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Assessment of sandcrete hollow Sandcrete

hollow blocks
blocks’ thermal performance as a
walling material for tropical
buildings in Lokoja, Nigeria
Adamu Muhammed, Clement Oluwole Folorunso and Gabriel Fadairo Received 7 July 2021
Revised 28 September 2021
Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria 10 November 2021
27 December 2021
Accepted 30 December 2021
Abstract
Purpose – Understanding the thermal performance of sandcrete hollow block walls in the tropic is very
essential for occupants’ well-being, productivity and efficiency, due to its widespread application in
buildings in the study area. Lokoja, in Nigeria, lies in the warm humid zone with its attendant’s high
temperatures all year round. Thus, providing an acceptable walling material that will control the high
indoor air temperature becomes imperative. This paper assessed sandcrete hollow blocks as a walling
material used in Lokoja, to determine the thermal performances for effective thermal comfort of the
residents.
Design/methodology/approach – It involves the construction of a habitable model building with the
commonly available sandcrete hollow blocks in the area. One unit of Cryopak iMINI Temperature and Relative
Humidity Data Logger called new generation intelligent iMINI with Serial Number and Product Code MX-CI-
145–0009 and MX-HE-S-16-L was installed, to record the indoor air temperature and relative humidity data at
an interval of one hour, for 12 months covering dry and wet seasons. The results of the recorded data were
downloaded to an excel spread sheet for assessment and analysis throughout the seasons. The values were
computed using the temperature–humidity index (THI) equation, with a view to determine the indoor thermal
comfort level category.
Findings – The study revealed that sandcrete hollow block walls provide thermal discomfort of the indoor
environment for both seasons, with attendant adverse effects in the comfort of the occupants. The paper
concludes that proper orientation of buildings, planting of trees, use of low absorbing or reflective surface
materials, application of cavity walls to receive insulation materials in between the hollow spaces provided,
instead of the single walling as well as providing shading device elements, can improve users’ comfort and
also ameliorate the heat effect on the external surface of building transferred into the interior by conduction,
radiation or convection within the area and in the tropics at large. Other thermally eco-friendly wall materials
available in Lokoja includes timber, stabilized laterite–cement blocks, burnt bricks and earth-mud bricks
which can be used to replace sandcrete hollow block walls. These alternative wall materials are used for
construction of residential and office buildings by the colonial government of Sir Fredrick Lugard in the
study area.
Practical implications – The application of sandcrete hollow blocks as a wall material is in vogue, not
minding its thermal discomfort to the users and the environment; this is due to its availability and ease of
production. The acceptability of this walling material requires holistic study to unravel the best way to reduce
the thermal discomfort inherent in its application.
Originality/value – The author succeeded in revealing the thermal performance of sandcrete hollow blocks
as walling material in Lokoja, the study area. It is a first attempt at understanding the performance for human
comfort in the area. This will greatly assist the resident and other researchers to improve on the application of
sandcrete hollow blocks as walling material towards ensuring that maximum indoor thermal comfort is
achieved.
Keywords Blocks, Indoor temperature, Performance, Relative humidity, Sandcrete, Thermal comfort, Walls
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
1.1 Background to the study
Thermal comfort plays an important role in human performance at both mental and physical International Journal of Building
Pathology and Adaptation
levels. According to Shanu (2010), cited in Malgwi and Musa (2014) opined that, thermal © Emerald Publishing Limited
2398-4708
comfort relates to condition of an individual’s mind which expresses either satisfaction or DOI 10.1108/IJBPA-07-2021-0096
IJBPA dissatisfaction with the thermal environment. The level of performance of given tasks is
affected by the level of influence generated by the impulses caused by the varied
environmental parameters. Thermal condition of an environment is suggested to affect levels
of arousal, vigilance, fatigue, attention and boredom (Markus and Morris, 1980). The building
construction culture of pre-independence in Nigeria was largely dependent on the use of
Earth (laterite soil) for house constructions. Then, the use of concrete blocks was
insignificant. The influx of Ordinary Portland Cements into the country after
independence in 1960 encouraged the use of sandcrete hollow blocks as building materials
improved techniques. Research had shown that people spent about 80–90% of their time
indoor environment, whether at home or in public buildings (Sujanova et al., 2019) as cited in
Nusrat et al. (2020) and buttressed by Lebrasseur et al. (2019) cited in Folorunso (2020). Given
the foregoing, the in-depth study of the thermal performance of sandcrete hollow blocks as a
walling material to provide an acceptable indoor thermal comfort for tropical buildings in
Lokoja cannot be overemphasized. This assertion was buttressed by the findings of Isaksson
and Buregyeya (2019) that there are economic and environmental advantages in using
sandcrete hollow blocks as they are produced to statutory compliance levels; where blocks
are not produced to standard requirements, it is better to use solid. According to Oluwafemi
and Micheal (2010), the main function of buildings is to control all the climatic factors and
provide an acceptable indoor and outdoor environment that is comfortable and conducive to
the users.
Thermal performance of a building refers to the process of moderating the energy transfer
between a building and its surroundings. The thermal performance and efficiency of
buildings are proportional to details of the designs of buildings, climate responsive design
parameters, the organization of the site, details of microclimate, nature and magnitude of the
fabrics (Lawal and Ojo, 2011). This was buttressed by Bahadoori (1998) who observed that
thermal behavior of a building is determined by the extent of thermal controls provided in the
building and the existing outdoor conditions. Lawal and Ojo (2011) opined that buildings are
used to provide the microclimate required for human existence. It defines spaces for all
human activities. Similarly, Olanipekun (2002) succinctly agreed that buildings are essential
modifiers of the microclimate; a space isolated from environmental temperature and humidity
fluctuations, sheltered from prevailing winds, precipitation and enhancement of natural light.
It has also been noted that the effect of extreme climatic conditions which is discomfort could
be reduced by the provision of environmental services (Luff, 1984).

