polymers
Article
Simulation of Wood Polymer Composites with Finite
Element Analysis
Satya Guha Nukala 1 , Ing Kong 1, * , Akesh Babu Kakarla 1 , Vipulkumar Ishvarbhai Patel 1
and Hossam Abuel-Naga 2
Citation: Nukala, S.G.; Kong, I.;
Kakarla, A.B.; Patel, V.I.; Abuel-Naga,
H. Simulation of Wood Polymer
Composites with Finite Element
Analysis. Polymers 2023, 15, 1977.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
polym15091977
Academic Editor: Abdel-Hamid
I. Mourad
Received: 28 February 2023
Revised: 3 April 2023
Accepted: 18 April 2023
Published: 22 April 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Polymers 2023, 15, 1977. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15091977
1 Department of Engineering, School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematical Sciences,
La Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC 3552, Australia; s.nukala@latrobe.edu.au (S.G.N.);
a.kakarla@latrobe.edu.au (A.B.K.); v.patel@latrobe.edu.au (V.I.P.)
2 Department of Engineering, School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematical Sciences,
La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia; h.aboel-naga@latrobe.edu.au
* Correspondence: i.kong@latrobe.edu.au
Abstract: Wood is a cellulosic material that is most abundantly available in nature. Wood has been
extensively used as reinforcement in polymer composite materials. Wood polymer composite (WPC)
is an environmentally friendly and sustainable material exploited in building and construction
within the marine, packaging, housewares, aerospace, and automotive industries. However, the
precision of testing equipment for finding the properties of WPCs becomes less feasible compared
to experimental analysis due to a high degree of differences in the measurement of properties such
as stress, strain and deformation. Thus, evaluating the mechanical properties of WPCs using finite
element analysis (FEA) can aid in overcoming the inadequacies in measuring physical properties prior
to experimental analyses. Furthermore, the prediction of mechanical properties using simulation
tools has evolved to analyze novel material performance under various conditions. The current study
aimed to examine the mechanical properties of saw dust-reinforced recycled polypropylene (rPP)
through experimentation and FEA. A model was developed using SolidWorks, and simulation was
performed in ANSYS to predict the mechanical properties of the WPCs. To validate the obtained
results, the simulated static tension test results were confirmed with experimental tension tests, and
both assessments were well in accordance with each other. Using FEA to predict material properties
could be a cost-effective technique in studying new materials under varied load conditions.
Keywords: WPCs; ANSYS; finite element analysis; stress; strain; simulation
1. Introduction
Wood polymer composites (WPCs), introduced in the 1990s, have a lesser environ-
mental impact and lower maintenance compared to other non-sustainable glass- and
carbon-reinforced composite materials [1]. Following a rapid increase in demand for
sustainable materials in recent years, WPCs have attracted increasing attention from the
scientific community and industries to replace non-sustainable composites [2]. The benefit
of WPCs is that they possess unique characteristics such as stiffness, lower water intake,
high sustainability, dimensional stability and specific strength over their lifetime, and
durability against environmental impacts [3–5] due to their combination of wood and
polymeric materials [6]. In addition, polymer composites produced using wood filler
have favourable mechanical properties and a higher rigidity than unfilled polymer ma-
terials [7]. The most significant application of WPCs is in the building and construction
industry [1,8]. WPCs are used in a wide range of products, such as railing and fencing for
construction [9], and in the interior and exterior parts of automobiles [10,11]. Furthermore,
there are some major WPC manufacturers in Australia, such as Tuff Deck—Composite
Decking (Dandenong South, VIC, Australia), ModWood Technologies (Campbellfield, VIC,
Australia) and Advanced Plastic Recycling (Edinburgh, SA, Australia). Prior to this, many
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers
Polymers 2023, 15, 1977 2 of 12

