gECTION No, PHARMACY ORIENTATIO PHARMACY -> Mothey of edi ANC Pharmacy is derived from a Greek word “Pharmakon” Which means drug, remedy or medicine, Pharmacy is.an ancient, noble and life $ i Saving Profession. It is also called mother of medicine, The term “Pharmacy” can be defined in following three ways: 2% es “Pharmacy is an art & science of preparing from natural & synthetic Sources Suitable & convenient material used in the treatment and prevention of. diseases” r OR 7 _ “Pharmacy can be defined as the knowledge of identification selection, pharmaceutical action, preservation, combination, analysis and standardization of Ns drugs and medicines.” OR “Pharmacy also includes pro; er and safe distribution of drugs and medicines by the prescriptions of physician, dentist, and veterinarian & in some instances it may legally be done, dispensed & sold directly to the patient.” “Pharmacy is a health service. It is a system, which generate knowledge about sickness & health of Patient. It also takes knowledge from other sciences, arts & organizes and then used such knowledge & technologies for the Preparation of products.»? ( PHARMACIST ) A person who qualifies a degree of pharmacy is called Pharmacist. Pharmacist is only man, who is expert on drugs & knows the spirit of drugs, Its his/her responsibility to handle drugs & also to know all about drugs. In order 10 provide sufficient information about drugs to other health practitioner or to people on large scale, - ‘Scanned with CamScannerPharmacist is the only member of health professional _team, who has educational background & experience to serve as therapeutic consultant. Pharmacist is an important source of information not only the health professional team (Physician, Dentist, Nurse, Veterinarian, etc) but also to the public on the matter relating to the selection & use of various dosage forms of drugs 7. ‘ ft tt ox ob pysician jie Mpuysican, 7 Oe CRPSHO eg 2 IS A person who possesses a degree of MBBS is called physic He is the person, who is responsible to diagnose the disease, prescribe drugs and also interested in the effects of these drugs on the patient. either they may be therapeutically active or toxic in nature. ! A therapeutically active means treatment effect of drug\ while toxicology means poisonous or severe side effect of drugs. » =a “Therapeutic Index,= ‘Effective Dose) = _EDs» Lethal Dosesy LDso ' If therapeutic index is small, then the drug is dangerous and so must be taken under professional supervision. These are called the potent drugs. And if the therapeutic index of a drug is large, it will not toxic to health, so they are called non-potent drugs. NURSE; o- ie ; => Nurse is responsible for the patient care during administration of drug to the patient. Nurse is also responsible for the choice of dosage form, selection of route of administration & toxic manifestation. “PHARMA, CEUTICAL EDUCATION; , Pharmaceutical education in Pakistan is given in eight institutions, which give degree of pharmacy and further, education too, Out of eight institutions, five are faculties and rests of three are departments. ‘ 9 ‘Scanned with CamScanners#] Name of Institution Year 1 | Faculty of Pharmacy, Punjab University, Lahore 1948 2 | Faculty of Pharmacy, Karachi 1964 3. | Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sindh, Jamshoro “| 1974 -~|4 | Faculty of Pharmacy, Gomal University, D.-Khan “| 1975 5 | Faculty of Pharmacy, Baha-ud-Din Zakria University, | 1976 Multan Department of Pharmacy, Queeta — v 1980 ~ |7 | Department of Pharmacy, University of Peshawar -” | 1982 8 | Department of Pharmacy, Islamia University, | 1990 Bahawalpur COURCES OF PHARMACY; ‘There are two types of courses studied in pharmacy. A. Pre requisite Courses B. Professional Courses A, PREREQUISITE COURSES; Those courses, which are other than professional courses, are called pre requisite courses. ~— Such courses provide background knowledge for professional pharmacy courses. They included: it Physical Science ii” Biological Scie e iii. Mathematics, Statistics, computer science ete B. PROFESSIONAL COURSES; Beside prerequisite courses some other combination of subjects are taught in pharmacy according to professional requirements, which make the pharmacy @ 10 ‘Scanned with CamScannerprofessional course. After completing graduation, a pharmacist can do post graduate & doctorate in such subjects. Such type of subjects includ i, Pharmaceutics ii, Pharmacology v iii, Pharmacognosy « iv. Pharmaceutical Chemistry“ v. Bio-Chemistry ~” vi. Micro-Biology N { 1; Pharmaceutics The General area of study which concerned itself with physical, chemical & biological factors which influence the formulation, manufacture, stability & effectiveness of pharmaceutical dosage form is called Pharmaceutics. It includes: : ~ a, Introductory Pharmacy ~b. Calculations -c. Pharmaceutical Preparation concern with the ist st also. concer loan iy > Pharmacognosy W perbal or ani procedures & uses of drugs will v4; Pharmaceutical Chemistry sstnon & iaie ion Pharmaceutical Chemistry is the study of eS aciples fa ta 7 id organic chemistry to pharmaceutical and relation 0} a Biochemistry _. . The study of chemistry of biological changes inside the body is known a. pharmaceutical biochemistry. / ‘ven Pharmaceutical biochemistry provides a basic knowledge of biochemicay changes during drug use & action. 6;___ Micro-Biology ; : The study of microorganism such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasite ete i said to be microbiology. PHARMACEUTICAL AGE Drugs or medicines have their active ingredient in very small quantities ic. in few milligrams. So such drug substances cannot be administered as such but they can, be combined with some other agent. Such agents are called iept ent p pharmaceutical agents. — £ i ‘The pharmaceutical agents are non-medicinal in nature. They may be one or more than one in number. They are added into drugs in order to improve pharmaceutical dosage function of pharmaceutical dosage form. These agents may be solubelize, suspend, emulsify, thicken, dilute, stable, preserve & give colour flavour & fashion to the drug or medicinal dosage forms, he way by which a drug or medicine j inistered to the nt is called ay icine is adminis patient is ca dosage form. There are many losage forms, some are tives belo v3 a + § a a Wi 1. Tablets 2. Syrups ‘Scanned with CamScannerCapsules : , Injectables Emulsions Elixirs Aerosols Suppositories, . Suspensions ~“ 10. Colliodons ete \4. 5. 6. Be 8. 9. BRANCHES OF PHARMACY Pharmacy can be divided into many sub-groups, This classification of pharmacy is based upon the matter that where pharmacist is working. Some important sub-groups are as follows: ~2* MoxseS. Ay an Qvprorkos 1) Hospital Pharmacy cay» bination of — SPedcdaad 2) Retail Pharmacy Sciew¥ee ~ S\uiprned arch {undefons, 3) Clinical Pharmacy Veesy Quasgad and And peter Nk i aaieonuine Ai bany, 4) Industrial Pharmacy (We 5) Forensic Pharmacy CL Goud oaths Mospued myst \ehyad in Pen erdeven 1.__ HOSPITAL PHARMACY: ae re 5 The function of hospital is to provide health care to the patient. In its organizational structure, it consists of many departments which are coordinated in their work and their common task is to provide health care facilities to the patient. “In these departments, one is Hospital Pharmacy. Hospital Pharmacy can be defined in two ways on the basis of its services i.e, Departmental Services & Professional Services. otek pr cies A department in the hospital under the direction-of-a legally qualified and professionally competent pharmacist, where all medicines & related supplies are stocked, dispensed on prescription to in & out patients, supplied to the nursing units,” manufactured_in_bulk & Injectables are prepared & sterilized is called hospital pharmacy. Mechoyy 1789 n Perry bran blot Bowes ‘Scanned with CamScannerRESPONSIBILITES OF HOSPITAL PHARMACIST ate is a competent & well qualified pharmaci of the important responsibilities of hospital pharmacist are given below Manufacturing of pharmaceuticals & dispensing of drugs, chemicals & pharmaceutical preparation is one of important responsibility of hospital 1. where spe modern pra I. Participation in educational programs for patient, nurse ic types of ¢ of hospital . Poison control, centre activities . Drug information centre Hled prof pharmacy. Such services include: .. Preparation of patient drug use profile Communicating new drugs information to hospital personnel 2. 3 4 5. Parenteral nutrition program 6. 7. . Dispensing & research of radiopharmaceuticals “A hospital pharmaci pharmaci The filing & labeling of all drug containers used in various wards is the responsibility of hospital pharmacist. Hospital pharmacist also has responsibility to inspect the pharmaceutical supply. Maintenance of emergency drugs is also the part of work of hospital pharmacist. He should check the Specification of both quality & source after purchase of an be defined as it is an organization sional services are provided & this is & medical staff t.” Some drugs, chemicals, antibiotics, biological & pharmaceutical preparations Hospital pharmacist must have professional knowledge particularly about drug stability etc. Hospital pharmacist provides information to nurses & medical staff and in some cases to patients about drugs & medicines. Hospital pharmacist also has responsibility to control the supply of drug to hospital. Pharmacist has duty to supply the medications to the nursing unit which further delivers them to nurses. (PMR). 14 ‘Scanned with CamScanner . Hospital pharmacist is also responsible to maintain patient medication recordgf ? 