1.2 Statement of problem

In view of the findings of various researchers on the needs for sustainable environment
and to provide buildings in the tropics with low energy consumption to achieve an
acceptable indoor thermal comfort, it is of paramount importance to give a holistic
attention to the negative impact resulting from increased energy use in tropical buildings,
especially in the choice of walling materials. The experience of building inhabitants in the
study area had been under criticism as shown in the similar studies conducted by
Heerwagen (2004), Okereke and Odim (2007), Agboola (2011), NIMET (2020). The studies
show that building occupants in the tropics are experiencing indoor thermal discomfort
due to the application of different building envelops without regard to climatic condition of
the area and coupled with the attendant high temperatures; reliance on mechanical cooling
devices to achieve indoor thermal comfort are on the increase. The increase active energy
use in buildings for thermal comfort resulting in negative impacts on the environment
which contributed negatively to climate change was supported by the findings of Jegede
and Taki (2021). They opined that the use of mechanical cooling system triggered over
consumption of energy and increase in CO2 emission. Hence, it is becomes imperative to
explore the thermal performance of sandcrete hollow blocks as a walling material in use in Sandcrete
Lokoja as it affects thermal comfort. hollow blocks
1.3 Significance of the study
Adegbie (2019) opined that buildings are very important in the move to ensure sustainable
environment, and this can be achieved by making buildings energy efficient. Raheem et al.
(2012) laid emphasis on the importance of walling material which constitutes an essential
element in housing delivery as it has been estimated that it covers about 22% of the total cost
of a building. Therefore, it was observed that the research works of Arayela (2002, 2003),
Taiwo and Arayela (2010), Raheem et al. (2012), Odim (2012), Alausa et al. (2013) were based
on walling materials. However, none of these studies showed the thermal performances of
walling materials in Lokoja, rather, the use of sandcrete hollow block works was emphasized.
Therefore, the rationale for this research is that, previous research works were based on
computer simulations of existing buildings, the study bridged that gap, by constructing one
practical model building using sandcrete hollow blocks as walling materials for the purpose
of recording the indoor air temperature and relative humidity; because most of the existing
buildings in Lokoja do not provide an acceptable indoor living environment. Due to the fact
that building occupants in the tropics experience discomfort due to the hot ambient
temperature from the accumulation of heat gains from the external surfaces throughout the
day (Iwaro and Mwasha, 2013) as cited in Jegede and Taki (2021), as such the research is
tailored toward achieving physiological and comfortable buildings in Lokoja.

1.4 Aim of paper

This paper unraveled the thermal performances of sandcrete hollow blocks as a walling
material used in the study area with reference to indoor thermal comfort indices of air
temperature, relative humidity and suggested ways in enhancing the indoor thermal comfort
when using this selected walling material.

