Numbertheory 2

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Number Theory
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#‬ا'"‪ F6"K 6+‬و= ‪ K‬أ[= ‪ ? F6‬ا‪N‬اه‪ .J‬أ> ‪ F‬ا‪*+,‬اث =‬
‫"دوال ا"د" ‪ =K[#‬و‪;+‬ق وال ا‪8O‬ث ) ‪. τ (n ), σ (n ), ϕ (n‬‬
‫ا ب ا ‪ :‬ا= ا‪ JK O‬ه‪-‬ا ا‪N‬ب أ‪ $‬ر‪ N‬ا"د‪.‬‬
‫ا ب ا ا ‪ ' : :‬إ‪ $‬ت أ‪, ،,,‬ى = ‪" J‬ا‪-S‬ر ا‪+#:‬ا‪."A‬‬
‫‪ JK =[ N5#‬ا ب ا )ا

"د‪:‬ت ا‪ (;W‬وا ب ا دس )ا‪#;+‬ت ا‪ (;W‬وا
‪ `8‬ا‪6 )8O‬‬
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‪6‬م ا‪ $‬أو‪ :‬و‪F) JK‬‬
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رب ‪ F X‬أو ‪ ='e‬أو ا‪ V,+‬أو ا'ع
ه‪[ .#, F‬ا ‪ =, JK =[ KK‬‬
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./0 1 +, !-!

..2 34% 5678 +, -!
.. 6:0% 5678 ;<8 9-!
$% % =-!
' ()* >-!
1 +@ ?-!
&B C ,,% 6@$ $% % :A & .
D$% 1 !-
$% % C 6@ -
./E 9-
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n )1 GH :F & .9
n )1 IGH !-9

1 M)$ n )1 J6< KL18 -9
,, 6@ :NG6 & .=
Little Fermat's Theorem O6:E PQ 6@ !-=

Wilson's Theorem RS$ 6@ -=
Euler's Theorem 6S$ 6@ 9-=
TUGV )WX =-=
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[ V18 :YZ & .>
[ V1 \S S !->

HZ [ V18 ->
HZ GH 9->
THZ IGH ]^ C n)1 J6< KL18 , =->
.HZ GH '@ :K & .?
P: C GH @ !-?

Chinese Remainder Theorem(CRT) E T_ 6@ -?
Quadratic residue mod n )1 T1G6 T_ 9-?
Legendre symbol )X `) =-?
Jacobi symbol J4a `) >-?
TbQ : I/S
K)cQ ded :& I/S
]G 1 :f I/S
' ()*$ +, !
Divisor and Division Algorithm
./0 1 +, !-!
a | b
*, & ? b < 3 & < a ) b Q:S a 2) W3" .-hhi & a , b &,
. a /| b E*,B# b jhX Q:S a &, M kT . b = ca lm c jhi ! kT
kT . a β || b [ n [B# b Q+"J a 3S ?) a β R kT
. a β +1 /| b a β | b o"# kT kT a β || b
:!#
.q k 5 /| 19 &, 9 = 1⋅ 9 2 9 | 9 n 8 = 4 ⋅ 2 2 2 | 8 (7
. 28 ||108
"" . 108 = (2 × 5)8 = 28 ⋅ 58 2 28 |108 (5
. x 3 + y 3 = (x + y )(x 2 − xy + y 2 ) 2 x + y | x 3 + y 3 2s# x , y ∈ Z 2 kT (r

S0 4 u*: & `* 8 ;
+" <P" 32 n − 1 (t
x n − y n = (x − y )(x n −1 + x n − 2 y + x n −3 y 2 + + y n −1 )
. k ∈ Z 32 n − 1 = 8k 2) Y) 32 n − 1 = 9n − 1 = (9 − 1)(9n −1 + 9n −2 + + 1) kT
:!g)M
a | b 4 − 1 2s# a | b 2 + 1 2 kT N ) RPv) (7
4 ;
+" <P" 5n + 3 2) RPv) (5
+,S $ hUE*

:2s#
hhi ) a, b , c 2 kT
<,z .AB xO Q+" & (3y Q+" a 2) Y) a | (b ± c ) 2s# a | b , a | c 2 kT (7
.
hhi ) x , y l> ax + by ;1a EJ Y) Q+" a 2s# Q)
. a | c 2s# a | b , b | c 2 kT (5
.b LI < Q+" a 2) Y) . c ∈ Z <, nk a | bc 2s# a | b 2 kT (r
c ≠ 0 l> ac | bc 2s# a | b 2 kT (t
. a = −b ) a = b 2s# b | a a | b 2 kT ({
٦
. a ≤ b 2s# a | b b ≠ 0 2 kT (|
b
. | b 2s# a | b 2 kT (}
a
2?
kT . b = xa, c = ya lm x , y ∈ Z 2) ~# (7
bm + cn = m ( xa ) + n ( ya ) = ( mx ) a + ( ny ) a = ( mx + ny ) a
. mx + ny jhX I a Y+ N bm + cn %1 E* Q+" a kT

2 c Q+" a kT . b = xa, c = yb lm x , y ∈ Z !3 ;1 & (5
c = yb = y ( xa ) = ( yx ) a
H" * (r
.H" * (t

. -*+* =>T & K3* . b = xa,a = yb lm x , y ∈ Z !3 ;1 & ({
. a = −b ) a = b kT . x = y = −1 ) x = y = 1 #, xy = 1 2) *B HX*a
kT .P!3 a Q:" 2) ~# n E!3 Q:S Y) & ?) b 2) RP. 2) %O, (|
b = ca ≥ 1⋅ a = a
9 ;
+" <P" 0 & - x# N Q q k 9 ;
+" <P" 891 < : W.
. 891 = 900 − 9
:5g)M
q k q750 Q+"J 8 < (7
.
*B Q .jhi x l> q k q 3 | (3x + 1) 200 < (5
6[$ a$` %

−3, −1,1, 3,5 <. k ∈ Z l> m = 2k + 1 <,z N Y 3 YO (7
−4, −2, 0, 2, 4 <. k ∈ Z l> m = 2k <,z N Y 3 %![ (5
. 2m + 2n = 2(m + n ) 2 %! 3 -! & (3y (r
. 2m + 1 + 2n + 1 = 2( m + n + 1) 2 %! 3 -# & (3y (t
. 2m + 1 + 2n = 2(m + n ) + 1 2 Y# 3 %! C Y# (3y ({
. 2m ⋅ 2n = 2(2mn ) 2 %! 3 -! & /' (|
. 2m ⋅ (2n + 1) = 2(2mn + m ) 2 %! 3 %! Y# /' (}
. (2m + 1) ⋅ (2n + 1) = 2(2mn + m + n ) + 1 2 Y# 3 -# & /' (
.-** -# & C & HP 2n 2) - n ∈ Z + &, :7W.

~O &, k , k + 2 A'# &, N ) > . k − 1, k + 1 -** -O & 2) ~OB :<
.
3A: <, /31 3" D+
2n = (k − 1) + (k + 1) = 2k
. 2n −1 + 1, 2n −1 − 1 2** 2O 2 kT . 2n −1 = k 2) *B*+ 2 ;

+"
2n = (2n −1 + 1) + (2 n −1 − 1) = 2 ⋅ 2 n −1 = 2 n :< & `*
:9g)M
.2 ;
+" a n − 3 <P" %, a jhX QS > (7
.
** )
+ C <ih 5n & ? (5
> 4m + 1 <,z ; ) 4m <,z ; 23, 2) T jhi Y) C 2) - (r
(<\+ <> A!* S ). k ) <,z ; <X
]L g1L8$ ]L NG68

. k ∈ Z l> m = k 2 <,z N 2 kT < C ;+ (7
. k ∈ Z l> m = k 3 <,z N 2 kT < E, ;+ (5
Y) ;
+" <P" 2 kT square free C* & Wa N ) m jhi & W" (r
.> 3 & ? C
5W.
. (a + b ) 2 Y+ N a 2 + 2ab + b 2 n . 16 = 42 2 < C 16 (7
l> < E, < C 64 125 = 53 2 < E, 125 (5
. 64 = 82 = 43
) 5, 6, 14, 60 B 52 |100, 32 | 99 2 CJ a f 100, 99 & & 0 (r
.C* &
a
:tEHJ
.nk - q< C 3 < q< E, 100999 2) RPv) (7
:!-!]U
.2 ;
+" <P" n 2 + n 2) RPv) (7
. 2a − 1| 2b − 1 2) RPv# a | b 2 kT (5
.2# 0 ) 2! 0 a , b 2 o"# kT kT 4 | a 2 − b 2 2) RPv`# a , b ∈ Z 2 kT (r
٨
..2 34% 5678 +, -!
*z Q:" 3 d 2) W3" . d | a, d | b 2 kT a , b ∈ Z & *z Q:S ;+ d ∈ Z
A 3S C - & ? 3 2 kT a , b ∈ Z & Greatest Common Divisor ?
kT . d = gcd(a, b ) ) d = (a, b ) E*,

*z
(a , b ) = max{n ∈ Z : n | a , n | b }

hhi ) a1 , a2 ,… , an R ks# .) ) )
v0v <z ? *z Q:" LJ &,
.
*z Q: 3" ?) 3 (a1 , a2 ,… , an ) [H ? *z Q:" 2s# HOi) A R+
0.
(4,0)=4 , (6,8)=2 , (15,5)=5 , (21, 14, 49)=7 , (15, 5, 3)=1
q (n , n + 1) = 1 \ k . n ∈ Z &, :7EHJ
34% 5678 +, hUE*

2s#
hhi ) a, b , c 2 kT
(a, b ) = (b , a ) = (a, −b ) = (−a, −b ) = ( a , b ) (7
(a , b ) = (a , b + a ) = (a , b − a ) (5
(a , b ) = a 2s# a | b a > 0 2 kT (r
((a , b ), (a , c )) = (a , b , c ) (t
(a , b , c ) [* ~3 n ((a , b ), c ) = (a , (b , c )) ({
(na , nb ) = n (a , b ) 2s# E!3 jhi n 2 kT (|
(a , b ) = (a , b − na ) 2s# E!3 jhi n 2 kT (}
(x , y ) = 1 2s# a = dx , b = dy 2 (a , b ) = d 2 kT (
. b | (a1 , a2 ,… , an ) 2s# b | a1 , a2 ,… , an 2 kT (
. a min(α ,β ) || (b , c ) 2s# aα || b , a β || c 2 kT (76
(a , b ) = (b , r ) 2s# a = qb + r 2 kT (77
.

.` \X < & `J
: "O K
B? %O*,B: :2?
I) 3 d kT . d = (a, b ) 2) ~# (a, b ) = (a, −b ) 2) Pv .
A (a, b ) = (b , a ) + (7
0 Q+" lm g &, d & ?) 3! b 0a 2 a, −b & 0, ? *z Q:"
? *z Q:" 3 d M * a, b & 0, Q:S g 23, 2) %I*" a, −b &
.KSBJ
%
"P RP. (a, b ) = (a, −b ) (a, b ) = (b , a ) -*S0 4 u*:
(a, b ) = (a, −b ) = (−b , a ) = (−b , −a ) = (−a, −b ) = ( a , b )
& 0, *z Q:S d * d | a + b kT d = (a, b ) 2) ~# CZ

>
zSB %O, (5
lm g > d 3! b .9, ~# n ? *z Q:" N ) PvT %" . a , a + b
& ?) *z Q:S 9 d 2) b d g | b 2) Y) g | (a + b ) − a xO Q+" g kT g | a, a + b
.KSBJ a , b
d 2 | a = qb + r <. . d 1 | d 2 2s# d 1 | r = a − qb 2) . d 2 = (b , r ) d 1 = (a , b ) ~# (

. (a, b ) = (b , r ) 2) Y) d 1 = d 2 B *B d 2 | d 1 kT
. (450, 600) !) :7W.

