1 lie \riif ii.
-ari \ssociation orPciroleuni Geologists Build in
Seismic Characteristics and Identification of Negative Flower
Structures, Positive Flov^er Structures, and
Positive Structural Inversion*
T. p. HARDING'
ABSTRACT
Negative and positive flower structures and positive
inverted structures imply specific modes of formation,
and their distinctive characteristics make them important
criteria for the identification of certain structural styles. A
negative flower structure from the Andaman Sea consists
of a shallow synform bounded by upward-spreading
strands of a wrench fault that have mostly normal separa-
tions. Paralleling monoclines and oblique, en echelon nor-
mal faults flank the divergent wrench fault. A positive
flower structure from the Ardmore basin, Oklahoma,
consists of a shallow antiform displaced by the upward
diverging strands of a wrench fault that have mostly
reverse separations. En echelon folds are present on either
side of this convergent wrench fault. Flower structures
may resemble extensional or contractional fault blocks on
individual seismic profiles. Flower structures are identi-
fied by their unique internal fault and fold architecture, by
their association with a straight and throughgoing zone of
deformation, and by their lack of a consistent sense of sep-
aration or regional upthrown side.
Positive structural inversion at the Rambutan oil field,
South Sumatra basin, has formed a shallow aniiclinorium
and has partly uplifted the underlying graben. Deeper
fault segments bounding the graben have retained their
normal fault profiles, but at shallow levels some of these
faults have reverse separations. Similar changes of separa-
tion with depth may be produced by strike slip, but sets of
faults with listric profiles and nearby blocklike trend pat-
terns identify the inversion as a dip-slip event. Where cor-
relation of reflections is uncertain or deep control is
unobtainable, positive inverted structures may also resem-
ble contractional fault blocks, detached normal fault
assemblages, and certain negative inverted structures.
©Copyright 1985. The American Association of Petroleurr Geologists. All
rights reserved.
^Manuscript received, Decembers, 1983; accepted. May 11,1984.
^Exxon Production Research Company, P 0. Box 2189, Houston, Texas
77001.
I thank Esso Exploration Inc. for the release of the Andaman Sea profiles,
and its geologists and geophysicists for their interpretation of the profiles and
preparation of the accompanying structure map. Exxon Company USA fur-
nished the Ardmore basin profile, and R. F. Gregory made the initial interpreta-
tion. PIS.I. Stanvac Indonesia supplied the seismic profile across the
Rambutan oil field, and its explorationists made an initial interpretation. K. T
Biddle, N. H. Christie-Blick, T R. Bultman, R. P George, K. E. Green, S. H. Lin-
grey R. C. Vierbuchen, and C. C. Wielchowsky of Exxon Production Research
Company reviewed various parts of the manuscript. A. G. Sylvester and R. H.
Groshong, Jr., also reviewed the manuscript, and S. W. Jamison contributed to
the geologic content. Grateful appreciation is extended to Exxon Production
Research Company, for whom this investigation was undertaken, for its per-
mission to publish.
582
\' 69, No. 4 (April 1985), P. 582-600, 13 Figv
INTRODUCTION
The early identification of structural style is an impor-
tant exploration function, and the appropriate selection of
prospect (trap) models often depends on the reliability of
such identification. This article describes several fea-
tures—flower structures and inverted structures—that are
useful for identifying structural styles with exploration
data.
Emmons (1969) has modeled profile views of strike-slip
faults and has demonstrated their characteristic upward
and outward branching. Positive flower structures occur
within wrench zones in which blocks move parallel to each
other (Kingma, 1958; Harding, 1973; Groshong, 1976;
Groshong and Rodgers, 1978) or move with a component
of convergence (i.e., convergent or transpressional wrench
faults; Sylvester and Smith, 1976; Harding and Lowell,
1979). Their tectonic significance is thought to have been
recognized first by Rod (1956) at outcrops along the Oca
fault, Venezuela; Sylvester and Smith (1976) presented
another surface example from the Mecca Hills, Califor-
nia. R. F. Gregory identified positive flower structures on
seismic-reflection profiles for the author (1970, personal
communication), and Harding and Lowell (1979) and
Harding et al (1983) published one of his examples, which
is repeated here. Roberts (1983) recently discussed a seis-
mic-reflection profile of a small displacement wrench
fault with a positive flower structure in the South China
Sea.
Negative flower structures occur where blocks have
moved obliquely apart (i.e., divergent or transtensional
wrench faults) or parallel to each other (Kingma, 1958).
Glennie and Boegner (1981, their Figure 1) recognized
flower structures with extension faults, and Harding
(1983a) and D'Onfro and Glagola (1983) presented seis-
mic examples from southeast Asia. Nelson and Krausse
(1981) documented the characteristics of a divergent
wrench fault at the Cottage Grove fault zone, Illinois, and
Harding et al (in press) will present additional seismic
examples and a comprehensive summary of the style's
characteristics.
Positive structural inversion has been described by
numerous authors, especially for areas within northwest
Europe (Bodenhausen and Ott, 1981; Glennie and
Boegner, 1981; Ziegler, 1983) and several southeast Asia
basins (White and Wing, 1978; Eubank and Makki, 1981),
where it has resulted in important hydrocarbon traps.
Eubank and Makki (1981), Davis (1983), Harding
(1983b), Plowman (1983), and Ziegler (1983) recently
illustrated inversion with seismic reflection profiles. The
 T P. Harding 583