2. Literature review
Various researchers have extensively addressed the necessity for the adoption of Earth
architecture in the built environment. The works of Arayela (2002, 2003) focused on the
benefits of using Earth materials in the production of interlocking blocks for usage as walling
material in the tropical environment which includes economical, time-saving, speed,
construction ease and thermal efficiency. Taiwo and Arayela (2010) enumerated the benefits
inherent in the usage of Earth material especially in a tropical climate that shares sympathy
with locally available materials and observed that modern buildings industries lay much
emphasis on the use of cement-based products that are costly and energy-intensive.
Consequently, prospective building owners make use of massively produced sandcrete
hollow blocks for wall construction more than any other walling material. The implication of
this is seen in the built environment in Nigeria where most buildings are generally
constructed of sandcrete hollow blocks with high embodied energy.
To achieve an acceptable thermal design and energy-efficient buildings, Ogunsote and
Prucnal-Ogunsote (2003) succinctly stated that the need to design with climate has always
been a major consideration in architecture. The thermal design of buildings for thermal
comfort requires the knowledge of thermal quantities involved in heat flow, especially as a
preliminary to understanding the basic thermal properties of building materials and
elements; air-to-air transmittance, solar gain factor, time lag and admittance. The thermal
balance of buildings requires that heat flow is equal to heat gain. Periodic heat flow
calculations assume a non-steady-state condition as opposed to steady-state conditions. The
IJBPA required thermal performance of walls and roofs are established by codes for different
climatic zones–hot dry climates, warm humid climates, cold climates and composite climates
(transitional zone); having elements of both hot, warm and cold climates. The design of walls
in the various climates require special attention both for moderation of indoor temperatures
and for comfort, and Folorunso (2020) avers that the choice of materials for building purposes
is one of the major duties of building professionals. The thermal properties of building
components such as walls, ceiling and floors determine the energy consumption patterns and
comfort conditions in an enclosed space (Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 2003). Laterite soil
(Alagbe, 2011) and timber building culture have diminished in observation of Alagbe (2011).
This is consequent upon the population explosion that has put pressure on land and
deforestation.
The experience of building inhabitants had been under criticism as shown in the studies
conducted by Koenigsberger et al. (1974), Ogunsote (1991), ASHRAE Standard 55 (2013),
Ogunsote and Prucnal- Ogunsote (2003), Heerwagen (2004), Okereke and Odim (2007),
Agboola (2011), Nazhatulzalkis et al. (2014), NIMET (2020), their studies show that building
users in Lokoja are not comfortable due to the use of different walling materials without
specifications. It thus becomes imperative to explore the thermal performance of sandcrete
hollow blocks as walling material in use in Lokoja, with a view to state parameters for
selecting walling material that will provide conducive and acceptable thermal comfort for the
general well-being of the users within the warm humid zone of the tropical climate and to
explore how it can ameliorate the present condition of high temperature and humidity,
towards developing sustainable approaches for better design, refurbishment and the future
resilience of Nigeria’s built environment.
Kogi State is located in the central region of Nigeria, and it lies in the warm humid zone of
the sub-equatorial rainforest. Lokoja, the capital of Kogi State, is expanding and increasing in
size and population at an alarming rate, located between latitudes 78,461–78 521N and
longitudes 68,381–68 461E (Audu, 2012b), cited in Audu (2012a) with a total area of 3,180 km2
(Bala, 2014). It is also located close to the confluence of the Rivers Niger and Benue; the area is
sandwiched between River Niger and Mount Patti which had streamlined the settlement to a
linear type and has a modifying effect on the climate. The land gradient increases from 300 m
along the Niger valley to 300–900 m above sea level in the uplands (Audu, 2001). Plate 1
shows an aerial view of Lokoja and the existing water bodies from the top of Mount Patti
which is 900 m above sea level.

Plate 1.
An aerial view of
Lokoja from Mount
Patti about 900 m
above sea level
showing the existing
water bodies
 The climate is characterized by wet and dry seasons according to Koppen’s classification Sandcrete
and situated in Guinea Savanna Region. The annual rainfall is between 1,016 and 1,524 mm hollow blocks
with the mean annual temperature of 27.7 8C Alabi (2009) and relative humidity of 30% in the
dry season and 70% in wet season Audu (2012a). Ukaegbu (2011) added that the dry season
usually sets in from October to April and that Lokoja experiences average sunshine hours of
6–7 per day. Generally, the city experiences hot weather conditions, and this could prevail all
through the year. Though, NIMET (2020) recorded data show that the months of the dry
season are January, February, November and December, while the rest are wet seasons.
However, during the dry season months of November, December, January and February, the
temperature experienced in Lokoja could be as high as 33 8C to 36 8C (Alatise and Ikumawoyi,
2007). This spurred the colonial government of Sir Fredrick Lugard to embark on the planting
of trees along all the major streets of Lokoja for climate amelioration. This was supported by
Fadamiro (1993, 1995a, b) as cited in Fadamiro (2010) which states that planting trees and
shrubs help in climate amelioration of the living environment by providing wind shelter and
curtailment of desertification as shown in Plate 2.
Within this period mentioned above, the northeast trade wind blows from the Sahara
Desert. It is known as harmattan, and it is associated with cool, dry and dusty air. Average
daily wind speed and vapor pressure is 89.9 km/hr and 26 Hpa (Audu, 2012b), respectively.

