MODELS OF MEMORY

1. Unitary and dual process views: Feature model, OSCAR Model, William James, Waugh,
and Norman
2. Multi-process view: Atkinson and Shiffrin;
3. Levels of Processing: Craik and Lockhart
4. Connectionist model: Rumelhart and McClelland
5. Application: Distortion of memory

Unitary and dual process views:

Feature model, OSCAR Model, William James, Waugh, and Norman
Unitary View:
• The unitary view of cognition assumes that all cognitive processes are based on a
single, general-purpose system or process.
• According to this view, there is no fundamental difference between the way we
process information when performing different cognitive tasks.
• For example, some psychologists believe that problem-solving, decision-making, and
even language comprehension all rely on a general reasoning process.
• This view suggests that our cognitive abilities are essentially unified and that the
brain uses a single set of mechanisms to perform all cognitive tasks.
• However, some researchers argue that the unitary view is overly simplistic and that
different cognitive tasks may involve unique cognitive processes and mechanisms.
Dual Process View:
• The dual process view of cognition posits that there are two distinct systems or
processes that underlie cognitive functions.
• These two systems are typically referred to as System 1 and System 2.
• System 1 is rapid, automatic, and intuitive, and is responsible for quick, effortless
responses to stimuli in the environment.
• System 2 is slower, more deliberate, and controlled, and is responsible for more
thoughtful, effortful responses that require conscious attention and processing.
• Dual process models are commonly used to explain the differences between implicit
and explicit memory, as well as to describe the way we make judgments and
decisions.
• According to this view, both systems are involved in most cognitive tasks, but the
relative contribution of each system depends on the nature of the task and the
individual's goals and abilities.
Feature Model:
1. This model proposes that we process information by breaking it down into distinct
features.
2. These features are then combined to form a holistic representation of the object or
idea in question.
3. For example, when we see a car, we might break it down into its various features,
such as colour, shape, and size.
4. This model has been applied in a range of areas, from computer vision to studies of
perception and memory.

OSCAR Model:
1. This model suggests that there are two distinct processes involved in recognition
memory.
2. The first process is based on familiarity and involves a rapid, automatic assessment of
whether a stimulus is familiar or not.
3. The second process is based on recollection and involves a slower, more controlled
assessment of whether a stimulus was encountered before and under what
circumstances.
4. The OSCAR model has been used to explain a variety of phenomena related to
memory, such as the effects of ageing on recognition memory.

William James:
1. James suggested that there are two different types of attention: focal and non-focal.
2. Focal attention involves a narrow focus on a specific aspect of the environment, while
non-focal attention involves a more diffuse awareness of the environment as a whole.
3. For example, when we are reading a book, our focal attention is on the words on the
page, while our non-focal attention might be aware of the sounds in the environment
around us.
4. James' theory has been influential in the study of attention and has been used to
develop interventions aimed at improving attentional control in individuals with
attention deficits.

Waugh and Norman:

1. This theory posits that there are two separate memory stores: a short-term store and
a long-term store.
2. Information is initially stored in the short-term store, where it can be actively
maintained for a brief period.
 3. If the information is rehearsed or repeated, it can be transferred to the long-term
store, where it can be stored for an extended period.
4. Waugh and Norman's theory has been applied in a range of areas, from the study of
memory to the development of cognitive training interventions for individuals with
memory impairments.

Multi-process view: Atkinson and Shiffrin

The multi-process view, as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, posits that cognitive
processes are organized into a series of distinct memory systems, each with its unique
characteristics and functions.
• Atkinson and Shiffrin's model suggests that our brain has different memory systems
that each have their unique functions.
• Sensory memory is the first stage of memory, where sensory information is briefly
registered before being lost or transferred to working memory.
• Working memory is a limited-capacity system that is responsible for holding and
manipulating information for a short period.
• Repeated information can be transferred to long-term memory, where it can be
stored indefinitely.
• Long-term memory is divided into different types of memory, such as episodic
memory (personal experiences), semantic memory (factual knowledge), and
procedural memory (task-related knowledge).
• The multi-process view can help explain why we sometimes forget information or
have trouble remembering certain details.
• It has also been used to develop interventions, such as cognitive training programs,
aimed at improving memory function in individuals with memory impairments.
• Atkinson and Shiffrin's work has been influential in the field of cognitive psychology
and has inspired further research on memory processes.
• Their model of information processing has been applied to other areas of psychology,
such as perception and attention.
• Atkinson and Shiffrin's contribution to the field of memory research has been widely
recognized, and their model continues to be studied and refined by researchers
today.