11. He should identify the drugs & medicines which are brought into the hospital by the patient 12. Hospital pharmacist information to physi 13. He should Monitor patient's total drug therapy for : obtains medication history of patient & gives an. 2 a. "Effectiveness / ineffectiveness b. Side Effect c. Toxicities d. Allergic drug reactions e. Drug interactions 14. Co-operates in teaching courses to students in the school of nursing. RETAIL PHARMACY Retail pharmacy is the branch of pharmacy which deals with the sale & distributions of medicines & other products to the consumer according to_the prescription of physician, dentist or veterinarian. It is the most familiar branch of pharmacy; its imain task is the distribution & dispensing of medicines & related products. Classification of Retail Pharmacy Retail pharmacy can be sub-divided into two groups: Community pharmacy ; ii. Whole sale pharmacy “A. COMMUNITY PHARMACY “ Community pharmacy is also called drug store or medical store, in which pharmacist works on the basis of private i.e. either as ownership or as a manger. The role of community pharmacist is to advise the patient not only about proper use of prescribed medicines but also about non-prescribed medicines or OTC drugs (over the counter). Community pharmacist can also sell food products & cosmetics. From business point of view, some points are important for community pharmacy & pharmacist. I. Pecation: Location for community pharmacy is a major factor in its survival. It st be located near to the physician, medical contents & the residential area, cap? mes Is ‘Scanned with CamScannerof the population in that area must be determined py socio economic qualiti community pharmaci a : hole seller or fro I. Buying: Drugs or medicines are purchased from w or manufacturer by community pharmacist. Those drugs should be purchased by ; 7 . : hh : Pharmacist which are stable, easily available, prescribed by the surrounding physicians & which are common for specific diseases. HI. Price: The prices of drugs should be normal. If they are high, the sale wi) decrease. And also the sale will be low if the prices are low, because in this case the customer is doubtful about the quality of drug IV. Service: Community pharmacy needs a good service & pharmacist should behave in a good way with patient. P family health record of surroundings. This is not only Pharmacist must kee; public health. Pharmacist should educate the useful for his business but also for patient about: > Drug - drug interaction » Food drug interaction > Side effects of drugs > Use of drugs & medicines WHOLESALE PHARMACY Wholesale pharmacy is also known as drug agency. Drugs are supplied from industry to the wholesale pharmacy, from where these are supplied to the community pharmacy. Wholesale pharmacy is combination of 3 > 6 industries. 1, Wholesale pharmacy is supervised by pharmacist, the owner of wholesale Pharmacy serves as middleman b/w manufacturer & community pharmacy. 2. Wholesale pharmacy plays an important role in assuring the communily pharmacist being quick & convenient source of drug supply & so best services are provided to the patient. ‘Scanned with CamScanneres the burden of community pharmacy of carrying large stock of medicines & drugs. Vv 5 Perens CARE CLINICAL PHARMAC) + f The branch of pharmacy which deals with patient care_with pai emphasis (Special Practice) on drug therapy is called Clinical Pharmacy. It is also called “Patient Oriented Pharmacy”, so it includes not only the dispensing or administration of required medications but also advice the patient on the proper use of all medications... Clinical pharmacy can also be practiced in community as well as in hospital. (D Coun sete a dene 4 ROLE OF CLINICAL PHARMACY Some important roles of clinical pharmacy are given below: - Counseling & Guidance of Patient Clinical pharmacist advice the patient.about safe & proper utilization of his medications, it also gives prescription & advice the patient about the prescribed drugs. Pharmacist should provide the patient different types of information about prescribed drug. ~ a. How, When & How long to take medicines? b. Proper storage of drug.. ~ €. Side effects of drugs. “d. Its interaction with other drugs. The drug utilization of the patient can be monitor red by considering the patient medication profile (PMP). With the help of this record, clinical pharmacist is drug is suitable for the patient. Because pharmacist has patient about allergies & last prescription as well patient suffer, able to know that which a full record (in PMP) of as previous disease from which ee " yeoy qos Md ‘Scanned with CamScannerHealth Advisor ; ; Clinical pharmacist serves as a health advisor to the patient by providing advice to the patient about use of various drugs, adverse effect, contraindication, dosage & frequency of indications. Health Educator Pharmacist of clinical pharmacy serves as a health educator to the community. Source of drugs information Clinical pharmacist either in community or in hospital serves as a source of drug informations to the physician, patients & other members of health professions. 4:__ INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY; The branch of pharmacy. which deals with formulation, manufactures, analysis. storage & control of pharmaceutical dosage forms. is called Industrial Pharmacy. It includes basic unit operation like Mixing, Milling, Drying, Lyophilization (Freeze drying for heat sensitive products), Filtration & Compression, which leads to the preparation of liquid, solid, semisolid dosage form & also Injectables. In brief industrial pharmacy can be defined, as “It is the processing of drugs from the source up-to the finish product & to provide quality assure product to the professionals as well as to the consumer.” a INDUSTRIAL PHARMACIST | a Pharmacist who is related to industry is called industrial pharmacist. He has various jobs in the industry, some are executive like: 1. Production Incharge 2. Factory Incharge 3. Production Manager. 4, Sales Manager. And some junior executive are also working there i.e. 1. Production Pharmacist. 18 | ‘Scanned with CamScanner2, Analyst (QC) 3, - Assistant Pharmacist 4, Documentary Pharmacii 5, Research Pharm ‘There are Various departments in in 1, Production Departinent. 2. Quality Control Department. dustry. But the two major are: 1 Production Department In production & manufacture department a pharmacist c steps involving in the formation of drugs, e.g. Mixing, Milling, Dryin; Lyophilization and Compression. 2. Quality Control Department In QC Dept. pharmacist work as QC Incharge & responsible to check the quality of product manufacture within the industry. In this department efficiency of drug is measured. supervises all the g, Filtration, RESPONSIBILITIES OF INDUSTRIAL PHARMACIST Some important responsibilities of industrial pharmacist are as follows: 1. In research & development section (Product Development), a research pharmacist is responsible for product development & so new products are introduced and maintenance of health is facilitated. 2. Pharmacist with additional knowledge in marketing or business & in law fined more opportunities in the pharmaceutical industry in order to solve the problems of marketing & legal section. 3. Some pharmacist are employed as supervisor in the packing_section, because after passing the QC Section, it is important that drugs should be packed in such a way that quality of drug should be maintained. 19 ‘Scanned with CamScanner5, FORENSIC PHARMACY to frame rules & regulation tea that_is responsible anch_of pharmacy are al The branch le and distribution of drugs is said to about formulation. manufacturing. sal Forensic Pharmacy. OR ¢ ( tris the branch of pharmacy that concems with the Jaws & acts related td profession of pharmacy. All these rules & regulations are provided in a book that i of drug act 1976”. The profession of pharmacy is controlled & “Pharmacy Act 1967”. Following authorities are responsible to regulate the regulations of drug act, is called “Manual, protected by thg 1. Divisional Drug Inspector. 2. Drug Inspector. Ministry of Health is also responsible to issue license for launching of pharmaceutical industry & process of manufacturing. Drug Controller, Deputy Drug Controller & Assistant Drug Controller are the responsible authorities in Ministry of Health. There is a Quality Control Court (QCC) that work in co-ordination with the Ministry of Health & is responsible to maintain the quality of drugs. There is qj Drug Court in each province of the country and is responsible to deal matter} related to the drugs. PHARMACY & THERAPEUTIC COMMITTEE —» This committee is an advisory group of the medical staff, pharmacist & may) be any other concerned person belonging to that hospital. This group serves as a connection b/w medical staff & pharmacy dept. It is also a policy making body on the matters related to drug use including investigational drugs. ‘ The agenda should be prepared by the general secretary & submitted (0 committee members in sufficient time before meeting for them. The committee t two times per year & more often when necessary. e. The} should meet regularly at le It is composed of at least three physicians, a pharmacist and_a_nurst harmacist is the general secretar of the committee. 20 all ‘Scanned with CamScannerRecommendation of the pharmacy & Therapeutic Committee should be presented to the medical Staff for the adaptation. FUNCTION & SCOPE OF COMMITTEE —s The function of Pharmacy & Therapeutic Committee is given as below: 1. To serve the medical staff & hospital administration in all matters related to the use of drugs. v . To serve the medical staff & pharmacist in the selection of drugs which have the most.effective therapeutic quality standards. 3. To prevent un-necessary duplication of the some basic drugs and its combination. 4. To make recommendation concerning drugs to be stocked in hospital unit or services. 5. To establish suitable education program for hospital professional staff for drug use. 6. To review the problems involved in the proper and safe distribution of medicines for indoor & outdoor patients. 7. To study problems related to the administration of drug. Dry > come fom Fea word >“ exrrol® A solution’ dispersion in which particle or solute size is maximum is called coarse disper sion. ‘The particle or solute size in such dispersion is larger that 2000A°. As the particles size_is very large, so cannot adjust. themselves b/w the intermolecular space of solvent. Its example is emulsion (e.g. Milk, Oil + HO) and suspensions. - ~ Properties of Solution (Physical) On the physical basis, the properties of solutions can be classified into three main types: ~e Additive Properties ~> Ve Constitutive Properties v 3. ve Colligative Properties . Additive Properties ‘The physical properties, which depend upon the sum of the properties of all the constituents of the solution, are called additive properties. OR Ports” ay ohio wit 23 ‘Scanned with CamScanneree ye Qe gga A & The physical properties which depend upon the ttal-¢ontribution of jh. 8. atoms of moleculesin the solution are called additive propert Examples of additive properties are mass, volume, molecular weight, cic ~ 2. Constitutive Properties The physical properties, which depend on the arrangement of the atoms within the molecule, are called constitutive properties. ‘The. constitutive properties mainly depend on the arrangement & to a lesser extent on kind & No of atoms. ~ The examples of constitutive properties are refractive index, electrical properties, solubility, surface tension, surface & interfacial characters, etc, = a — cur — 3. Colligative Properties The physical properties of the solutions which depend _on the No of atoms of the solution are called colligative properties. Some important colligative properties are as follows: ~ a) Elevation in B.P { ] ai ' \eo OWS «8 ~ b) Lowering of VP of alow i ‘c) Depression in F.P +d) Osmotic Pressure The values of colligative properties are approximately same for the solutions of same concentration. pe of Solutes: The solutes (whether they are in liquid, solid or gaseous phase) are classified into two types on the basis of their electrical properties: 1. Electrolytes 2° Non-Electrolytes 1. Electrolytes Those solutes, which are ionized in the solution & conduct'wiectrivity are "said to'be electrolytes, Such solutes show greater coll ligative solution with same concentration, Electrolytes are subdivided into two types, which are given below: roperties as compared to other 24 ‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Those electrolytes wh electrolytes. Eig, Naely STRONG ELECTROLYT A@nize completely in the solution are called strong AS! b. WEAK ELECTROLYTE Weak electrolyte ionize in the solution partially. E.g. “Ephedriney “Phenobarbital, etc. Non-Electrolytes s, which do not ionize in the solution & so such solution cannot ricity are called Non-Electrolytes. Their examples are Sucrose, Urea, Naphthalene, ete. “CONCENTRATION EXPRESSIO! the concentration of a solution can be defined as: “The amount of solute er f ‘present in a given amount of solution is called concentration of the solution A solution containing a relatively low concentration of solute is callédedilute ‘solution while ining relatively a high concentration of the solute is -solution_conta said to b& concentrated solution, 5. 