researchers have used virgin polymers for the development of WPCs, such as polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) [12], polypropylene (PP) [13,14], polyethylene (PE) [13,15], polylactic
acid (PLA) [16], polyvinyl chloride (PVC) [17] and polyurethane (PU) [18], which are the
most predominantly used materials as the polymer matrices in WPCs. Among the above-
mentioned polymers, polypropylene (PP) reinforced with wood fillers has been used for
various industrial applications extensively [19–21]. Over the years, the amount of plastic
waste generated has been increasing and has resulted in significant amounts of municipal
solid waste (MSW). Therefore, there have been attempts to recycle post-consumer plastics
for the production of WPCs in order to offload their ecological impacts [22,23].
The production and usage of new composite materials should satisfy the requirements
in individual industrial applications. Prototyping requires extensive trials to ensure that
appropriate performance is obtained throughout its lifespan. Therefore, rather than per-
forming a series of tests for each prototype, it is preferable to use a model that can mimic
similar behaviours and conditions during simulation. This facilitates the quick correction
of the digital model, evaluates results and predicts trends. Finite element analysis (FEA)
is the most used simulation process among the research by the science and engineering
communities [24]. Using FEA simulation to predict mechanical properties during the
design phase is an effective tool for optimizing parameters.
In this context, Dickson et al. [25] reported the mechanical performance of carbon,
Kevlar and glass fiber-reinforced nylon composites using FEA. The results showed that
the strength of Kevlar-reinforced nylon had the highest strength followed by glass fiber-
and carbon fiber-reinforced composites. Caminero et al. [26] validated the impact and
damage resistance of 3D printed thermoplastic reinforced with Kelvar fibers using the
fused deposition modelling technique. It was reported that the impact strength increased
as the percentage of fibers increased. Alharbi et al. [27] studied the uniaxial stress–strain
response of 3D printed polylactic acid (PLA) using FEA and validated it with experimental
data. The results showed that the stress and displacement did not vary significantly within
the element range of interest. The model showed a maximum resultant displacement of
2.227 mm and strain rate of 1.615 × 10−2 [27], respectively. Bhandari et al. [28] created a 3D
printed model composed of polyetherimide material to predict the elastic response of the
materials using FEA. The accuracy of the FEA using Poisson’s ratio was less accurate and
showed a difference of up to 19.6% between the predicted and observed values. The internal
lattice structure from the analysis significantly matched the 3D printed model values.
In addition, a small number of investigations has been conducted on WPCs using
FEA. For instance, Roy et al. [1] demonstrated the mechanical analysis of composites
made of wood waste and recycled polypropylene. The predicted flexural and tensile
properties of the biocomposites were validated by experimental data. The results showed
good agreement between the simulation and empirical data. Similarly, Bhaskar et al. [29]
reported the results of a three-point bending test of WPCs produced from recycled polymer
and pine wood flour. The recycled polymer matrix consisted of 80% polypropylene and
20% high-density polyethylene. The results showed that the composite at 40% of pine wood
flour exhibited a maximum shear stress of 10.085 MPa and maximum equivalent stress
of 44.815 MPa. Moreover, maximum deflection was observed at the point of contact of
load. In another study, Ezzaraa et al. [30] demonstrated the FEA of 3D printed wood–PLA
composites and compared the results with experimental data. The analysis was carried out
to predict the mechanical properties of the 3D printed WPCs and to propose an efficient
numerical tool to understand the effects of the internal porosity of 3D printed composites.
The study reported that the elastic properties of the composites mostly varied based on the
wood volume fraction and Young’s modulus was based on the addition of wood particles.
The comparison between the FEA and experimental results showed that the predictions
were significantly equal. Moreover, the analysis also concluded that wood particle size
and shape were considerably subjective to the anisotropy of the composite which could
enhance the longitudinal Young’s modulus and reduce the transverse Young’s modulus.
Hartmann et al. [31] reported a numerical analysis of WPC using RVE and FEM in ANSYS
Polymers 2023, 15, 1977 3 of 12

Workbench V 21.1 (Canonsburg, PA, United States). The study was conducted using an
FEA model developed based on a softwood tracheid mainly consisting of pine wood with
12% moisture at a temperature of 23 ◦ C. The findings of the study stated that 10 MPa must
be applied for the deformation of the softwood composites. However, experimental studies
reported that pine wood compressive strength ranges from 4 to 14 MPa. Hence, analysis
with the RVE approach was determined successfully with appropriate accuracy.
The present study aimed to create a microscale simulation model and perform the
mechanical testing of WPCs using ANSYS Workbench. The software was used to simulate
the layer-based composites. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of the WPCs composed
of recycled polypropylene reinforced with sawdust were studied experimentally. The
predicted results from the FEA were validated by the experimental data.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
Recycled polypropylene (rPP) was collected from the Bendigo Recycling Centre, Ea-
glehawk, VIC, Australia. The collected rPP originated from used milk and yoghurt bottles.
Sawdust (SD) was obtained from Raw Boards Pty. Ltd., Bendigo, VIC, Australia. The SD
comprised different types of hardwood species (red gum, ironbark and yellow gum wood)
collected from the various construction and demolition (C&D) activities with different
particle sizes. The chemicals sodium stearate (C18 H35 NaO2 ) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
were purchased from Bunnings, Bendigo, VIC, Australia. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) was
procured from Sigma-Aldrich Pty. Ltd., Melbourne, VIC, Australia.

