Ecosystems at Risk Ecosystems and their management Biophysical interactions The atmosphere * Main source of climatic factors (rainfall + temperature) that impact ecosystem functioning © Temperature and rainfall determine the type of ecosystem that develops in an area and speed at which they function (rainforests dynamic due to warm/moist climate) * Source of nutrients nitrogen, carbon, oxygen and water. Circulation patterns determine the spread of these The hydrosphere Nature of water cycle determined by atmosphere, hence closely linked Water, or a lack of it is a key factor in determining the type of ecosystem that develops in an area (polar ecosystems low precipitation and extreme cold result in slow functioning) * Large bodies of water (oceans + lakes) moderate the temperatures of adjoining land masses as water heats and cools slower than land The lithosphere * Determines the nature of soils and provides habitats for decomposer organisms * Stores mineral nutrients and water within spaces between soil particles. Capacity of soil to perform these determines the nature of ecosystems (non-porous clays lead to development of wetlands) * Climatic factors affect the role of soil in an ecosystem (permafrost soils of tundra ecosystem remains frozen most of the year, hence decomposer activity is minimal and moisture unavailable) * Variations in landforms such as elevation affect ecosystems (temperature decreases with increasing altitude which alters plant communities) The biosphere * Environmental conditions enable solar energy to produce chemicals necessary for life © Two types of organisms: © Autotrophs - manufacture their own food via photosynthesis © Heterotrophs - can't make their own food Vulnerability and Resilience Causes of vulnerability* Location - latitude/distance from sea/altitude determine climate and thus nature of ecosystem. Extreme environments have highly specialized organisms, more vulnerable to change. Demand for land near large proximity of people destroys ecosystems, pollutes waters and atmosphere. * Extent - boundaries of ecosystems overlap, hence activity in one can affect the other. Ecosystems restricted to small areas are vulnerable, loss of small area results in extinction of species; large numbers of species confined to small communities. * Biodiversity ~ 3 levels occurs within and between populations of species and Favors survival of species; increases chance of characteristics that aid survival © Species: greater the species diversity, the more resilient the ecosystem. Diversity allows for the ecosystem to continue functioning if a pathway is damaged/destroyed o Ecosystem: diversity within ecosystem (habitat differences, biotic communities, variety of pathways) * Linkages - greater interdependence means greater ability to absorb change. Low levels of interdependence more vulnerable to change (main food source for whales is krill in Antarctica). Some primary consumers have highly specific food sources which makes them vulnerable to change Impacts due to natural stress * Sudden natural disasters can cause extinction of a species as they have no time to adapt (drought, flood, fire, landslide, earthquake) © Gradual stresses (climatic change, ecological succession, disease) allow for the process of natural selection as animals/plants adapt to changes © Effects of environmental stress include: © Organism - physiological/biological changes, fewer offspring © Population - increase/decrease/extinction, loss of genetic diversity 0 Ecosystem ~ disruption of energy flows, chemical cycles, simplification © E.g. Mt St Helen Eruption - flora and fauna adapted as they colonised the volcanic landscape such as Lupin, which played a key role in providing nitrogen, necessary to all plants Impacts due to human induced modifications * Human threats to biodiversity - species introduction, habitat destruction, hunting, pollution Early hunters destroyed remaining populations of megafauna Over 40 000 years of fire-stick farming in Australia gradually changed the forest ecosystem, hence fire-resistant species now dominate Humans have the ability to simplify ecosystems. Unwanted species are removed and others provided with an environment favorable for survival Nature of human-induced modifications:© Intentional - Aboriginal bush burning had long-term effects on vegetation patterns. 1991 Gulf War, oil poured into Persian Gulf. © Inadvertent - explosion of a population is compensated for by an adjustment (grasshopper explosion - food source under stress ~ reduce to sustainable level). Humans have the ability to modify ecosystems to sustain population growth. © Negligence - Minamata children poisoned by mercury in food chain, grounding of Exxon Valdez, Alaska caused environmental degradation Rate of ecosystem change is related to rapid world population growth and an increasing demand for world's resources. Population is the main cause of degradation Government encouragement of resource-based developments (mining) and cash crops results in ecosystem destruction, reduction of biodiversity, etc. Inappropriate irrigation schemes contribute to salinization, destroying the productivity of land Intensification of agriculture and fuelwood collection in marginal lands results in widespread land degradation and in some instances, desertification Harvesting of crops removes organic material that returns nutrients to the soil and the protective cover that organic matter provides the soil which prevents erosion and nutrient leaching Importance of ecosystem management and protection Maintenance of gene’ Diverse ecosystems have greater resilience and thus are able to adapt to changes. When diversity is diminished ecosystem functioning is put at risk Diversity allows a species to adapt. Organisms that survive have characteristics that help them cope with the nature of stress; pass on favorable traits Loss of genetic diversity brought about by human-induced stress (evolutionary extinction has accounted for 1 species loss per year) Utility value Everything has an existing or potential utility value or usefulness The loss of a species denies humanity a possible future source of food, medicine, chemicals, fibers or other material Australia flora and fauna contribute to the national economy through forestry, pastoral industry, fisheries, tourism, etc. Plants, animals and organisms provide medicines to cure diseases (plant extract hyoscine treats motion sickness, stomach disorders, chemotherapy side-effects) Until