(450, 600) = (50 × 9,50 ×12) = 50 × (9,12) = 50 × 3 = 150
Bézout i$`G GH

lm -hhi x , y & !3 N s# d = (a, b ) a , b ∈ Z 2 kT
ax + by = d
.[
"1*
S0 ;+J
9# -hhi & m , n l> am + bn = k 2 ks# 4 <,z jhi f
"" 9,
. (a, b ) = k 23, 2) HI
.. 6:0% 5678 ;<8 9-!
2 kT b = ka lm k jhi ! kT a jhX LI b ≠ 0 jhX 2) W3"
) lcm[a,b] [H Least common multiple ci *z LI 2s# a , b ∈ Z
.a,b &
*z OI ci) N ) ; [a,b] HX*a
) a1 , a2 ,… , an R ks# .) ) )

v0v <z &, ci *z LI LJ
.
*z OI ci) 3 [a1 , a2 ,… , an ] ci *z AOI 2s#
hhi
١٠
:\B a , b & cX *z LI m &, :7^

. (x , y ) = 1 l> m = ax , m = by (7
. m | m ' 2s# a , b 0, LI m ' 2 kT (5
. m = m ' 2s# (x , y ) = 1 m ' = ax , m ' = by lm a , b 0, LI m ' 2 kT (r
6:0% 5678 ;<8 hUE*

2s#
hhi ) a, b , c 2 kT
[[a , b ],[a , c ]] = [a , b , c ] (7
[na , nb ] = n [a , b ] 2s# E!3 jhi n 2 kT (5
. [a, b ] = a 2s# b LI a 2 kT (r
[a , b ] | c 2s# b | c , a | c 2 kT (t
LI [a, b ],[a, b ] & LI < 2) PvT %O, V "O
P+B :eHT :2?
2) RPv na, nb & *z LI k 2) ~#
. "O
P+B .jhi 9, a,b,c
. k ≥ n [a, b ]
. b | a ) a | b 2) RPv [a, b ] + (a, b ) = a + b lm

hhi ) a , b 2 kT :7W.
2s# b /| a 2 kT . m + n = a + b jPX ;1 . [a, b ] = m , (a , b ) = n 2) a ≥ b ~# :<
* m ≥ 2a 2) Y) m ≠ a
2a < 2a + n ≤ m + n = a + b
. b | a kT .KSBJ a < b 1
2s# (a, b ) = d 2 kT :7j_

{am + bn : m , n ∈ Z} = d Z
.d ? *z Q:" LI 3 a , b & %1a EJ Y) 2) b
2) ~# :Pv
. X = {am + bn : m , n ∈ Z}
H3X ; + 1 akx + bky = kd 2) k /I ax + by = d [
"1* &
.X VT %*B ? *z Q:" kd LI Y) kT m , n ∈ Z l> am + bn
am + bn = kd kT . a , b & %1a EJ N d | am + bn 2s# am + bn ∈ X Y <"
./31 RP. d OI & am + bn 2) Y)
$% % =-!

. (a, b ) = 1 2 kT P+ 2) ]) a , b & & W3"
:7#
.P+ 2) 15, 28 (7
.n jhi <, (n , n + 1) = 1 \ (5
. d = 1 2) *B*: & C *z Q:S d ~# Pv P+ 2) 2n − 1, 2n + 1 (r
:2 N*P.B: hhi [

"1* 3, jPX P+ 2) 2
>
ax + by = 1 lm x , y -hhi & ! kT o"# kT P+ 2) a , b 2 :^
+, . ax + by = 1 lm x , y -hhi !3 [
"1* E+> N s# (a, b ) = 1 2 kT :Rk3
* d |1 2) Y) d | ax + by kT . ax + by = 1 lm -hhi x , y 2) (a, b ) = d 2) ~#
.d = 1
$% % C hUE*

.  ,  = 1 2s# (a, b ) = d 2 kT (7
a b
 d d 
. ab | c 2s# (a, b ) = 1 2 a , b | c 2 kT (5
. [a, b ] = ab 2s# (a, b ) = 1 a , b > 0 2 kT (r
. (ab , a − b ) = 1 n (ab , a + b ) = 1 2s# (a, b ) = 1 2 kT (t
2s# a , b > 0 2 kT : .. n ..2 lG$ m lG _e1

(a , b )[a , b ] = ab
P+ 2) a , b > 0 o"# kT kT [a, b ] = ab 2s#
ia
h
Division Algorithm ' ()* >-!

* <,z AB ?
+" . 2 %SP 4
+" Ha 2s# 3 ; 14 Q+" B
14 = 4 × 3 + 2
.%SP ;+ 2
+" Ha ;+ B 4
2 > r %SP q
+" Ha & 0 2s# b a¡ ; a E!3 Q+" B N %:> <,z Q
;+ DS <,z 2 NB ?B: .W> Y` b N 43+" ¢P 2) &, r %SP 2)
.
+"
H 3a
' ()*
lm q , r &> -hhi & !3 N s# b ≠ 0 lm -hhi & a, b 2 kT
١٢
a = qb + r , 0 ≤ r 0J k .
+" %S 3 <: 5 ; A+S 8, 9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19, a
< q >0J k .5 ; A*+S %S 3 <: 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 &,* o"# )
+£ 2 a

*B Q q %SP 9O 2 AB !3
:r lk ls t ]E$ n o ]'7 p +'1 R mLq

x AB > <, 2 n ;
+" <P" A# !3
** & n Y) (7
.f & L*¤
2) Y) n ;
+" <P"
** & n /' (5
n | (k + 1)(k + 2) (k + n )
.jhi n l> q\ r ;

+" <P" n (n 2 − 1) k :7&
KS_ ()* ,G ..2 u

Q* l> & ? *z Q:" ¥T AB' &
u*:
+"
H 3
ST
H 3¦
+
"1 J H,* <,z
H 3 4 u*:

*
H 3 CP* (a, b ) ¥ -hhi & b ≥ a > 0 &,
a = q1b + r1 , 0 ≤ r1 < b .
b = q 2 r1 + r2 , 0 ≤ r2 < r1
r1 = q 3r2 + r3 , 0 ≤ r3 < r2
r2 = q 4 r3 + r4 , 0 ≤ r4 < r3

rn − 2 = q n rn −1 + rn , 0 ≤ rn < rn −1
rn −1 = q n +1rn + rn +1 , rn +1 = 0
. rn +1 N [H Oi Y+ %S

AB %S0 2) E¥ n r1 > r2 > r3 > … > rn > rn +1 2) >
2) ? *z LI § 3a & Q N nk (a, b ) = rn 2s#
Y
(a , b ) = (b , r1 ) = (r1 , r2 ) = (r2 , rl 3r ) = … = (rn , 0) = rn

+"
H 3a & )P < . (280, 64) !) 2 kT :!#
280 = 4 × 64 + 24
64 = 2 × 24 + 16
24 = 1× 16 + 8
16 = 2 × 8 + 0
(b ci ; a ?

+S)
+"
H 3a 23, a,b & & )P l>
1+
h'
"1
2s# \B Oi Y+ %SP <X > H *: , a,b & A r %SP b 43+" a`
(280, 64) = 8 kT eP N D+ %SP 3 ? *z Q:"
1 +@ ?-!

%\B. 4B .eP 1000 Y jhX b Yz 4B A# 1001 E*, B
;@ & .a¡ VT 4 & <3h* L
) 2 HB: . L*¤ b 1001 [
@ =3S <,e ; N** &, n ≥ 1 jhi < Yz 4B .Yz 4B
J
#
NP*, n = 120499 0.# z
n = 1 ⋅105 + 2 ⋅104 + 0 ⋅103 + 4 ⋅102 + 9 ⋅10 + 9
z + 4B ) 2 N::) %\B. 4B <. Yz 4B f

u*+ =a)
) !3
<. ¨SB % # . 0,1, 2,… , 9, A , B ,C , D , E , F 3 4u*+ 16 N::) Hexadecimal
.a¡ VT 4 & W3 L QB
b v,, @ C % ]w

> H3X b N::) Y Y 4B N** &, n %P© <,# jhi b > 1 2 kT
:* <,z ;
n = an b n + an −1b n −1 + + a1b + a0
[H E*, .b : n <. ;+. 0 ≤ i ≤ n <, 0 ≤ ai ≤ b − 1 an ≠ 0 l>

# b = 10 2 kT . n = (an an −1 …a1a0 )b E*, B>) n = an an −1 …a1a0 (b ) :%
0. . n = an an −1 … a1a0 E*, %O+ <
110(2) = 1 ⋅ 22 + 1 ⋅ 2 + 0
abc = a ⋅102 + b ⋅10 + c
:6*x t @ m ]/ 6y
.10 : VT 11011001(2) W3> :7&
١٤
:<
1101101(2) = 1⋅ 26 + 1⋅ 25 + 0 ⋅ 24 + 1⋅ 23 + 1⋅ 22 + 0 ⋅ 21 + 1
= 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 1 = 109
.3 : 4 VT 5366 W3> :5&

:* %S 3P ?*
+" H 3a ;
PS*
31
+" Q*J

5366 = 1788 ⋅ 3 + 2
1788 = 596 ⋅ 3 + 0
596 = 198 ⋅ 3 + 2
198 = 66 ⋅ 3 + 0
66 = 22 ⋅ 3 + 0
22 = 7 ⋅ 3 + 1
7 = 2 ⋅3 +1
2 = 0⋅3 + 2
W) %O# APS G

+S
H 3a <, ~3 Y)
+" H 3a & ES* %! * K3* 2 )P
; <XhB: K3J
22 = (2 ⋅ 3 + 1)3 + 1 = 2 ⋅ 32 + 1 ⋅ 31 + 1
VT
AB <XB K3* *+ , APS G
H 3 22 & K3*
S0 4u*+
5366 = 2 ⋅ 37 + 1 ⋅ 36 + 1 ⋅ 35 + 0 ⋅ 34 + 0 ⋅ 33 + 2 ⋅ 32 + 0 ⋅ 31 + 2 ⋅ 30
. 5366 = 21100202(3) kT
<. ; eP <XhB EJ*

PS* %S 3P a` 2) %
"S
"1 B# © <A:)
"© B
./31 :
EHJ
& )PJ
** ) C N ) Y) .%..
a n & 23, 111…11(9) 2) RPv) (7
.(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10 2 %.. 10 :W.) .1
.m QS C !) .9 : N. 4SH
+ 3 : N. =
+* m 4SH) < (5
! ]U
gcd(a , b ) = gcd(a , b − na ) n %P© <, N ) - (7
(a + b , a − b ) = 1 or 2 2) RPv) (a , b ) = 1 2 kT (5
(a , b , c )[a , b , c ] = abc
*
S0 `1a W. - (r
9 ;
+" <P" n 3 + (n + 1)3 + (n + 2)3 2) RPv (t
(2 m − 1, 2 n − 1) = 2( m , n ) − 1 2) -
P!3
hhi m , n R kT ({
١٦
&B C ,,% 6@$ $% %
D$% 1 !-
M kT .o"# 1, n 2S N 2 kT prime number ) n 2) W3" .jhi n > 1 &,
.composite number Lª ; ) n &,
$% % z1G

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73,
79,...
2 nk n ≥ 1 <, Lª 1252 n − 1 :W.
125n − 1 = (53 ) n − 1 = (5n )3 − 13 = (5n − 1)(52 n + 5n + 1)
&B C ,,% 6@

The Fundamental Theorem of /+
::
B ;+J
A
""> ; 2 «`
.
A\* K ¨SB 2 2 G Arithmetic
) =3" /' <ih > <,z N** &, n > 1 jhi < :&B C ,,% 6@
Y) p1 , p 2 ,… , p k
)
n = p1α1 p 2α 2 … p kα k
:7W.
16500 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 11× 5 = 22 × 3 × 53 × 11
a , b & 0 2) RPv) (a , b ) = 1 2 0 C ab lm -P!3 -hhi a , b 2 kT :7&
.< C
C ab 2
! ) α1 , α 2 ,…α k C .
N 3 ab <¬ ab = p1α p 2α … p kα &,
1 2 k
b Q+" ) a Q+" p iα kT . (a, b ) = 1 2 0 9 b Q+" ) a Q+" T N s# p i Y . & HP b < C 3 * p iα & KP /' & HP a kT .0 9
i
.< C b * p iα & a KP /'

i
-hhi & !3 N s# (a, b ) = 1 a n = bc lm
P!3
hhi a , b , c , n R kT :!^
. b = s n , c = t n lm s , t
d 1 , d 2 -hhi & !3 N s# d | ab 2 P+ -) -hhi a , b 2 kT : ^
. d = d 1d 2 d 1 | a, d 2 | b lm (d 1 , d 2 ) = 1
.]S/ ,G lcm $gcd u

2s# b = p1b p 2b ... p kb a = p1a p 2a ... p ka
A 3 a,b -hhX & B> kT
1 2 k 1 2 k
n
< 3
" C W n . p1a , p1b & 0 Q+"J p1
B,d 3S ?) p1min (a ,b )
1 1 1 1
(a , b ) = p1min (a1 ,b1 ) p 2min (a2 ,b2 ) ... p kmin (ak ,bk ) (*)
n p1a , p1b & LI 23, p1

B,d 3S ci) % p1max (a ,b ) =a)
A! &
1 1 1 1
[a , b ] = p1max (a1 ,b1 ) p 2max (a2 ,b2 ) ... p kmax (ak ,bk ) (**)
. (a, b )[a, b ] = ab
#
S0 (*), (**) & *B*+ max(x , y ) + min(x , y ) = x + y 2)
$% % C hUE*

. a , b ∈ Z ) p &,
. p | b ) p | a 2s# p | ab 2 kT (7
.) Q:S N n > 1 jhi < (5
p ≤ n lm p ) Q:S N 2s# Lª n > 1 2 kT (r
:Rk3
. p | b 2s# p | ab l> (a, p ) = 1 2s# a Q+" p 2 kT
2) &, /+h
::
B &# ) f n 2 kT .n|n 2 /31 RPv N+OB ) n 2 kT
Y) n = p1 ( p 2 … p m ) §3X N! ; .
) ) p1 , p 2 ,… , p m l> n = p1 p 2 … p m E*,
. p1 | n 2)
2) ~O 2) &, .n=ab lm > & ?) 0 a,b -hhi & !3 N s# ) f n 2)
Q+" * a Q+" p ) !3
"+
*B & n ≥ a kT n = ab ≥ a × a = a 2 * a ≤ b
./31 RP. n ≥ p kT .n
; h* )P ) 383 2) Pv 0.# fcX
) HP*a
> O (r
i
Q:" N0a !3 2) &, Y =
١٨
p ≤ 383 < 400 = 20