6. Phere are st Rupe ral ways of expressing concentration. of solution, some are as BET BEY tan th A ., Percentage Expression yee . Molarity, Normality . Molality Mole Fraction Parts per million 1. Percentage Expression It can be defined : “The specific amount of solute present in 100 gm of solution.” OR “It is the part of the solute present in 100 parts of the solution.” Following are three different types of Yoage expressions: . Joage wiw: \t is the weight of solute as a percent of total weight of y ) solution. ee Sage of solute =_weight of solute” x 100 wor Weight of solution KR 25 ‘Scanned with CamScanneri is the volume of solute as a present of total volume of the solution. 7 : “obage of solute = volume of solute | x 100 Volume of solution ‘cy Joage w/v: It is the No: of parts of the solute by weight in 100 Parts by volume of solution. In this case, total weight or volume of solution is not considered. Sage of solute = weight of solute_ x 100 Volume of solution 2. Molarity Molarity can be defined as: “The number of moles of solute per lite of ‘solution is called molarity.” : =) Molarity= ___No: of moles of solutes. . Volume of solution (in liters) . The molarity of solution is represented by M and its units are mol: an Example: Determine the molarity of solution prepared by dissolving 75.5g < ES of KOH in 540m! of solution? eh. * No: of moles of KOH = 75.5/56.1 = 1.35 moles- Volume of solution =~ 540/ 1000 = 0.54 liter Molarity = 135/054 = 2.49 mol / liter J — Normality Normality can be defined as: “The No: of gram equivalent of solute present per liter of the solution.” “7 — Normality = No: of gm equivalent of solute Volume of solution in liters Where: “ No: of gm equivalent = Weight of substance Equivalent Weight & — Equivalent weight = Molecular Weight, » i Acidity or Basicity STUNG gat mL Saf * S6%Wa 4 Vien, 26 ‘Scanned with CamScanner“| =e | Calculate the normality of H,SO, solution, when. 98gyef H,SO. is Example: present in 500 ml Equivalent weight of H2SOs =49 ah . No: of gram equivalent of H2SO, =98/49 =2 maa Volume of solution , =500cm3 =0.5 lit Normality =2/05 =4N Bosty “3. Molality The molality of solution can be defined as: “The No: of moles of solute per’ kilogram of solvent is called molality” Molality = Moles of solutes. n= Weight of solvent in KG e Ne a” The molality of solution is represented by “m” & its units are mol/kg. Example: Calculate the molality of solution prepared by dissolving 5 gm of toluene in 225 g of solvent (CoH.)? No: of moles of toluene =5/92 = 0.054 mol Weight of Benzene = 225 / 1000 $0.2 Molality = 0.054 / 0.225, see WOE oy wt yes 4, Mole Fraction} Peet cen’ The mole fraction of a constituent of solution can be defined as: of No: of moles of one constituent & the total No: of moles of all the yy constituents of the solution.” It is denoted by (XY e.g. a solution consists of ¢. two components I & II. Their No: of mole are expressed as n, & nx, so mole fraction of component I: x, =n, / n, + Np, mole fraction of component II: x2 =np/ nj + Ng, Total = Component I + Il, x = x; + x2 =n) + m2/ ny +N, = 1 S “TRENRBIELERtion isnininledsids total molesfractonvSNateslnen will ALMEYS: ats. beurfity: | pr ually: . & \ - X sue +X soren 1) 5. Parts per million Number of parts (by wt or volume) of solute per million parts (by wt or volume) of solution is called parts per million. It is denoted by PPM. PPM = — Mass of solute(gm) x 10° Mass of solution ead Nee awn!) Ww ‘ t — ' & ‘Scanned with CamScannerSignificance: 1) ILis used for very. low cone of solution. ii) Itis used to expres s the amount of impurities in H,0. v IDEAL SOLUTIONS: ‘The ideal solution can be defined as: “The solution in which there ismo change “in the properties of the components is called ideal solution.” OR “The solutions which obey strictly the Raoult’s Law in all conditions are called Ideal Solution.” This type of solution can be obtained theoretically & not practically. In ideal solutions there is only change in concentration of the solution. PROPERTIES OF IDEAL SOLUTIONS: Following are the some important properties of the ideal solutions: we “1) During the formation of an ideal solution, only the dilution_or change in concentration occurs. 2) In mixing the components of an ideal solution, no heat is evolved / absorbed. 3) The total volume of the solution is equal to the sum of the volumes of the components: V= V1+V2+V3. 4) There is no shrinkage or expansion of molecules or volumes, because the size of the molecules of the components remains same after mixing. 5) ‘The constitutive properties of the ideal solution are the average of the properties of pure individual components. ~ 6) For the formation of an ideal solution, the mixing substances should be with ‘similar properties, e.g. 2 ~a. Methanol & Ethanol ~ b. Benzene & Toluene c. Methanol & Water, etc, 28 ‘Scanned with CamScanner7) There is a complete uniformity of attractive forces b/w the constituents of an ideal solution. 8) The osmotic pressure of an ideal solution can be determined by Vant_Hoff's Rule. According to this rule, osmotic pressure Where, m a ‘ 2% as ¥ x= Osmotic pressure of ideal solution Zw ale Z ‘v= Total volume of ideal solution nm R= Universal gas constant © lo: of moles of solute f\! 912 Syoa Cone “-T = Absolute temperature ew wee > 9) Ideal solutions, obey the Raoult’s Law; so their diagrammatic representation is as follows oe REAL SOLUTIONS “The solutions which do not obey the Raoult’s Law are called Real Solution.” ee = “The solutions in which there is a change in the properties of components after mixing is said to be real solution.” RE TS SE 10 De Fem sotution. 29 ‘Scanned with CamScannerPROPERTIES OF REAL SOLUTIO Following are the some important properties of real solutions: % Total volume of real solution is not equal to the sum of volumes of all the ie. VA VI+V2+V3... “% During the mixing of components of real solution, there.is either evolution _ or absorption of heat, ic. AH #0. Ye When the components of a real solution are mixed, there will be cither “shrinkage or expansion of the molecules of the components. Ye Real solutions can be obtained’ by mixing the components of different properties. “~The attractive forces b/w the components of the real solutions are not the same. There must be change in properties of the components of the real solution. © The real solutions deviate from Raoult’s law in two ways: ~“o If the cohesive forces are greater than adhesive forces, then real solution deviate positively from Raoult’s law. E.g. (Acetone, Water) o(Benzene-& Ethyl Alcohol), (Ethanol & Water). ~“o If the adhesive forces b/w the molecules of components are greater that cohesive forces than real solution deviate negatively from Raoult’s Law. E.g. (H,0 + Hel), (Acetone + Chloroform). RAOULT’S LAW The Raoult’s Law explains the behavior of the solution on the basis of vapor pressure & mole fraction of cach component of the solution. Raoult’s law can be defined as: “Phe partial vapor pressure of each component of the solution is equal to the product of vapor pressure of that component in pure form & its mole fraction.” ~ : Mathematically P=p’x Pe °° & P= Partial VP of the component eo © Po = Vapor pressure in pure form ~ x= Mole fraction of component The solutions which obey the Raoult’s law are called ideal solutions while solutions which deyiate from Raoult’s Law, either negatively or positively ate called Real Solutions. | 4 6h pice | gow? * 30 | as yes)? VAS mere Wr? ‘Scanned with CamScannerion in which adhesive & cohesive forces are same, obey the -are called Ideal Solution, Raoult an ideal solution consists chtoride. Then according t0 Raoul ethylene chloride is: of two Components e.g. benzene & ethylene Law, partial vapor pressure of benzene & Py = PaoXS = Pre? Xzc When there explained by a ethylene chloride & benzene is obtained, which s ‘also proved the Raoult’s Law. aph, the linear relationship b/w he ideality of the solution wermonante Fig 2.2 BEHAVIOUR OF REAL SOLUTION The solutions in which the attractive same, and due to which non -uniformity of adhesive & cohesive attraction occurs are called Real Solution. ie. either -ve or +ve Such solutions deviate from om Raoul 's Law in two deviation. POSITIVE DEVIATION The solutions in which cohesive fo said to show positive deviation. In such solutions, due to greater cohesive forces, the partial VP becomes greater than expected from Raoult’s law and so positive deviation occurs. E.g. (Acetone + Water), (Benzene + Acetylene), (Ethanol + Water). s are greater than adhesive forces are 31 ‘Scanned with CamScannertm ring NEGATIVE DEVIATION The solution in which the adhesive forces are greater than cohesive force, deviate negatively from Raoult’s law. In such solutions, due to greater adhesive forces, the partial VP becomes 1 expected from Raoult’s Law and so negative deviation occurs. lesser t ~ ESCAPING TENDENCY The efficiency of a a substance to escape either as heat or saber form is is called escaping tendency. Temperature is the quantitative measure of escaping tendency. So hotter -y-than a body at Jower temperature. When the pin system is at thermal equilibrium ié. when both the bodies are at the same temperature, then the es ‘aping tendency of both the bodies will be same. »” FREE ENERGY: The substances in.which there occur physical or chemical changes, the quantitative measure of. escaping tendency is called free energy. ‘Scanned with CamScanner0 ci Above O°C the esi caping tendency (free enerp BOY OC the escaping tendency (free energy) of one mole of ice is greater than one mole of liquid, . ° le AP=R,-F<0 > " AT 0°: At O°C the free tendency (escaping tendencies) of both one mole of ice and one mole of liquid are same, 5 Le. AF=F,-F,=0 BELOW 0°¢: Below °C the fre than that of one mole of ice, Le AF=FL-FIs@ uw HENRY’S LAW “The Partial vapor pressure of a true solute in dilute solution directly proportional to its mole fraction.” It is the statement of Henry's Law Mathematically, ie, P=K x=" yx Where p> Xn. P = Partial Vapor Pressure of Solute X= Mole Fraction