mid 60's synthetic poison used to remove unwanted species, however poisons were toxic, remained active in soils and killed natural predators while targeted ones developed resistance. Scientists have since found species-specific chemicals that don’t accumulateExistence value: the value a community is prepared to place on an ecosystem (National Park; cost for land and maintenance to preserve) Option value: cost of keeping the ecosystem in its natural state’ Exploiting utility value could destroy the environment if taken to extreme Intrinsic value Ecosystems have a right to exist irrespective of their utility value The biophysical environment provides inspirational, aesthetic and spiritual needs for people Aesthetic qualities valued for recreational potential (photography, bushwalking, birdwatching). Growth of ecotourism linked with growing appreciation of aesthetic qualities of environments Link between Aboriginal people and biophysical environment; regard themselves as part of the environment expressed through cultural beliefs, traditions and managed exploitation of environment. Belief they are obliged to protect and preserve the environment Intrinsic value to extreme means no or minimal human use of ecosystem Heritage value World heritage council considers natural heritage to be 'natural features consisting of physical or biological formations which are of outstanding aesthetic or scientific value’ Education has developed public support for heritage listings Preserving important elements of natural heritage for the enjoyment/ wellbeing of future generations is a responsibility Need to allow natural change to proceed Humans have an ethical responsibility to see that the diversity of life forms, an evolutionary process continues. To ensure such it is necessary to protect large areas of representative ecosystems which should: ‘© Be large enough to protect and conserve ecosystems Have boundaries that reflect environmental needs Take into account interests of local people Be well-managed and effectively resourced Be surrounded by a buffer zone where human activity is managed ° ° ° ° Evaluation of traditional and contemporary management strategies Management approaches Preservation: protection of a habitat. Involves the prevention of human activities in the area being protected Conservation: active resource management. Involves the planned use of natural resources in an effort to minimize waste and environmental damage Utilization: the replacement of an ecosystem with a human-made environment* Exploitation: ecosystems resources are used irrespective of the ecological consequences Evaluation criteria * Successful ecosystem management achieved through sustainable development; people living in harmony with nature Sustainable development incorporates: © Intragenerational equity ~ equal utilization of earth's natural resources between developed and developing worlds o Intergenerational equity - resources shouldn't be used in a way that leaves future generations in a worse position © Precautionary approach - lack of certainty shouldn't be the reason for postponing measures to prevent degradation © Biological diversity - biodiversity of life is essential for evolution and maintenance of earth's life-support systems * Strategies to address global issues include; provision of adequate resources to reduce unsustainable exploitation of ecosystems, promote management strategies to ensure availability of renewable resources, accept intrinsic value of ecosystems, education/training that promotes self-reliance ‘* Indicators of sustainability include; conservation of scarce resources, ecosystem ability to function, species diversity, prevalence of pests, resilience of ecosystem Minimizing human impacts Exclusion - excluding activities likely to have an adverse impact Action - techniques are: © No action - previous attempts failed, will recover on its own © Restoration - program of reintroduction © Rehabilitation ~ of some functions and species © Replacement - of degraded ecosystem with productive ecosystem * Education - informs people of ecosystem needs/problems and how to minimize their impact © Design - minimize impacts of stress through artificial response © Legislation - policies that permit activities and regulations in areas Overtime changes * Management strategies - contemporary view of natural world as resource to be exploited. 70's government responded to community concerns. Realization that ecosphere is interdependent system thus holistic view important as decisions in one environment affects others * Economic attitudes ~ concept that resources were worthless until humans used them. Supply of a resource give it value and demand. Late 20C begin to appreciate ecosphere was a scarce resource* Technologies - development of technologies to improve ecosystems and minimize the use of natural resources (genetically engineered crops that reduce dependence on pesticides). * Environmental attitudes - government/people discussing issues rather than addressing them. Political activists aim to increase environmental awareness and implement their environmental agenda (greens) Stockton Bight Sand Dunes ‘Spatial Patterns Located between Newcastle in the south and Port Stephens in the north Average height ranges from 15-20 m above sea level The midpoint of the bight has a latitude of 32°50'S Covers an area of 78 km? Extends parallel to shoreline for 32 km and inland for 3.5 km Top layers of dunes approximately 11 000 years old, and the layers provide records of sea level and climate changes for the past 15 000 years Biophysical interactions * Coastal dunes formed by interactions between all spheres; accretion cycle, a process that helps deposit, store and remove sand. Atmosphere Wind determines the shape and extent of coastal dunes. Sand is moved through aeolian transport processes: saltation, creep and suspension. * Saltation - sand particles moved in a current of wind by a series of bouncing movements. * Creep - larger grains of sand are moved along the ground by the impact of other grains in saltation * Suspension ~ very tiny particles carried by wind above the ground ‘Temperature and rainfall affect the types of dune vegetation. Temperature provides enough heat to dry sand so it can be transported by wind. Lithosphere Sand is crucial for the accretion cycle; sourced from weathered material (rocks) and calcium carbonate (Shells of dead sea animals). Main weathering processes; hydraulic action (high pressure