2.2. Methodology
Initially, rPP was shredded using a plastic crusher (DongGuan ZhongLi Instrument
Technology Co., Ltd., Dongguan, China), and it was further cleaned with NaOH solution
(5%) for 60 min. Afterwards, the rPP was washed using sodium stearate twice, followed
by rinsing with water for the removal of excess dirt and other debris. The SD waste was
collected from the various C&D activities in various sizes. Furthermore, the SD was sieved
according to the ASTM E11 sieve method to obtain 0.05 mm particles [32]. Later, the SD
was washed with a 20% NaOH solution and followed by 10 M HCl to remove excess dirt,
alkaline and residues on the surface of the SD. Furthermore, the SD was rinsed three times
with deionized water and oven-dried for 24 h at 70 ◦ C as per the methodology reported
by Medupin et al. [33]. Once the cleaning and segregation processes of rPP and SD were
completed, they were pre-mixed in a Ziploc bag according to the concentrations shown in
Table 1. The pre-mixture was later fed into a co-rotating batch mixer (ZL-3011 Rubber Lab
Banbury Kneader Mixer; DongGuan ZhongLi Instrument Technology Co., Ltd., Dongguan,
China). The mixer parameters, such as the hopper temperature (190 ◦ C) and spindle
speed (8 rpm), were maintained as constant and the hopper was rotated clockwise and
anti-clockwise to obtain a good consistency of the WPCs. Finally, the obtained composite
was crushed into tiny pieces with a plastic crusher (ZL-9031 Digital Crushing Strength
Tester; DongGuan ZhongLi Instrument Technology Co., Ltd., Dongguan, China) and hot-
pressed (CY-PCH-600D Laboratory Hydraulic Press; Zhengzhou CY Scientific Instrument
Co., Ltd., Zhengzhou, China) at 190 ◦ C with a pressure of 20 kPa for 15 min and cooled
to room temperature [34,35]. Dog bone specimens were produced with an ASTM D638
type IV standard [36,37]. The experimental work used in determining each specimen’s
mechanical properties was performed by Nukala et al. [34]. The averages of the data from
the experimental work were evaluated for three replicates of each dataset using statistical
analysis. The analysis was carried out with GraphPad Prism 9.0 (GraphPad Software, Inc.,
San Diego, CA, USA) through the ANOVA method.
Polymers 2023, 15, 1977 4 of 12

Table 1. Composition of rPP-SD composites.

Composites rPP (wt.%) SD (wt.%)

rPP-SD3 70 30
rPP-SD4 60 40

2.3. Tensile Test

Hot-pressed dog bone specimens with a thickness of 3 mm were used for tensile
testing. A Zhongli ZL-8001A tensile tester (DongGuan ZhongLi Instrument Technology
Co., Ltd., Dongguan, China) at a crosshead speed of 3 mm/min with a load of 500 kN was
used [38,39]. The samples were stored at a room temperature under dry conditions before
testing [40–42].

2.4. Microstructural Analysis

The microstructural analysis of the fractured cross-sectional surfaces of the composites
was conducted using a benchtop SEM (Hitachi Benchtop SEM 3030; Tokyo, Japan) [1]. The
samples were sputter coated with platinum at 10 kV for 30 s before the examination [40].
The micrographs were obtained under variable pressures ranging from 10 to 15 kV.

2.5. Simulation
The 3D model was developed using SolidWorks software V 21.0 (Dassault Systèmes
SE, Vélizy-Villacoublay, France) as per the ASTM D638 standard for tensile tests. The
specimen boundary conditions were applied with one end of the model fixed (A) and
the other with a load applied (B), as shown in Figure 1a. A load of 500 kN was used to
predict the maximum stress, strain and deformation. The model was imported into the
ANSYS Composite PrepPost (ACP) of ANSYS Workbench (Canonsburg, PA, USA) [31,43].
The ACP plugin was used to analyze the layered composites, as shown in Figure 1b. The
model was stacked up in five layers with a total thickness of 3 mm. The materials used in
the simulation were SD and rPP. Additionally, a customized material library was created
in ANSYS Workbench using experimental data obtained from the literature [44–47]. The
properties of the rPP and SD are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Properties of recycled polypropylene and sawdust.