of Solute K = Constant & less than Vapor Pressure of Solute ‘The vapor pressure of solute is very small because the solute molecules | very little escaping tendency. oy : € energy of one mole of liquid is greater | tb GAS SOLUBILITIES & HENRY’S LAW:3 The amount of gas liguid follows generally the Henry's Law, which states: dissolved by d given amount of liquid at a given temperatu vapor pressure. L550 Lyle B26 The extent to which a gas is dissolved in liquid is expressed as solubility co efficient. ~> “The volume of the gas dissolved by one volume of the liquid under 2 f osphere.” enry’s Law is applied to tk to'solvent in dilute solutio s Law & Raoult's Law become identical, when partial VP of both the components (Solute & Solvent) are directly proportional to their mole fr ‘and at that condition the solution is said to be ideal solution, X Kote A Gowent 33 ‘Scanned with CamScannerYe oh Panty JA TIVE PROPERTIES he physical properties urticles in ition & not in any jed colligative properties. ‘of the solutions, which depend on the No: of way on the size & nature of the part Dilute solutions having non-volatile’ solutes have following four colligatyg properties: ~' 1. Elevation in boiling point 3. Lowering of vapor pressure ~ 3. Depression in freezing point © 4, Osmotic pressure — Seay Boer (1) ELEVATION IN BOILING POINT 0° Ole her wll “> BOILING POINT: The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a Tiquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure is called boiling point. Boiling Point ELEVATION: When’a solute is added to a pure solvent, the| boiling point of solution (solute + solvent) will be greater than the BP of the! pure solvent. This difference b/w the boiling point of the solution and pure solvent at constant pressure is called elevation jn boiling point... solute is added to.a_pure solvent, the’ V.P of the the resulting solution will boil at a higher temperature tmospheric pressure. And this Whenever a not solvent is reduced. So, as compared to that of pure solvent at some al difference is said to be elevation in B.P. GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION: The elevation in BP can be explained by the following graph. x 3 & Solvent oa ap Pressure, mm Hg Temperature Fig 2.5 a ‘Scanned with CamScannerFrom the above graph, it is shown that VP curve of solution fies below tht of solvent, so to_reach the normal’ BP) the temp; is elevated (i.e. inc: ed) and this POF solution is called glevation in boiling point. So; the See vation is given by; A’ While lowering of VP is AP =p" — p The ratio of elevation of BP (AT) to the lowering OF VP (AP) coms at 107 ATb/Ap=K, ae, j ATD= KAP, ss | =K AP /P* 1 vee | But according to Raoult’s Law: AP/P?=x, > P'y moet yp 20/9 Putting in equation 1 we get ATb=KX;_) Equation --2 sliows that the elevation in_BP_is proportional to me solute so the BP is colligative property/{n dilute solution X2 =m / 1000/M, ATb=Km.M/ 1000 xor ATb=Kbm” Where * ATb = Elevation in BP bo = Molal elevation constant or the ebullioscopic and may be defined as, : “Increase in boiling point of solvent caused by the addition of 1 mol of solu ¢ fraction of — volatile & non- electrolyte) in Ikg of volatile solvent”. ct MEASUREMENT OF BP ELEVATION Elevation in boiling point is measured by Cottrell’s apparatus, which is shown in the figure. ~ A weighed amount of solute é& solvent (i.¢. Solution) is taken in heated up to boiling point. Then the vapors & boiling solution is at force of ebullition & sprayed on the bulb of the thermometer, in correct equilibrium temp; this is‘BP.of the solution. The process is again repeated by taking pure solvent in the tube & the BP of the solvent is determined. — ~ ‘The difference b/w the BP of the solution & BP of the pure solvent is ‘This represents the le in boiling point ele ‘Scanned with CamScannerLOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE VAPOUR PRESSURE: ‘The pressure exerted by the vapors of the liquids at equilibrium State wl pure liquid itself, at a given temps is called vapor pressure of the liquid. «VP LOWERING: Gatute alt 2% When a non-volatile solute is dissolved or added to a pure solvent, the y, cot —. pressure of the solvent is decreased. And this decreased in vapor pressure v ee = ~< called lowering of Vapor Pressure. EXPLANATION: When a non-volatile_solute the solute molecules adjust themselves b/w attractive forces are produced b/w the solute & solvent. from solution & with t is dissolved in a pure solve the intermolecular spaces Now, the solvent molecules cannot easily escape result the VP is lowered at constant temp; According to Raoult's Law; the partial V.P of solvent (P1) & solute (P2) are follows: ans pee’ P,=PiX- = (1) P) =P 2X2 Since the mole fraction of the solution = Xy + X2 = \ There fore, Put in equation (1) P, =P) (1- X2) p/P C. From the above equation, it is clear that the lowering of VP in the relative to VP of pure solvent is equal to the mole fraction of the solute called relative lowering of Vapor Pressure. solutif & this 36 ad ‘Scanned with CamScannerDETERMINATION OF VAPOUR PRESSRUI The igopiesti¢ method is used for the determination of VP. In this method two 7 solutions are used: wo se 8 rest solution whose V.P is to be determined SS" ndard solution with known V.P. Fig 2.7 ihe two solutions are placed in evacuated vessel in separate silver cups. The ‘apors of solution with higher VP will pass to other solution with lower VP. This process is continued until equilibrium is reached, ie. isopiestic point acbiest After this, the solutions solution is analyzed, & the change in concentration of. value of VP is obt vw DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR WEIGHT If the solute is non-electrolyte the molecular weight of the solute can be calculated from lowering of vapor pressure. As we know that the relative lowering of VP is; 22 = W2/Mp = no of moles of solute, ny) = W/M, Putting in equation (1) we h; , = number of moles of solvent, ave 37 ‘Scanned with CamScanner7M, + W2/M2 ea Wain! lecting it In very dilute solutions W3/Ma TU js very small so neglecting Ap/P? = W:/M2/ wiyM yous ih et aps’ =W2Mi/ WiM2 ve Kari Upp WM P? 7 Wi AP» — f 2 ; =) Wt > ee «or My ‘= IN FREEZING POINT e solid & liquid ak oy ONS pePERSION re (ie. 1 atm).” "FREEZING POINT ‘The FB.of a solvent can be defined a forms of the solvent co-exist in equilibrium fined as: “The temp; at W’ The FP of salution is det solvent co-exists in equilibrium with the solution at fixe “The temp; at which tht at fixed external pressul hich the solid form of the pure .d external pressure, (ie. 1 am Cpecyes son) FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION ‘olatile solute is dissolved in a pure solvent, then it will freezes ata at which pure solvent freezes. And this difference in Slvent & solution is called freezing point depression. When a non-v lower temp; than the temp; freezing points b/w the pure s EXPLANATION: tile solute is added to a pure so Kes place, so in o is further droppe jared to EP of pure solven > slvent, at triple point, the lowering rder to again establish equilibrium d & this leads to depression in When a non-volat t & this is called of vapor pressure of solution ta b/w solid & liquid, the temp; freezing point of the solution as comp: depression in freezing point. This can also be explained b ‘As the FP of solvent is the temp; while the FP of the solution is the temp; with liquid solution. y the following graph. at which solid & liquid forms are in equilibrium at which the solid solvent is at equilibrium | ce ‘Scanned with CamScannerAs VP of solution is less that the VP of pure solvent, so solid solvent & liquid solutions cannot co-exist at freezing point of pure solvent & so the temp; is further reduced. . Itis clear from the graph that FP depression is proportional to molal concentration of solute; so - ATf om ‘The ratio b/w FP depression & lowering of vapor pressure is constt: & is equal to K. ATE/AP=K° ATf=K’AP ATE= K’AP/ Po But according to Raoult’s Law; ag fps wh + AP/ Pe = X> Putting in equation (1) ATE=K Xp~ Q) Equation 2 shows that depression in freezing point is proportional to the mole fraction of solute so freeing point is colligative property. In dilute solution, X -m/ 1000/ M1 There fore ATf= KimMi/1000) OR ATf= Kim Where ATf= depression in freezing point _ Plefesv > OSMOSISThe flow of the solvent through a semi permeable membrane from pure solvent to solution, or from a dilute solution to concentrated solution is known as Osmosis. . The tendency to equalize the concentration in all parts ‘of the solution; which is responsible for the diffusion of solvent, is called Osmosis. LK p - OSMOTIC PRESSURE 3 ©sMole ¥ The osmotic pressure, which. prevents the flow of solvent i into solution, can be defined as; “The hydrostatic pressure built up on the solution which just stop the osmosis of pure_solvent injp solution through a semi-permeable_membrane is called Osmotic Pressure.” “The external pressure applied to the solution in order to stop the osmosis of the solvent into solution separated by semi-permeable_ membrane is called Osmotic Pressure. ¥ o EXPLANATIONIE a pure solvent is placed adjacent to a solution separated by a semi-permeable membrane, the solvent molecules will pass through the membrane & so dilute the solution & also raise the volume of the solution. And with the result the hydrostatic pressure (Osmotic Pressure) is set up on the solution. This osmotic pressure can be measured by applying a known pressure, which stops any nent. This osmotic pressure obtained is therefore proportional to the reduction in VP. brought about by the concentration of solute present. And so, osmotic pressure is colligative property. - MEASUREMENT OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE no-meter. The Pfeffer’s method is S hown in The osmotic pressure can be measured by o: usually used. for this purpose & the apparatus v Tor this purpose is an ‘Scanned with CamScannera Fig 2.10 The solution is taken in pot & pot is placed in water. The water passes through semi-permeable_membrane, diluting the solution & produces osmotic pressure indicated by fnamometery The highest pressure registered by manometer gives the pressure of . + ——— “According to Vant Hoff Rule, the osmotic pressure in a very dilute solution 1s equal to the pressure exerted by solute, if it is gas & occupying some volume; where , “ ‘. = osmotie pressure “n= number of moles of solute ¥ R= universal gas constant ‘= absolute temperature. 4 —————— ‘Scanned with CamScannergecTION NO 05 ( SOLUBILITY & DISTRIBUTON ) TYPES OF SOLUTIONS: (On the basis of concentration can be classified into following types: \/ Az Unsaturated Solutions » | lute can be dissolved at a certain “The solution in which more amount of So : ated solution. I is also called sub-saturated solution, the solution, the solutions n of solute present in temperature is called unsatur 2. __ Saturated Solutions The solution, in which more amount o temp, is called saturated solution. f solute cannot be dissolved at room | OR A saturated solution is a solution in which the dissolved & un-dissolved solutes are in equilibrium. 