The present article brings together seismic examples

that 1 have used in the past (Harding and Lowell, 1979;
Harding, 1983a, b; Harding et al, 1983) so that the charac-
teristics of the three structural features can be contrasted,
and criteria for their identification can be illustrated effec-
tively. First, I discuss the structural setting and, in the cases
of wrench faulting, the evidence for strike slip at each
example. Next, I describe the structural characteristics
observed on the profile and possible mechanisms for the
formation of these characteristics. Criteria for differenti-
ating styles that may have similar characteristics are sum-
marized last.

DIVERGENT WRENCH FAULT AND NEGATIVE

FLOWER STRUCTURE, ANDAMAN SEA
Regional Setting and Evidence of Strike Slip at
Andaman Sea Example
The Andaman Sea is a marginal basin bounded on the
west by the Andaman-Nicobar Ridge and on the east by
the Malay Peninsula (Figure 1). Extension has been a
dominant mode of deformation since Oligocene time
(Curray et al, 1979). Within the central part of the sea,
magnetic anomalies in oceanic crust demonstrate that sea-
floor spreading has been occurring there since at least 13.5
Ma (Lawver and Curray, 1981). Geophysical data and the
trend of the central rift valley indicate that segments of the
spreading ridge strike northeast and are linked by right-
slip transform faults whose strike is north-northwest to
north.
The evidence for strike slip at the Andaman Sea exam-
ple seems conclusive. A major fault (Figure 2) trends
north-northwest, similar to major right-slip faults else-
where in the region, and has fault-zone features character-
istic of wrenches: linear, extensive, throughgoing, trace,
and changes in the apparent upthrown block that are
present both along the course of the fault (Figure 2) and at
increased depth (Figure 3). Furthermore, both oblique
folds and normal faults have consistent spatial relation-
THRUST FAULT INACTIVE FAULT ships with the zone that imply right slip (see strain ellipse,
Figure 2), and several of the folds near the zone's north end
appear to be offset from 1.5 to 2.0 mi (2.4-3.2 km) right
5 laterally.
ACTIVE FAULT SPREADING RDGE The fault is interpreted as a regional-basement tear fault
that accommodated different magnitudes of extension
///////////////////// experienced by terrains on the east and west. Similar
INACTIVE EDGE OF OLDER SIAUC mechanisms for wrench faulting have been described in
SPREADING RIDGE CONTINENTAL CRUST
the Basin and Range province by Wright and Troxel (1970)
Ml 100 and by Wernicke et al (1982). From the spatial relation-
-I ships shown on Figure 2, it is further apparent that the
0 KM 15b
zone developed oblique to the northwest-southeast exten-
Figure 1—Tectonic framework of Andaman Sea. Arrowheads at sion in a deformation analogous to pure shear (Ramsey,
spreading centers have been added only for identification and are 1967, p. 114-120). The setting differs in this way from sim-
not intended to show actual direction of plate motion. (Adapted ple shear environments of wrench faulting (e.g., Harding,
from Curry etal, 1979.) 1976).

Profile Characteristics of Divergent Wrench Fault and

structures have been attributed to several different kinds Negative Flower Structure
of deformation, however, demonstrating a need for crite-
ria to identify the tectonic processes involved in their for- The divergent component of the shearing promoted a
mation. brittle fault response that dominates the structural style of
584 Negative and Positive Flower Structures, Positive Structural Inversion

WRENCH FAULT WITH

NORMAL SEPARATION

NORMAL-SLIP FAULT

REVERSE-SLIP FAULT

CREST OF ANTICLINE

COMPRESSIONAL
COMPONENT
EXTENSIONAL
E\ COMPONENT

Figure 2—Tectonic map showing positions of Andaman Sea profiles, structures mapped on a lower Miocene reflector, and strain
ellipse forright-slipdeformation. AA' and BB' identify possible correlative folds that are offsetrightlaterally. Locations of seismic
profiles 1 and 2 of Figures 3 and 4, respectively, are shown.