383 2)
* . {2,3, 5, 7,11,13,17,19}
; N*+S
S HP*a %O, n
.) N ) RP. & Y) ;
+" <P"
$% % C 6@ -

& %A*B f !3 : (KS_ 6@) !6@
. p1 , p 2 ,… , p m %
& m %A*B B 2) ~#) .KSB* 2? 4u*+B: :2?
<¬ kT . 1 ≤ i ≤ m l> p i & Y) ;
+" <P" p . p = p1 p 2 … p m + 1 a
) Q:S BA# ) Q:S N %P© < l> 1 ≤ i ≤ m Y p i !3
N 3 VT p
.KSBJ p1 , p 2 ,… , p m &' & 9 p
Q:S 3 p n &, . /I n ! l> Q n = n !+ 1 n > 1 jhi Y :d 6y
Q n − n ! = 1 xO Q+" * p n | n ! 2) b 0a 2 p n > n kT . Q n )
.
A*B f

3y 2) RP. p n > n lm p n ) !3 n <, kT .<h*+
n −1
. p n ≤ 22 2s# 2, 3,5,…

** k NPJJ Y V [ p k 2 kT : ^
.%' "*: 4 u*: :2?

1−1
. 2 = p1 ≤ 22 l> n = 1 B
h'
*B :: 31a
n −1
. n ≤ k <,
hhi p n ≤ 22 2) Y) n ≤ k <,
BP*
hi ~O :~O 31a
2s# p1 , p 2 ,… , p k & Y) ;
+" <P" Y 1 + p1 p 2 … p k 2) : "*: 31a
p k +1 ≤ 1 + p1 p 2 … p k
:23, ~O 31a &
k −1
0 1 2 0
+ 21 ++ 2k −1 k
−1 k
p k +1 ≤ 1 + 2 2 22 22 22 = 1 + 22 = 1 + 22 ≤ 22
.2? %A*B
. 4k + 3 H3X ; G
& %\] !3 :r^
2) ; B*: <,z 9O & 3 4m + 1 <,z & & /' 2) ,# ; * :2?
(4m + 1)(4n + 1) = 16mn + 4(m + n ) + 1 = 4(4mn + m + n ) + 1
a . 4m + 3 H3X ; G

& p1 , p 2 ,… , p k %A*B B 2) ~OB
a = 4 p1 p 2 … p k − 1 = 4( p1 p 2 … p k − 1) + 3
N 3 >) 23, 2) E# 4m + 3 <,z ; N ) l>
#
N 3 < n Y# a
. 4m + 3 H3X ;
& %\] B kT .KSBJ 4m + 3 H3X ;

& %\] !3 N s# a > 0 P+ 2) a , b 2 kT : Dirichlet’s Theorem =6@
.E!3 jhi m l> am + b H3X ;

. n 1 jhi <, :Bertrand’s Postulate >6@
.> ) <S ; !3 NO' - N Y)

hhX 0 k
> 3
h H! u %"" 2 kT :?6@
f (x ) = x n + c n −1x n −1 + c n − 2 x n − 2 + … + c1x + c 0
.®+ f ) jhi u 2s#
(a, b ) = 1 l> u = a / b <,z N** &, kT jhi f ®+ u 2) ~OB :2?
kT . b ≠ ±1
(a / b ) n + c n −1 (a / b ) n −1 + c n − 2 (a / b )n − 2 + … + c1 (a / b ) + c 0 = 0
b n /I .f
h H! u 2 nk
a n + c n −1a n −1b + c n − 2a n − 2b 2 + … + c1ab n −1 + c 0b n = 0

"P* & *z < u*: & 1 >3 a n C'
b (c n −1a n −1 + c n − 2a n − 2b + … + c1ab n − 2 + c 0b n −1 ) = −a n
.®+ f ) jhi u kT . b ≠ ±1 (a, b ) = 1 2 <h*+ b | a n 2) b
.®+ f ) jhi T 3 a jhX n a ¯3B HZ :} s
. f (x ) = x n − a a Pv :2?
p

h H! ®+B 2 kT :~6@
q
f (x ) = c n x n + c n −1x n −1 + c n − 2 x n − 2 + … + c1x + c 0
. p | c 0 q | c n 2s# H3i o+) /3*,
hhX 0 k
٢٠
p
2) q n /I HZ
K3* :2?
q
c n p n + c n −1 p n −1q + c n − 2 p n − 2q 2 + … + c1 pq n −1 + c 0q n = 0
. p | c 0 2s# ( p , q ) = 1 l> p | c 0q n 2s# p n , p n −1q , p n −2q 2 ,… , c1 pq n −1 CZ Q:S p 2)

./31 RP. q | c n 2s# ( p , q ) = 1 l> =a C Q+" N q | c n p n <.
./E 9-
.x Y+ ) & <S) jhi ?) 3 [x ] )  x  [H x jhi 2s# %""> x 2 kT
2s# 4 <,z .jhi x 2 kT T B Y+* D"h* x ≥  x  \ kT
 x  = n ⇔ n ≤ x < n + 1
 −1 = −1,  −1.5 = −2, 3.1 = 3,  4  = 4 W.
TB 1S o671 +

;+ 0 ≤ {x } < 1 jhi n l> x = n + {x } <,z ; N** &, x %""> Y)
2) Y) x jhi <. n .x fractional part Y+, Q+"
x =  x  + {x }
./E C $ *

2s# m ∈ Z x ∈ R 2 kT ()
 x + m  =  x  + m (7
{x + m } = {x } (5
  x    x 
  =   (r
 m  m 
x 
 m  Y+ x & [J G m OI (t
2s# x ∈ R 2 kT (/
 x  ≤ x <  x  + 1 ({
.  x  +  −x  = −1 2s# jhi 9 x 2 kT (|
\B x , y ∈ R &, (
.  x  ≤  y  2s# x ≤ y 2 kT (}
 x  +  y  ≤  x + y  ≤  x  +  y  + 1 (
{x + y } ≤ {x } + { y } (
2s# b > 0 jhX ; a jhX
+S Ha q l> a = qb + r 2 kT (76
. r = b   q =  
a a
b  b 
:2?
* x + m = m + n + {x } kT .jhi m 2) x = n + {x } 2) ~# :(7
i
 x + m  = m + n = m +  x 
.L* & RP.J (r
i .
z
"1 RP.J (5
i
2) m ;
+" . r ≤ m − 1 l>  x  = qm + r
+"
H 3a & .(r
i
 x   x 
.     = q *   = q +
r
 m  m m
2
 x    x  + {x }   r + {x }    x  
 m  =   = q + = q =  
 m   m   m 
. r + {x } < m 2 nk

2s# OI ?) 3 nm 2) .x & [J G m OI <. n 2) ~# (t
i
.   = n 2) Y) n ≤ < n + 1 NB nm ≤ x < (n + 1)m
x x
m  m
.eP L* & ({
i
kT . −n < −x < −n + 1 kT . n − 1 < x < n lm n jhi B 2s# x ∉ Z 2) (|
i
./31 <X CZ  x  = n − 1,  −x  = −n
2) Y) n ≤ m 2s# x ≤ y 2) . y = m + {x } x = n + {x } 2) ~# 2) ~# (}

i
.  x  ≤  y 
.  x  +  y  ≤  x + y  2s# ({
ia DP1* kT  x  +  y  ≤ x + y
(
i
.b ;
+" eP *BJ (76
i eP (
i
the ceiling function of x ;,

kT .x Y+ ) & ?) n jhi ci) & HP  x  [H x L": 2s# %""> x 2 kT
 x  = n ⇔ n −1 < x ≤ n
٢٢
;) C" x & jhi /S) 3  x  2s# %:) N'
"" H3± <° H3X*
."x L":" ;+ QAO B & .N DP1B ) x
2s# n ∈ Z x ∈ R 2 kT
 x  ≥ x ,
 x + n  =  x  + n
VT L"+
§ 3a <3¬ 4u*+J G
*
S0 AB x L": x jhi -
A S0 B
.9, )
'H

" \Xa VT jhX
\Xa <3¬ +J
S0 D# jhX
oPJJ L"+

% L"+
 x  = −  − x  ,
  x  if x ∈ Z

 x  = 
  x  + 1 if x ∉ Z
Legendre Formula )X :0

n ! 2 kT . eb (a ) [ 3" [ . b k | a lm b 3S ?) % k 2) ³J b k || a J
p V 3S ?) !3J Y) e p (n !) B !3J HBZ
ci 2s# ) p 2 n /I
:* 23 " D# nk n ! Q+"J lm
∞
n  n   n   n 
e p (n !) = ∑  i  =  p  +  p 2  +  p 3  +
i =1  p       
.720 Q+"J 3 3S ?) % :W.

2 32 || 720 :<
∞
6  6  6   6 
e p (720) = e p (6!) = ∑  i  =  3  +  32  +  33  + = 2 + 0 + 0 +
i =1  3
2n ;
+" <P" 2n (2n − 1) (n + 2)( n + 1) 2) - :(6y m 64G #S) #
kT n B A*hi ~# . n=1 B
hhi
*B %' "*: :V
"1
(n + 1)(n + 2) (2n ) = k 2n
2
((n + 1) + 1)((n + 1) + 2) (2(n + 1))
= 2(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3) (2n + 1) = k 2 n +1
n
∏n + k 2n (2n − 1) (n + 1)(n )(n − 1)(n − 2) 2·1

k =1
n
= ∈ Z :
.
"1
2 2n (2n − 2)(2n − 4)(2n − 6) 4·2
n
(2n )!
% ∏ (n + k ) = 2 < 3S ?) kT .HBZ
ci A# 4u*+ :
..
"1
k =1 n!
∞
 n  n  n  n  n  n  n 
e 2 (n !) = ∑  i  =   +   +   + =   +   +   +
i =1  2  2 4 8 2 4 8
3 (2n )! 2 < 3S ?

∞
 2n  ∞  n  n  n 
e 2 (2n !) = ∑  i  = ∑  i −1  =  n  +   +   +
i =1  2  i =1  2  2 4
∞
 n  ∞ n  (2n )!
2 oPI < n B kT ∑  i −1  − ∑  2i
i =1  2 i =1
 = n 3
n!
2 < 3 kT
. 2n (2n − 1) (n + 2)( n + 1) H "
#$ 9-
)
+>
;+J (
P ))
""
3y <" y Z + y G f
:!;61M
.Arithmetic functions

:0*$ [61M G6< #$
B nk f (ab ) = f (a )f (b ) R f ≠ 0 2 kT
'
]) f
+>
& W3"
'
;+J ]s# a , b ∈ Z + <, f (ab ) = f (a )f (b ) lm
'
f R kT . (a, b ) = 1
.completely multiplicative functions
2s# f (a ) ≠ 0 lm E!3 jhi a 2 kT N nk f (1) = 1 D"¬ f

'
Y)
. f (1) = 1 2) f (a ) ; -#1
+" f (a ) = f (a ⋅1)f (a )f (1)

"" .
'
jhi Y) n l> f (a ) = a n 23 "
# f : Z → R
:W.

f (a ) = a
f (a ) = 1
& 0 kT . a n b n = (ab )n 1n = 1 2 nk
'
.
I W o+) &
'
'

f
Summation Function (3´
B s# E!3 jhi n

f R kT
:%
٢٤
F (n ) = ∑ f (d )
d |n
*
*
"" .
'
f R kT
'
F 2) & D"h* E1 nk * <A+ &
.(3´

\X & > ;
2) RPv) .
'
f R
N 3 VT n <¬ n = p1α p 2α … p kα 2 kT :!^
1 2 k
∑ f (d )
d |n
= (1 + f ( p1 ) + f ( p12 ) + + f ( p1α1 ) )(1 + f ( p 2 ) + f ( p 22 ) … f ( p 2α 2 ) )
(1 + f ( p k ) + f ( p k2 ) + + f ( p kα k ) )
.
'
∑ f (d ) 2)
d |n
<,z ; 23,: N <X > <,# & 1 3S n# B :2?
f ( p1β1 p 2β2 … p kβk ) = f ( p1β1 )f ( p 2β 2 )… f ( p kβk )
./31 RP. 0 ≤ β1 ≤ α1 , 0 ≤ β 2 ≤ α 2 , … , 0 ≤ β k ≤ α k l>

\Xa B 2) B: .AX\Xa K H fP
) k
' W µ0v 2 4"B:
.
"" & \* =3: R+
+, :V$

W. <P: ; .n
P!3 Q: 3" [J τ (n ) 2s# jhi n 2 kT
τ (1) = 1, τ (2) = 2, τ (3) = 2, τ (6) = 4, τ (7) = 2.
%

>0 B {1,3, 5,9,15, 45} N 3S
3y 45 &, E!3 jhi a) kT :@ê
. 45 /15 = 3 3 N <" Q:" 15 | 45 0. . n / d 3 a¡ Q:S N"# n Q:S d 2 kT N )
qN <" Q:" C Q:S < /' 3
W. ~ N"J <PS . τ (n ) N !3 23 S 2) C1*+