hoses loosen sand particles) and abrasion (loosened particles act as sand paper loosening other particles). Sand particles then transported and deposited onto beach through water erosion. Hydrosphere Sediment comes from the Hunter River via runoff. The amount of sediment delivered is determined by climate (more rain, more sediment). Longshore drift transports sediment up the beach in a particular direction to allow the formation oflandforms in areas distant from coastal sediments. Movement of water via waves deposits or removes sand on the beach. josphere Vegetation stores and helps build sand and without coastal dunes would not have accumulated. Biogeographical processes Succession (colonization) - vegetation deposited onto berm becomes a mini dune; attracts birds which provide droppings rich in nutrients and aid plant growth, Overtime with help of wind a foredune is created and new mini dunes continue to form. With lowering sea levels the foredune becomes the hind dune (highly vegetated Sand Hill) Adjustments to natural stress ‘* Storm damage can cause major structural damage to dunes. Dunes have adjusted through vegetation succession. Pasha Bulker storm 2007 eroded 100 000 m’ of sand from Stockton. * Bush fires can be destructive however vegetation species have evolved to adjust to bush fires through propagation (fire required for seed to open, Banksia), new growth (encourage growth, Eucalyptus) and inputs in nutrient cycle (fire encourages chemical reactions that convert complex chemicals) Nature and rate of change Natural impacts * Dunes are constantly changing due to biophysical interactions. The rate of change is generally slow and gradual * Wind changes the nature of dunes as it moves the dried out particles inland constantly reshaping the topography © The rise/fall of sea levels and variations in temperature during these periods changes the location and structure of geomorphic and vegetation zones, Temperature changes the type of vegetation that covers the zone Human impacts * Aboriginal fire stick farming encouraged vegetation growth important for the stability of dunes, as well as the development of forests/etc within vegetation zones enabling other flora and fauna to thrive. © Positive European impacts include: eradication of introduced species (Bitou Bush), reduced access to parts of dunes, stabilizing the foredune, conservation and protection of threatened species * Sea wall at Bight disrupts sediment flow and prevents longshore drift, as a result the foredune area is receding. © Development of housing on dunes (Stockton Township on hind dune) resulting in habitat loss/fragmentation, weed dispersal, rubbish dumping, eteIntroduced species: rabbits; eat vegetation reducing the ground cover and exposing sand to wind erosion. Burrows also destabilize the dune structure Traditional and contemporary management practices Traditional management The Worimi people have occupied the area since the beginning of dreaming Focus on using resources in a sustainable way. Their low population levels and nomadic lifestyle didn’t place stress on the ecosystem Each member had a totem and was responsible for that animal or plant which ensured species were not over hunter or harvested They set limits on their collection of seafood to ensure the animals could maintain their numbers Certain species were only hunted at particular times so they could recover Fire stick farming occurred when there was mildew on the ground and the weather was cool to ensure they didn’t get out of control and thus preventing damage to sand dunes Contemporary management Newcastle city council actively involved in management strategies of dune restoration and stabilisation and dune protection Council helps build and stabilize the beach through the use of boulders. Protection strategies include: fenced off areas, walkways and general signage Worimi conservation lands co-management agreement in 2007. Worimi National Park will be protected and conserved however provides opportunity for sustainable visitor use. Dune protection; land use controls (local council authorize developments allowed in certain areas), fencing around dunes and fenced access ways (board and chain paths) Dune restoration/stabilization; reconstruction (machinery reshaping dunes to allow vegetation to become more established), sand fences (slow sand movement), revegetation, removal of weeds (physical, chemical) Great Barrier Reef Spatial patterns Located off the east coast of Northern Queensland Contains over 2000 individual reefs and is the largest coral reef worldwide Stretches 2300 km from Fly river, Papua New Guinea to Fraser Island Covers an area of 348 000 km? Latitude extends over 14° Biophysical interactions AtmosphereTropical cyclones shape the reef. Storm waves rip apart soft corals while hard corals are chipped and damaged. Reef system may be buried in sediment. Tropical cyclone Larry removed layers of accumulated sediment and reduced water temperature saving the reef from major bleaching. Lithosphere Reefs produce limestone weathered/redistributed to other paths of ecosystem creating new landforms. Limestone protects coral from erosion, overtime corals die but their limestone structure allows for the growth of new corals. Sediments can cloud water affecting photosynthesis as less light is penetrated. Hydrosphere Structure of the reef is that the front part absorbs most of the energy creating relatively calm water behind. Water flows towards the north for most of the year, however during summer monsoonal conditions result in a reversal of this. Reversal important to ecology of reef as northern waters bring high nutrient levels and contribute to diversity. josphere The living reef has been built by polyps containing a symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae; they mutually benefit from each other. Each coral reef begins as a single polyp. Corals release eggs and sperm in a single spawning, fertilized eggs form into larvae and settle on the skeletons of dead coral, Biogeographical processes * Invasion - crown of thorns starfish infestation. It feeds on living coral tissue by releasing digestive juices onto the coral, breaking down polyp into a ‘polyp soup’. Their juices also attract other starfish to a feeding site * Succession ~ changes in plant community overtime until it reaches a state of balance. Organisms invade/colonise/grow/reproduce/die on blank surfaces or replace plants and animals until stability reached (coral