the Andaman Sea region. Two main features characterize
the wrench zone in Figures 3 and 4. First, the master
wrench fault generally has a normal separation (i.e., the
hanging-wall block is relatively downthrown) and resem-
bles a normal fault in cross section. Second, the regional
west dip within the shallower Miocene and higher strata
shows little change across the zone and, generally, there is
no evidence of shortening. Also, on both seismic profiles,
strands of the wrench fault diverge upward and bound a
relatively downdropped graben slice.
Shallow drape flexures or forced folds are parallel to the
wrench fault and verge inward from either side of the gra-
LINE0
EAST 10
0.0

1.0

CO
2.0
u
LU

fi>
3.0
>-
3
o in

4.0

5.0

Figure 3—Interpreted seismic profile 1 across Andaman Sea wrench fault (Harding, 1983a). Deeper reflections at west side of wrench fault demonstrate change in apparent upthrown
block at depth. T, displacement toward viewer; A, away from viewer. See Figure 2 for structural setting and location of line.

00
 CJI
OS

LINECD

a.
TJ
O
(0

T]
O
s
if)
C
o

I i"
TJ
O
2.
< •
»

r
j
3 iK'jii:!

5.0
Figure 4—Interpreted seismic profile 2 across Andaman Sea wrench fault (Harding, 1983a). Fault segment with reverse separation is anomalous and formed in response to lateral
convergence of blocks across a "closing" bend in trace of wrench zone. T, displacement toward viewer; A, away from viewer. See Figure 2 for structural salting and location of line.
 T P. Harding
98
35"-
34^
MAJOR WRENCH FAULTS ( ^ MAJOR "UPLIFTS"
1 MEERS A. ARBUCKLE MTNS
2 WASHITA VALLEY B. TISHOMINGO ANTICLINE
3 REAGAN ^
4 SULPHUR (|^OIL AND GAS FIELDS
5CRINER HILLS |
Figure 5—Late Paleozoic structures of Washita Valley wrench-fault system. Seismic profile shown in Figure 6 crosses a secondary
wrench fault within Ardmore basin.
ben slice (2.3 sec at reference point 3.7, and 1.9 sec at refer-
ence point 5.0 in Figure 4; see also D'Onfro and Glagola,
1983). The folds are thought to be caused by dip-slip com-
ponents of the displacements, because the structures
resemble the forced folds that are formed at the upthrown
edge of normal fauh blocks (Harding, 1984). Most folds
associated with other kinds of wrench faults are free
(buckle) folds that result from lateral shortening (Wilcox
et al, 1973). Apparently, in the absence of shortening, the
dip-slip components become the dominant mechanism for
folding. The folds have provided closures for hydrocar-
bon trapping (Nelson and Krause, 1981) but, in general,
divergent wrench systems are less prolific for structural
closures than other kinds of wrench faults (Harding et al,
in press).
Where the drape flexures face each other across the
wrench fault, they define a shallow synform that also
strikes subparallel to the zone. This feature is termed a
synform because it may resemble a syncline only in its
morphology; at depth, the flanks may have tilted sepa-
rately and may never have formed an integrated flexure.
On profile 2, the shallow synform and the upward and
outward spreading strands of the wrench fault define a
negative flower structure (Figure 4) (Harding and Lowell,
1979; D'Onfro and Glagola, 1983). This is a distinctive
feature of divergent wrench faults but is probably less
587
97 96
r-
V.^
common than simple, single strands with normal separa-
tion. The major strike-slip splays have normal separa-
tions, and a fault with a small reverse separation (i.e., the
hanging-wall block is relatively upthrown) is present at 2.4
sec at reference point 4.4 (Figure 4). This feature is also
characteristic of some negative flower structures. The
shortening occurs locally where restraining bends (Figure
2) (Crowell, 1974) or oversteps in the zone's trace (i.e., two
parallel strands overlap) cause opposing blocks to con-
verge during strike slip.
At depth on seismic profile 1, the apparent upthrown
block of the wrench fauh is thought to change from the
west side (above 3.3 sec at reference point 3.7 in Figure 3)
to the east side (below 3.3 sec). The top of the basement in
the western block is approximated from regional control;
its displacement to deeper levels is corroborated by the
presence of stratal reflections considerably below 3.5 sec
west of the fault. Several of the oblique normal faults that
flank the zone are apparent at the east end of profile 1 (ref-
erence points 5.3 to 10.0 in Figure 3).
CONVERGENT WRENCH FAULT AND POSITIVE
FLOWER STRUCTURE, ARDMORE BASIN, OKLAHOMA
Regional Setting and Evidence of Strike Slip at
Ardmore Basin Example
The example of a positive flower structure is taken from
 00
00