N 3 VT n <¬ 4 u*:
.N ! NPe

Z
.9800 Q: 3S !) :!#
<,z ; 23, 2) E¥ n d Q:S < . n = 23 ⋅ 52 ⋅ 7 2 2)
N 3 <h* :<
2 0,1, 2,3 QS 4 a` 2) &, x . x , y , z 9: ; 3" 2 . n = 2x ⋅ 5 y ⋅ 7 z
9OB .(> AT #I <h* 2 3S %) x @ QS 4 B kT .n Q+" 20 , 21 , 22 , 23
S 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 B )P E+> kT .QS 4 z QS µ0v y 2) ¶"B
.q Q: 3S ¥ S *B*: R1*: < . n = 23 ⋅ 52 ⋅ 7 2
. (420) 4 Q: 3S C /' !) : #

. n = (22 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7) 4 = 28 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 54 ⋅ 7 4 :<
. τ (n ) = (8 + 1)(4 + 1)(4 + 1)(4 + 1) = 1125 Q: 3" .# N 3S n < C n
N" d AB Q:S <, Y+* N3>
3 S 1124 B ;"P n = (420) 2 Q:" BB.*: kT
.n Y+ ' n / d a¡ Q:S
Y+ Q: 3" C /' n Q: 3" &  d ,  !
n 1124
= 562 B kT
 d 2
n 562 ⋅ n = (420)4×562 ⋅ (420) 2 = (420) 2250
2s#
N 3 VT n <¬ n = p1α p 2α … p kα 2 kT :+, R_
1 2 k
τ (n ) = (α1 + 1)(α 2 + 1)(α 3 + 1) (α k + 1)
+, ' :d

kT .N+O n VT 1 & *
P!3 N 3S (3´ [J σ (n ) 2s# E!3 jhi n 2 kT
σ (n ) = ∑ d
d |n
2) Y) N 3S C % 1, p , p 2 , , p α 2s# ) p l> n = p α 2 kT
p α +1 − 1
σ (n ) = 1 + p + p 2 + + p α =
p −1
l> p x q y <,z ; 23,: n W Q:S < 2s#
) ) p , q l> n = p α q β 2 kT
-:3" n# &
·B oPI % Q: 3" 2) > . 0 ≤ y ≤ β 0 ≤ x ≤ α
(1 + p + + p α )(1 + q + + q β )
p α +1 − 1 q β +1 − 1
. σ (n ) = ⋅ 2) Y)
p −1 q −1
2s#
N 3 VT n <¬ n = p1α p 2α … p kα 2 kT N ) PvT &, 3
1 2 k
p1α1 +1 − 1 p 2α 2 +1 − 1 p α k +1 − 1
σ (n ) = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
p1 − 1 p2 −1 pk −1
.23 " PvT f (d ) = d C 0) 7
""> 4u*: :EHJ
. (m , n ) = 1 B σ (mn ) = σ (m )σ (n ) σ (1) = 1 2) Y) :G6 +, '
.500
![ Q: 3" (3y !) :m6w
٢٦
/' > >) 23,: %! Q:S < n 500 = 22 ⋅ 53 :<
54 − 1
(2 + 22 )(1 + 5 + 52 + 53 ) = 6 = 936
5 −1
Euler’s totient function 6S$ :d

.n C P+
n & <S
P!3 VT ϕ (n ) [ fzB# E!3 jhi n 2 kT
W. <P: ;
ϕ (1) = 1, ϕ (2) = 1, ϕ (5) = 4, ϕ (6) = 2.
Q) <,z .) n 2s# ϕ (n ) = n − 1 2 kT jhi 9, ϕ ( p ) = p − 1 2s# ) p 2 kT
2s# E!3 jhi a 2 kT
 1
ϕ ( p a ) = p a − p a −1 = p a 1 − 
 p
. (m , n ) = 1 B ϕ (mn ) = ϕ (m )ϕ (n ) ϕ (1) = 1 2) Y) :G6 6S$
2s#
N 3 VT n <¬ n = p1α p 2α … p kα 2 kT n
1 2 k
 1  α2  1  αk  1 
ϕ (n ) = p1α 1 −
1
 ⋅ p 2 1 −  ⋅⋅ ⋅ p k 1 − 
 p1   p2   pk 
o+) H3X )
 1  1   1 
ϕ (n ) = n 1 − 1 −  1 − 
 p1  p 2   p k 
. ϕ (360) = 23 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 5 1 −  1 − 

1 1  1 
1 −  = 96 n 360 = 23 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 5 0.#
 2 
3 5 
. ∑ ϕ (d ) = n 2s# E!3 jhi n 2 kT :(K$a) 6@

d |n
m)w
.
'
f 1f 2 2) RPv) -*' -* f 1 , f 2 R kT (7
.Y# τ (n ) R o"# kT kT < C n E!3 jhX 2) RPv) (5
B τ (mn ) = τ (m )τ (n ) τ (1) = 1 2) Y) .
'
Q: 3"
2) RPv) (r
. (m , n ) = 1
τ (n )
. ∏d = n 2
2s# n E!3 jhi Y (t
d |n
. τ (n ) ≤ 2 n 2s# n E!3 jhi Y ({
B 2s#
N 3 VT n <¬ n = p1α p 2α … p kα 2 kT (|
1 2 k
(2α1 + 1)(2α 2 + 1)(2α 3 + 1) (2α k + 1)

. [a, b ] = n lm (a, b )
O*u
PJ \B. &
2
 
.
'
-#1 0 :eHT .  ∑τ (d )  = ∑τ 3 (d ) 2) RPv) * (}
 d |n  d |n
: ]U
./E k hUE* (>)– (!) m)' C
x  x 1  1
 x  =   +  +  E*,J B>)  2x  =  x  +  x +  2s# %""> x R kT (7
 2   2 2  2

* BP* RPv`#
""> ) x , y 2 kT (5
 x + y  ≤  x + 1/ 2  +  y + 1/ 2  ,
 x + y  +  x  +  y  ≤  2x  +  2 y  ,
 x  +  y  ≤  x + y  ≤  x  +  y  ≤  x + y  ≤  x  +  y 
S
"1* )   + 
m −m − 1 
+ 1 = 0 2s# n > 0 lm -hhi m , n 2 kT (r
 n   n 
.(W. o) %""> m 23, B D"h*J
.jhi /S x %"" E"J  x +  2) RPv) (t
1
 2
.  n / 2 +  n / 2  = n 2s# jhi n 2 kT ({
. log10 k  + 1 Y+ k jhX 4SH) (|
q −1
 kp  ( p − 1)(q − 1)
C eHT . ∑  = 2) RPv) 2O*¤ 2) p , q 2 kT :(!) (}
k =1  q  2
 ip   (q − i ) p 
.jhX
\Xa & %e 4u*:   +  
q   q 
٢٨
n )1 GH 9
congruences mod n
(41777-1855) Gauss ! fP, %' 3

QO & D1* 43AO
\Xu D)
: H j+
.) /3:`
+"
S & fPJ 3 B+* <\ ) nk
.

n )1 IGH!-9

n | (a − b ) 2s# n ; A*+S B %SP 9O a , b & 2 kT %P© n &,
kT a ≡ b (mod n ) E*,
n | (a − b ) ⇔ a ≡ b (mod n )
a¡ <,z
a = q1n + r
a − b = kn ⇔ ⇔ a ≡ b (mod n )
b = q 2n + r
. a ≡/ b (mod n ) E*,B# n /| (a − b ) 2 kT
#
B %SP 9O 15, 3 & 2 a¡ ³ ) 2 ;
+" <P" 15-3 2 15 ≡ 3 (mod 2) (7
.2 ; A*+S
100 ≡ 1 (mod 99), 17 ≡ −1 (mod 3), − 9 ≡ 2 (mod11) (5
4m 2 + 4m + 1 = 4q + 1 2 (2m + 1) 2 = 1 (mod 4) (r
n )1 IGHS $ *

hhi ) a , b , c , d , n &,
(¹B*
ia) a ≡ a (mod n ) (7
(,
ia) b ≡ a (mod n ) ⇔ a ≡ b (mod n ) (5
(Y*
ia) a ≡ c (mod n ) ⇐ b ≡ c (mod n ) a ≡ b (mod n ) (r
. (a, n ) = (b , n ) 2s# a ≡ b (mod n ) 2 kT (t
E1 "O K * :2?

2) Y) a − kn = b 2s# a − b = kn 2) . (a, n ) = d , (b , n ) = e 2) a ≡ b (mod n ) ~# (t
. d = e kT . e ≤ d NB e | b + kn = a <. . d ≤ e kT .& 1 Q+" N d | b
n )1 IGHS 3a *

2s# c ≡ d (mod n ) a ≡ b (mod n ) 2 kT
("1* C 23 S) a + c ≡ b + d (mod n ) (7
("1* /' 23 S) ac ≡ bd (mod n ) (5
("1* © 23 S) a − c ≡ b − d (mod n ) (r
2s# i = 1, 2,… , k <, ai ≡ bi (mod n ) 2 kT

a1 + a2 + + ak ≡ b1 + b 2 + + b k (mod n ) (t

ia
h a1a2 ak ≡ b1b 2 bk (mod n ) ({
a k ≡ b k (mod n ) (|
#
.n E!3 jhi Y { ;
+" <P"J 6n −1 + 6n − 2 + + 61 + 1 − n 2) RPv (7
kT E!3 jhi m l> 6m ≡ 1m = 1 (mod 5) 2s# 6 ≡ 1 (mod 5) 2)
6n −1 + 6n − 2 + + 61 + 1 − n ≡ (1 + 1 + + 1 + 1) − n = n − n = 0 (mod 5)
. n ≥ 0 l> 14 ;
+" <P" 34 n + 2 + 52 n +1 2) RPv) (5
2) > .: / 3 <X D1* 4 u*: &, %' "*: AB x©
`+
34 n + 2 + 52 n +1 = 9(81) n + 5(25) n
kT 81 ≡ −3 (mod14), 25 ≡ −3 (mod14) &,
(81) n ≡ (−3) n (mod14), (25) n ≡ ( −3) n (mod14)
*
34 n + 2 + 52 n +1 ≡ 9(−3) n + 5(−3)n ≡ 14(−3) n ≡ 0 (mod14)
. x 3 ≡ x (mod 3) 2) RPv`# jhi x 2 kT (r

& < E+ %SP > x ≡ ±1 (mod 3) 2s# # .r OI & x B
h'
*B
. x 3 ≡ x (mod 3) * x 3 ≡ ±1 (mod 3) kT . 2 ≡ −1 (mod 3) 2 5 %SP
.qjhi 9, < &, m ∈ Z <, ma ≡ mb (mod n ) 2) %I*"J a ≡ b (mod n ) 2) Q

% # .4 <,z jhi f 9, kT . 6 ≡/ 2 (mod 8) B 4 × 6 ≡ 4 × 2 (mod 8) :W. a
# hhi 9, jPX N*#'T &, ºe B &, HX*a !T & &, Y ºz B:
%
٣٠
.)6',G m)' ]^ C , 6 GH z1G iWk :k GHM
(1) n 2 ≡ 0 or 1 (mod 3);
(2) n 2 ≡ 0 or ± 1 (mod 5);
(3) n 2 ≡ 0 or 1 or 4 (mod 8);
(4) n 3 ≡ 0 or ± 1 (mod 9);
(5) n 4 ≡ 0 or 1 (mod 16);
Cancellation laws )E*V l_

d = (n , c ) l> a ≡ b (mod n / d ) 2s# ca ≡ cb (mod n ) 2 kT (7
. a ≡ b (mod n ) 2s# ca ≡ cb (mod n ) (n , c ) = 1 2 kT §3X N! ; (5
:6:0% 5678 ;<8$ n )1

2s# i = 1, 2,…, m l> a ≡ b (mod n i ) 2 kT
a ≡ b (mod [n1 , n 2 , , n m ])
2s# ³. ³. P+
) R kT
ia
h
a ≡ b (mod n1n 2 n m )
AOI 2s# c jhX Q+"J n1 , n 2 , , n m 23, B N ) J kT eP
S0 PvT
.I) c Q+" ci *z
9]U
. a ≡ r (mod n ) 2) RPv) n ; a
+S %S r 2 kT .E!3 jhi n &, (7
lm x C !) x ∈ {1, 2,3,…, 25} l> f (x ) = x 2 + 3x + 2 &,* (5
. 6 | f (x )
. (a + b ) p ≡ a p + b p (mod p ) 2) RPv) ) p
hhi ) a , b 2 kT (r
. 11115555 + 55551111 ≡ 0 (mod 7) 2) RPv (t
.99 ; 299
+S %S ! ({
1 M)$ n )1 J6< KL18 -9