reefs) * Resilience - coral reef ecosystems have high resilience to cyclonic storm damage but low resilience to changes in environment. Coral reefs take a long time to recover from stress; low elasticity rate Nature and rate of change Natural impacts © Tropical cyclones damage coral and bring fresh water onto reef which alters salinity levels placing stress on corals/animals * Crown of thorns starfish has the potential to cause widespread degradation of reefs as it consumes large amounts of corals Human impacts * Climate change© Changing chemical structure of water and seal level rise may result in collapse of reef ecosystem © Several seabird species declining; availability of fish decreasing due to changed ocean current patterns © Turtles gender determined by temperature; higher temperature results in more females, rise in sea level reduces nesting sites * Boating and commercial shipping © Anchor damages reef coral formations and dredge up seagrass beds © 6000 commercial ships each year increase possibility of oil spill © Ballast water has potential to introduce feral aquatic species © Boats source of pollution through oil/fuel spills, rubbish and sewage * Overfishing © Commercial fishing important for Queensland communities © Local fishers aren't a major threat to reef as understand need to protect fish stocks © Illegal fishing by foreign fishing trawlers and unsustainable recreational fishing * Tourism © Development of hotels/resorts places strain on coastal environment © Tourist boats bring rubbish and potential for spills. Moorings/anchors destroy coral © Water-based activities cause breaking of corals, disruption of wildlife * Land clearing © Development on land results in increased surface runoff, more nutrients/sediment to reef and runoff of sewage and pollutants © Clearing of wetlands which were used for habitats/nurseries. Wetlands also retain freshwater preventing it from flowing on the reef and affecting salinity levels ‘Traditional and contemporary management practices Tra ional management * Given Aboriginals reliance on resources they have developed management strategies that are sustainable such as only taking enough resources to satisfy their needs * 1995 Indigenous partnerships liaison unit was established to work alongside Indigenous Australians to better manage the reef. Traditional practices are still allowed in some areas that are otherwise off limits (traditional fishing) Contemporary management © Great barrier reef marine park zoning plan developed to allow selected human activities to take place while not degrading the ecosystem * To reduce impact of anchors, installation of public moorings to tie boats. The zoning plan also forbids anchoring in many parts of the reef* Tourists pay a small fee which is used to undertake education programs and manage the ecosystem © Operators of pontoons are required to complete an environmental impact statement to prevent accidents © Services assess wildlife colonies and if one appears under threat, human access is reduced or stopped and islands are now permanently closed to humans during breeding season * The reef water quality protection aims to reduce the decline in the quality of water entering the reef. They will achieve this by developing better managed river catchments, farm management systems and a Queensland wetlands program (research, protect and rehabilitate wetland ecosystems) Urban Places World cities Nature, character and spatial distribution World city: a city that has global and national significance Emergence of world cities; product of globalization of economic activity Globalization of driven by: technological developments, deregulation of financial markets, emergence of TNC's as key players in global market * Developments contributed to rapid expansion in world trade and relocation of labour-intensive manufacturing to developing world ‘© World cities important centers of international finance, transnational/ international business services and link regional/national/international economies into the global economy * Subsystems within global network include: Asian, North America, West European, Southern Hemisphere * Johannesburg only world city located in Africa; marginalization within world economic system a result of continents poorly developed formal economy Role of world cities * They have become: © Control and command centers for global economy (distribution of headquarters of major TNC's) Preferred location for finance and service firms Sites of production for new, innovative industries (information) Markets for products and innovations produced A focus for media outlets with an international reach Powerful centers of cultural authority © Home of major sporting events * Cultural authority - comes from ability to generate/spread ideas/values and influence specific cultural processes. Coverage of major events and host cities seen worldwide (Olympic games, FIFA world cup) e0000 Operation of global networks* Flow of capital, information, goods and services and people are indicators of the relationships between cities © Capital flow between developed and developing economies leads to factory closures and unemployment in old economies and the opposite in the new * Global hierarchy of cities: functional hierarchy ranging from world cities to national, regional and local scales © Global centers; world accumulation, technological/financial dominance, cultural influence © National centers; national accumulation, dominance in production/ distribution of advanced goods/services, political control © Regional centers; daily decisions, local accumulation, local political influences, recipients/transmitters of cultural patterns ‘The changing role of regional cen\ mise of the small town * Telecommunications technology causing centralisation of business services. Results in: local demise of small towns and regional increase in economic activity * Economic restructuring has influenced the growth/decline of regional centers. Advantaged due to: lower operating and land costs, less waste restraints, higher productivity, less union involvement, etc. * Retail restructuring resulted in growth of regional centers at expense of smaller centers as consumers attracted to larger centers Demise of the small town © Growth of regional centers results in decline of local communities and country towns © 431 centers with populations of less than 4000 will struggle to survive due to loss of necessary infrastructure to maintain a viable community ‘* Dubbo population doubled in 35 years at the expense of towns in a 100 km radius which declined or stagnated. Mega cities Nature, character and spatial distribution Mega city: large urban agglomeration of at least 8 million inhabitants By 2000 there were 25 mega cities; 19 in developing, 6 in developed Developing: overurbanization (more urban residents than economy can support) and over ruralization (more rural residents than economy can support) * Manufacturing used to promote modernization and economic growth. Developed urbanization accompanied by growth in manufacturing, developing cities lack well-established manufacturing sector * Top 5 Mega Cities as of 2015: Tokyo (35.5 mill), Mumbai (21.9 mill), Mexico City (21.6 mill), Sao Paulo (20.5 mill), New York (19.9 mill) Challenges of living in mega citiesision of shelter Demand for housing due to unstable population growth, thus poor are forced into squatter settlements or squalid slums * Scale of the problem: 0 Mexico City ~ over 50% © Delhi, India - 45-50% live in slum settlements © Cairo, Egypt - over 1 million people live in the city's cemetery * Strategies include: © Site and service projects to allow for housing with water, electricity and sanitation © Upgrading projects via installation of infrastructure schools © Core housing projects, simple concrete structures with water/toilet Water and sewage Limited supply of fresh water and inadequate sewage facilities Jakarta: 50% buy water from street vendors, 80% don’t have direct connection to a piped water system © Very little sewage is treated and left to flow into waterways (Jakarta: 12 500 kg of raw sewage generated daily and dumped into river, Cairo: 50% of sewage dumped into the Nile, a primary source of water) * Strategies promoting the recycling of waste materials contribute to a reduction in solid waste and provide a source of income for urban poor Health and nutrition Growing poverty has serious impacts on health of urban population Infectious and parasitic diseases associated with overcrowded housing, inadequate water/sewage infrastructure, uncollected garbage, etc * Food contamination associated with lack of facilities/hygiene conditions for food preparation and storage contribute to illness (diarrhea) and premature death of children. Rats, fleas and bubonic plague evident in some mega cities Challenge is meeting health needs of populations with insufficient resources available (doctors in short supply, existing hospitals overcrowded) Congestion and provision of transport infrastructure ‘* Mumbai: rapid population growth has placed a tremendous strain on transport infrastructure. Over 200 trains make over 2000 trips per day. * To address problems the Mumbai urban infrastructure project seeks to improve the efficiency and capacity of the suburban railway service * 8 lane bridge to divert and carry traffic over the sea Responses to challenges * Community based projects central to improvements such as mobilization of interests and local resources and implementation of improvement programs* NGO's mobilize communities to safeguard and improve quality of urban environment (Bangkok magic eyes anti-litter campaign to persuade older children and parents to keep the city clean) * Environmental management action plans aim to reverse the process of environmental degradation caused by rapid urbanization, pollution and neglect, Used in Beijing, Mumbai and Colombo Urban dynamics Urban dynamics of change Suburbanisation * Suburbanization: movement of people, employment and facilities from inner city to outer urban areas * Directly linked with improvements in transport technology (automobiles allowed for urban sprawl) * Factors that drove suburbanisation; government policies/programs promoted low density suburban housing, rising standards of living enabled families to move to detached suburbs Exurbanisation * Exurbanisation: people move from the city to rural areas but maintain an urban way of life via long-distance commuting or technology Perimetropolitian area around Sydney closer to outer edge/exurban areas Main reasons for moving to exurbia include higher quality, larger dwellings and rural lifestyle Counterurbanisation and decentralization * Counterurbanisation: reversal of rural to large city movement * Decentralization: dispersal of activities and people from large urban centers to smaller urban centers/rural communities * In some developed countries decentralization was a government policy and companies that relocated activities were given incentives * Late 90's counterurbanisation came to an end with large metropolitan populations increasing significantly Urban consolidation * Urban consolidation: policies and programs designed to increase population densities in urban areas for more efficient use of infrastructure and to limit, urban spread in surrounding rural areas * Involves construction of medium to high den: houses © Newman perspective, arguments for: reduced oil consumption/greenhouse gases, less loss of land, accidents/traffic reduced, isolation in outer suburbs housing in already built up* Troy perspective, myths: more efficient use of land (rural areas abandoned), more affordable housing, increase residential densities * Demographic and social changes such as: ageing population, changes in types of families, later age of marriage, changing lifestyle expectations, immigration, etc, generally favor the construction of higher-density housing (retirees opting for townhouses, villas and apartments) Urban decay and renewal Urban decay: deterioration of built environment Urban renewal: redevelopment of urban area Pre 60's Sydney experienced urban decay which involved deterioration of residential areas and decline in inner city investment * Gentrification in inner cities has reversed residential deterioration via renovation and occupation of old terrace housing by higher-income earners * 50's Rhodes production of pesticides led to contamination of land. 90's southern end of peninsula rehabilitated and redeveloped. The renewed suburb contained retail, commercial and residential buildings. urban villages * Urban village: residential districts comprising a clustering of people with a common culture and forming an identifiable community * Community as a society based on shared social organization and interest (Leichhardt strong Italian presence, Double bay higher socioeconomic status groups) Spatial exclusion and the development of fortified suburbs © Spatial exclusion: protection