0 SOUTHWEST t

fi>
•-*
< •

n>
3
Q.
TJ
O
<2.
< •
(D

O
t
n
~\
(/>
*-¥
•n
C
I n
o
y>
•o
o
<2_
S>'

<"
(/}
c
o
c
2.
5"
<

o'
Figure 6—Interpreted seismic profile across convergent wrench zone in Ardmore basin (Harding and Lowell, 1979; Harding et al, 1983). Characteristic morphology of positive 3
flower structure is dependent on identification of reverse separations at outward branching faults. T, displacement toward viewer; A, away from viewei.
 T. P. Harding 589

a subsidiary element of the Washita Valley wrench system reverse-fault profile is clearly evident in the Sycamore for-
and lies within the Ardmore basin (Figure 5). The basin mation on the northeast flank (between 1.7 and 2.2 sec at
subsided initially during latest Precambrian through Mid- reference points 6.8 to 7.3 in Figure 6). The identification
dle Cambrian time as part of the southern Oklahoma aula- of the offset Sycamore reflections in the footwall block at
cogen (Hoffman et al, 1974). Ouachita overthrust faults the southwest flank (around 2.8 sec between reference
southeast of the Ardmore basin are transverse to the con- points 3 and 4.3 in Figure 6) is more definite on an unmi-
vergent wrench system and were, in part, contemporane- grated version of the seismic data. The drop of the Syca-
ous with convergent strike slip on the Washita Valley fault more reflections across the structure from approximately
system. This deformation occurred in Early and Late 1.9 sec at reference point 7.2 to approximately 2.9 sec at
Pennsylvanian time (Ham and Wilson, 1967; Tanner, reference point 4.0 suggests that the faults merge down-
1967; Haas, 1981). Wielchowsky and Gilbert (1982) have ward into a central, more steeply dipping strand.
proposed that the crustal collision which caused the Oua- The fault architecture is not always symmetric. In some
chita thrusting also caused the strike-slip faulting in the areas, the splays may diverge upward toward only one side
adjacent foreland. The splay pattern of the wrench system of the structure, and the upturn of bedding may be asym-
(Figure 5) is thought to have been inherited from the older metric. Where displacements are small, the faults may dip
normal-fault boundaries of the southern Oklahoma aula- steeply at all depths, and the flower structure can have a
cogen(Haas, 1981).
much narrower downward taper (Roberts, 1983). At shal-
Offset Ordovician facies lines demonstrate 40 m (64 km) low levels, a narrow, flexural rollover may be present
of Early Pennsylvanian left slip on the Washita Valley fauk between the flanks of the antiform. Shallow beds within
(fault number 2 in Figure 4) (Tanner, 1967). Splays to the either the upturned flanks or within the flexural rollover
south and north of this main fault also have displaced may experience localized extension. Intraformational
stratigraphic piercing points left laterally but by smaller (detached) normal faults in these instances may offset the
amounts (F. T. Holden, 1974, personal communication). crest of the rollover, and subsidiary splays or shallow seg-
Haas (1981), for example, has inferred 10-15 mi (16-24 ments of the main, subvertical strike-sUp fault may have
km) of left slip along the Reagan fault on the basis of normal separations (1.8 sec at reference point 5.2, and 1.7
stratigraphic and structural relationships. Secondary sec at reference point 5.9 in Figure 6).
faults and folds associated with the Reagan fault and sev-
Structural relief on the antiform commonly decreases
eral other faults in the system have patterns characteristic
of wrench faults (Thorman, 1969; Haas, 1981). The downward and, in some areas, is replaced at depth by a
regional fold set, which provides many hydrocarbon traps simple, vertical separation of a subhorizontal basement
in southern Oklahoma, mostly has a left-stepping en eche- surface. The positive flower structure in these instances is
lon pattern compatible with a left-slip deformation (Fig- disharmonic with the basement. Although it is not certain,
ure 5). the extra material in the core of the structure above the
basement may come from small drag folds, thrust repeti-
tions, or the lateral displacement of material into the line
of the cross section.
Profile Characteristics of Positive Flower Structure
Stratal offsets are only apparent, the strike separation
may greatly exceed the dip separation, and the actual verti-
A positive flower structure is defined as a linear anti-
cal component of the displacement may be opposite the
form that is bounded longitudinally along its flanks by the
upward and outward diverging strands of a wrench fault sense of the dip separation. Stratigraphic relationships
that have mostly reverse separations (Figure 6) (Harding cannot be restored across the zone at the line of the cross
and Lowell, 1979). Sharply upturned beds form the flanks section or seismic profile because of the horizontal separa-
of the antiform, and strike in narrow bands parallel to and tion in the third dimension outside the section. Further-
on either side of the throughgoing wrench fault. The anti- more, the excess shortening of the sedimentary cover
form is subparallel to the principal strike-slip zone and within the antiform must be balanced by shortening of the