2 kT n H a jhX multiplicative inverse g' 3, b 2) W"
. a * ) a −1 [ gI 3, [ . ab ≡ 1 (mod n )
`J .6 H g' 3, 4 9 W. <P: ; .n H g' 3, a jhi <, 9
.6 & <S C 4 /I &
0. . Z n* [ n H g' 3, G
3´ [
z 5* = {1,, 2,3, 4}, z 6* = {1, 5}
B ¬ l> EP+ -PJ
*
"" .g' 3, (5 & <S )
P!3 C 2) >0J n
.g' 3, 3!3 , YHI ºz
. (a, n ) = 1 2 o"# kT kT n H g' 3, a jhX !3 :!^
lm x,y -hhi B [
"1* E+h# P+ 2) a,n & 2 kT N
h'
O, :2?
.n H a g' 3, x 2) Y) . ax ≡ 1 (mod n ) * ax + ny = 1
k jhi !3 N n | ab − 1 kT . ab ≡ 1 (mod n ) lm b jhi B 2) ~# HI ºe
.P+ 2) a , n & 2) Y) ab − nk = 1 NB ab − 1 = nk lm
:@ê
0. . a1* ≡ a2* (mod n ) 2s# n H a f a1* , a2* 2 kT ³ > N s# gI 3, ! kT (7
2 ks# jhi 9, . 3 ≡ −2 (mod 5) n 5 H 7 g' 3, 3,-2 & 0
l> a g' 3, b * 2s# n H b * g' 3, b 2 a ≡ b (mod n )
. ab * ≡ bb * ≡ 1 (mod n )
) a ≡ 1 (mod p ) o"# kT kT a 2 ≡ 1 (mod p ) 2) RPv) .) p &, :&

.o"# 1, p − 1 p H N+O 3, 3 Y 2) -P &* . a ≡ p − 1 (mod p )
n )1 1 M)
lm k E!3 jhi ci) % n H a
PJH . (n , a ) = 1 E!3 jhi n &,
. ord n (a ) [
PJ [
a k ≡ 1(mod n )
. ax ≡ 1(mod n ) lm x 3!3 YH' N »e "

PJ LJ (n , a ) = 1 ºz :
>0
.
> i nk M 3 > (n , a ) = 1 2) 3 &,# nH a
PJH k B n
\B .n H k N*PJH jhi a &, : ^

. k | ϕ (n ) §3X N! ; . k | x o"# kT kT a x ≡ 1(mod n ) (7
. x ≡ y (mod k ) o"# kT kT a x ≡ a y (mod n ) (5
.n H 2"1* 2Bv a1 , a 2 ,… , a k - & !3 (r
٣٢
k
. (b , k ) = 1 o"# kT kT k N*PJH ab NB . % ab
PJH (t
(k , b )
,, 6@ =
Fundamental Theorems
<
# WF H" * &,) AB C
9:) B Q ~ <XO
.H,#) & NBI*J N+OB A# 31a
jhi a 2 ) p 2 kT :Little Fermat's Theorem O6:E PQ 6@ !-=
a p −1 ≡ 1(mod p ) 2s# (a , p ) = 1 lm
:2?
nk Pv .p ; A*+S B
O*¤ %S 3 k a , 2a, 3a, 4a, … , ( p -1) a 2) %
<h*+ p ;
+" <P" a (m − n ) kT . 1 ≤ m < n na ≡ ma (mod p ) 2) ~#
. m − n kT .EJ* & B Kc 1, 2,3, 4,…, ( p − 1) % a , 2a, 3a, 4a, … , ( p -1) a %S 3 kT
2) Y) .pH %S 3P /' D1 /'
a ⋅ 2a ⋅ 3a ⋅ ⋅ ( p -1) ≡ 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ ⋅ ( p − 1) (mod p )
kT
a p −1 ( p − 1)! ≡ ( p − 1)! (mod p )
.=cX f#
RP.J a p −1 ≡ 1 (mod p ) kT ( p , ( p − 1)!) = 1 &,
. a p ≡ a (mod p ) 2s# jhi a 2 ) p 2 kT : s

/I a p −1 ≡ 1 (mod p ) f# & 2s# ( p , a ) = 1 2 kT .
hhi
S0# p | a 2 kT :2?
./31 ; <X a
<X AB a p ≡ a (mod p )

*B ) RP. 2` nk
+
"1 f#
PvT &, :
>0
. ( p , a ) = 1 l> a p ≡ a (mod p ) © & a HX*a nk f#
;
:
"1 u % #
. a p ≡ a (mod p ) 2) RP.B: %' "*: 4 u*: .E: f jhi a ) p 2) ~#
. a = 0 B
h'
*B :: 31a
. a p ≡ a (mod p ) 2) ~# :~O 31a
. (a + b ) p ≡ a p + b p (mod p ) 23 " & nk (a + 1) p ≡ a p + 1p (mod p ) : "*: 31a
kT a p ≡ a (mod p ) ~O 31a & &,
(a + 1) p ≡ a p + 1p = a + 1 (mod p )
./31 RP.
.p ;
+" <P" 2n − n lm n & .) B 2) RPv) ) p &, :7m6w
B *B =cX f# & .Y# ) p 2) ~# n p=2 B
A
*B :]B
2 p −1 ≡ 1(mod p )
kT p H k g' 3, p − 1 !3 kT P+ 2) p , p − 1 &
k ( p − 1) ≡ 1 (mod p )
kT E!3 jhi m l> n = k m ( p − 1)m jhX a 2
n = k m ( p − 1) m ≡ 1m ≡ 1 (mod p )
<"
m m −1
k ( p −1)
( ) ( p −1) m −1
m
( p −1)m m
2n = 2 k = 2 p −1 ≡ 1k ≡ 1 (mod p )
(n A" m
S <) n & %\] B kT /31 RP. 2n − n ≡ 0 (mod p ) kT
.p ;
+" <P" 2n − n <·
:
v
"©
&, .E!3 jhi b l> n = ( p − 1)b <, 2n ≡ 1 (mod p ) 2s# 2 p −1 ≡ 1 (mod p ) 2)
2n − n = 2n − 1 − (n − 1)
. p | 2n − n 2s# n = ( p − 1)( kp − 1) <, kT . p | 2n − n 2s# n − 1 = pu 2 kT
Wilson's Theorem RS$ 6@ -=

2s# ) p 2 kT
( p − 1)! ≡ − 1 (mod p )
lm jhi a &, .p>2 ~O n p=2 B

B
hi & D"h*
3A+ &, :2?
* px + ay = 1 lm x,y -hi & !3 kT ( p , a ) = 1 kT . 1 ≤ a ≤ p − 1
ay ≡ 1(mod p )
2s# p ; y
+S %S r l> ( p , y ) = ( p , r ) 2)
ar ≡ 1(mod p )

3´ iB kT . a = 1, p − 1 o"# 20>
a 2 ≡ 1(mod p ) 2s# a = r 2 kT
2
{2,3,…., p − 2 }
٣٤
n jhi > =+ < GP /' lm
PJ ) A' &,
2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ ( p − 2) ≡ 1(mod p )
./31 3 ( p − 1)! ≡ ( p − 1) ≡ −1(mod p ) VT <X p − 1 /I
:RS$ 6@ YL

.) p 2s# ( p − 1)! ≡ − 1 (mod p ) E!3 jhi p 2 kT
kT . ( p − 1)! + 1 = mp kT . ( p − 1)! ≡ − 1 (mod p ) lm E!3 jhi p 2) ~# :2?
xO Q+" q * mp , ( p − 1)! & 0 Q+" q 2s# p Q:S q < p 2
.) p 2) RP. q = 1 kT mp − ( p − 1)! = 1
Euler's Theorem 6S$ 6@ 9-=

n C P+

P!3 VT fzJ ϕ (n ) 2s# E!3 jhi n 2 kT )

.)
;+J ϕ
.n Y+J ) & <S) G
2s# (a, n ) = 1 2 E!3 jhi n 2 kT :Euler's Theorem !6S$ 6@
a ϕ ( n ) ≡ 1 (mod n )
:% f#

¼
z
"1 Q* :2?
D1J aZ*n = {ab1 , ab2 ,… , abϕ ( n ) } iB 2s# (a, n ) = 1 2) Z*n = {b1 , b 2 ,… , bϕ ( n ) } R kT
kT . EJ* Z*n iB
ab1 ⋅ ab 2 ⋅… ⋅ abϕ ( n ) ≡ b1 ⋅ b 2 ⋅… ⋅ bϕ ( n ) (mod n )
2s# (n , b1 ⋅ b 2 ⋅… ⋅ bϕ ( n ) ) = 1 l> . aϕ ( n )b1 ⋅ b 2 ⋅… ⋅ bϕ ( n ) ≡ b1 ⋅ b2 ⋅… ⋅ bϕ ( n ) (mod n ) NB
./31 RP. aϕ ( n ) ≡ 1 (mod n )
!3 S N ) T a x ≡ 1(mod n ) <¥ x 3! & Q ; N s# (a, n ) = 1 2 kT :@ê
.x jhX 2 A 2x ≡/ −1(mod 7) 0.# f.
. . a x ≡ −1(mod n ) lm x
. n 2 − 1| 2n ! − 1 2s# n E!3 %! <, N ) RPv) :!m6w

2s# ϕ (m ) | (m − 1)! 2) . m (m − 2) | 2( m −1)! − 1 2) PvT B jPX m = n + 1 K3* :<
2) RP. <. . m | 2( m −1)! − 1 kT . m | 2ϕ ( m ) − 1 )
& &, . 2ϕ ( m ) − 1| 2( m −1)! − 1
/31 <X * (m , m − 2) = 1 2s# -** -# m , m − 2 2) . m − 2 | 2( m −1)! − 1
. m (m − 2) | 2( m −1)! − 1
n )1 TUGV )WX =-=
C P+ ) a Y 2 kT (primitive root mod n) n H %\ * H! 3 g 2) W3"
. g k ≡ a (mod n ) lm k !3 n
l> Z*n
I [ 3 N ) ; %\ * H B &,
Z*n = {a :1 ≤ a ≤ n − 1, (a , n ) = 1}
Z*n
3 %\ * XB >) %\ * HZ ;+ n
2s# p H %\ * H! g 2 ks# Z*p = {1, 2,… , p − 1} 2) Q ) p 2 kT
Z*p = {g 1 , g 2 , g 3 ,… g p −1}
jhi <> ci) 3 p − 1 n g p −1 ≡ 1(mod p ) f#

& * ( g , p ) = 1 2) >
. g x ≡ 1(mod p )
E!3
2 7 H %\ * H! 9 g = 2 B (nk & `J) 7 H %\ * H! g = 3 :!#
(21 , 2 2 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 ) = (2, 4,1, 2, 4,1)
.<S ; > %\ * H! !3 p ) <, :!6@
=]U
 (n − 1)!+ 1  ( n − 1)!  1 if n prime
 −  =  2) RPv jhi n>1 2 kT (7
 n  n   0 if n not prime
)
& f#
*B*: (5
n !+ 1, (n + 1)! & ? *z Q:" ! (r
< C 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 <¥ Y x !) (t
m
23+
4 u*: < . ∏ k 2 ≡ (−1)m +1 (mod p ) 2) RPv ) p = 2m + 1 2 kT ({
k =1
1 ⋅ ( p − 1) ⋅ 2( p − 2) m ( p − m ) ≡ 1(−1) ⋅ 2( −2) m (− m ) ≡ −1(mod p )
12 ⋅ 22 m 2 ≡ (−1) m +1 (mod p )
2) RPv# jhi a -O*¤ -) p,q 2 kT (|
a p +q − a p +1 − aq +1 + a 2 ≡ 0(mod pq )
a pq − a p − aq + a ≡ 0(mod pq )
. f#
4u*:
٣٦
[ V18 >
DiophantineEquations
9*B#3 3 & (3B ; < & <\ ) &

+\
(# >
* 3O

A# QJ ¶ G X
HB,:
B
P+ Diophantus of Alexandria ¯ HB,:
<\ ) & 9*B#3 S ´ g+ < 4S (H) & N 2) 0 <PS l. 2"
.%' (O ; [* <a) &

3´ %*BJ Ay 2) Y) o"# Z
hhX
3y ;
]) ;
* 3O
J
.o"#
hhX
[ V1 \S S !->

a l> <> <. (a,9 − a ) EJ %\Bv <,# W3 & %\] x + y = 9
(7
.jhi
.Y# \ n &, W3 & %\] I) n = 2m + 1
(5
.{4,-4,3,-3} & ½P W3>
¾ x 2 + y 2 = 52
* 3O
(r
v0v ;+J (a, b , c ) %v0v & HP <> 0 W3 & %\] x 2 + y 2 = z 2
(t
.H3.#

Q: J n > 2 jhi <, nk Z + <> 9 x n + y n = z n
({
.47|$7t - RB 2 2 2[ & 2S & .) R" G =?, f#
HZ [ V18 ->

k
1a
;+J
* 3O ( 3 ) o+) % x , y ax + by = c
* 3O

.<y
v0v k
1a
* 3O
;+J ax + by + cz = d
* 3O
.-3Ay
. (a, b ) | c 2 kT o"# kT <> ax + by = c

* 3O
!3 :!^
:% 2? Y3! x# 2

3A+ AJ &,
B 2) ª 2? <PS
. (a1 , a2 , , an ) | b R4 Q$ ]^ a1x 1 + a2 x 2 + + an x n = b [ 1'S
kT Y) ax + by = c 2 kT c Q+" d 2s# N ax+by Q+" d kT (a,b)=d 2) ~OB :Rk3

.
0> (x,y) 2
r,s -hhi !3 (a, b ) = d LJ & .jhi q l> c=qd 2s# c Q+" d 2 kT +,
; <X q + © /I . ar + bs = d lm
a ( rq ) + b ( sq ) = dq = c
.
B RP.J ax + by = c
0> (rq , sq ) kT
> <> B kT