Properties SD rPP
Young’s modulus (MPa) 0.30 [48] 6 [49]
Poisson’s ratio 0.33 [48] 0.38 [49]
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 0.5 [50] 21 [49]

Based on a study by Roy et al. [1], it was assumed that the material would behave
as isotropic in nature; it was further required to define its elastic coefficients in ANSYS.
Therefore, the acquired engineering stress and strain values were converted into true stress
and strain values according to Equations (1) and (2) [51] and the plastic strain values were
calculated according to Equation (3) [1].


σtrue = σengineering × 1+ ∈engineering (1)

∈true = ln 1+ ∈engineering (2)

σtrue
∈ plastic = ∈true − (3)
E
where ∈ is the strain, σ is the stress and E is the Young’s modulus of the material. The
engineering stress (σengineering ) and engineering strain (∈engineering ) values are the experimen-
Polymers 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12

where ∈ is the strain, 𝜎𝜎 is the stress and E is the Young’s modulus of the material. Th
engineering stress (𝜎𝜎engineering) and engineering strain (∈engineering) values are the experimenta
where
tensile∈testis the strain,
values [52].𝜎𝜎The is the
average and E is modulus
stress Young’s the Young’s modulus
of the composite of the material.
material The
Polymers 2023, 15, 1977 5 of 12 was cal
engineering stress (𝜎𝜎 engineering) and engineering strain (∈engineering) values are the experimental
culated according to Hooke’s law, i.e., stress is directly proportional to strain.
tensileThetestcalculated
values [52]. The average
values Young’s (1)
from Equations modulus
and (3)ofwerethe composite
used to definematerial
the was cal-
isotropi
culated
plastic
tal
according
tensilehardening to Hooke’s
test valuescharacteristics
law,
[52]. The average
i.e.,
in the stress is
simulation
Young’s
directly
modulus
proportional
software. to
The parameters
of the composite
strain.
materialfor wasthe defor
The
mation rate
calculated calculated values
used intothe
according from
FEA were
Hooke’s Equations
thestress
law, i.e., (1) and
sameisasdirectly (3) were
per theproportional used
experimental to define the
conditions. To
to strain. isotropic
achiev
plastic
accuratehardening
The calculated characteristics
results, mesh
values generation in
from Equationsthe simulation
and element
(1) and (3) software.
sizewere
were The
adjusted
used parameters
accordingly.
to define for
the isotropicthe
Thedefor-
simu
mation rate used in the FEA were the same as per the experimental
lation results were in accordance with the experimental results since all the constraint
plastic hardening characteristics in the simulation software. The conditions.
parameters for the To
de- achieve
accurate
formation results,
and boundary mesh
rate used
conditions generation
in the FEA
were wereandtheelement
similar. same as size
Therefore, per itwere
the adjusted
experimental
could accordingly.
conditions.
be concluded The
To simu-
that material def
lation
achieve results
accurate were in
results,
inition was accurate. accordance
mesh with
generation the
and experimental
element size were results
adjustedsince all the
accordingly. constraints
The
and boundary
simulation conditions
results were similar.
were in accordance with theTherefore,
experimentalit could be since
results concluded that material def-
all the constraints
and boundary conditions were similar. Therefore, it could be concluded that material
inition was accurate.
definition was accurate.

Figure 1. (a) Boundary conditions of the specimen and (b) stacking sequence of the specimen.

Figure 1. (a)
(a)Boundary
3. Results
Figure 1. Boundary conditions
and Discussion
conditions of the
of the specimen
specimen andstacking
and (b) (b) stacking sequence
sequence of the specimen.
of the specimen.

3.3.1. Morphology
Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
The micrographs of the rPP-SD composites are shown in Figure 2. It can be seen tha
3.1. Morphology
3.1. Morphology
the The
SD was randomly
micrographs distributed
of the in the rPP,
rPP-SD composites arewith
shown noinclear
Figuregap,
2. Itno
cansignificant
be seen that alignmen
the SDThewas micrographs
randomly of the
distributed rPP-SD
in the composites
rPP, with no are
clearshown
gap, noin
in a particular direction and good interfacial bonding. The following bonding is Figure
significant 2. It can
alignment be seen
in an that
indi
the SD was
a particular randomly
direction anddistributed in
good interfacial the rPP,
bonding. with no clear
The following gap,
bonding
cation of the isotropic behaviour of the composite and stress transfer from the weake no significant
is an indicationalignment
in
of athe
particular
matrix directionSD
isotropic behaviour
to the stronger and
of thegood
fiber asinterfacial bonding.
composite and stress
reported by The
transfer
Adhikary etfollowing
from the weaker bonding
matrixistoan indi-
al. [53]. Furthermore, Renne
the
cationstronger
of the SD fiber as
isotropic reported
behaviour by Adhikary
of the et al.
composite [53]. Furthermore,
and Renner
stress transfer et
from al. the
[54] weaker
et al. [54] reported that the strength and interfacial interactions confirmed
reported that the strength and interfacial interactions confirmed the composite failure mode the composit
matrix
failure tomode
the stronger SD fiber as reported
and micromechanical by Adhikary et al. [53]. Furthermore, Renner
deformation.
and micromechanical deformation.
et al. [54] reported that the strength and interfacial interactions confirmed the composite
failure mode and micromechanical deformation.
sawdust
sawdust sawdust
sawdust