thereby differs from the oblique orientation of en echelon basement across the fault zone at some location along the
folds that can form external to the zone (Groshong and trend.
Rodgers, 1978). The structure is termed an antiform The formation of positive flower structures is promoted
because it may resemble an anticline only in its morphol- by a component of convergence normal to the wrench
ogy. The outward-dipping flanks may have been tilted fault, by increased strike-slip displacements, and by the
independently and may never have been parts of a coher- presence of a thick and ductile sedimentary section.
ent, flexed dip reversal. The inward-dipping fault splays Flower structures may also form along straight wrench
have profiles ranging from steep upthrust to shallow-dip- faults where opposing blocks are transported parallel to
ping thrust and merge at depth with a central strand that is the wrench zone (Groshong and Rodgers, 1978; Harding
thought to be usually subvertical. The complex internal et al, 1983). The Washita Valley wrench system developed
faulting of positive flower structures can unduly segment a contractional splay where subsidiary faults (fault 5 and
potential hydrocarbon traps, and they are not as attractive southeast end of fault 2 on Figure 5) turn southeastward
hydrocarbon prospects as the less intensely deformed en off the main Meers-Washita Valley strand and strike sub-
echelon folds. parallel with the orientation for contractional folds. The
In Figure 6, the dip reversal is abrupt and lacks a flex- thick, ductile facies is represented by the Mississippian
ural bend of the Mississippian and Ordovician strata. A strata.
590 Negative and Positive Flower Structures, Positive Structural Inversion
WUSI
MUSI
PLATFORM
%
f'^(%RAIVIBUTAN FIELD
-3»3fl$
Ml
KM 20
103" 30'E
Figure 7—Tectonic setting of Rambutan oil field (after de Coster, 1974) and location of seismic profile shown in Figure 8. Area lies
within southwest flanl( of South Sumatra basin.
POSITIVE STRUCTURAL INVERSION, SOUTH
SUMATRA BASIN
Geologic History and Structural Setting of South
Sumatra Basin
The South Sumatra basin is Cenozoic in age and has had
three tectonic phases. Normal faulting accompanied the
initial subsidence from possibly Paleocene until, locally, as
late as early Miocene time (Harsa, 1975, his Figure 3a). A
relatively quiescent phase, with only broad subsidence,
followed from early Miocene to about early Pliocene time.
From approximately the late Pliocene to the Holocene, the
basin has experienced basement-involved back-arc con-
traction (surface anticlines in Figure 7) (de Coster, 1974).
The seismic line in Figure 8 is parallel to the axis of a
Neogene fold at the Rambutan oil field. The field pro-
duces small amounts of oil from lower Pliocene and upper
Miocene sandstones closed in the shallow anticlinal culmi-
nation. The structure is located within the south flank of
the South Sumatra basin, near the boundary between the
Benakat "gully" and the Musi platform (Figure 7) (de
Coster, 1974). The gully and adjacent areas on the north-
east (Abab shelf) are underlain Ijy Paleogene grabens and
half grabens. The Musi platform is a stable feature largely
devoid of the early normal faults and younger contrac-
tional folds.
Positive structural inversion of the Rambutan structure
occurred during the Neogene deformation. The term as
used here refers to a change in the polarity of structural
relief, from a previous low to a high, and applies to a spe-
cific structure. On a large scale, this type of deformation
0
JO,
SEISMIC PROFILE
Oil AND GAS FIELDS
-7C, PLIO-PLEISTOCENE SURFACE
ANTICLINE
EOCENE TO LATEST OLIGOCENE
\ BURIED NORMAL FAULT
has been referred to as "basin inversion" by some workers
(e.g., Bodenhausen and Ott, 1981), and its characteristics
have been illustrated on seismic reflection profiles by
Ziegler(1983).
Profile Characteristics of Positive Structural Inversion
in Rambutan Area
Positive inversion at the Rambutan oil field has been
accomplished by a combination of flexing and fault dis-
placements (Figure 8). Because deformation was arrested
here at an early stage, both large and small inverted and
uninverted structures can be recognized on the seismic
line. Profile characteristics of the faults and map patterns
of adjacent structures are indicative of dominantly dip-
slip movement (see also the discussion of styles' differenti-
ation).
A large inversion is demonstrated by the shallow anticli-
norium between reference points 3 to 8 on Figure 8 that
directly overlies a deeply subsided graben and thickened
sedimentary section. The occurrence of such anticlines
within the upper levels of the positive inverted structures
makes them attractive hydrocarbon prospects (Eubank
and Makki, 1981). The amplitude and breadth of the folds
are commonly larger than that typical of some other fault-
block styles and provide large closures that are not depen-
dent on sealing faults. The thick sedimentary sequence
that underlies the anticlinorium is part of the Paleogene
fill in the Benakat gully The northwest boundary of the
anticHnorium is abrupt and lies directly above the shoulder
of the graben. Northwest of this boundary, a flat-bot-
 MUSI PLATFORM
RAMBUTAN OIL FIELO