of luxury lifestyles, resulted in restrictions in spatial access and freedom of movement of other urban dwellers e.g. walled estates, high-security suburbs * Control and regulation of land use is the means by which ‘undesirable elements’ are excluded * ‘the Manor’ gated community in Cherrybrook, Sydney People and Economic Activity Global tourism Ni jal ns and fi lirection of tourism Nature * Tourism: temporary movement of people to destinations outside their normal place of work and residence, together with the activities undertaken during their stay and facilities created to cater for them © Largest industry in the world with the number of people travelling per year expected to increase from 808 million in 2005 to 1.6 billion in 2020* Contributed to gross domestic product, employment, investment, foreign exchange and is thus a major catalyst for economic growth © Growth of tourism will place a huge demand on the biophysical and built environments and requires large investment in infrastructure Spatial patterns Western Europe and North America dominate global tourist flows Highest growth rates in Asia-Pacific region * Tourism has developed in liberal western societies and under centrally planned socialist regimes and has become an important economic sector in many developing countries Future direction * Tourism is one of the world's largest and fastest growing forms of productive activity * It will continue to grow as it is a source of employment and income, embraced by governments of all levels * Future pace and direction of tourism will depend on: © Affordability ~ prosperity to travel aligned with economic growth © Accessibility ~ transport technology development © Accommodation - destinations that best meet needs/demands © Attractions - technology develop and enhance experience «Importance of tourism within global economy will continue to grow Factors affecting tourism Biophysical and built environment © Different types of tourists place different demands on resources © Tourism industry located according to the spatial distribution of attractions and access to them, largely determined by environmental factors * Tourist behavior influenced by environmental conditions through choice of destination and length of stay Environmental conditions place constraints on types of developments Climate - for each tourist activity there is an optimal climate. It determines the length and profitability of the holiday season for resorts © Coasts, mountains and inland waterways are favorable physical features for tourism development Technological change © Transport technology has allowed for the spread of mass tourism to destinations more widespread © Transport developments affect the profitability of operations, influence consumer choice and determine which destinations can be reached within acceptable time and cost restraints© Airbus A380 a new generation of super jumbos will have a capacity of 555 passengers and range of 15 000 km Social influences © Leisure and tourism are important in the quality of life and is a restoration of overall wellbeing and a means of self-realisation * Increasing participation of women in workforce has boosted tourism, as two-income families have a relatively high discretionary income and travel more frequently Economic factors * For many countries tourism is the biggest source of foreign exchange * Major source of employment with large numbers of people working in the provision of accommodation, catering, transport, entertainment, etc * Tourism seen as important instrument for facilitating economic growth * Emergence of affluent society with high discretionary incomes creates demand for tourism/travel Cultural influences © Features of historical or cultural interest are a powerful attraction (antiquities, famous ruins, temples, cathedrals, art galleries, etc) © Major forms of culture: © Forms of culture that are inanimate or don’t directly involve human input (architecture, historical buildings) © Forms of culture reflected in normal daily life of a destination © Forms of culture that involve particular events (music festivals) © Native cultures may be weakened or destroyed by impacts of tourism. Political influences © The impact of tourism on local communities, regional and national economies and international relationships requires government involvement * Extent to which government becomes involved depends on approach, role of planning in economy, breadth of economy, dependence on certain industries and accumulated impact of development on physical/cultural environment * Governments determine expenditure on infrastructure and the business side of tourism (tax, labor regulation) Relationship between production and consumption * Tourism consists of 3 major components: country of origin of tourists, tourist destinations and routes travelled between these locations * Tourism-generating areas represent homes of tourists. Factors that stimulate demand for tourism include location, socioeconomic status, demographic characteristics* Tourism-destination areas attract tourists by offering what isn't available at home * Tourism services delivered directly to consumers while on holiday; while they can take souvenirs home, most goods and services are consumed in the place where they are offered Changing nature of the production process * 3 major factors: wealth of industrial society, developments in transport and organization and servicing of travel * Growth of tourism associated with rising living standards Internationalization of tourism © Technological advances made travel safer, more comfortable and more accessible * Air travel more affordable and accessible means travelers no longer limited to shorter distances covered on land * More countries participate in international travel, thus range of destinations increased and now encompasses almost all countries Organizational developments * Organization comes from government or private sector Concerned with structures, issues and approaches of tourism Governments established national tourism organization to promote tourism. Responsibility varies; international promotion/marketing or domestic regulation/promotion © Private sector characterized by productive activities and type of enterprises. Variety of large-scale (multinational corporations) and small-scale (sole proprietor) operations ‘* Growth in tourism companies arises from competitive nature of markets/destinations and drive for greater market share Changing consumer