* 3O
W3> C ¥T C1*+ G
"1 B -PJ
*
B
. (x 0 , y 0 )

S0 & ;1J 3> C 2s# ax + by = c
* 3O
<> (x 0 , y 0 ) 2 kT : 6@
b a
xk = x0 + k, yk = y0 − k
(a , b ) (a , b )
.jhi k l>
<> Y) (x , y ) 2) §a <> (x 0 , y 0 ) 2) ~# . a = rd , b = sd kT . (a, b ) = d &, :2?

kT .a¡
ax 0 + by 0 = c = ax + by
*B d ;
+" a (x 0 − x ) = b ( y − y 0 ) NB
r (x 0 − x ) = s ( y − y 0 ) (*)
lm k -hhi & !3 kT . s | (x 0 − x ), r | ( y − y 0 ) 2s# (r , s ) = 1 l>

x 0 − x = ks , y − y 0 = kr
2) Y)
b a
x = x0 −k , y = y0 +k
d d
eP *B

* 3O
<> 3 (x 0 + nk , y 0 − mk ) H3X ; < 2) RP. 2) ;"

* 3O
K3*
ab ab
ax + by = ax 0 − k + by 0 + k = ax 0 + by 0 = c
d d
.Pv %A*B
252x − 54 y − 36 = 0
* 3O
<> :!#
.<PS & BJ ST
H 3a 4 u*: (252, −54) = (252, 54) ) !3
٣٨
252 = 4 × 54 + 36
54 = 1× 36 + 18
36 = 2 ×18 + 0
.<>
kT 36 R. ;
+" <P" 3 (252, −54) = 18 kT
B *B (252, −54) = 18 ;

+" )P
W3> ¥
14x − 3 y − 2 = 0
©

" © =cX % N
"1
" Y W3A´ < nk
14x − 2 = 3 y
r ; Q+"
14 2 2 2
x − = y ⇒ 4x +  x −  = y
3 3 3 3
* x − = t C' n jhi 23, 2) E¥  x −  [Z

2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
2x − 2 = 3u (*)
>3 © ci
"1
" k < E>i W3A´ <! .
"1 9OB
C <*
N ;
Q+S
3 2 1 
2x = 3u + 2 ⇒ x = u + ⇒ x = u +  u  +1
2 2 2 

S ci) 2 LS3* B u = 2t * u = t C' n jhi 23, 2) E¥  u  [Z
1 1
2 2 
% t
x,y
S ¥ %! J <,z K3* )P 2 .7 Y+J <´ 0
"1
&
Y) x & ~3
" . x = 3t + 1 2) * u & (*)
~3
2) * o"# x,y &I*J G
"+
y = 14t + 4
0. .§a <> %1J t
hhi
S <,#
4 < 3 (3t + 1,14t + 4) kT
. 252x − 54 y − 36 = 0 K3* nk & `J (1, 4) < ; <X t = 0 B
.& `J (−2, −10) < ; <X t = −1 B

B A*B G
"1 4 u*: 4 < ; <X> (x 0 , y 0 ) = (1, 4) <. §a <> a :ºz
.q¥T DP: L*¤ 4 <> ; RX> < .0)
HZ GH 9->

"1* .linear congruence %1a D1J ;+J ax ≡ b (mod n ) H3X ; G

D1* <> x 23, B W
P1 .
D"¬ G x QS )
S ¬ Y) <> & lhP Q*]
1

" NB ? > <h B Q" < .I) <> 3 [x] ª#,* Li & y < 2s# %1a
a¡ <> 3 n H x D1 z <> Y) . ax ≡ b (mod n ) %1 D1* 0> x W3"B# x >
.

& Y) n 12 ≡ 2(mod 5) 2 3x ≡ 2(mod 5)
"1*
<> x = 4 :7W.
ª#,* Li
[4] = {4 + 5k : k ∈ Z}
. 3x ≡ 2(mod 5)
<> <.
HZ [ V18G GH V18 _e

9, ax − b = nk lm k jhi 3! b A# ax ≡ b (mod n ) %1 D1* <> x 2 kT
Dv3 ºPJH .%1 D1* 0> x 2) HI b + ""± k <. 3!3# jhi
O =a VT >T <3¬ + -3Ay k
1
* 3O
1 "1* -
.=B:
1 "1* -
> ) <\+ <> Bv) 3:
.> W3Ay %1a D1J
> < 23, -PJ
1+
""> C "1* )PB:
.> <> ax ≡ b (mod n ) %1 D1* !3 N s# (n , a ) = 1 2 kT :!^

*B b /I . ac + bd = 1 lm c,d -hhi B [
"1* &# (n , a ) = 1 2 kT :2?
a(bc)+n(bd)=b
kT .
y a¡ <> B 2) ~# 2 .
0> x=bc * a (bc ) ≡ b (mod n ) kT
ay=b (mod n)
Y) n | (x − y ) 2s# (n , a ) = 1 2) l> n | a (x − y ) 2) %I*" ay ≡ ax (mod n ) *

.
"" RP.J > < * y ≡ x (mod n ) 2)
Y) 23, S <> & .) ax ≡ b (mod n )

23, "# n C P+
) a 23,J B
-* a) kT W. <P: ; .<>
2x=3 (mod 6)
2y=4 (mod 6)
.)
.
.6 H ª#,* W3X# < ; nk HP*a &, <> 9 V
2s#
. 8 ≡ 2(mod 6) 2 .v 0> 9 0. x=8 NP* .x=2,5 -> ¬ <> &
.W3 <. <> 3! &I Y ºz 4" «` #
٤٠
b Q+" d 2 kT o"# kT <> ax ≡ b (mod n ) %1 D1* !3 N s# (n , a ) = d 2 kT : 6@

S0 ;1 n H
O*u W3 2s#

nk
x = x0 + , k = 0,1, 2,… , (d − 1)
d
.D1* <> Y) x 0 l>
D1 f > < O*¤ .
O*u W3 & d
2) -PJ
"+
""h QJ
B
.
1
* 3O
W3> & B#H ; ::) * 2? .n H a¿
:Rk3
<>
0> ax+ny=b
* 3O
2 kT o"# kT 0> ax ≡ b (mod n )

;1J =a W3 2s#
* 3O
W3> >) (x 0 , y 0 ) &, 2 .b Q+" d 2 kT o"# kT

S0
n a
xk = x0 + k, yk = y0 − k
d d

* 3O jhi k l>
.n H
"1* f x Q" 23,J :2 W ª+
2) "1* § 3a K 4 u*: x k ≡ x k (mod n ) 2) ~#
1 2
n
x k1 ≡ x k 2 (mod n ) ⇔ (k 1 − k 2 ) = nh ⇔ k 1 − k 2 = dh ⇔ k 1 ≡ k 2 (mod d )
d
%
O*u W3 2s# n d H D1*J k R kT o"# kT n H D1*J W3 kT
nk
x = x0 + , k = 0,1, 2,… , (d − 1)
d
.
B RP.J
W3 ¥ .3 W3 15 Q+" (6, 21) = 3 2 <> 6x ≡ 15 (mod 21)
:!#
W3 kT .x=6 3 n#X <> W) 2) *: 0,1,2,3,…,20 & K3* x 0 & lm
%
O*u
nk
x = x0 + = 6 + 7 k , k = 0,1, 2
d
.x=6, 13, 20 Y)
ax+ny=b
* 3O
VT %1 D1* <3¬ <IO
q fP n 2 3 k &,
BS Y K3* & (x 0 , y 0 ) <> ¥
:3
S
H 3 ) ST
H 3a 4 u*:
.W. N
%1a D1J VT A3h* x,y &fc* k

* 3O
<> &, N ) ³ /3: 9, &, I)
.y QS nk x QS ¥s N
.2x-3y=6
* 3O
<> : #
Q" ; E* V H*uB . 3 y ≡ 6 (mod 2) ) 2x ≡ 6 (mod 3) E*, ) &Ha n B
a`J
* 3O
<> x Q" < kT 3 H >3 < 3 D1* <> x=3 2) 0,1,2
<,z
x=3+3k
2) y A> x &
* 3O
K3* jhi k l>
y=2k
.
* 3O
B> S 23,
W3> y QS * 0> y=0 2) *: 0,1 Q" ; E* 3 y ≡ 6 (mod 2) Ru*: 3

S0 ;1J
* 3O

y=0+2k
2) x A> y &
* 3O
K3* jhi k l>
x=3+3k
.
* 3O
<> *B*: -1 -"1* & Y`# kT
=a`
W P*:
+"
43"B# fP %1 D1J
R kT
y < ? *z Q:" 7 2 nk W3>
P: 91y ≡ 98 (mod119)
:9#
7 ; Q+S .98 Q+" H
13 y ≡ 14 (mod17) → 17 y − 4 y ≡ 17 − 3 (mod17)
2) −4 y ≡ −3 (mod17) kT
y=5, 22, 39, 56,73, 90, 107, …
.
119 H
O*u W3 %
THZ IGH ]^ C n)1 J6< KL18 , =->
. 37x ≡ 5 (mod 53)

<> :!#
16x ©
#'s .53 H 37 3, ¥T =3: R+ % 37x ≡ 1 (mod 53)
) <hB
+ 1
−16x ≡ 1 ≡ 54 (mod 53)
B -2 ;
+"
8x ≡ −27 ≡ 26 ≡ 132 (mod 53)
B 4 ;
+"
٤٢
2x ≡ 33 ≡ 86(mod 53)
.53 H 37 gI 3, 3 43 ) . x ≡ 43(mod 53) kT
.37 3, /' 37x ≡ 5 (mod 53)

i
2 3
37 ⋅ 43x ≡ 5 ⋅ 43(mod 53) → x ≡ 215(mod 53) → x ≡ 3(mod 53)

.
`+ <> 3 x=3 kT
^$ P: C HZ GH '@ ?
Linear Congruence Systems in One Variable
P: C GH @ !-?
4B <> x 2) W" :!;61M

a1x ≡ b1 (mod n1 )
a2 x ≡ b 2 (mod n 2 )

am x ≡ b m (mod n m )
.4B & ai x ≡ bi (mod n i )

<, <> x 2 kT > fc*
1a "1J & 23,
Y+ x < A# G nJ ; (3B &

B*: H HX*S & BB, eP
""> Pvs )P
.> 3
4B <> x : ^

a1x ≡ b1 (mod n1 )
a2 x ≡ b 2 (mod n 2 )

am x ≡ b m (mod n m )
4B <> x 2 o"# kT kT

x ≡ c1 (mod n1 / d 1 )
x ≡ c 2 (mod n 2 / d 2 )

x ≡ c m (mod n m / d m )
. d i = (ai , n i ) ai x ≡ bi (mod n i ) D1* <> c i l>
4B <> :!#
2x=4 (mod 10)
٤٤
9x=12 (mod 33)
2T x <
"+
"" D# kT .EJ* ;
. V
-> c1 = 2, c 2 = 5 2) E*
* 4B <> 3 !
x=2 (mod 5)
x=5 (mod 11)
B 4B V
& .Z 4B <> & lhPB
x=2+5r
AB 2 + 5r ≡ 5(mod11)
.
K3* .jhi r l>
5r=3 (mod 11)
2) r & x K3* .D1* <> <. r=5+11s *
x=2+5(5+11s)= 27+55s
kT
x=27 (mod 55)
.W 4B <> * ¯. 4B <> 3
G
BX %SP
;+ 4 u*: eP N W3X C1*+ ¯. 4B N Bi3J Y <
.* BP AzSB
Chinese Remainder Theorem(CRT) E T_ 6@ -?

Sun Tzu Suan Ching À" bX /*, 2 ; H3A¹ W) 2 Q: R
& B Y0 l. 2" Sun Zi bX <PS & E* Y Sunzi Suanjing I) ;+
. -B+ _H* E* N ) =
³. ³. P+

)
P!3
hhi ) n1 , n 2 ,… , n k R kT :(CRT E T_ 6@) !6@
4B 2s#
x ≡ b1 (mod n1 )
x ≡ b 2 (mod n 2 )

x ≡ b m (mod n m )
. n1n 2 … n k H > <>
H3 ºz <> 3! RP. nk ! 3 # <
> ) RP. :
BX %SP
PvT
kT .4B -> x,y 2) ~# .
B
x ≡ y ≡ bi (mod n i ), i = 1, 2,… , k
-Bv Y) ³ ³. ³. )
P+ n i < &, .x–y xO Q+"J n i 2s# i=1,2,..,k <, kT
* x–y Q+" n1n 2 … n k ci *z QAOI kT .> =3: A+" AB
x ≡ y (mod n1n 2 … n k )
. n1n 2 … n k H 2"1* - 2) Y)
n i Y .o"# 3! PvT 9 <h

'H
ci B1J 2?
\B
"© < 3! PvT
i=1,2,..,k l>
M i = n1 … n i −1n i +1 … n k
!3 i <, * .i <, nk (M i , n i ) = 1 kT . n i ; 3+" /I 3 M i 2) Y)
lm x i jhi
M i x i ≡ 1 (mod n i )
2) % .3!3 n i S M i gI 3, 3 x i 2) Y)
x = M 1x 1b1 + M 2 x 2b 2 + + M k x k b k
x ~3B . x ≡ bi (mod n i )

Y <> N ) PvT %O, Pv .4B <> <.