(a) (b)

(a)
Figure2.2.SEM
SEM micrographs of WPC (b)
samples at cross-sectional failure depicting
Figure micrographs of WPC samples at cross-sectional failure depicting the randomthe random distr
distribu-
bution
tion offor
of SD SD(a)
for (a) rPP-SD3
rPP-SD3 and (b)and (b) rPP-SD4.
rPP-SD4.
Figure 2. SEM micrographs of WPC samples at cross-sectional failure depicting the random distri-
bution of SD for (a) rPP-SD3 and (b) rPP-SD4.
Polymers 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12
Polymers 2023, 15, 1977 6 of 12

3.2. Mesh Generation

MeshGeneration
3.2. Mesh sensitivity is a reference for how much a solution can be changed in terms of
the entities such as mesh
Mesh sensitivity is adensity,
reference element
for how type,
much number of elements
a solution can beand nodes in
changed used for
terms
thethe
of individual problem
entities such as meshunder study element
density, [55]. Thetype,mostnumber
commonly used sensitivity
of elements and nodes is type
usedI
sensitivity
for in FEA, problem
the individual and to obtainunder anstudy
accurate[55].solution,
The most a finer mesh is used
commonly preferred. Alterna-
sensitivity is
tively,
type type II sensitivity
I sensitivity in FEA,is andanother type ofan
to obtain mesh that can
accurate be usedaas
solution, a refined
finer mesh mesh [56,57].
is preferred.
As per the discussion,
Alternatively, an evaluation
type II sensitivity of mesh type
is another sensitivity
of mesh wasthatalsocan
performed
be usedinasthe present
a refined
study to assess the effect of mesh size on von Mises stress [58] and the resultant displace-
mesh [56,57]. As per the discussion, an evaluation of mesh sensitivity was also performed
ment.
in the Smooth refinement-based
present study to assess the mesh was
effect of chosen
mesh size overonthe vonstandard mesh, [58]
Mises stress as shown
and the in
Figure 3a.displacement.
resultant As a result, more nodesrefinement-based
Smooth allowed the composite mesh was specimens
chosentoover obtain
the highly
standardac-
curate as
mesh, results
shown andinperform
Figure 3a. large
As deformations
a result, more[59]. nodes Furthermore,
allowed thetocomposite
improve the analysis
specimens
of obtain
to the mesh quality,
highly mesh plots
accurate results were
andcreated.
perform It large
can also be noted that
deformations the Furthermore,
[59]. maximum stress to
point was located on the rim of the specimen and failed nodal points are shown with red
improve the analysis of the mesh quality, mesh plots were created. It can also be noted
arrows
that the in Figure 3b,c.
maximum It ispoint
stress worth mentioning
was located on that
thethere
rim of weretheno failed nodal
specimen pointsnodal
and failed at the
centerline of the specimen where necking occurred which shows that the typethere
points are shown with red arrows in Figure 3b,c. It is worth mentioning that I meshing
were
obtained was very fine and smooth [60]. The subsequent results proved that the mesh
no failed nodal points at the centerline of the specimen where necking occurred which
shows
qualitythat wasthe type I meshing
acceptable, obtained
as the aspect was
ratio very 3b)
(Figure finewasandlesssmooth
than [60]. The the
five and subsequent
Jacobian
results proved that the mesh quality was acceptable, as the
ratio (Figure 3c) was less than two [61,62]. The Jacobian ratio measures the shape aspect ratio (Figure 3b)ofwas
the
less than five and the Jacobian ratio (Figure 3c) was less than
given element, which is compared to the ideal element, and the ideal shape of an element two [61,62]. The Jacobian
ratio
depends measures
on thethe shape type
element of the[63].
given element, which
Furthermore, is compared
the ideal Jacobianto the should
ratio ideal element, and
be between
the ideal shape of an element depends on the element type
1 and 10 for most elements, which correlates with the present Jacobian result [64,65]. [63]. Furthermore, the ideal
Jacobian
Moreover, ratio
the should
results be between
indicate that1theandelement
10 for most
edge elements,
lengths were whichclosecorrelates with and
to each other the
present Jacobian result [64,65]. Moreover, the results indicate that the element edge lengths
had more positive values. In addition, the mesh generated a maximum number of nodes,
were close to each other and had more positive values. In addition, the mesh generated a
as displayed in Figure 3b,c [27,66].
maximum number of nodes, as displayed in Figure 3b,c [27,66].