3. Supersaturated Solution When more amount of solute dissolved in saturated solution by increasing then the resultant solution is called_supersaturates solution, The | '500C) will be supersaturated solution in Q.C room; temperature, solution, which is saturated at b/c the temperature of Q.C room is 20°C SOLUBILIT: “The term Solubility can be defined as: Qualitatively: “The spontaneous interaction of two or more substances to form al 1 dispersion is called solubility” | 1 homogeneous molec Quantitativel “The concentration of a substance-to form a saturated solution in a certain solvent is called solubility of the substances”. - - OR 42 ‘Scanned with CamScanner“The amount of solute needed to produce a saturated solution with 100gm of solvent at given temp, is called solubjlit Molar solubility — ~ Molar solubility is defined as the No. of moles of the substances per one liter of the solution, SOLUBILITY EXPRESSION; The solubility of different substances in solvents can be expressed in different ways. ~ Basically the solubility of a substance is expressed as the No: of parts of solvent required for one part of solute. On the basis of this statement the solubility of solute is classified into following types: i.__Very Soluble: If one part of solute is dissolved in less than one part of solvent, then solute will be very soluble. 4 Port a Py ii, Freely Soluble; If one parts of solute is dissolved in 1-10 parts of the solvent, then the solute will be freely soluble, 4 \-\u 92 vili___Soluble: If one part of solute is dissolved in 10-30 parts of solvent, then solute will be soluble in solvent. iv. Sparingly Soluble: If one part of solute is dissolved in 30-100 parts of the solvent, then the solute will be sparingly soluble in solvent. / ~/y.___ Slightly Soluble: If one part of solute is dissolved in 100-1000 parts of the solvent, then solute will be slightly soluble in solvent ~ vi. Very Slightly Soluble: If one part of solute is dissolved in 1000-10,000 parts of the solvent, then solute will be very slightly soluble in solvent ~ vii_ I art of so solvent, then the solute will be called insoluble in the solvent luble: If one part of solute is dissolved in more than10,000parts of the In same cases, more solute is dissolved in the solvent due to the characteristics of the solvent. For example 10gm of Nacl is dissolved in Smi/of H30; this is due to the high dielectric constant of the water (Solvent). mascara = a ines SOLVENT & SOLUTE INERACTION AA — > Aber The forces bhw the solute & solvent molecules (ie. adhesive forces) & forces ithin either solute or solvent molecules (i.e. cohesive forces) have princip, solvent interaction & in turn the solubility. ERIE —F Cone cued SURES —— rece es ' ‘Scanned with CamScanner> When the adhesive forces béw the solute & solvent molecules are grog than the cohesive forces present within either solut solvent molecules, then the solution is Tormed and responsible for the solability & miscibility. ¢ soluble in polar solvents & non-polar solutes are soluby ion & repulsion. > Semi-polar solvents like Acetone, Alcohols are helpful in increasing 4, solubility & miscibility due to Hydrogen bonding. For example; water (Polar) ang Alcohols or Avetones (Semi-Polar) are miscible with each only due to hydrogen bonding b/w water & such type of substances (Acetones & Alcohols), In case of crystalline substances, the solubility is very less. This is because of the very strong attractive forces within the Crystal lattice and so having very lite adhesive forces b/w the Crystalline solid & solvent. Moreover, the solubility of the Crystalline solid can be determined from their mp i.e, Crystalline soldg having high mp have less séfubility & having low mp are more Soluble. oa = * x >Polar solutes : non-pola Cin solvents SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN LIQUIDS ‘The concentration of the dissolved gas, when itis in_equi of the pure ga: brium with some above the solution, is called solubility of a gas in liquid. Factors Affectin; The solubility of gases in liquids depends upon the following important factors: Ma. Pressure PAS vb ‘Temperature. Ye. Presence of d. Chemical rei MA. PRESSURE: At constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the applied pressure by obeying Henry Law, which states; “The concentration (Solubility) of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the solution, at constant temperature.” CCeP ) C=KP C= Concentration or solubility of gas in liquid, P = Partial pressure of a gas above solution. K = Constant 44 ‘Scanned with CamScanner(cou 2 Dees - 5 a te) wart ae reason; CO; ret ssolved_in Carbonated water (i.e..7°uy til bottle is capped. But once the bottle is opened, the pressure is decreased creases the solubility of CO; in water & so it comes out. “B. TEMPERATURE > ‘V & * Generally with the increase in temp: the solubility of gases in liquids ases. Because, when temp: is increased, the K.E of the molecules is increased result in the evolution of gas from the solution & in this way solubility is decreased. ~ eae C.__PRESCENCEOFSALT © S™ ans By the addition of salt (Electrolyte) the solubility of gas in liquid _is decreased. And this phenomenon is called salting out process, e.g. addition of Nacl in Carbonated iS sh \ led water. adore OL Had (Sak) MR Hew Because, due to the addition of Nacl, the attractiveness of HO towards dissociated ions of NaCl is increased & towards gas is decreased so gas escapes from the solution. D. CHEMI REACTION ~ If gases are reacted with water, they have greater solubility. For example Hel gas reacts with water & form Hel acid. COp reacts with water & form Carbonic acid. oH Hel gy Smee. Hel ey CO+0 ————— HCO; So, by their chemical reactions, the solubility of gases in liquid is increased. APPLICATIONS In pharmacy, different solutions of gases in liquids are used, e.g. Hydrochloric Acid Ammonia Water 45 ‘Scanned with CamScannerEffervescent preparations with COz. Aerosol products. SOLUBILITY OF LIQUIDS IN LIQUIDS The solubility of liquids in liquids depends upon the following importany factors: 1: ATTRACTIVE FORCES & RAOULT’S LAW \~ Foe When two liquids are mixed, either real or ideal solution is formed. If the adhesive forces are greater than cohesive forces, then there will be negative deviation from Raoult’s Law, so the solubility (Miscibility) is increased, — And if the cohesive forces are greater than adhesive forces then there will be positive deviation from Raoult’s law, leading to decreased solubility, 1 wer bas ) 2: TEMPERATURE . weleed The mutual solubilities of partially miscible liquids are wally affected by temperature. So by this we can obtain following three types of graphs (Solubility Curves). Ne Need TYPE 1: In binary liquid system such as phenol-water; the solubilities of two phases increases with increase in temp; until @ temp; is obtained at which a homogenous mixture is formed. And this temp; is called Upper Critical Temp; or Upper Consulate Temperature (UCT). “The temp at which two phases merge into a single phase is called critjcal solution temperatu Above this temp; the phenol & water are miscible with cach other at all proportions ucT 66.8°C 0% Phenol | 100% Phe 100% Water i Pkeno} 0% Water Cone. ——+ Fig 3.1 Yee emp “Veale hoe phason Merge Nats a Sryle Mea 6 eevee Cute) empyema. ‘Scanned with CamScannergotabity prima, uth Gemero m ku: TY? he binary liquid systems such as tri-ethylamine-water & paraldehyde water are completely miscible by decreasing the temperature. So they have lower consulate temp; (LCT). Above this temp; they are partially miscible with each \ ‘Triethylamine- water L.C.T 18.5% — Fig 3.2 Cone. TYPE 3: Few binary mixtures such as ni 1 : with an intermediate temp; region. Such mixtures are soluble in all proportion above UCT & below LCT, while b/w UCT & LCT they are partially | miscible with each other. 210°c Temp: 61° Cone: Nicotine — Water 3;___ INFLUENCE OF FOREIGN SUSBTANCES The addition of a foreign substance in a binary liquid system effect the critical solution temp; or consulate temp; & in turn solubility. There will be two cases: 47 ‘Scanned with CamScannerAaB hs LET pecveasel ut: AY ats-e pre yorse Qye > nerve aN AiBad) AV 2W¥AVO! CASE 153 {ngete?le When the additional substance is soluble in © solubility of binary mixture is decreased. If binary” raised further & if mixture has LCT then the temp; wi CASE 2: If the third foreign substance is soluble increases the mutual solubilities by decreasin SOLUBILITY OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS From the experimental evidences it is conc liquids are influenced by following factors:- \1/” TEMPERATURE The solubility of solid in temp; change four cases are observed in solubilities. CASE 1 ( Saree - The solubility of many solids is increased by increasing temp: ne component, then the mutugy mixture has UCT then it Will be 1] be further decreased. in both the component, then it wily @ UCT & raising the LCT. Juded that solubilities of solids in n liquid is greatly affected by temp; change. Due to Le. system is endothermic e.g, sucrose. ‘ CASE 2 b tag ver? When the system is exothermic, then solubility will be favored by low temp; e.g, Ca (OH): CASE 3 C No: change $ Some solids has very low or no change in their solubilities by changing temip; e.g. Nacl at 0% having solubility 35.7 g/dl & at 100°e 39.1 g/dl. CASE4 In some cases, there is abrupt change in their solubility e.g. NaySOs, 10H,0, whose solubility increases up to 32.5% & then decreases b/e the substance, is dehydrated. Na,8,01° 5 H.0 Temperature (°6) “Fig 3.4 48 ‘Scanned with CamScannercidic drugs is incre: ed by ine increasing the ph of the red by decrease in P" ing the P", the basicity of the medium is increased & medium. And by decreasing the P" of the rug are more soluble in acidic medium. The solubility of weakly media & the solubili This can be explained by following equations: PY=PX,4$-S, for acids pi=PS, + _S._. for base So 8-8; Where: = Overall solubility of drug. S, = solubility of unionized drug. i MOLECULAR STRUCTURE The structure of solid has a great effect on solubility. For example: a Ephedrine is insoluble in water in its pure form but its salt ephedrine ~ Hel is soluble in water. Db. Same is the case of Phenobarbital converted into Phenobarbital — Na. c. Exythroftycin is decomposed in gut, when it is in its pure form. To avoid this, itis converted into erythromycin proy Cot 45 4. PARTICLESIZE Vo The solubility of solid is also affected by particle size. As the particle size is reduced, the surface area is increased which increases the surface free energy & so in turn solubility is increased. This is also up-to ‘a certain limit of particle size reduction. / % 4 Ca-gotuents ° 5. SOLVENT EFFECT “Polar dtu \When two or more than two solvents are used to dissolve a substance then, the phenomenon is called Go-solvency\& solvents are called co solvents. ents & non-polar in non-polar. Co-solvents are responsible to decrease the solubility and so precipitation may occur. Some examples of co-solvents are A \Icohol, Glycerol, and Polyethylene Glycol & sorbital. —_ ‘Scanned with CamScannersole aye Yonow™? eke 6. COMMON-ION Ek The reduction of the deg alled common-ion ¢} In saturates solution of Agel, We have the equilibrium Acl — ag’ + cr Ksp= lag" (] When NaCl is added to the sol of dissociation of a salt by the addition of , i: common-ion 1S ution: y we Nat+cr | Ksp=[Na’] {cl] in water than will increase. As Nacl is more soluble The cone.: of CI” ions sol Agel, so the solubility of Agel is further reduced & it is precipitated out and Nacl solution is formed. 