Levels of Processing: Craik and Lockhart

Craik and Lockhart's Levels of Processing model proposes that the depth at which we
process information affects how well we remember it, with deeper processing leading to
better memory than shallow processing. This model has been widely studied and has
practical implications for strategies aimed at improving memory.

• The Levels of Processing model suggests that the depth at which we process
information affects how well we remember it.
 • Shallow processing involves processing information based on its surface features,
such as its physical appearance or sound.
• Deep processing involves processing information based on its meaning and relating it
to existing knowledge.
• The model proposes that deep processing leads to better memory than shallow
processing.
• The model also suggests that different tasks require different levels of processing and
that tasks requiring deeper processing will result in better memory.
• Craik and Lockhart's model has been supported by numerous studies on memory and
information processing.
• The Levels of Processing model has also been applied to other areas of psychology,
such as language processing and problem-solving.
• This model has practical implications, as it suggests that strategies that encourage
deeper processing (such as elaboration or mental imagery) may improve memory.
• The Levels of Processing model has been used to explain phenomena such as the
spacing effect (where spaced repetition leads to better memory than massed
repetition).
• Craik and Lockhart's contributions to the field of memory research have been widely
recognized, and their model continues to be studied and refined by researchers
today.

Connectionist model: Rumelhart and McClelland

The Connectionist model suggests that cognitive processes can be explained through
interconnected processing units (neurons), emphasizing parallel processing, and learning
through feedback. It has been applied to various domains, such as language processing and
face recognition.

• The Connectionist model proposes that information is processed through

interconnected nodes or units, which work together to produce a response.
• The model is also known as the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) model.
• The Connectionist model is based on the idea that the brain is made up of
interconnected neural networks and that cognitive processes can be modelled as
these networks.
• The model suggests that learning occurs through changes in the strength of
connections between nodes, as a result of repeated exposure to stimuli.
• The Connectionist model has been used to explain a variety of cognitive processes,
such as language processing, perception, and attention.
• The model has also been used to develop computer simulations of cognitive
processes, such as visual perception and word recognition.
• The Connectionist model has been supported by numerous studies in cognitive
psychology and neuroscience.
• The model has been used to explain phenomena such as priming (where exposure to
a stimulus affects the subsequent processing of related stimuli).
 • The Connectionist model has also been used to develop interventions for individuals
with cognitive impairments, such as those with language disorders or memory
deficits.
• Rumelhart and McClelland's contributions to the field of cognitive psychology have
been widely recognized, and their model continues to be studied and refined by
researchers today.

Application: Distortion of memory

The distortion of memory is a phenomenon in which our memories are altered, sometimes
unconsciously, over time. This can occur due to various reasons such as the passage of time,
personal biases, suggestions, or external influences. Here are some points and examples of
how memory can be distorted:

1. Memory Bias: Memory bias occurs when our memories are influenced by our current
beliefs, attitudes, or emotions.
→ For example: a person who is currently anxious may remember past events as
being more threatening or scary than they were. Similarly, a person who is
depressed may remember events as more negative than they were.

2. Misinformation Effect: The misinformation effect occurs when our memories are
influenced by misleading information that we receive after an event has occurred.
→ For example: if a witness to a crime is asked leading questions that suggest the
perpetrator was wearing a red shirt, the witness may remember the
perpetrator as wearing a red shirt even if they were not.

3. Memory Confabulation: Memory confabulation occurs when we remember events

that never actually happened. This can occur due to suggestions from others, or
simply from our own imaginations.
→ For example: a person who is told a story about a childhood event may
incorporate details from that story into their own memories, even if those
details never actually happened.

4. Source Monitoring Error: Source monitoring error occurs when we remember

information correctly, but misattribute the source of that information.
→ For example: a person may remember hearing a piece of information on the
news, but later attribute that information to a conversation they had with a
friend.

5. Reconsolidation: Reconsolidation occurs when our memories are reactivated and

then modified, leading to changes in our memories.
→ For example: a person who has a traumatic experience may remember the
event differently after talking about it with a therapist or friend.
Memory is a complex and dynamic process that can be influenced by various factors,
leading to the distortion of our memories over time. It is crucial to acknowledge that
memory is not always reliable and to be aware of the factors that can affect memory
accuracy. By recognizing these factors, we can try to minimize the effects of memory
distortion and increase the likelihood of accurate recollection.

Aditi Gaikwad
M.A Part 1