3. Methodology
The research is primarily experimental. It involves the building of one unit of a room using
sandcrete hollow blocks as a walling material. The dimensions of the plan are in accordance
with the minimum requirements of National Building Code (NBC, 2006) Part II Section 6 sub
section 6.2.6.3. The dimensions of the plan are 3.0 3 3.0 m. The sectional height from the floor
to the headroom is 3.0 m and the roof height is 1.8 m. The window sizes are 1.0 3 1.0 m. The
windows are aluminum six louvers carriers. The door opening is 0.9 3 2.1 m. The door is
made of metal complete with a metal frame. The method of construction for the sandcrete
hollow block wall generally used in Lokoja (Warm Humid Climate) was employed.
The model building was built on a developed secondary school compound. The portion
allocated for the model building measured 15 3 36 m (540 m2). The space needed for the model
building is (20.0 m2). The plot is located within Lokoja metropolis, along Ganaja Junction to
Lokongoma road, Kogi State; for the security of the installed equipment, accessibility and
ease of recording data. The study adopted experiment and direct measurement of the two
climatic factors of temperature and relative humidity to determine the thermal performance
of the material and comfort level. This is most appropriate because it enabled the researcher
to achieve the desired aim because these variables are very germane, when considering
environmental indices for thermal comfort (Szokolay, 2008). A model building was solely
constructed in order to exclude external microclimatic influences. This is similar to

Plate 2.
Planting trees along
major streets in Lokoja
IJBPA quantitative research work conducted by Malgwi and Musa (2014); the experiment was
performed under possible uncooled and unoccupied conditions; no one was able to enter the
building to perform any activity whatsoever.

3.1 Construction works and installation of data logger

Recent studies conducted by Anthony et al. (2015) and Raheem et al. (2012) stated that
sandcrete hollow blocks were produced using vibrating block molding machine with double
150 mm (6 inches) molds and single 225 mm (9 inches) mold. Anthony et al. (2015) further
added that, there are two main types of blocks molded in Nigeria. They are solid and hollow
blocks. NBC (2006) listed the sizes of sandcrete cement blocks in length 3 breath 3 height as
follows:
(1) 450 3 225 3 225 mm (hollow)
(2) 450 3 150 3 225 mm (hollow)
(3) 450 3 225 3 225 mm (solid)
(4) 450 3 150 3 225 mm (solid)
(5) 450 3 100 3 225 mm (solid)
Therefore, dense hollow sandcrete cement blocks of sizes 450 3 225 3 150 mm was used for
this research, laid in stretcher bond, using mortar mixed ratio of 1:4 and masonry bedding
mortar joint thickness of 12 mm; because it is the prevalent material for building construction
in the study area. The construction was completed to a standard habitable room on the 31st of
December, 2019 as shown in Plate 3 excluding plastering and other finishes.
The installation of the data logger and recording started from January, 1st through July,
13th 2020 at exactly 9:00 am and July, 13th through January, 1st 2021 for the first and second
installation, respectively. The logger was installed 1 .5 m above floor level. This is similar to
research conducted by Mohd-Hafizal and Hiroshi (2012). The research stated that the Thermo
recorder data loggers TR72Ui were mounted on a height of 1.5 m above the floor level, this is
to reduce the effect of radiant temperature, and should be away from openings such as
windows in order to prevent the logger from external climatic influences. Plate 4 shows that
the details of the logger’s installations in the model buildings were constructed purposely for
this study.

3.2 Data collection instrument

One unit of Cryopak iMINI Temperature and Humidity Data Logger called new generation
intelligent iMINI simple and smart was used. This Data Logger was preferred because the

Plate 3.
Completed sandcrete
cement block wall
building ready for
installation
 Sandcrete
hollow blocks

Plate 4.
Installations of Data
logger to sandcrete
cement block walling

logger has a two-channel combination of temperature and humidity. In addition to measuring

temperature from
40 8C to þ80 8C (
40 8F to þ176 8F), it records humidity in a range of 0–
100 % RH, internal and external air temperature sensors as well as temperature and humidity
recording accuracy, and data can be exported automatically as PDF, TXT, CSV and CVT for
analysis. It has low energy consumption design, which gives the user one to two years of
continuous operation with only 3.0 V, replaceable battery (Panasonic only). It has a data
storage capacity of 16 K memory and can store 15,998 data point readings, the choices of
recording interval range from 5 s to 17 h. The Data logger is shown in Figure 1.
The variables considered in the course of this study are the walling material as
(independent) variable and the indoor air temperature and relative humidity are considered
as (dependent) variables. These were similar to studies conducted by Lawal and Ojo (2011),

Figure 1.
iMINI temperature and
humidity data logger
(Serial no. MX-CI-
145–0009)
IJBPA Mohd - Hafiz and Hirosh (2012) and Malgwi and Musa (2014). Room air temperature and
relative humidity were used as indoor comfort factor to determine the thermal behavior of the
walling material selected. Based on the data logger manufacturer’s operating specifications,
the memory capacity of the data logger cannot accommodate the recorded data of the one
hourly recording interval chosen for twelve months. The data logger has a maximum storage
capacity of 15,998 reading in respective of the recording interval chosen; hence, the recording
was done in two batches.