M 1x 1b1 + M 2 x 2b 2 + + M k x k b k ≡ bi (mod n i )
j ≠ i <, M j x j b j ≡ 0 (mod n j ) kT . i QSH + 1 > < Q+" n i

2s# N
M i x i bi ≡ bi (mod n i )
٤٦
. bi ≡ bi (mod n i ) M i x i ≡ 1 (mod n i ) -"1* /' J =3: 9 3A# jhi D1*
.
B RP.J 4B <> x kT
j'3 W. H3

1 "1*
` D*J
BX %SP
B
, ?*J
""> %1 % #
.;1 4 < CRT E ! VT
"" 4u*+ L

»#,*
* H"* : ^
x ≡ b (mod m )
.<h <S 4B (7
x ≡ c (mod n )
.<h
S ms − nt = c − b
* 3O
(5
. b ≡ c (mod (m , n )) (r
> < 2) Y) x ≡ y (mod lcm (m , n )) 2s# 4B <> 20. & x,y 2 kT 4 <,z
. lcm (m , n ) ci *z LI H
2*Bv N*X>) kT &, ) RS KP Q ª: B A J KP &
: *# = :!#
kT CH) ;"P +£ NJ kT I µ0v ;"P H) NJ kT -*I ;"P v0v N*X>) kT > ;"P
.q
+ Y KP Q. %e NB ;"P 0# P: NJ kT ) +£ ;"P *: NJ
* 4B <. *O NJk kT .KP x &,
x = 1 (mod 2)
x = 2 (mod 3)
x = 3 (mod 4)
x = 4 (mod 5)
x = 5 (mod 6)
x = 0 (mod 7)
A H" * 2) 3

A \[! &
"1 nk CRT 4 u*:
`+ <>
³. ³. P+
) H ) 23,J 2) E¥ CRT DP1 %, .=a)
"© <
] ~B:
.>
AI ) & K > W n B D"h* f
R kT I) V > &, n
hhi V 23,J
hhi
..
23,J B N j'
Ay &,
:+
..
.
. > &, n
hhi
. 23,J
hhi
+

VT 4B KOuB * x ≡ 11(mod12)

x = 4 (mod 5)
x = 0 (mod 7)
x = 11 (mod 12)
n .³. ³. P+

) n1 = 5, n 2 = 7, n 3 = 12 f )
M = 420, M 1 = 84, M 2 = 60, M 3 = 35

<m nk 5 H M 1 = 84 x 1 gI 3, -B
84x 1 = 1(mod 5)
VT
X*° * 5 ;
+" <P" 80 80+4 VT x 1 < [!
4x 1 = 1(mod 5)
. x 1 = 4 2) *B NB
3 < kT . x 2 = 2, x 3 = 11 2)
z
"1
x=84(4)(4)+60(0)(2)+35(11)(11)
Q: 3S 84, 60, 35 23 & O*: VT + HX*a n M=420 H 3 <
% /+ & A#> &, > M OI & 23,* ) W M
x=84(15+1)+0+35(120+1)
x=84(15)+84+35(120)+35
kT M OI l. W &
x=84+35=119
.*O N, KP & <S 3 119 kT
2 & < nk o"# > H " N 43+" & <S) %SP 2)
`+
P© & :=a)
"©
OI & [ 2,3,4,5,6, & 0 OI & x+1 jPX x KP VT 1
#'s kT .6 VT
٤٨
.1 H " 7
>
OI 3 2 B 2,3,4,5,6 ci *z LI 3 60
l> /31 D"h* V
U & 7 ; N*+S B 1 HS %S %1
120=2(60)=120=119+1=7(17)=1
.E"J KP 3 x=119 3 /31 kT
-B Y) ¬ 2) nB /31 4 <,z jhi f CRT 9,
x = 3 (mod 24)
x = 9 (mod 30)

x = 3 (mod 24)
x = 8 (mod 30)
q<h <S f A) <h <S
?]U
* 4B <> *
3x = 5 (mod 23)
5x = 7 (mod 24)
7x = 3 (mod 25)
Quadratic residue mod n )1 T1G6 T_ 9-?

jhi ! a ≡/ 0 (mod n ) 2 kT n H quadratic residue %J x a 2) W3"
quadratic %SP %J f a 2) W3" x <. !3 M kT . x 2 ≡ a (mod n ) lm x
.nonresidue
. H %* %SP k 0 < a < 8 C ! :!#
H %SP E+ } VT 5 & C : <
12 ≡ 1 (mod 8), 22 ≡ 4 (mod 8), 32 ≡ 1 (mod 8), 42 ≡ 0 (mod 8)
52 ≡ 1 (mod 8), 62 ≡ 4 (mod 8), 7 2 ≡ 1 (mod 8)
H %SP
J f }|{r5 2s# * H %J x AB > <, t 7& o"# kT

>0 .{ & ci N*S 0a ! x Y) 31 M 52 , 62 , 7 2 2) > .

*
"" A
1, 2,… , p − 1 C p H %J %S <. G 1 ≤ a a ¥ :k @ê
2 &,
a 2 ≡ ( p − a )2 (mod p )
W3> ¹B*
* %S 3P
** kT .  p / 2 VT 1 & C 2) %O, Y) LXB %O*,B#
& [J &# # p 2 kT p / 2 =  p / 2  & %S 3P [J &# ! p 2 kT * . p / 2
. ( p − 1) / 2 =  p / 2
K 1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 13, 15, 16 % 17 H
* %S 3P ; <X >)
.1, 4, 7,9,10,13,16 % 7 H
* %S 3P ; <X
. x 2 + 15x + 1 Q+" 7 <· G 1 ≤ x ≤ 100 lm x

hhX ! :5#

"1*
<> %
31 :<
x 2 + 15x + 1 ≡ 0 (mod 7)
2) "1* © 23 S &# 14x ≡ 0 (mod 7) 2)
x 2 + x + 1 ≡ 0 (mod 7)
& h* 7 ; x 2 + x + 1

+S %S 2) 0 ≤ r < 7 l> x = 7q + r
+"
H 3a &
2 nk r %SP
x 2 + x + 1 = (7q + r ) 2 + (7q + r ) + 1 = 7 m + r 2 + r + 1
o"# 7 ;
+" <P" JB 2) B: . o"# x= 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, ; / 2) %O, n
kT .t ) 5 %SP G nJ o"# % W3 kT .x=2, x=4 B
%
31 W3 kT
2,9,16, 23, …, 93,100
4, 11,19,26,…., 88, 95
٥٠
x 2 ≡ a (mod n ) Y# ) p 2 kT N s# §a <,z o"# -> ! B ) W. & >0
-> ) <> 9 x 2 ≡ a (mod p )

2s# (a, p ) = 1 Y# ) p 2 kT :!^
.pH -"1* f o"#
2) j' 2 kT . (−b ) 2 ≡ a (mod p ) * b 2 ≡ a (mod p ) kT
<> b 2) ~# :2?
KSBJ b 2 ≡ 0(mod p ) * p | b 2) b 2b ≡ 0(mod p ) 2s# b ≡ −b (mod p )
~# -> & .) !3 N ) 2 RP.B: .n H -"1* f {b , −b } - kT . (a, p ) = 1 2
kT .n H -"1* f -> c 2 ≡ a (mod p ) b 2 ≡ a (mod p ) 2)
c 2 − b 2 ≡ (c − b )(c + b ) ≡ 0(mod p )
. {b , p − b } <S ) {b , −b } o"# 20>
kT c = −b NB p | c + b kT
jhX . (a, p ) = 1 Y# ) p &, :(Euler’s Criterion 6S$ )1) 6@
p −1
. a 2 ≡ 1(mod p ) o"# kT kT p H %J %S a
x 2 ≡ a (mod p )
kT p H %J %S a 2) ~# .o"# > · Pvs %O*,B: :2?
b p −1 ≡ 1(mod p ) f#
& * (b , p ) = 1 2s# (a , p ) = 1 ) p 2) .b &, 0>
kT b 2 ≡ a (mod p ) &,
p −1 p −1
a 2
≡ (b 2 ) 2
≡ b p −1 ≡ 1(mod p )
o"# kT kT p H %J %S 9 a jhX . (a, p ) = 1 Y# ) p &, :9s
p −1
. a 2 ≡ −1(mod p )
./H* * :2?
Legendre symbol )X `) =-?

a
:%   Legendre symbol HBZ [H jhi a Y# ) p &,
p
 0 if p | a
a 
  =  +1 if p /| a and for some integer x , x ≡ a ( mod p )
2
 p   −1 if there is no such x .

a a a
nk   = −1 )   = +1 2s# (a, p ) = 1 2 kT T .a Q+" p 23, B   = 0 kT
p p p
.n H %J %S 9 ) nH %J %S a 2 kT E+>
:)X `) hUE* +k
HBZ [
*
\X &
 −1  p −1
+1 p ≡ 1(mod 4)
  = ( −1) 2
= (7
 p  −1 p ≡ 3(mod 4)
2 p 2 −1
+1 if p ≡ ±1 ( mod 8 )
  = ( −1) 8
= (5
p −1 if p ≡ ±3 ( mod 8 )
a  b 
  =   2s# a ≡ b (mod p ) 2 kT (r
p p
 a2 
  = +1 2s# (a , p ) = 1 2 kT (t
 p 
a p −1
.(N\* ) H 4 u*: &?J) .   ≡ a (mod p ) 2s# Y# ) p 2 kT ({
2
 p
 ab   a  b 
. a , b -hhi Y nk   =    
I
i D"F HBZ [H (|
 p   p  p 
.! <PS & RB )

1: 3 RS
*
B
p , q 2 kT :(The Law of quadratic reciprocity T1G6 R_ ) !6@
2s# -O*¤ -# -) &
 p  q  p −1 q −1
⋅
   = ( −1) 2 2
 q  p 
2
q 
<,z
B
S0
* &,   = 1 2)
p
p p −1 q −1
⋅ q 
  = ( −1) 2 2
 
q  p
5
.   E+>`# Y# ) p ≠ 5 2 kT :!#
 
q
2) ) > :<
p
p −1 5 −1
⋅ 5 5
  = (−1)  = 
2 2
5 p p

5
x 9 23, 5 ; %J %S p 23, h* nk  
# %O,
p
 
# kT
5   q 
.o"# 1,2 Y)   = 2 VT 1 & CJ %O, 5 H %J %S <. G h* .%J
5
2
12 ≡ 1(mod 5), 22 ≡ 4(mod 5)
٥٢
.   = +1 2s# p = 5k ± 1 H3X ; p 2 kT * 5 H %J %S o"# 1, 4 & 0 kT
p
5
. p = 5k ± 2 2 kT   = −1 * 5H %J %S 9 2, 3 0 <"
p
5  
 p +2 
5  5 
.   = (−1)  
2) VT <X 2) C1*+ Y# 4) %! k (3 W3> H 3 & [ :
>0
 p 
2) RPv`# Y# ) p ≠ 3 2 kT :5W.

 p +1
3  6 
  +1 if p ≡ 1 or 11( mod12 )
  = (−1) =
p −1 if p ≡ 5 or 7 ( mod12 )
3 p −1
.   = (−1) 2   B %*
P* 23 S & :<iO*
"
* /H* ; u %1B:
p
p 3
.-1 0 ) 1 N# - 0 2 o"# kT kT 1 Y+ & 1
p −1
. p ≡ 1(mod 3) o"# kT kT   = 1 I) . p ≡ 1(mod 4) o"# kT kT (−1) 2 = 1 2) Q
p
3  
p −1
(−1) 2
= −1 Nz
"1 . p ≡ 1(mod12) o"# kT kT <> 4B
BX %SP
4 u*:
. p ≡ 11(mod12) 3 4B <> p ≡ 2(mod 3) p ≡ 3(mod 4) o"# kT kT   = −1

p
3  
Jacobi symbol J4a `) >-?