1 2 9 SOUTHEAST 10

X
Q)

Figure 8—Interpreted seismic profile across Rambutan structure (Harding, 1983b). Basement surface is identified by high-amplitude reflection doublet similar to doublet that
identifies known top of basement between reference points 0 and 3. This reflection is consistently rotated northwestward into the listric fault surface. See Figure 7 for location of line.
592 Negative and Positive Flower Structures, Positive Structural Inversion

a. NEGATIVE FLOWER STRUCTURE b. EXTENSIONAL FAULT BLOCK

5t^;r>-^^^'-'-^—-'^
-''\ -/\^/-
Ml

KM

c. NEGATIVE STRUCTURAL INVERSION d. DETACHED NORMAL FAULTS

(SCHEMATIC CROSS SECTION)

SUPERIMPOSED
/ ^ NORMAL SEPARATION
Ml

hrWr^
KM

Figure 9—Extensional and superimposed structures that may have several similar profile characteristics. Differentiation is difficult if
structure is incompletelyrepresentedby data or if separation of faults is uncertain because of poor stratal correlations, a, Andaman
Sea (after Harding, 1983a); b, Sirte basin (after Harding, 1984); c, Idaho-Wyoming thrust belt (after Sprinkel, 1979); d, south Texas
(after Bruce, 1973). T, displacement toward viewer; A, away from viewer; Be, basement complex.

tomed depression in the Pleistocene and Pliocene strata
overlies part of the Musi platform, which is comparatively
high at the level of basement.
Inversion at a more local scale is demonstrated by digi-
tations, or kinks, high in the strata of the anticlinorium
(Pliocene reflections on Figure 8) that mirror, in opposite
relief, the architecture of the underlying extensional fault
blocks that is apparent at the level of basement. Synclines
on the downdropped sides of the reverse faults at shallow
levels (e.g., deeper Pliocene reflectors at reference points
2.7 and 6.7 in Figiue 8) are above the upthrown edges of
normal fault blocks (basement reflection at reference
points 3 and 8, respectively, in Figure 8). Similar large and
small inverted structures are present in the Gippsland
basin of southeastern Australia and their appearance on
seismic reflection profiles in this area has been illustrated
by Davis (1983).
Both the large-scale and small-scale structures in the
Rambutan profile required at least two periods of defor-
mation. The different structural episodes can be separated
and dated with the seismic control. Evidence for an early
episode of extension is provided by the major fault
between reference points 3 and 3.5 in Figure 8. The corre-
lation of the offset termination of the basement reflection
and the identification of sedimentary reflectors at deeper
levels southeast of the fauh demonstrate conclusively that
the hanging wall was relatively downthrown. The reverse
rejuvenation of this fault (evident at 1.2 sec at reference
 T. P. Harding 593

a. POSITIVE FLOWER STRUCTURE b. CONTRACTIONAL FAULT BLOCK

s/-',V>\
! ?<7»-<7l-N / - ^ A-Be ^ \
"?v; Ml
• \ ;
0
_l_
"'> T/^ T/-^ / / I /">-> / ^>' l-r KM 1

c. DETACHED BOX FOLD d. DELTA STRUCTURE

SALT

(Bel

Ml

KM

e. SALT-INTRUDED FAULT f. POSITIVE STRUCTURAL INVERSION

(SCHEMATIC CROSS SECTION)