4. Results, findings and discussion

The first installation recorded 13,971 data for indoor and outdoor temperatures, and only
indoor relative humidity data of the wall material, at 87% memory usage and the second
installation recorded same at 12,387 and 77% memory usage. The details of first installation
are shown in Tables 1 and 2 and Figures 2 and 3, respectively. The data recorded was
downloaded on a monthly basis, using software called Console plus; an app used to generate
the downloaded data to text, graph and histogram automatically. The software automatically
developed the data both in tabular, graph and histogram. The tabular data exported to excel
spread sheet to develop histogram and seasonal data.
The data are further analyzed to compute the temperature–humidity index (THI) of the
model building. THI is a single value representing the combination of air temperature and
humidity associated with the level of thermal stress. It is an index that combines air
temperature and relative humidity in an attempt to determine the human perceived
equivalent temperature (Anuja and Amutha, 2016). Furthermore, it is the index that measures
the thermal stress in buildings and its surrounding. This is relevant in tropical region, and it
is used to evaluate how comfortable an indoor environment would perform.
THI is given by the equation:
THI ¼ t
ð0:55
0:055fÞðt
14:5Þ
where t 5 air temperature in degree Celsius (8C), f 5 relative humidity.

Device specification 10:30:47 07/13/2020

Serial MX-CI-145–0009
Product Code MX-HE-S-16-L
Firmware/ConsolePlus Version iMini ver_01_56 07/21/2015/ConsolePlus:1.16.59
Mem. Size 16 k Rec
Temperature/Humidity
40/þ80 (8C) 0–100%
Battery High
Trip #/Time zone 5/UTC: 0
Description LOGGER for Cement Block walling
Unit Mode Programmed Celsius (8C)
Program: Start At 01/01/2020 09:00
Program: Start button after –
Program: Stop At –
Program: Stop after # records 16,000
Program: Interval 01h00m00s
Program: Continuous Logging –
Program: Stop button enabled –
Program: Stop after # records –
Program: Memory Used 87%
Table 1. Number of Records 13,971
Device specification Started Time 01/01/2020 09:00:00
logger 0009 (01/01/ Stopped Time 07/13/2020 10:00:00
2020–07/13/2020) Configured/Downloaded by Muhammed Adamu
Alarms Internal Temperature Internal Humidity External Temperature
Sandcrete
hollow blocks
Alarm HH 40.0 (8C) 100.0 (%) 40.0 (8C)
Alarm H 35.0 (8C) 75.0 (%) 37.2 (8C)
Alarm L 25.0 (8C) 60.0 (%) 25.0 (8C)
Alarm LL 20.0 (8C) 40.0 (%) 20.0 (8C)
Consecutive alarm delay 5 5 5
Total alarm delay 10 10 5
8ut of specification HH 70h00m00s 0h00m00s 684h57m12s
8ut of specification H 1538h57m12s 2810h54m25s 1278h57m12s Table 2.
8ut of specification L 692h57m12s 4052h51m38s 1392h57m12s Summary of recorded
8ut of specification LL 28h00m00s 1956h54m25s 1266h57m12s data for logger 0009
Value Max 41.5 (8C) 100.0% (8C) (01/01/2021 – 07/13/
Value Avg 30.7 (8C) 60.7% 30.6 (8C) 2020) at 10:30:48 at
Value Min 17.6 (8C) 14.9% (8C) 10:30:48. First
MKT (88.144 KJ/mol) 30.7 (8C) – 30.5 (8C) installation

500

400
Number of Records

300

200

100

Figure 2.
0
Histogram of data
–40 –20 0 20 40 60 80 100 logger 0009
Temperature (°C)/Humidity (%) performance in
MX-CI-145-0009 Int.Temp.(Digital) MX-CI-145-0009 Int.Hum.(Digital) MX-CI-145-0009 Ext.Temp.(NTC)
sandcrete hollow block
building
MX-CI-145-0009 Int.Temp.(Digital) MX-CI-145-0009 Int.Hum.(Digital) MX-CI-145-0009 0009 Ext.Temp.(NTC)

The value obtained was compared with the standard THI values, to ascertain comfort
condition in the model building. The results suggest the responses of the model building to
microclimate parameters that affect thermal comfort. It equally predicts the indoor
environmental condition. This study used descriptive statistical analysis of the
downloaded data for comparison.
The summary of the recorded data as shown in Table 2, recorded 41.5 8C and 17.6 8C as
value maximum and minimum indoor temperature. While 30.7 8C was recorded as a value
average of the indoor temperature. The maximum and minimum indoor humidity recorded
during this period was 100% and
14.9%, respectively. The value average was 60.7%. The
IJBPA MX-CI-145-0009 MX-HE-S-16-L
100