Figure 3.3.(a)
Figure (a)Mesh
Meshgenerated
generatedin in ANSYS,
ANSYS, (b) (b)
meshmesh aspect
aspect ratioratio of WPCs
of WPCs and (c)and (c) Jacobian
Jacobian ratio ofratio
WPCs.of
WPCs.
Polymers 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12

Polymers 2023, 15, 1977 7 of 12

3.3. Mechanical Properties

3.3.1. Stress and Strain Distributions
3.3. Mechanical Properties
The specimen’s equivalent stress and strain distribution while being stretched is dis-
3.3.1. Stress and Strain Distributions
played in Figure 4a,b. Concentration areas of maximum and minimum stress are indicated
Theand
with red specimen’s equivalent
blue arrows stress
in Figure andanalysis
4a. The strain distribution
showed thatwhile being stretched
the specimens failedisatdis-
a
played in Figure 4a,b. Concentration areas of maximum and minimum
maximum stress region of 21.75 MPa and a maximum strain region of 0.0075 mm stress are indicated
at a
with rate
strain red and blue arrows in Figure 4a. The analysis showed that the specimens failed at
of 29.5%.
a maximum stress region of 21.75 MPa and a maximum strain region of 0.0075 mm at a
strain rate of 29.5%.

Figure 4. (a) Equivalent stress distribution and (b) equivalent strain distribution.
Figure 4. (a) Equivalent stress distribution and (b) equivalent strain distribution.
The stress–strain curve from the experimental data and FEA are shown in Figure 5.
TheThe stress–strain
maximum curve from
experimental theinexperimental
stress rPP-SD3 anddata and FEA
rPP-SD4 wasare shown at
obtained in 21.65
Figure 5.
MPa
The
andmaximum
23.15 MPa,experimental
respectively.stress in rPP-SD3
The maximum and rate
strain rPP-SD4 was obtained at
was approximately 21.65inMPa
29.5% both
and 23.15
cases. TheMPa, respectively.
stress–strain The
curve formaximum strain and
the experiment rate FEA
was approximately
showed a linear29.5% elasticinregion
both
cases.
at theThe stress–strain
beginning curve followed
of tension, for the experiment
by a yieldand FEA
point showed abuckling
indicating linear elastic region
and collapse.
atFurthermore,
the beginning theofcomposites
tension, followed
showedbyrupturea yieldandpoint indicating
decreased buckling
stress andyield
after the collapse.
point.
Furthermore, the composites showed rupture and decreased stress after the yield point.
The high concentration region corresponded to composite failure at a maximum stress
The high21.75
region concentration
MPa for FEA region
andcorresponded
22.85 MPa for to the
composite failureanalysis.
experimental at a maximum
Accordingstressto
the studies conducted by Bhaskar et al. [29] and Tiwari et al. [67],
region 21.75 MPa for FEA and 22.85 MPa for the experimental analysis. According to the tensile strength and
durability
studies highly by
conducted depend on aetspecimen’s
Bhaskar al. [29] andparameters
Tiwari et al.such[67],as its dimensions,
tensile strength and thickness
dura-
and pressure loading. Another study conducted by Das Lala et al.
bility highly depend on a specimen’s parameters such as its dimensions, thickness and [68] demonstrated the
utilization of biodegradable polymer composites such as rubber seed
pressure loading. Another study conducted by Das Lala et al. [68] demonstrated the utili- shell and epoxy resin.
The obtained
zation results of the
of biodegradable composites
polymer were validated
composites using both
such as rubber seedexperimental
shell and epoxy results and
resin.
The obtained results of the composites were validated using both experimental resultsof
FEA. The results stated that with an increase in the filler content, the tensile strength
the composite increased. Furthermore, it was stated that a similar trend was observed
and FEA. The results stated that with an increase in the filler content, the tensile strength
in the results from the finite element technique. Navaneethakrishnan et al. [69] studied
of the composite increased. Furthermore, it was stated that a similar trend was observed
the structural analysis of a natural fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composite using vinyl
in the results from the finite element technique. Navaneethakrishnan et al. [69] studied
ester resin, sisal and luffa fiber. The results indicated that a 20% sisal and 10% luffa natural
the structural analysis of a natural fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composite using vinyl
fiber composite showed higher tensile strength. The experimental results were validated
ester resin, sisal and luffa fiber. The results indicated that a 20% sisal and 10% luffa natural
against ANSYS results and the tensile strength of the natural fiber-reinforced composite
fiber composite showed higher tensile strength. The experimental results were validated
was 0.05 MPa higher than the experimental result. Thus, in relation to the above-mentioned
against ANSYS results and the tensile strength of the natural fiber-reinforced composite
discussion, it was evident that rPP-SD composites displayed a good agreement between the
FEA and experimental results and were validated against each other as shown in Figure 5.
 Polymers 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12