SALT

"^'C'^^Vv;
SUPERIMPOSED ^-v-^.
// REVERSE SEPARATION

0 Ml 1
l' • ' l
0 KM 2

Figure 10—Contractional and superimposed structures that can appear similar if data are incomplete or if separation sense of faults
cannot be determined, a, schematic; b, Wyoming foreland (after Steams, 1978); c, Jura Mountains (after Laubsctaer, 1961); d, Cana-
dian Rocky Mountains (after OUerenshaw, 1978); e, eastern Carpathians (after Paraschiv and Olteanu, 1970); f, Malay basin (after
Eubank and Makki, 1981). T, displacement toward viewer; A, away from viewer, Be, basement complex.
594 Negative and Positive Flower Structures. Positive Structural Inversion

point 2.8) is smaller than the initial normal offset. Tl us, normal faults. Such inconsistency is demonstrated in the
the latter style of faulting is preserved at depth, and the Andaman Sea example (Figure 2) and can be identified
reverse rejuvenation is discernible only near the surface with a series of closely spaced seismic lines where the con-
where the younger strata were not affected by the original nection of fault intercepts is certain.
graben displacements. The presence of thick Eocene and Furthermore, a divergent wrench fault is a throughgo-
Oligocene deposits in the fault's hanging wall and the ing zone of deformation at some level and has a nearly
absence or thinness of such deposits on the adjacent plat- straight trace in plan view. The zone should continue with
form date the normal faulting here as Eocene and Oligo- only local bends or infrequent oversteps across the seismic
cene. A second large fault with a substantial normal grid. The fauh zone may have a shallow sag, bounded by
separation at depth can be similarly identified around ref- inward-facing monoclines, which is also laterally persist-
erence point 5.0 in Figure 8. ent. Normal fault blocks are usually bounded by faults
Neogene contraction is documented by the reverse sepa- with shorter traces that have abrupt terminations together
rations on shallow segments of faults cited previously. The with relay, zigzag, or dogleg trend patterns (Harding,
deepest reflections that can be demonstrated to converge 1984). These map characteristics of normal faults are
consistently toward the anticlinorium's crest date the start expressed on successive seismic lines as abruptly changing
of folding and uplift as Pliocene in age. The shallowest and shifting combinations of fault blocks.
Pleistocene reflectors are also inclined, and uplift may still Wrench faults, as demonstrated by the Andaman Sea
be in progress. example and other more commonly known faults, are
White and Wing (1978) have demonstrated a similar often solitary zones, splays of larger wrench faults, or ele-
sequence ending with positive inversion in the West ments of sets comprised of relatively widely spaced, paral-
Natuna basin of Indonesia. lel zones (Figure 1). The structural appearance of a
divergent wrench fault can change significantly across a
IDENTIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL STYLES series of profiles. This is particularly evident opposite
WITH SEISMIC DATA restraining bends (compare Figures 3 and 4) and where
upward-splaying fault segments give way to a single strand
Most structural styles are developed in conjunction with that lacks both the splay structure and the accompanying
faulting (basement involved or detached), which has been sag. By contrast, normal faults are generally part of a set
an important factor in their categorization (Badgley, 1965; of closer spaced, more numerous faults and have profile
Harding and Lowell, 1979). Often the most reliable and characteristics that are more repetitive (right side of Figure
direct basis for identifying the styles is to determine the 3).
type of slip (reverse, normal, or strike slip) on the domi- Because lateral displacements may juxtapose dissimilar
nant faults within the structural assemblage. This may be stratigraphic sequences, strike-slip tectonics can some-
accomplished by establishing piercing points (pinch-out or times be inferred from unusual variations in the amount or
truncation lines, etc; Crowell, 1959) in the offset rock sense of stratigraphic separation across the fault profile,
sequence. The inference of the sense of tectonic transport but care must be taken to avoid confusion with structural
from profile characteristics (seismic, geologic) uses infor- inversion. At the Andaman Sea fauk, juxtaposition of a
mation more routinely acquired during hydrocarbon thick Oligocene section opposite a thinner section on the
exploration. But this technique can be much less certain, east side of the fault at profile 1 (below 3.2 sec at reference
and often must be corroborated with map criteria. point 3.8 in Figure 3) has produced a change in the appar-
The differentiation of negative and positive flower ent upthrown side at depth. The absence of Oligocene or
structures, once strike slip has been demonstrated, should older contractional folding at this level across the seismic
not be difficult because of the obvious differences in sepa- profile is an important characteristic: it diminishes the
ration sense on the upward-diverging fault strands and the likelihood of the structure having been caused by Oligo-
presence of shallow synforms or antiforms, respectively cene reverse faulting (i.e., contraction) followed by nega-
Several other styles have profile characteristics that can tive structural inversion. For example, in Figure 9c the
appear similar, and greater care must be taken in their dif- footwall syncline is a drag fold developed by an earlier
ferentiation (Figures 9, 10). thrust displacement and would identify the present normal
separation in the schematic cross section as a superim-
Differentiation of Divergent Wrench Faults and Normal Faults posed, negative inversion. The elimination of this alter-
nate interpretation establishes the deeper relationships as
Divergent wrench faults are most often confused with the most distinctive profile evidence of wrench faulting in
normal faults in seismic profiles because both have nor- Figures.
mal separations (Figure 9a, b), and they may be present in
the same terrains (Figure 3). One definitive structural cri-
terion for differentiating the two styles is the presence of Differentiation of Positive Flower Structures, Contractional
reverse faults that form locally at the restraining bends, Fault Blocks, and Detached Folds
and convergent oversteps in the traces of divergent wrench
faults (e.g., at 2.4 sec at reference point 4.4 in Figure 4). A positive flower structure can be reliably identified by
The reverse separations are incompatible with normal its unique fault architecture only if reflections within and
fault-block deformation. In addition, the apparent below the antiform are sufficiently distinct and complete.
upthrown side and direction of dip of wrench faults typi- Reflected energy, however, may be dispersed by the struc-
cally vary along their strike but do not change at individual tural complexities and steeply dipping strata. Further-
 T P. Harding 595