80
Temperature (⁰C)/Humidity (%)

60

40

20

-20

Figure 3. -40
Data logger 0009 01/01/2020 02/12/2020 03/24/2020 05/05/2020 06/16/2020
performance in 09:00:00 01:00:00 18:00:00 10:00:00 02:00:00
sandcrete hollow block Date & Time
MX-CI-145-0009 Int.Temp.(Digital) MX-CI-145-0009 Int.Hum.(Digital) MX-CI-145-0009 Ext.Temp.(NTC)
building
MX-CI-145-0009 Int.Temp.(Digital) MX-CI-145-0009 Int.Hum.(Digital) MX-CI-145-0009 Ext.Temp.(NTC)

logger automatically generates the histogram in graphical representation and the

performance graph as shown in Figures 2 and 3; it indicates black histogram for internal
temperature, yellow for external temperature and green for internal relative humidity.
The logger can record external temperature with the help of a one-meter-long sensitive
cable attached to the logger, which was stretched outside the building to obtain external
temperature data as shown in Table 2. The value average of external temperature of 30.6 8C
was recorded, when compared with value average of indoor temperature of 30.7 8C recorded
within the same period under review, it shows that the outdoor environment temperature is
thermally comfortable than the indoor temperature with a lower variation of 0.18C though the
indoor and outdoor results obtained are above the 28.0 8C as recommended thermal indoor
temperature for tropical regions (Koenigsberger et al., 1974; Ogunsote, 1991; Heerwagen,
2004; Agboola, 2011). The results further show that Lokoja has a high temperature all
through the first six months recorded period. The sandcrete hollow blocks used as a walling
material could not help ameliorate the attendant high temperature, this was buttressed by
Alatise and Ikumawoyi (2007) who asserted that the temperature experienced in Lokoja could
be as high as 33 8C to 36 8C. The data were further subjected to seasonal evaluation (see
Figure 4).
Table 3 shows the summary of the recorded data for the second installation covering July,
13th through January, 1st 2021. The results show that 39.4 8C and 21 0.9 8C was recorded as
maximum and minimum value of indoor air temperature, while 29.5 8C was recorded as an
average value of the indoor air temperature. The maximum and minimum indoor humidity
recorded during this period was 99.6 and 29.6%, while the value average was 72.6%. The
value average of the external temperature recorded was 30.08C. During this period, the indoor
air temperature had a lower variation of 0.58C when compared with the recorded external
temperature as shown in Table 3. This implies that the sandcrete hollow blocks walling
material performed thermally better than the first installation. However, the data obtained is
still beyond the indoor thermal comfort recommended. Figures 5 and 6 show the graphical
 Sandcrete
hollow blocks

Figure 4.
Histogram of data
logger 0009
performance in
sandcrete hollow
blocks building

Alarms Internal Temperature Internal Humidity External Temperature

Alarm HH 40.0 (8C) 100.0 (%) 40.0 (8C)

Alarm H 35.0 (8C) 75.0 (%) 37.2 (8C)
Alarm L 25.0 (8C) 60.0 (%) 25.0 (8C)
Alarm LL 20.0 (8C) 40.0 (%) 20.0 (8C)
Consecutive alarm delay 5 5 5
Total alarm delay 10 10 5
Out of specification HH 0h00m00s 0h00m00s 678h57m12s
Out of specification H 918h00m00s 4166h51m38s 1046h57m12s
Out of specification L 584h57m12s 1596h57m12s 1624h57m12s Table 3.
Out of specification LL 0h00m00s 242h00m00s 1624h57m12s Summary of recorded
Value Max 39.4 (8C) 99.6% (8C) data for logger 0009
Value Avg 29.5 (8C) 72.6% 30.0 (8C) (07/13/2020 – 01/01/
Value Min 21.9 (8C) 29.6% (8C) 2021) at 10:23:57.
MKT (88.144 KJ/mol) 29.5 (8C) – 29.8 (8C) Second installation

representations of the data obtained in the histogram and thermal performance graph. Both
first and second installation results were merged using excel software to find their averages
and seasonal assessment for further evaluation and comparison, this was used to plot the
graphs.
Table 4 shows the thermal performance of hollow sandcrete hollow blocks wall material.
The average and minimum indoor air temperature (Ave TC) data of 30.1 8C and 27.4 8C are
recorded respectively twelve months, this covered dry and wet seasons of the study area. The
minimum indoor air temperature (27.4 8C) was recorded in September, while the maximum
indoor air temperature (33.7 8C) was recorded in March. The mean value–average and
minimum indoor relative humidity (RH %) data of 60.8 and 32.8%, respectively, were
recorded in the month of February. The total recorded data for each month as stated in the
table as well as the total numbers recorded in each month were based on an hourly recording
interval, this is referred to as the total frequency in Table 4.
IJBPA