was 0.05 MPa higher than the experimental result. Thus, in relation to the above-men-
Polymers 2023, 15, 1977
tioned discussion, it was evident that rPP-SD composites displayed a good agreement be-8 of 12
tween the FEA and experimental results and were validated against each other as shown
in Figure 5. Similar observations were made on the stress- and strain-related analysis us-
ing ANSYS
Similar software onwere
observations different
made WPCs. Values
on the were
stress- andevaluated and validated
strain-related analysisexperimen-
using ANSYS
tally and using ANSYS [70,71].
software on different WPCs. Values were evaluated and validated experimentally and
using ANSYS [70,71].

Fracture Point

Yield Point

Linear Elastic

Figure
Figure 5.
5.Stress–strain
Stress–straincurve
curvefrom the
from FEA
the and
FEA experimental
and data.
experimental data.

3.3.2.
3.3.2. Deformation
Deformation
The
Thetotal
totaldeformation
deformationofofthe thespecimen
specimen occurred
occurred at aathigher concentration
a higher concentration area,area,
shown shown
with aared
with redarrow
arrow inin
Figure
Figure6a. 6a.
The The
variation in deformation
variation for the experimental
in deformation and sim- and
for the experimental
ulation
simulationvalues was 0.54
values wasmm 0.54for
mm rPP-SD3 and 0.68and
for rPP-SD3 mm0.68for mm
rPP-SD4. This variation
for rPP-SD4. Thisinvariation
de-
formation can becan
in deformation considered as the tolerance
be considered of the machine
as the tolerance of the[18]. Fang et
machine al. [72]
[18]. Fangstudied
et al. [72]
the mechanical
studied performance
the mechanical of glass fiber-reinforced
performance polymer (GFRP)–bamboo
of glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP)–bamboo wood
sandwich
wood beams.beams.
sandwich The beamsThe were
beams investigated experimentally
were investigated and validated
experimentally using AN-using
and validated
SYS Workbench.
ANSYS Workbench. The The
experimental
experimental results showed
results showedthat that
withwith
the increase
the increasein theinthickness
the thickness
of the bamboo and GRPF layers, there was a significant increase
of the bamboo and GRPF layers, there was a significant increase in the tensile in the tensile strength
strength
and deformation capacity of the beams. Furthermore, the experimental
and deformation capacity of the beams. Furthermore, the experimental deformation deformation re-
sults were considerably similar to the FEA. The deformation and
results were considerably similar to the FEA. The deformation and structural analysis structural analysis of a
sisal fiber-reinforced
of a sisal polymer
fiber-reinforced composite-based
polymer wind turbine
composite-based windwereturbineinvestigated by Appa- by
were investigated
durai et al. [73].
Appadurai et al.In[73].
their In
study,
theirthestudy,
wind theturbine
wind profile wasprofile
turbine modelled was in modelled
CATIA V5 in (Das-
CATIA
sault
V5 SystèmesSystèmes
(Dassault SE, Vélizy-Villacoublay, France) and
SE, Vélizy-Villacoublay, evaluated
France) andfor its mechanical
evaluated for its proper-
mechanical
ties in ANSYS.
properties The results
in ANSYS. Thestated
resultsthat the sisal
stated that fiber-reinforced polymer composite-based
the sisal fiber-reinforced polymer composite-
wind turbine had superior mechanical properties compared
based wind turbine had superior mechanical properties compared to structural to structural steel and other
steel and
natural
other natural fiber composite wind turbines. Rostampour-Haftkhani etmeasured
fiber composite wind turbines. Rostampour-Haftkhani et al. [74] and
al. [74] measured
predicted the deformation performance of WPC profiles. The deformation
and predicted the deformation performance of WPC profiles. The deformation of the WPC of the WPC
profiles
profiles was
wasanalyzed
analyzedexperimentally
experimentally andandwith
withANSYS
ANSYS software
software in order to decrease
in order the the
to decrease
cost and time of measurement. The results stated that FEA predicted deformation values
cost and time of measurement. The results stated that FEA predicted deformation values
with a mean absolute percentage of less than 3% and it was suggested as an efficient
with a mean absolute percentage of less than 3% and it was suggested as an efficient method
method for predicting the deformation properties of WPC profiles. In conclusion, the sim-
for predicting the deformation properties of WPC profiles. In conclusion, the simulation
ulation result correlates with the experimental result as shown in Figure 6b,c, as it has a
result correlates with the experimental result as shown in Figure 6b,c, as it has a similar
similar fracture concentration area and exhibits the same deformation rate.
fracture concentration area and exhibits the same deformation rate.
Polymers 2023, 15,
Polymers 2023, 15, x1977
FOR PEER REVIEW 9 9ofof12
12