products and markets © Shift towards active holidays and more energetic experiences * Trend towards experience orientated holidays with an emphasis on action, adventure, fantasy, nostalgia and exotic experiences Impacts of changing patterns of consumption * Tourism is driven by individual consumer decisions Evolving tourism product © Concept of buying a package of travel, accommodation and ancillary services was established in 60's Western Europe. Demand came from convenience of buying a single travel product* Package deals significantly cheaper bringing holidays abroad within the reach of a much larger section of the market * Consumers more selective and actively planning own travel. Prefer to individualize itineraries and are seeking to fulfill specific desires © Opting for shorter holidays in individual regions, giving more time to experience what their destination has to offer * More people pursuing recreational activities that involve interaction with environment (trekking, scuba diving) © Cultural tourism growing with interest in cultural heritage of indigenous people and involvement in educational tours, festivals, pilgrimages, etc * Tourists spending holiday in countryside seen as retreat from urban living pressures, chance to take advantage of peace/relaxation country life offers Growing market diversity * People more likely to travel to express own individuality; seeking individualized experiences Changes in ownership, decision making and control Increasing scale of production Profit motive encourages development of large-scale operations Accommodation sector; Westin US largest worldwide, 547 rooms per hotel Large hotel groups can exploit economies of sale while small independents can compete on the basis of cost, individuality or personalized service * Minimum capital requirements for successful operation and to compete in global market major investments required * Ease of entry into areas such as souvenir shops, restaurants, etc Horizontal and vertical tegration © Growth in scale of operation and increases in concentration of ownership and control * Companies buy a company like themselves (horizontal) or a company that they supply/supplied to (vertical) * Decisions driven by: scope for greater economies, ability to control/develop inputs and markets more thoroughly and opportunity to operate profitably Transnational operations Integration in tourism led to multinational or transnational operations Patterns of multinational development varies (UK corporations most active in Europe, Africa and Caribbean) * Growth of TNC; global market provides greater market potential and opportunities to secure competitive advantage Data gathering and industry support* World travel and tourism council aims to convince governments of contribution of tourism to economic development, promote expansion of markets and eliminate barriers to growth * World tourism organization aims to promote and develop tourism as a means of stimulating business and economic development ‘Technological change Consumer choice * Internet-based technologies increased information available and allow for a virtual experience of place to gain impression of what they may experience Transport technologies * Aircraft developments to have increased capacity and more fuel efficient Government investment in infrastructure has made land transport faster and more competitive * Sea transport one of the fastest growing sectors of international tourism, more ships under construction to meet demand Political and economic factors * Governments actively promote tourism and take steps to coordinate public and private tourism-related activities to foster growth Developing countries, tourism accelerates economic development Governments encourage development of international tourism to further political objectives Changing political and economic environment of late 20C © Collapse of Soviet Union and end of cold war opened up large parts of Eastern Europe for international travel * New era characterized by increased international communications, greater freedom to travel, more international trade and more investment across international borders Nature of government involvement * Establishment of national and regional tourism organizations designed to influence the path of tourism. Role restricted to regulation and promotion of tourism domestically or internationally © Ease of access attracts tourists. Visa processing/customs clearance if time consuming or complicated will impact tourism. Visa-free entry or selective visa-free arrangements between countries is major stimulus * Governments responsible for provision of transport infrastructure, equipment and maintenance. * Regulation involves safety, zoning, consumer/environmental protection, price/quality control and ensure services available in remote locations* Economic policies have direct/indirect implications. Restrictive policies with high inflation limits spending on travel Issues surrounding the future of tourism as an economic activity ‘* 2 major issues that threaten tourism: environmental degradation and undesirable social impacts Tourism and the environment * Tourism developments located near features of biophysical environment, however exploitation often places heavy strain on natural resources * Without careful management can lead to deterioration of air and water quality, damage to vegetation, removal of species, loss of natural habitat * Australian environmental impact assessment identifies consequences for biophysical environment of a development Social impacts of tourism Social contact between tourists and residents can be mutually beneficial Residents gain understanding of visitors customs/values/culture * Tourists gain a better understanding of the host country and its culture and traditions © May promote mutual misunderstanding, hostility and social tension as residents lifestyles affected by demands of tourists * Social policy and the provision of community services must become an integral part of tourism planning Perisher Blue ski resort Nature of economic enterprise * Perisher Blue Pty Ltd is the owner and operator of Perisher Blue Ski resort, a recreation and hospitality enterprise * Largest facility in southern hemisphere, incorporating 7 major peaks, 50 ski lifts and a total capacity of 52 903 people ‘* Company formed in 1995 and is a multifaceted enterprise focusing on snow sports operations, railway operations, lodgings and supply of food/beverage Locational