4. COMPLEX FORMATION >“ lution, it will form a complex with When a third substance 1s added to the. sol ute. This complex formation either increases oF decreas soluble in water, but if pot ich increases the solubility es the solubility of sium is added, then of the iodine in sol solute, E.g. lodine is negligibly complex formation takes place wh water ackve guds-) $.__ SURFACTANTS G suriae | Organic compounds are usually insoluble in water. For this surfactants are added to the soluuon which reduces the surface tension of the liquid & its affinity towards solute is increased ‘After CMC of surfactants, the organic compounds tccome soluble by the process of miscellization/ solubilization ES IN NON-ELECTROLYTE SOLUTION 9. ELECTROLYT! yte in the non-electrolyte solution decrea: ‘The addition of electrol: solubility of the non-electrolyte. ‘This is b/e that electrolytes have greater affinity towards water due (0 ‘lytes are replaced by electrolytes. E.g. if Nacl is electrostatic force so non-electr added in sucrose solution, the solubility of the sucrose is decreased ses the Pyne Aye oF C omgen hia When AWe gd Au. HUde die Sets § i note hee 5 \ 12.980 9 oh . ead Vaio Lee Ma ats Gop, « _4 ‘Scanned with CamScannerDI BUTLON LAW. ‘The Distribution Law/Nerat Distribution Law/Partition Law ean be de ned as: Ifa solute X distributes ibiell b/w immiscible solvents A and 1 at eons and X is in the same molecular condition in both, solvents.” 7 it temp; Con ration of X in A Kp Concentration of X in B IC) denotes the Cone: of X in solvent A & Cy in solvent B , then the distribution law can be expressed as; Kai 62 + oles CL = Kp Dy motes Q Where Ky is called Distribution Co-elfic Ratio. ° a” APPLICATION OF DISTRIBUTION LAW. ‘There are numerous applications of distribution law in laboratory and in industry. Among these some are given as follows; ien/Partition Co-efficien/Distribution used for the separations of active ingredients from the by using selective solvents & standard extractive procedure. Thi crude substance So by the process of separation the inert solvents are distilled off, while leaving behind the active ingredients. ‘This process is more efficient if the solvent is used in a number of small portions than one whole lot. tography:>> This method is used to separate a mixture of small amounts of active sredients. This technique depends upon the difference in distribution co-e! b/w two components. “The component with highest distribution co-efficient will first move down in the separating column while a component with a lower distribution ratio comes down later, / , ‘Scanned with CamScanner3. Absorption of Dru The passage and extent of drug absorpt upon the distribution co-efficient. When the drug comes in contac distribution co-efficient and enters into the cell. jon through cell membrane depend, t with cell membrane, it is absorbed due to, “4, Preservation: a The preservatives enter into the micro-organisms due to distribution co, efficient & act on the DNA of the micro-organism & so stop the growth of tha micto-organism. This whole process is called prese “5, Chromatography: ‘The principle of partition co-efficient is used in ch vation. romatography. 6. Preservation of Emulsions & Creams: In Emulsion & Creams, one component is dis| The preservation of such products (i.e. Emulsion distribution law. 7. — Release of Drug: When drugs are made available at the site of action, the active ingredient i om the dosage form due to its distribution co-efficient. persed through out the other, & Cream) also follows the selectively absorbed fro eae OSMEE Qvessere > ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS ~*~ All the ophthalmic and injectable solutions shduld be isotonic eg solutions should be isotonic with lachrymal secretions (tears) to similarly, injectable solutions should be isotonic with ressure are said to be isotonic, otic pressure it is said to id to be hypertonic. ophthalmic prevent irritation and pain blood plasma {Solutions having the same osmot ‘As compared to blood plasma if be hypotonic but, iFit has higher osmotic pressure it : The solutions which are not isotonic with plasma may be harmful to use. On injecting the hypotonic solutions into blood stream, it may enter the red blood cells in an attempt to produce equilibrium, the cells swells rapidly until they burs leading to hemolysis. As this damage is irreversible may lead to serious danger 10 red blood cell - ~~ When.yper tonic solution is injected into the blood stream, the water comes out of the membrane of red blood cells in order to reach equilibrium. The cells shrink leading to crenulation which is only a temporary damage. When the osmotic pressure of two solutions becomes equal the damaged cells will come to its origin#! 52 ‘Scanned with CamScannerposition. Hence hypertonic solutions wy therefore be administered without permanent damage to the blood cells. ‘They should be injected slowly to ensure rapid dilution into the blood stream and to minimize the crenulation of blood cells, For the adjustment of tonicity of injectable solutions, substances like sodium chloride and dextrose ete. are added. About 0.9% solution of sodium chloride is isotonic, 0.45% solution is hypotonic and 5% solution of sodium chloride is hypertonic with plasma, Calculations for Preparing Isotonic Solutions For making isotonic solutions the quantities of substances to be added may be calculated by following methods: 1. Based on freezing point data. — 2, Based on molecular concentration. ~ 3. Based on sodium chloride equivalents. * 1. Based on Freezing Point Data xy Freezing point is a physical property of solutions (also called colligative property) which is most often used in the calculations of isotonic solutions because it can be measured easily and accurately. The temperature at which blood plasma and tears (lachrymal secretions) freeze is -0.52°" which is the same value of a 0.9 per cent solution of sodium chloride. All solutions which freeze at -0.52 will be isotonic with blood plasma and. lachrymal secretions. The freezing point of pure water is 0°C. The freezing point of a solution is also affected by the number of particles present in the solution. At the freezing point of water the liquid and the solid exist in equilibrium and have the same vapour pressure which ultimately lowers the freezing point of the liquid. Adjustment to tonicity of solutions is simplified if the freezing point of medicament and the inert substance are known. The tables giving such information are usually provided for reference. The freezing points are usually expressed in terms of | % solutions. The quantity of adjusting substance needed for making the solutions isotonic with blood serum may be calculated from the general formula given below: Percentage W/V of adjusting substance required = 0.52—a 53 ‘Scanned with CamScanner$ ing point of the unadjusted solution, 5 Where a represents the freezi 1g substance, Tepresents the freezing point of 1% W/V solution of the adjustin; ; Each substance exerts its effect on the freezing point thus if two or Mor, substances are present then the value of ‘a’ should be taken as sum of thei, depressions. . Based on Molecular Concentration Freezin: int of a solution depends on the concentrat dissolved in it Gane the concentration of the solute lower will be the freezin, point. Thus the freezing point depends on the concentration of gram molecules of the solute, which ultimately depends on number of ions, molecular weight ang weight of the substance. | If one gram molecule of any non-ionizing substance is dissolved in 100 gm of water the resulting solution will be of 1% gram molecular concentration. For => example the molecular weight of urea is 60, if 60 gm of urea are dissolved in 100 gm of water the resulting solution will have 1% molecular concentration. An aqueous solution having 1% molecular concentration depresses the freezing point to -18.6°C and the freezing point of blood plasma is -0.52°C. Therefore the molecular concentration of blood plasma and lachrymal secretions can be determined as follows: A depression of 18.6°C is given by a mol. cone, of = 1% ion of the solu A depression of 1°C is given by amol. cone,of = __1 18.6 A depression of 0.52°C is given by a mol. cone, of = 1 x 0. 18.6 Hence any solutions which have a molecular concentration of 0.03% will be isotonic with blood plasma and tears. The formula for calculating the W/V per cent of non-ionizing Substance required to make the solution isotonic with blood plasma is as follows: W/V percent of substance required-= 0.03 x gram molecular weight of the substance The formula for calculating W/V percent of ionizing substance required to make the solution isotonic with blood plasma is therefore: 54 ‘Scanned with CamScannerW/V per cent of substance required 0.03 x gram molecular weight of the substance Number of ions yielded by the substance 3. Based on Sodium Chloride Equivalents The sodium chloride equivalent method has gained popularity. Tables are used to find the concentration of sodium chloride needed to make a solution of a particular drug isotonic with blood plasma. The value of sodium chloride equivalent is noted from the table provided, to the percentage of medicament in solution. This value is multiplied by the percentage of medicament. The result so obtained is subtracted from 0.9 per cent (the concentration of sodium chloride which will make the solution isotonic with blood plasma), the difference in values is the percentage of sodium chloride required to adjust the tonicity of the solutions. i ae Collection Of norms $ ok hogst St \{fICEELLIZATIO! and hove Cotwtdoh Ss Certain molecules or ions termed amphiphiles or surface active agents are Ca¥ U3 characterized by two district regions of opposing solutions affinities within the - same ion. When present in a liquid medium of low concentration, the amphiphiles exist separately and are of such a size to be sub colloidal. As the concentration is increased, aggregation occurs over a narrow range of concentration. These aggregates which may contain 50 or more monomers are called “Micelles” The minimum cone.: at which physical properties of solutions of association colloid show marked changes is known as CMC. This phenomenon is called micellization. Since the Chain length: Increase in the chain length causes decrease in the CMC at constant temperature. > Branched Hydrocarbon Chain: branching of a hydro carbon chain causes increase in the CMC since the decrease in free energy arising from the aggregation of branched chain molecules is less then that obtained with linear molecules with the same number of carbon atoms. ¥ Un-saturation: The CMC increase three to four times by the presence of one double bond so it means that CMC increases due to increased un- saturation. > Hydrophilic group:Types of hydrophilic group: CMC depends upon the type of hydrophilic group. CMC increases due to the ionic group and decrease due to the non-ionic group. - Number of hydrophilic group: The electrical repulsive force between the adjacent ions in a micelle increases as the number of ionic groups increases. In addition increase in the number of any type of hydrophilic group increase 56 Co ane i _~ ‘Scanned with CamScannerthe solubility of the surface active agent both these effects will lead to increases in the CMC. > Position of hydrophilic group: The CMC tends to increase as the polar group is moved from the terminal position towards the middle of the hydrocarbon. (2) Effect of Additives: 1) Simple Electrolytes: When these simple electrolytes are added they are responsible to decrease the CMC. The most important factors concerned in the several effects are the concentration and number of charges on the ions of the opposite charges (gegen ions) to that carried by the micelles. 