Figure 5.
Data logger 0009
performance in
sandcrete hollow
blocks building

Indoor Monthiy Value Average Data of 0009

90
80
Temp OC/Humidity %

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Figure 6. 0
Graphical
representation of data
logger 0009
performance in
sandcrete hollow block Axis Title
building
ave TC AVE H% AVE eT

The summary of the recorded data from January through December 2020 was further
expressed in average, for ease of calculation and plotting of the histogram as shown in
Table 5. Figure 6 show the histogram of the recorded data for one year, covering both dry and
wet seasons. NIMET (2020) recorded data showed that the maximum outdoor temperature
(AVE eT) and relative humidity (AVE RH%) of Lokoja, as of 2014 was 37.2 8C and 82% in
March and August, respectively, while the average value of outdoor temperature and
humidity were 33.5 8C and 76%. NIMET (2020) recorded data for January through December
2020 show that the maximum outdoor air temperature and relative humidity of Lokoja, as of
December 2020 was 38.0 8C and 80% in March and September, respectively, while the
average values of outdoor air temperature and relative humidity was 33.9 8C and 68.6%,
respectively. This implies that the temperatures data are above human thermal comfort level
of between 16 8C and 28 8C as recommended indoor air temperature for tropical regions, based Sandcrete
on the research works conducted by Koenigsberger et al. (1974), Ogunsote (1991); Heerwagen hollow blocks
(2004), Agboola (2011). The temperature is also higher than the acclaimed (ISO EN7730, 1994)
which recommend indoor air temperature and relative humidity to be 23 8C–26 8C and 30%–
70%, respectively.
The recorded indoor air temperature (ave TC) had a variation of 2.1 8C when
compared with the recommended. This means that sandcrete hollow block walls
conduct heat easily, it absorbed the heat transferred to the interior both day and
night. Except in the month of January, June, July, August and September that
moderately fell within the acceptable limit, the remaining months were extremely high
which will cause discomfort to the users. The indoor relative humidity was at its peak
in June with a record of 80%, this is also beyond the 70% recommended by ISO
EN7730 (1994) because it would lead to discomfort of the users as a result of high
moisture in the indoor environments.

4.1 Dry season thermal performance

The dry season period covered four months: January, February, November and December as
stated in NIMET (2020). Recorded value average for indoor air temperature (ave TC) and
relative humidity during the period under review was 30.5 8C and 47.8%, respectively, as
shown in Table 6 and Figure 7. Apart from January which recorded 28.9 8C indoor air

MONTHS Total T8C ave TC Total RH% AVE RH% Total eT8 AVE eT Total Freq

January 21217.5 28.9 30414.3 41.4 22037.0 30.0 735

February 22127.7 31.8 22846.1 32.8 22005.1 31.6 696
March 25002.6 33.7 40840.9 55.0 24609.9 33.1 743
April 22895.4 31.8 47762.1 66.3 22515.8 31.3 720
Table 4.
MAY 22616 30.4 56986.9 76.6 22389.6 30.1 744 Thermal performance
June 20713.7 28.8 59036.6 82.0 20568.2 28.6 720 of hollow sandcrete
July 20748.2 27.9 59516.5 80.0 21174.3 28.5 744 cement block wall
August 20939 28.1 54827.7 73.7 21856.2 29.4 744 material monthly
September 19692.8 27.4 58426.1 81.1 20328.8 28.2 720 average data and total
October 21729.3 29.2 56542.4 76.0 22607.5 30.4 744 frequency reading
November 22211.2 30.8 44091.7 61.2 23117.9 32.1 721 (first and second
December 22,835 30.7 41614.0 55.9 23532.9 31.6 744 installation)

MONTHS ave TC AVE RH% AVE eT

January 28.9 41.4 30.0

February 31.8 32.8 31.6
March 33.7 55.0 33.1
April 31.8 66.3 31.3
MAY 30.4 76.6 30.1
June 28.8 82.0 28.6 Table 5.
July 27.9 80.0 28.5 Thermal performance
August 28.1 73.7 29.4 of sandcrete hollow
September 27.4 81.1 28.2 block wall material
October 29.2 76.0 30.4 monthly average data
November 30.8 61.2 32.1 (first and second
December 30.7 55.9 31.6 installation)
IJBPA temperature (due to harmattan) has a variation of 0.9 8C when compared with the established
thermal index of 28 8C. The remaining three months recorded a higher indoor temperature of
30.0 8C and above. This suggests that sandcrete hollow block walls retained heat throughout
the dry season and the difference is insignificant when compared with the outer air
temperature.