factors Located in Kosciuszko National Park in the Snowy Mountains, NSW Linked to Jindabyne, the nearest urban center, 30 km distance Location of ski resorts determined by elevation, latitude and the impact these have on climate Perishers precipitation is mostly snow, which covers usually 4 months Location influenced by potential market and availability of labor force Alpine resorts developed due to construction of snowy mountains scheme which opened up the area through access roads, ensures laborEcological dimensions © Existence of Perisher depends on appropriate mix of topographical and climatic features, especialy elevation and seasonal spread of snow Ecological sensitivity and management responses Impacts include: construction of resort facilities, clearing and preparation of ski runs, effluent and solid waste disposal, compaction of snow by groomers and snow riders which impacts vegetation * Threatened animal species ~ pygmy possum; programs to monitor/protect (prohibit access to habitat, construct small animal crossings under ski runs) © Areas of high ecological importance left intact, protected by temporary signage and rope. Vegetation protected by layer of snow, snow groomers are able to push snow over areas of thinning snow Water supply © Relatively small catchment area results in critical shortage of water * Snowmaking uses hundreds of megalitres of water per season * Snowy mountains scheme allows Perisher to borrow water Pollution * Perisher range master plan (sewage treatment) allows for a decanted aeration treatment process that enables full assimilation of treated water to be put back into natural environment * Polluted car park runoff can impact water quality in nearby streams Climate constraints * Sustainability of Perisher depends on climate * Global warming could result in retreat of snowline and projected that climate change may result in reduced snowfall and shorter snow season © Perisher applying precautionary principle and intergenerational equity; responsible management/protection of environment for future generations * Include: harmonic filters on chairlifts to reduce energy consumption, fuel management system to monitor consumption, increasing energy efficiency through designing better equipment, improving water efficiency, replanting disturbed areas with native species, using green energy to power ski lifts and native revegetation program to rehabilitate areas post 2003 bushfires * Relying on technology that produces snow in warmer conditions Establishing ecological dimensions * Perishers very existence depends on the appropriate topographical and climate features * Development and operation has a substantial impact on the biophysical environmentBalance between commercial interest and ecological integrity is central to process of environmental management No further spatial expansion can occur (redevelopment in existing areas) Ultimate future of resort determined by ecological constraint outside its control: global warming Internal and external linkages Market linkages Perisher market leader at local and national scale Perisher significant local employer with major involvement in regional economy. 50% of operating costs spent on labor Significant amount of money fed into local economy, also money flows into adjacent urban centers (Jindabyne) Planning and development State government sets parameters in which resort operates National parks and wildlife service manages the resort leases, natural and cultural values of the lease areas, public health and issues related to impacts of resort. Responsible to provide: water supply, sewage treatment, access roads, recycling, snow grooming on internal roads, etc Department of planning guides planning and development in resorts and administers development control Alpine resorts plan guides future planning management of the resorts jows of people, goods, services and ideas Tourists - day visitors (local) and those who stay for several days (holiday) Lodge owners/managers - stay during winter Ski/snowboard instructors - 400 per season, from around the world Food and beverages - supplied by wholesalers from nearby urban centers Retail activities - general outlets, equipment hire, clothing, souvenirs Service from nearby urban centers - post office, bank, emergency services Medical facilities - Medical Center, hospitals, emergency rescue helicopter Entertainment - night clubs, hotels, bars, restaurants, cinema Administration - national parks and wildlife service Transport - skitube, bus services, taxis Single integrated resort incorporating four interlinked resort nodes: Perisher, ‘Smiggin Holes, Guthega and Blue Cow; integrated ski circuit Ideas and technological inputs Heavy reliance on technological development Snow groomers are essential component of resorts infrastructure Snow making equipment Lifting equipment supplied by doppelmayr Garaventa group Equipment and clothes imported* Information technologies (snowcams, websites) play an important role in the commercial operations of Perisher Flow of capital * Capital required to construct infrastructure is enormous, running costs are very high and importing of equipment is expensive * Economic enterprise possible with backing of large companies: Consolidated Press Holdings, the Packer family controlled company and Transfield Effects of global changes in economic activity on enterprise Global climate change © Could result in disappearance of natural snow from all but highest peaks of mainland * Reduction of snowpack would disrupt ecological processes as acts as protective barrier to most human/physical impacts. Affect distribution of species, populations and communities * Seeking to transform operations from core winter business into all-season resort by providing a range of activities thus diversifying experiences * Improvements in snowmaking technology will allow more artificial snow to be made at higher/humid temperatures; comparative advantage Increasing global competition Resorts have to differentiate according to needs and desires of consumers Perisher has to compete with national and international cold-destination resorts as well as national and international warm-destination resorts © Cheap airfares have enabled an increasing number of people to travel to overseas winter sport destinations for a broader experience * Perisher in response will construct a new village center and improved mountain facilities with the ultimate aim of transforming into an all-year-round resort