2) Other Surface Active Agents: It depends upon the type and nature of the surfactant that is added. 3) Alcohols: These are responsible to decrease the CMC. The marked effect of alcohols probably arises from their high selective adsorptivity at the micelle’s surface and penetration into the palisad layer. 4) Hydrocarbons: hydrocarbons are responsible to decrease the CMC because these hydrocarbons facilitate the process of micellization. (3) Effect of Temperature: Effect of the temperature on the critical micelle concentration depends upon the type of the surfactant. In case of non-ionic surfactant the CMC is decreased due to the increase of temperature. In case of ionic preparation when the temperature increases the preparation become cloudy. This point at which preparation become cloudy is called “cloud point”. This process is reversible by decreasing the temperature at its normal level the preparation also become in normal state. Surfactants Surfactants or surface active agents are the one of the most important classes of additives which is used in pharmaceutical formulations. Due to one reason or the other they are used in almost all liquid, Semi-solid or solid formulations. They may be used as emulsifying agents, detergents, solubilising agents, Wetting agents, foaming agents, antifoaming agents, flocculating agents and deflocculating agents. Surfactants may be defined as “the substances which when added to a liquid, lower the interfacial tension between two phases, thus make them miscible 57 ‘Scanned with CamScannerAdded ff. tara sv Aiguid ay bfs ON insatiable Satis — ond Muth yoPuray SW face — Rerthow Narn ; 1 This pl only used to make two immiscibj, with each other. This phenomenon is comm ible with each other and to dissolv e the drugs which are normally liquids mis dissolve (he OniBS n> ual» Paley insoluble in aqueous vehicles” erancon ate, URN ten Pigs The molecules of surfactants consist of two parts, i on a pola Ton Non polar part. When such molecules are placed in two phases ol hina polaris the polar part moves towards high polarity phase while non-polar P i polarity phase and preferentially they are adsorbed at the interface. : vel is reached where the interface dno more space is available at the Jes move towards the bulk, As the concentration is increased, a le becomes saturated with surface active agents ani surface to be occupied, therefore the surfactant molecul Ce scare, TH of the solution At this concentration an unusual Ce caaisting nish : fi i K elle: olecules tend to form colloidal aggregates known as micelles ) aU wale sol tration of surfactant at which = “ si 150 molecules of surface active agents. The conce! u the micelles are formed is known as critical micelle concentration or C.M.C. the solubilization begins at C.M.C. and generally increases with increase in the concentration of micelles. n_ Of Surfactants Surfactants may be classified in a number of ways depending on the use * and physical or chemical properties but the most widely accepted system of classification is based on their ionic behavior in the solutions, which is explained as follows: a)“ Anionic/anion active surfactants: They ionize in aqueous solutions into a lnggniog which is responsible for their emulsifying ability. Examples are soaps of mono-valent and divalent metals, sulphated compounds like sodium lauryl sulphate. Sodium cetyl sulphate, sulphonated compounds like dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate, etc. Clas: b) — Cationics/cation active surfactants: They ionize in aqueous solutions into large (cations responsible for their emulsifying ability. Examples are benzylkonium chloride, cetyl trimethyl ammionium bromide, etc. ©) Non-ionic surfactants: They do not ionize in aqueous solutions, Examples are glyceryl monostearate, spans and tweens. This is the most widely used classes of surfactants in pharmaceutical industries because they offer a wide range of physical properties and are stable over a wide range of pH. ‘Scanned with CamScannerProperties of surfactants, ave following pharmaceutical applications ax well as physiological effects. (A) PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS. (1) Onmicro organisms, 4), Surfactants such as quaternary MMonium compounds have useful anti bacterial properties and so used as disinfectants for the instruments and skin, anti bacterial creams and throat lozenges. ‘They und ‘go adsorption at the cell surf followed in cellular permeability leading to the death due to loss of essential substances from the cell. 2) On removal of bronchial mucus from the respiratory tract. ~> In various infections such as thma, bronchitis and tuberculosis bronchial mucus becomes viscous. So surfactants are used in the treatment of such conditions bic they promote wetting, so mucus becomes soft and its removal is tated, Surfactants are given in the form of aerosols. (3) On human skin The repeated contact b/w the skin and certain detergents may cause mild irritation and dry skin leading to blisters and pustules. This lead to onset of infection. "2 ~ (B) PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS. (1) AS SOLUBILIZING AGENTS: Chloroxylenol, a phenolic compound is used as anti septic agent. Due to presence of surfactants chloroxylenol is made solubilized. Similarly surfactants have been used to increase water solubility of phenobarbitone, volatile oils, chloroform, iodine, hormones, dyes and sulfonamides. (2) AS WETTING AGENTS: Hydrophobic powders are difficult to wet and either float on the water surface or form large floccules. So viscosity of the preparation is increased up to such an extant that it is difficult to ps with drawl of the correct dose from an inject able suspension is not possible so surfactants are added which reduce the inter Particle attractive forces and increase affinity of the particles for the dispersion medium by adsorption at the solid / liquid interface. ‘Scanned with CamScanner(3) AS FLOCCULATING AGENTS. A controlled amount of the flocculation is often desirable in the formulation of ension in order to obtain the required rheological properties ang optimum stability. (4) AS EMULSIFYING AGENTS. Synthetic and natural surfactants are widely used as eniulsifying agents in order to get pharmaceutically elegant emulsion preparation. (5) They are used as additives to ointment and suppository bases. ‘Scanned with CamScannergECTION NO og, IONIC EQUILIBRIUM BRONSTED LOWRY THEORY Bronsted Lowry theory for acids and bases can be defined as: “Any species donating proton (H*) is an acid while the other species which is accepting its proton (H’) is known as base.” Consider the reaction: Hel + H,O i004 Al B2 A2 Bl In forward reaction; HCI is an acid & HO is base because Hel is donating H* & HO is accepting it. While in the backward reaction H;"O is acting as a acid due to donation of H* & chloride ion is acting as base by accepting of H” The tendency of donating or accepting proton by species depends upon the solvent. For example; Hcl is strong acid in HO, because in aqueous solution it can donate H’ easily. While in glacial acetic acid its tendency to donate proton is decreased & so it act as weak acid. Types of Solvents: On the basis of accepting or donating proton, solvents can be classified into four groups. 1. Protophillic 2. Protogenic 3. Amphiprotic 4. Aprotic L__Protophillic: Any solvent that can accept proton (H*) from solute is called protophillic. For example liquids like (acetones, ether & liquid ammonia) are protophillic solvents. Also called basic solvents. 61 ‘Scanned with CamScanner2.__Protogenie: ap : ‘Those solvents which can donate proton (H*) are called Protogenic solyen,. They are usually acids in nature ¢-8- H;8O,, Hel, CHsCOOH, HCOOH, etc. 3.__Amphiprotic: Those solvents which can donate or accept the amphiprotic solvents. This group contains H20 & alcohols. 4. Aprotic: Those solvents which can not donate or accept protons are saig to aprotic. They are used to study acidic and basic reactions of other compounds Hydrocarbons are grouped in this class of solvents: proton are grouped in,, Equilibrium: The state at which two opposing forces or actions are balancing each other js called equilibrium. Chemical Equilibrium: wo opposing reactions occur at “The state of reversible reaction when the t tration of reactants and products do not change with the same rate and the concent time is called chemical equilibrium.” Consider a general reversible reaction: f << = - C+D A+B r Then, according to law of mass action; R; « [A] [B] R, = Ky [A] [B] ‘And rate of backward reaction is; then R, « [C] [D] R= K, fC)(D] ‘And we know that, at equilibrium, the rate of forward reaction is balancing the rate of backward / reverse reaction; Kr = K, Ky [A] [B] = K-{C] [D] 62 ‘Scanned with CamScannerKr - _ICLID) kK, [A] [B] K. = _ICHD] . [A] [B] Where “K.” is called constant of law of mass action, and is equilibrium constant for a specific chemical reaction. IONIZATION OF WEAK ACIDS; When weak acids are dissolved in water, the acids are ionized. This process of ionization is firstly very fast but with the passage of time, forward reaction Gonization) decreases & backward reaction increases, until at certain stage the ionized & un-ionized acid molecules are in equilibrium Consider the reaction: CH;COOH + H,0 I$. CH,C00°+ H;0 Then according to law of mass action R; = Ky {CH;COOH] [H,O} ( And the rate of backward reaction is; then Ry = Ky [CHs;COO7 [H;'0]- Re = Ry Ky [(CH;COOH] [H,0] = Ky [H;°0] [CH;COO7] _K, _[Hy'0][CH,COO7] K, — [(CH;COOH] [H.0] K, =_[H;'O] [CH;COO] [CH;COOH] [H;0] K, [HO] = _[Hy"O] [CH,COO"]_ ---- [CH;COOH] IL H,0 at 25°C weights = 997.07 gm So No: of moles = 997.07 / 18.02 = 55.3 mol/liter As the concentration of water is constant & which is 55.3 mol/liters, so putting in equation (3). 