<ih 3*, Y# n = p1α p 2α … p kα 2 ks# .HBZ [ QJ   g3! [H ?*
1 2 k
a
n  
2s# jhi a
N 3 =3S /'
α1 α2 αk
a  a   a   a 
  =      
 n   p1   p 2   pk 
 a 
<,   = 0   = 1 23, L* D# .HBZ [H & HP & 1
0 0
  C l>
n  1  pi 
. n > 1 Y#
I) .NB l DP: Y HBZ [H VT Wª g3! [H 2s# ) Y# n 23, B :@ê
& lm .n H %J %S a 23, 2) H' 9#   ≡ 1(mod n ) 2 kT N ) VT N3B* E¥
a
n  
.W.
.jhi a , b Y# n % # :J4a `) hUE*

 a  b 
  =   2s# a ≡ b (mod p ) 2 kT (7
n  n 
a a
  = 0 2s# (a , n ) > 1 2 kT   = ±1 2s# (a , n ) = 1 2 kT (5
n  n 
 2  +1 if n ≡ ±1(mod 8)
 = (r
 n  −1 if n ≡ ±3(mod 8)
 a2   ab   a   b 
  = 1 or 0 n   =     o+P
I
i (t
n   n   n  n 
 a   a   a  a 
 2  = 1 or 0 n .   =    Y# m l> 4"
I
i ({
n   mn   m  n 
 n 
m −1 n −1  −   if m ≡ n ≡ 3(mod 4)
.   =   (−1) 2 2 =   
m   n  
⋅ m
2s# -# m , n 2 kT (|
 n  m   n  otherwise
 m 
٥٤
TbQ : I/S

V > K %e 3P# )
**
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, ...
AB fP* &, %e 3P#

** > kT N -"+ & (3y & HP > < l. & *
:%
F0 = 0, F1 = 1,
Fn +1 = Fn + Fn −1 (n ≥ 1)
. Fn ¯3B ; <X AB

H ,J
S0 ;+J Fn +1 = Fn + Fn −1
S0
2s# n ≥ 1 2 kT :!j_

n
1 1   Fn +1 Fn 
  = 
1 0   Fn Fn −1 
:
*
S0
#3OX
& *B n A m A n = A m + n D"F #3OX /'
Fm Fn + Fm −1Fn −1 = Fm + n −1
Fm Fn +1 + Fn Fm −1 = Fm + n
.m RP.J C n ; %' "*: 4 u*: S0 ;

B? &,
B m = n B
ia
h
F2 n −1 = Fn2 + Fn2−1 ,
F2 n = (Fn −1 + Fn +1 )Fn
: IU S1 hUE*
(Fn , Fn +1 ) = 1, n ≥ 1
ci) k > 1 &, n (Fn , Fn +1 ) > 1 2) ~# . n = 1 B
S0
hi j' :2?
Q+" d = (Fk , Fk +1 ) 2) B *B Fk +1 = Fk + Fk −1 2) . (Fk , Fk +1 ) > 1 lm E!3 jhi
. n ≥ 1 <, (Fn , Fn +1 ) = 1 kT .KSBJ (Fk −1 , Fk ) > 1 * Fk −1
Fn | Fmn , m ≥ 1, n ≥ 1
.n ; "*: :2?
(Fm , Fn ) = (Fn , Fr ) 2s# m = qn + r m , n > 0 2 kT
¬ %e 3P# 3 %e 3P# Y ? *z Q:"
(Fm , Fn ) = F( m , n )
. m | n 2s# Fm | Fn 2 kT
(m , n ) = m * F( m ,n ) = Fm kT (Fm , Fn ) = F( m , n ) &, Fm = (Fm , Fn ) ;1 & :2?
. m | n 2) Y)
∑F
k =0
k = Fn + 2 − 1
./31 * 3,+J C Fk = Fk +2 − Fk +1 E* k > 0 <, :2?
Fn2 − Fn −1Fn +1 = (−1)n −1

kT .T n = Fn2 − Fn −1Fn +1 2) ~# :2?
Tn = Fn2 − Fn −1Fn +1 = Fn (Fn −1 + Fn − 2 ) − Fn −1Fn +1

= (Fn − Fn +1 )Fn −1 + Fn Fn − 2 = − Fn2−1 + Fn Fn − 2
= (−1)(Fn2−1 − Fn Fn − 2 ) = (−1)T n −1
Tn
:* = −1 kT
T n −1
T n T n T n −1 T
Tn = = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 2 ⋅ = (−1) n −1
T 1 T n −1 T n − 2 T1
B *B (−1) n % + 1 ± l> -#1 U a`
#3OX
& :O6* 6y
./31
»#, % (−1) n = Fn +1Fn −1 − Fn2
٥٦
%
hi ; & :7EHJ
n −1
∑F
i =0
2 i +1 = F2 n
n
∑F
i =0
2i = F2 n +1 − 1
n
∑F
i =0
i
2
= Fn Fn +1
F2 n = Fn2+1 − Fn2−1 = Fn (Fn +1 + Fn −1 )

K)cQ ded :& I/S
Pythagoreans Triples
2s# c J W3©

[ Q\S l. -3© a , b 2 kT N ) ; H3.#
BJ
a2 + b 2 = c 2
.H3.# v0v A+B#
hhi ) A a, b , c R kT
lm a, b , c %\ H3.# %v0v ! o"# kT kT H3.# %v0v x , y , z %v0. :!^
. k ≥ 1 (x , y , z ) = (ka , kb , kc )
Y k 2a 2 + k 2b 2 = k 2c 2 * a 2 + b 2 = c 2 2s# %\ H3.# %v0v a, b , c 2 kT :Rk3

.H3.# %v0v x = ka, y = kb , z = kc kT . k ≥ 1 jhi
KP x = ka, y = kb , z = kc 2s# (x , y , z ) = k 2 H3.# %v0v x , y , z 2 kT +,
kT . (a, b , c ) = 1 a, b , c ∈ Z
x 2 + y 2 = z 2 ⇒ k 2a 2 + k 2b 2 = k 2c 2 ⇒ a 2 + b 2 = c 2
.%\ H3.# %v0v a, b , c kT

S0 D"h*J 2) HI 9# (a, b , c ) = 1 2 kT N ) ? *z Q:" B*: H & Q
(a , b ) = (b , c ) = (c , a ) = 1
.
*
"" -PJ H'
S0 D"¬ jPX
\ P H3.# v0v
\B %\ H3.# %v0v a, b , c 2 kT : ^

. (a, b ) = (b , c ) = (c , a ) = 1 (7
.%! a Y# a , b & & o"# > (5
.3 ;
+" <P" a , b & & o"# > (r
.4 ;
+" <P" a , b & & o"# > (t
.5 ;
+" <P" a, b , c & o"# > ({
. p | a, b lm p ) B kT . (a, b ) > 1 2) ~# . (a, b ) = 1 2) KSB* 2? RP.B: (7 :2?
(a, b , c ) > 1 kT .) p 2 p | c NB p | c 2 2) b p | a 2 + b 2 = (a + b ) 2 − 2ab kT
. (b , c ) = (c , a ) = 1 2) RP. <. .KSBJ
٥٨
Y) 2 2# a , b 23, 2)
h*: n . (a, b ) = 1 l> 2! a , b 23, 2)
h*: j' (5
A D"h* <h*+ c 2 = a 2 + b 2 ≡ 1 + 1 ≡ 2(mod 4) * x 2 ≡ 1(mod 4) D"F x Y#
.c 2
v0v B 3J (S

ci ;+J)
ci B1J G
B H3.# v0v YB [Z %AB
./H* ! Y¬ HP* &, Pi 9
B 2 .-H*a -P!3 & Y)
1: 3 H3.#
o"# >) s > t s , t -P!3 -hhi & !3 N s# H3.# %v0v (a, b , c ) 2 kT :96@
lm !
a = 2st , b = s 2 − t 2 , c = s 2 + t 2 .
. (s , t ) = 1 2 o"# kT kT %\ %v0. 23,
.jhi <> x 4 + y 4 = z 2
!3 :=6@
³. ³. P+
)
P!3
hhi ) a, b , c l> 0> <. EJ %v0v (a, b , c ) 2) ~# :2?

"+
B & %\ H3.# %v0v a 2 , b 2 , c 2s# (a 2 ) 2 + (b 2 ) 2 = c 2 & .&, ci) c 2)
lm t &, ! o"# >) s > t P+ 2) s , t -P!3 -hhi B
a 2 = 2st , b 2 = s 2 − t 2 , c = s 2 + t 2
u > v !3 b 2 + t 2 = s 2 ; =a)
B DP1* kT . (b , t ) = (b , s ) = 1 2) c > s kT
. t = 2uv , b = u 2 −v 2 , s = u 2 + v 2 lm
s = r 2 , t / 2 = w 2 n 2 s , t / 2 & 0 2s# (s , t / 2) = 1 (a / 2) 2 = s (t / 2) 2)
kT . (m , n ) = 1 u = m 2 , v = n 2 kT uv = t / 2 = w 2 &, . (r ,w ) = 1
m 4 + n 4 = u 2 +v 2 = s = r 2
.<> 9
kT .&,d E!3 ci) c 2) ~O KSB (m , n , r ) kT r ≤ s < c &,
:7m6w
a = u 2 + 2uv , b = 2v 2 + 2uv , c = u 2 + 2v 2 + 2uv 2) & `J n E!3 jhi Y (7
.H3.# %v0v
>3 <S) l. (0') >) N# H3.# %v0v (2n + 1, 2n 2 + 2n , 2n 2 + 2n + 1) %v0. (5
.J3 & >
.J3 & -J>3 <S) (0' >) l> H3.# %v0v (2n , n 2 − 1, n 2 + 1) %v0. (r
<
: Dh
Pell's Equation
R:H R# .<

;+J < C 9 jhi D l> x 2 − Dy 2 = 1
* 3O

<> (x , y ) 2 kT N j' .N#* < ;+ <
(±1, 0) < .2S B

. (± x , ± y ) n,#

D© & W3> ¥T C1*+ x 2 = 1 + 2 y 2 <,z x 2 − 2 y 2 = 1 <

BP* kT :W.
AB W3> B:
"1 .< C 1 + 2y 2 <· G y = 1, 2, 3,… Q" lhP
(3, 2), (17,12), (99, 70),…
- " .fci ` W3> \ B 9 =a) < C & W ; \ 9 &,
(x , y ) 2 kT N W3 & %\] BA# <> x 2 − Dy 2 = 1 <
< B*# = N ) f#
2s# x 2 − Dy 2 = 1 lm
12 = (x 2 − Dy 2 )2 = (x 2 + Dy 2 ) 2 − D (2xy ) 2
.
<> (x 2 + Dy 2 , 2xy ) 2) Y)
]G 18 TUGV ]B

(a , b ) < x) H3X .%:: < ;+ (1, 0) < f x 2 − Dy 2 = 1 <
E!3 <> ci)

" -J H %:: <h . a < x , b < y 2s# (x , y ) a¡ <> Y 2 kT %::) <> ;+
.
*
B -PJ <
W3>
& %\] x 2 − Dy 2 = 1 <

2s# < C 9 E!3 jhi D 2 kT :!6@

*
cX ;1 n ≥ 1 (x n , y n ) 4 < . x , y > 0 Y) (x , y )
P!3 W3
x n +1 = x 0 x n + Dy 0 y n
, (x 1 , y 1 ) = (x 0 , y 0 ).
y n +1 = y 0 x n + x 0 y n
.%:: < 3 (x 0 , y 0 ). l>
:% 4 < ¥
B &
· =a)
ci B
٦٠
1
x n = [(x 0 + y 0 D ) n + (x 0 − y 0 D ) n ]
2
1
yn = [(x 0 + y 0 D ) n + (x 0 − y 0 D )n ]
2 d
.< C 23,J G

.. C !) :!#
3 ¯3B %.. J :<
n (n + 1)
Tn = 1 = 2 + + n =
2
<
<X o+P* T x &
K3* .T x = y 2 lm T x ¬ 3 /31
x 2 + x = 2 y 2 ⇒ 4x 2 + 4x = 8 y 2 ⇒ (2x + 1) 2 − 8 y 2 = 1

"+
S0 & . (3,1) %:: < u 2 − 8v 2 = 1 <
%
1
u n = [(3 + 8) n + (3 − 8) n ]
2
1
vn = [(3 + 8) n + (3 − 8) n ]
2 8
kT
1 1
2x n + 1 = [(3 + 8) n + (3 − 8) n ] = [(1 + 2) 2 n + (1 − 2) 2 n ]
2 2
kT
2
 (1 + 2) n + (1 − 2) n 
x n =   , n is odd
 2 
2
 (1 + 2) n − (1 − 2) n 
x n =   , n is even
 2 
. 2x 2 − 6xy + 3 y 2 = −1
<> : #
.EH* <iO*
" *J. x 2 − Dr 2 = 1 H3X
<! :<
Na68
f Y3# .

"
Number Theory ( Structures, Examples and Problems)By Titu. Andreesco

104 Problems in Number Theory, Titu. Andreescu, Leo Moser.
An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers
Number Theory background, Zeev Rudnick, 2002.
Diophantine Equations, Titu. Andreesco, and Dorin Andrica.
http://en.wikipedia.org
http://www.mathlinks.ro
http://www.mathramz.com

Numbertheory 2

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+,S $ hUE*

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6[$ a$` %

.-** -# & C <i> & HP 2n 2) - n ∈ Z + &, :7W.

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]L g1L8$ ]L NG68

..2 34% 5678 +, -!

q (n , n + 1) = 1 \ k . n ∈ Z &, :7EHJ

34% 5678 +, hUE*

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d 2 | a = qb + r <. . d 1 | d 2 2s# d 1 | r = a − qb 2) . d 2 = (b , r ) d 1 = (a , b ) ~# (

. (450, 600) !) :7W.

Bézout i$`G GH

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6:0% 5678 ;<8 hUE*

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2s# (a, b ) = d 2 kT :7j_

$% % =-!

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2s# a , b > 0 2 kT : .. n ..2 lG$ m lG _e1

Division Algorithm ' ()* >-!

.remainder %SP ;+ r quotient

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b v,, @ C % ]w

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n p1a , p1b & LI 23, p1

$% % C hUE*

$% % C 6@ -

.%' ": 4 u: :2?

a . 4m + 3 H3X ; G

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TB 1S o671 +

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the ceiling function of x ;,

Legendre Formula )X :0

.720 Q+"J 3 3S ?) % :W.

3 (2n )! 2 < 3S ?

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