4.2 Wet season thermal performance

The wet season period covered eight months, March through October, 2020, as recorded in
NIMET (2020). Recorded value average for indoor air temperature (ave TC) and relative
humidity during the period under review was 29.7 8C and 73.8%, respectively, as shown in
Table 7 and Figure 8. March to May recorded a high indoor air temperature of 30.0 8C and
above, which is beyond the acceptable thermal comfort of the occupants. The acceptable
thermal limit was observed from June to October, recording between 27 8C–29 8C. From the
above, the sandcrete hollow block wall thermal performed better during this period as a result
of constant rainfall, which made the outdoor air temperature to contain more moisture in the
air and also affect the indoor thermal comfort positively as shown in Table 7 and Figure 8.
The maximum indoor relative humidity of 82.0% was recorded in June. This recorded
humidity data are beyond the established comfort level of ISO EN7730 (1994) relative
humidity of 30–70%.

MONTHS ave TC AVE RH% AVE eT

January 28.9 41.4 30.0

February 31.8 32.8 31.6
Table 6. November 30.8 61.2 32.1
Dry season average December 30.7 55.9 31.6
thermal performance AVE 30.5 47.8 31.3

Indoor Thermal Performance in Dry Season

70

60

50
Temp oC/Humidity %

40

30

20
Figure 7.
Graphical 10
representation of
sandcrete hollow block
building thermal 0
performance in dry JANUARY FEBRUARY NOVEMBER DECEMBER
season
ave TC AVE H% AVE eT
5. Conclusion and recommendations Sandcrete
5.1 Main findings and outcome hollow blocks
The value average of the indoor air temperature (ave TC) and relative humidity (AVE RH%)
of 30.5 8C and 47.8%, respectively, of the dry season was computed using the THI equation.
The result obtained was 22.18 8C and compared with the THI table, the thermal performance
of sandcrete block wall during the dry season period fall under the thermal category as HOT.
Although the result is close to comfort level under the thermal category. This implies that,
throughout the dry season period, the indoor air temperature is hot and not too comfortable
for the indoor users. However, not very hot, the result suggests that sandcrete block walls are
not good for achieving thermal comfort during the dry season. This is similar to a study
conducted by Richard et al. (2020) which asserted that the high thermal conductivity of
sandcrete blocks results in high heat transfer through the building envelop. In the same vain,
Ochedi et al. (2016) cited in Jegede and Taki (2021) avers that cement blocks have high-density
and high-heat capacity which save cooling in the dry season or heating bills in the wet season,
unlike lightweight materials such as timber with low thermal mass. The value average of
indoor air temperature and relative humidity of 29.9 8C and 73.8%, respectively, of wet season
was equally computed and the final result obtained is 21.95 8C. The result still falls under the
HOT thermal category as suggested by the findings of Irmak et al. (2013). From the foregoing,
sandcrete hollow block wall retained heat energy and released it into the indoor environment,
making it uncomfortable for the indoor users.

Months Ave TC AVE RH% AVE eT

March 33.7 55.0 33.1

April 31.8 66.3 31.3
May 30.4 76.6 30.1
June 28.8 82.0 28.6
July 27.9 80.0 28.5
August 28.1 73.7 29.4
September 27.4 81.1 28.2 Table 7.
October 29.2 76.0 30.4 Wet season average
AVE 29.7 73.8 29.9 thermal performance

Indoor Thermal Performance in Wet Season

90
80
Temp OC/Humidity %

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 8.
Graphical
representation of
sandcrete hollow block
Axis Title building thermal
performance in wet
season
ave TC AVE H% AVE eT
IJBPA Sandcrete hollow blocks are readily available and easy to produce for building
construction works, but it has low thermal performance in terms of thermal indoor
comfort. The recorded data revealed that the walling material is a good conductor of heat as
evident in the data obtained from dry and wet seasons. Therefore, there is a need to take a
proper orientation of sandcrete hollow block building into consideration. The use of low
absorbing or reflective surface materials, the introduction of cavity walls as opined by
Reardon and Clarke (2013) to receive insulation materials in between as well as providing
shading device elements will assist in ameliorating the heat effect on the external surface of
the building, which is transferred into the interior by conduction, radiation or convection.
Other thermally sustainable eco-friendly wall materials available in Lokoja includes timbers,
stabilized laterite–cement blocks, burnt bricks and earth mud bricks which can be used to
replace sandcrete hollow blocks. These alternative wall materials were used during the
colonial era for construction of residential and office buildings by the Europeans in the study
area. In addition to the above-named walling materials that can reduce the effect of
discomfort in the interior, the following are also of great importance: eco-friendly roofing
material, fiber cement, construction chemicals, sealants, energy-efficient windows, sealants,
double-glazed glasses to mention but a few.
5.2 Recommendations
Further experimental research is recommended by simulating the model building, rendering
finishes on both the external and internal surfaces of the model building and in addition to
investigating the construction cost. This would help in providing more information and
detailed guidelines on the use of sandcrete hollow blocks as a walling material for
construction of buildings in the tropic.

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Corresponding author
Clement Oluwole Folorunso can be contacted at: cofolorunso@futa.edu.ng

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