Edwards, 1976)

 For water vapor in air

ε H 2O ( Le , T ) = a0  1 − exp(− a1 X  (10.168)
Table 10.2 Constants for use in Eq. (11.168)

T(K) a0 a1 (m-1/2atm-1)
300 0.683 1.17
600 0.674 1.32
900 0.700 1.27
1200 0.673 1.21
1500 0.624 1.15

 Leckner (1972) gives empirical expressions for the total

emittance derived from expressions for narrow band
behavior summed over the spectrum for both water
vapor and CO2. In these correlations and equations, p is
in bar, and Le is in cm.
 The most accurate expressions from Leckner agree
within five percent to experimental data for T>400K. The
correlation equation is M
 i
ε = exp  a0 + ∑ ai [ log( pLe ) ]  (10.169)
 i= 1 

1
(pL,T)
0.1
Η 2Ο
Figure 10.38 Computed

Emittance, ε
emittance of water vapor

0.01 from Eq. (10.169) using
the coefficients of Table
10.3. Units of pL are bar-
pL=0.05
0.001 pL=1 cm.
pL=2
pL=8
pL=24
pL=64
0.0001
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Temperature, T(K)

Table 10.3: Coefficients cji for Water Vapor and CO2 Emittance in Eq. (11.169)
i c0i c1i c2i c3i c4i
Water Vapor, T > 400 K, M=2, N=2
0 -2.2118 -1.1987 0.035596
1 0.85667 0.93048 -0.14391
2 -0.10838 -0.17156 0.045915
Carbon Dioxide, T > 400K, M=3, N=4
0 -3.9781 2.7353 -1.9822 0.31054 0.015719
1 1.9326 -3.5932 3.7247 -1.4535 0.20132
2 -0.35366 0.61766 -0.84207 0.39859 -0.063356
3 -0.080181 0.31466 -0.19973 0.046532 -0.0033086

 The overlap correction equation is

ε ( pLe ) = ε H 2O ( pH 2O Le ) + ε CO2 ( pCO2 Le ) − ∆ ε
(10.170)
 An empirical expression for the band overlap correction
that is in good agreement with the Hottel chart (Leckner,
1972) valid for 1000 < T < 2200 K and all pressures is
 ζ 
 [ 10 e ]
2.76
∆ε =  − 0.0089ζ 10.4
log ( pL )
 10.7 + 101ζ  (10.171)

 Example 10.16
The cylinder described in Example 10.15 is filled with a
mixture of 15 volume percent of CO2, 20 percent H2O
vapor, and the remainder air. The total pressure of the
gas mixture is 1 atm, and the gas temperature is 1200 K.
What is the average heat flux over the boundary?

 Solution:
The mean beam length is the same as that found in Example 10.15, Le
= 2.4 m = 240 cm. The partial pressures of the gases are equal to
the mole fraction of each times the total pressure. The mole fraction
in an ideal gas mixture is equal to the volume fraction, so the partial
pressures are pCO2 = 0.15, pH2O = 0.20, and pair = 0.65 atm. For water
vapor, the ai values are , giving a1 = -3.599, a2 = 1.766, and a3 =
-0.248. Using Eq. (10.169) (remembering to convert the pressures
to bars)  M
i
ε ( H 2O) = exp  a0 + ∑ ai [ log( pLe ) ] 
 i= 1 
A similar calculation for CO2 gives e(CO2) = 0.146. The overlap
correction is calculated using
ζ = pH O / ( pH O + pCO ) = 0.20 / ( 0.15 + 0.20 ) = 0.571
2 2 2
and
(p H 2O )
+ pCO2 Le = ( 0.15 + 0.20 ) (atm) × 1.01325(bar / atm) × 240(cm)
= 85.1(bar ⋅ atm).

 Substituting results in:

 ζ 
− 0.0089ζ 10.4  [ log10 ( pLe )] = 0.051
2.76
∆ε = 
 10.7 + 101ζ 
 The total emittance of the gas mixture is then
ε ( pLe ) = ε H 2O ( pH 2O Le ) + ε CO2 ( pCO2 Le ) − ∆ ε
= 0.266 + 0.146 − 0.051 = 0.360
 Now the average heat flux on the boundary is
′′ = ε ( Le )σ T 4 = 0.360 × 5.6704 × 10− 8 (W / m 2 ⋅ K 4 ) × (1200 K ) 4
qrad
= 4.24 × 104 (W / m 2 )

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Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R.

10.5 The Effect of Participating Media

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

Figure 10.26 Propagation of intensity

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

10.5.2 Properties of Participating Media

Figure 10.27 Attenuation of intensity in element of thickness dS

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

 Examination of Eq. (10.109) shows that ßλ. must have

 Raising both sides to the exponential power gives

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

 Absorptance: If the attenuation is due only to absorption

 For a differential element of medium dS,

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

Figure 10.28 Isothermal emitting volume element

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

 To get the emission into all directions, integrate over the

 Finally, we can integrate over all wavelengths to get the

 Scattering: If radiation is scattered from the direction S

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

Figure 10.29 Scattering from a volume element

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

10.5.3 The Radiative Transfer Equation

 Using the mathematical forms for each term,

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

 For isoptropic scattering (Φ = 1) and using dΩ = sinΘ dΘ

 Dividing through by ßλdS ≡ dτλ and defining ω λ = σ s ,λ / β λ ,

 Often, the form of the RTE is further simplified by

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

so that Eq. (10.130) becomes

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

Figure 10.30 Propagation of intensity

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

 Example 10.12: A black surface at T = 1000 K bounds a

Figure 10.31 Propagation of intensity (T = 1000 K)

 Solution: For the black boundary, Iλ (S = 0) = Iλb(T =

Figure 10.32 Finding the radiative flux from the intensity.

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

 The flux in the n direction is

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

Figure 10.33 Geometry for diffusion solution

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

10.5.4 Some Limiting Solutions for Radiative

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

 If 1/Hßλ << 1 (optically thick), then the intensity can be

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

 Collecting all terms of zero order in 1/Hßλ gives

 Because neither term ( 0)

 Because Ωλ ≠0, the integral in Eq. (10.143) must be equal to zero. In

 If the properties of the participating medium are gray,

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

 If attenuation is due only to absorption (nonscattering

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

 The Slip Boundary Conditions. In the absence of

Figure 10.35 Derivation of slip boundary condition

 The flux in the negative x direction comes from the

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation

 Substituting into an energy balance across the area dA

Chapter 10: Heat Transfer by Radiation