Figure 6.
Figure Total deformation
6. Total deformation in
in the
the (a)
(a) FEA,
FEA, (b)
(b) rPP-SD3
rPP-SD3 and
and (c)
(c) rPP-SD4.
rPP-SD4.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
This study aimed to investigate the mechanical properties of sawdust-reinforced
This polypropylene
recycled study aimed tocomposites.
investigate the Themechanical
morphology properties of sawdust-reinforced
of the composites showed a homo- re-
cycled polypropylene composites. The morphology of the composites
geneous dispersion of SD in rPP, which aided in ensuring good mechanical properties. showed a homoge-
neous dispersion
Von Mises stress, of SD in rPP,
equivalent which
elastic aided
strain in ensuring
and good
deformation mechanical
were properties.
investigated. Von
The results
Mises stress, equivalent elastic strain and deformation were investigated.
showed that the stress concentration region was due to the force applied according to The results
showed thatparameters.
simulation the stress concentration regionrate
Similarly, the strain wasdepended
due to the onforce applied according
the thickness and the forceto
simulation parameters. Similarly, the strain rate depended on the thickness
applied, while the deformation rate depended on the elongation of the specimen with and the force
applied,
respect towhile the deformation
the stacked layers andrate depended
the applied on the
force. The elongation
location of ofthethe specimen
fracture pointwith
was
respect to the stacked layers and the applied force. The location of the
predicted using FEA analysis. The analysis was validated using experimental data. Both fracture point was
predicted
the FEA and using FEA analysis.
experimental The analysis
results showedwas validated
a similar trend using experimental
in the data. Both
stress and strain plot.
the FEA and experimental
Furthermore, the orientationresults
of the showed
fibers anda damage
similar trend in the
locations needstress
to beand strain
further plot.
studied
Furthermore, the orientation
to obtain a better of the
understanding andfibers and damage
develop locations
an accurate need model.
analytical to be further studied
to obtain a better understanding and develop an accurate analytical model.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.G.N. and I.K.; methodology, S.G.N.; software, S.G.N.;
Author Contributions:
validation, Conceptualization,
S.G.N., A.B.K. S.G.N. and
and I.K.; formal analysis, I.K.;and
S.G.N. methodology, S.G.N.; software,
I.K.; investigation, S.G.N.;
S.G.N.; resources,
validation, S.G.N., A.B.K.
I.K.; data curation, S.G.N.;and I.K.; formal analysis,
writing—original S.G.N. and I.K.;
draft preparation, investigation,
S.G.N.; S.G.N.;and
writing—review resources,
editing,
I.K.;
I.K.,data curation,
A.B.K., V.I.P. S.G.N.; writing—original
and H.A.-N.; draft
visualization, preparation,
S.G.N.; S.G.N.;
supervision, writing—review
I.K. andread
All authors have editing,
and
I.K., A.B.K.,
agreed to theV.I.P. and H.A.-N.;
published visualization,
version of S.G.N.; supervision, I.K. All authors have read and
the manuscript.
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Institutional Review Board Statement: No applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Polymers 2023, 15, 1977 10 of 12

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