63 ‘Scanned with CamScanner55.3 Ke =_[CH,COO™][H;'O] _ {CH,;COOH} K, =_[CH;COO"] [H;'O|_-- [CH;COOH] Let at equilibrium the concentration of CH;COOH is ¢ — x & cone.: of CH;COO™ & H;"0 will x. then putting in equation (4). (4) K, = _[xL {xl {[c-X] Kp =a c-X But the decrease in conc: is very small so neglecting x; we get. As cone: of H+ is equal to x, so [H;°O] = .Fac ---(5) Where c= Concentration of acid And K, = Tonization constant of acids / acidity constant / dissociation constant. And the equation (5) shows the ionization of weak acids. IONIZATION O: sAK BASES When weak bases are dissolved in water they form alkaline solution, due to their ionization. The general formula for the ionization of weak bases is given by; B+ HO “HO + BH o BB + HO ———— we OH + ~HB ‘Scanned with CamScanner¢ of forward & backward | Then according to law of mass action the reaction are given by; Ry = Ky [B][H,0] Rp Ky [H’B] [OH] At equilibrium point rate of forward reaction is in balance with rate of backward reaction; then: a" ; R=R, K; [B] [H:O] = Ky [H*B] [OH] A H°B] [OH] Ky [B] [H:0] K.[H,0] = H'B] [OH™ [B] K,= [H'B] [OH )-- 1 {B] Where Kb shows the ionization constant for weak bases. At equi concentration of base B is decreased by ¢ — x & the cone: of H'B & OH will x. ibrium the then putting these values in equation (1); we get: Ky = Ky =x As change in concentration of base is very small so neglecting x in denominator; we get K, = _x’ c Ky.c = x Kb.c Xe¥ 65 ‘Scanned with CamScannerases. Where Ky = Ionization constant of weak b ¢ = Concentration of base. x = Concentration of Hydroxyl ion: jonizati yeak bases. White the equation (2) shows the ionization of we ak ZATION OF WATER Water is a weak electrolyte and in pure But when few drops of a strong acid or base 1s water, one acting as solute & other as solvent, ionizes inl process is called autoprotolysis. HO + H;0____Hy'0 + OH" According to law of mass action, the ionizati givenby; K = {H3'O] [OH] {H,0] [1:0] K = [HO] [OH] (H,O/ K [H;0}" = [HsO] [OH 10: form ionizes to very small exten, dded to it, the two molecules of to HsO & OH ions, This ‘on constant for this reaction jg (1) ‘As the water is in excess, therefore, the concentration of water is taken to be constant So K [H,OJ = Ky - --(2) Putting this value in equation (1), we get; K, = [Hs‘O) [OH] Where K, is called ciation constant or autoprotolysis constant or ionic product of water. The experimental value of Ky is 1 x 10" mol/liter at 25°. {OH} [30] = 1x10 mol/liter As water is a neutral molecule and gives equal amount of Hy"O & OH ions. [OH] = [Hs'O] = 1x 107 mol/litre The K, is temp; dependent & varies with increase / decrease in temp; 66 ‘Scanned with CamScannerQOEARONSRUE EY ACY Odnasiater Ute tonteation ata woak aout Meg V0 eee ga WO ew wy (OLE Ww Wy) Now consader the tanteation of a weak bases the general equation for this pans is given by Re ho — HR Ol RK (BELOW . Q) (By Multiplying equation Land 2, we get Ka. Kb = [R30] [B ] x _JUBLLOH] (HB) - IB] Ka. Kb = [H30") [OH] But we know that: K. = (Hs'O] [OH] Putting in equation 3, we get; Ky. Ky = Ky a= kw/ kb Kb =kw/ka The strength of an acid can be expressed in tétms of either K, or the Ky if its conjugate base is known. ate base is known. The K, of an acid can be calculated if the Ky of its conjug 67 ‘Scanned with CamScannersonjuaate base and vice versa « stronger an acid is, the weaker is 1S conjugate base and 18a, Jed ampholyte ang AMPHOLYTES i ca and a base at a time 1S cal AMPHOLYTES “A species that can act both as an acid amphoteric in nature.” the familiar example of ampholytes, ic group on its one side & -Ny, ‘as an acid while amino group er ion is formed. ‘Amino acid (basic unit of protein : & have carboxyli ‘They are amphoteric in nature ' {amino) group on other side. Carboxylic group act act as base. When amino acid is ionized in watery Zwilt H H [ 120 | NH, - C- COOH — _N'H;-C-COO™ | R R (Zwitter ion) Consider the ionization of phosphoric acid (H3POx). -H* -H* -H* H,PO,-—-H,PO" ——> “HPO —* “Pr +H" +H" +H" & HPO,”, are acting as In the above ionization the two species, H2PO,” ampholytes. Because in the forward direction, due to donation of proton they act a acid. And in backward direction, due to acceptation of proton, they act as base. SORENSEN’S P" SCALE Hydrogen ion concentration are typically very small number, it is b/w 1 (in one molar strong acidic solution) and 1 x 10 (in one molar strong basic solution). t Sorensel So, it is very difficult to handle such small calculations. A cher established a method to express hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. This method is called Sorensen’s P"' Scale; and it is defined as; 68 —t ‘Scanned with CamScanner“The logarithm of reciprocal of hydronium ion is called PH.” PY = log_1 [Hy°O} PY = log | log [H;’O] PY = 0-log [H;'O] p" = -log [H;‘O] or =P" = log [H*] Where [H"] is the concentration of hydrogen ions in moles per litre. P™ shows the hydrogen ion concentration or acidity of solution. The hydroxyl ion concentration of solution can be explained by similar » ay and so can be written as; pel = tog [OH] " Scale The hydrogen ion concentration of different acidic solution was determined & then their P" was calculated by above formula, and a scale was obtained called P" Scale, which can be defined as; “The scale on which P" value are computed is called the P"' Scale.” The P™ has values b/w 0 & 14 with the help of P" value, the nature of solution (acidic or basic) can be determined, If the solution has P"' below 7 to 0, it will be acidic in nature & if it has above 7 to 14. Then the solution will be basic in nature. And the value at which hydrogen ion concentration is equal to hydroxyl ion concentration, then the solution has P" 7.47 (at 0°c) and 6.15 (at 100°c) and will be neutral in nature. Neutral Solution [H*] = [OH] ‘Acidic Solution [H*] > [OH] Basic Solution — [H"] < [OH] 69 ‘Scanned with CamScannerLICTION OF P'UIN PHARMACY in pharmacy given below: & pharmaceutical preparatig,, Pp" has many important value fun ati Wars Some important functions of P" in pharmacy are DRUG SOLUBILITY ay On so their solubility is affec, re either weak acids or ba As ma vn pe by change in F aspirin) are more soluble in alkaline solu, ¢ converted into salt form, which is mop, soluble than in acidic form, Conversely the weakly basic drugs are more soluble acidic solution, And if the P" is ma recipitated and if Pj, lowered then acidic drug will be precipitated. So for the solubility of acidic drug p* should be higher than 7 & for basic drug lower then te The weakly acidic drugs (c.g. because in alkaline solution they DRUG STABILITY Drugs are only stable at a certain P®, So for this purpose the P" of drug mus be constant, otherwise the ionization of drug may take place, which decreases th: therapeutic effect of the drug For example cocaine Hel (Salt) is stable for two months at P" 5.7. But durin period P" is decreased to 4.2. So stability is decreased. If P' is increased fom: 5.7 to 6. its decomposition into its ions is decreased & stability increased. DRUG ACTIVITY The activity of drug also depends upon their P" and its ionized or un-ionize’ form. ugs. They at drugs nee For example, mandelic acid, benzoic acid ete are acidic dru more effective in unionized form than ionized from. So such aci : i f acidic medium (low P") to get unionized form & for better effectiveness. DRUG ABSORPTION According to P" partition theory; “The acidic drugs are absorbed by . a y the stomach (wi Hy asic drugs at absorbed by intestine chaving high Py mach (with low P") and basic drugs & On the basis s the icidle deus tog on “a this theory, we can conclude that for the absorption of & “8 aspirin) the medium should have high concentration of hydroge | m0 | ‘Scanned with CamScannerions (low P") & for the absorption of basic drug (¢.g. Paracetamol) the absorption medium should have low concentration of hydrogen ions (having high P"). SUM OF P" & p™ As we know that ionization constant of water is; Ky = [H;'O] [OH] But Kw = 1x 10 mol/liter 1x10" = [Hs'O} [OH] Taking —log on both sides, we have: -log { [H3°O] [OH] } = -log {1 x 10] -log[Hs"O] -loglOH"] = -log! -logio™ { -log(Hs*O] } + { log(OH] } = 0~(14) log" PY y po! = 9 4 14(1) PH 4 pol = 14, Ea — ‘Scanned with CamScannerNS we aust’ Pc aye . GOO ay sO wy? aor Rae a} gecTton NO 05 x i wor BUFFER SOLUTION : 7 / “A solution that resists the change 17 pl by the addition of small amount of base is called buffer solution.” The mixture of solutes that is responsible for acid or base 4 the buffering action of solution is called buffer. “A bul Jution is one which maintains its PH fairly constant even upon the addition of small amount of acid or base.” ‘A buffer solution is usually a weak acid with its salt with strong , base or a weak base with its salt with strong acid. TYPES OF BUFFER SOLUTION On the s grouped into two types: 1. Acidic Buffers. 2. Basic Buffers. 1. Acidic Buffer ‘Those buffer solutions, which are prepared by mixing a weak acid with its salt with strong base e.g. CHsCOOH / CHyCOONa, HzCOs / NazCos, ete. 2. Basic Buffer ‘These are buffer solution which are formed by mixing a weak base with its 1 strong acid e.g. NH,OH/NH«cl & ephedrine/ephedrine Hel, etc. of buffer solution, the buffer solution can be salt with MECHANISM __ The resistance, which is offered to the change in P" of buffer solution, is said to be buffer action or mechanism of buffer solution. ___ Asam acidic buffer has weak acid. salt of strong base, so buffer solution contain a acidic species which react with base added to the solution & a spec! a7 ‘aati ane . * is ‘ speci ; which react with incoming acid in order to maintain P' of buffer solution. ‘nd this whole process is reversed in case of basic buffer n ‘Scanned with CamScanner__, For example, buffer solution CH;COOH/CH;COONa has acidic species Hy'O & basic species CH\COO”, When a basic species (c.g. OH”) is added to this buffer solution, CH;COOH reacts with it & neutralizes it. And in the same way if acidic species (e.g. Hy°O) is added to this buffer solution, the CHyCOO™ react with it & neutralizes it. CH;COOH ) +» CH;COO” + H* CH;COONa = —<¢——_____» CH,COO" + Na* On addition of OH- CH;COOH + OH- PCH 300" + HD On addition of Ht salt CH,COO"+H3°O | =<» CH3COOH+ H20 HENDERSON EQUATION FOR ACIDIC BUFFERS The PH of an acidic buffer can be calculated from the dissociation constant of a weak acid CK.) and the concentration of acid & salt used for the preparation of buffer solution. The dissociation expression of the weak acid HA can be represented by; H20°HA =<} Meat? Ps - Ka= (H3O"] [A] 9 Wh [HA] CALS hae) ~ we) KEVo-> eR. ero 2 Cutgod) 8 ) Ka x. [HA] =[H30° ] [A] ares «See yh “ (H30"] = Ka [HA]/[A] Kertysy ~ Gaae™ * ‘ Taking log on both sides, we have; ve Wael wees) 185 Log [H30*] =log Ka[HA]/[A] °° Log [H30"] = log Ka.+ log [HA]/[A’] B ‘Scanned with CamScanner