SOUTHWEST NORTHEAST

-•^J:^^^^M::
r'"'j**.'« '"•.'•

Ml

KM
Figure 11—Seismic profile across contractional fault block at Rangely oil field structure, northwestern Colorado (about lat. 40°N,
long. 109°W). Inclination of fault is indicated by syncline's axial plane, which dips steeply under upthrown block; configuration
below 3.0 sec is unknown. M, Mississippian reflections; Kmv, Mesaverde (Cretaceous) reflections. Vertical exaggeration, approxi-
mately 2.5:1. (After Harding and Lowell, 1979.)

more, flower structures are not present throughout all
convergent wrench zones, and where present they may
lack a unique appearance because their upward-diverging
splays are not fully or symmetrically developed. In these
instances, convergent wrench faults and positive flower
structures may be confused with other contractional fea-
tures (Figure 10).
Positive Flower Structures, Convergent Wrench Faults, and
Contractional Fault Blocks
Convergent wrench faults are most easily confused with
contractional fault blocks, such as some basement uplifts
of the Wyoming foreland (Figure 11) (Stearns, 1978),
because both may have fault segments with steep dips and
reverse separations. The two styles appear most similar
when the upward-spreading splays are present on only one
side of the subvertical, central strand (compare Figures
10a and b). Some segments of the convergent wrench fault
may consist solely of a single fault with a reverse or thrust
profile that extends into the basement. Furthermore, the
two styles can occur in close association.
Structural criteria for differentiating the styles are pro-
vided by map and profile characteristics of the faults, their
relationship to associated flexures, and the deformation
within the adjacent terrain. A contractional block fault,
for example, has a consistent upthrown side and dip direc-
tion, and usually occurs within a cluster or set of similar
appearing structures that have multiple orientations
(Harding and Lowell, 1979). Because many of the bound-
ary faults intersect and terminate abruptly, the blocks are
commonly discontinuous across a seismic grid. In some
areas, such as the South Sumatra basin, however, the
faults have greater continuity, and many of the structures
here lack the distinctive cross-gridded trends typical of
contractional fault blocks elsewhere (author's and others'
unpublished studies). The folds associated with block
faults are mostly drag and force folds that form at the
block edges and are consequently parallel to these edges.
This type of flexure is generally harmonic with the under-
lying basement, and little deformation is apparent away
from the edge of most blocks (Figure 11).
The deformed zone at convergent wrench faults, in con-
trast, is distinguished by lateral persistence and abrupt
changes in profile appearance, including changes in ver-
gence, relative high side, and internal fault architecture.
The style of the fault zone can change abruptly where
releasing bends (Crowell, 1974) are present. Along straight
596 Negative and Positive Flower Structures, Positive Structural Inversion

SOUTH NORTH
0.0 • 't "I' 'I 1 I I 'V " " ^ ^ F ^ ^ — ^ — — ^ ^ ^ ^ l ^ ^ — T —

PLIOCENE TO H a O C E N E

' ^MKiffliiSC &ffSystJ^.TiCT$^^^?ftF^'"v' T£ifr '."j^-'f.fii Tf'KSWBIWIII TKMIilMPif^' ijWlWigrTrtTyyHf'tiH^.^XtiWwwJiBii'lil'"'iMwIiiillil'liwifii'i

LO-

CO
a
o
C3
LU
2.0-
CO

i
3.0-

4.0-

Figure 12—Seismic refraction line across small displacement, convergent wrench fault in Palawan shelf of South China Sea (lat.
11°N, long. 119°E) (Roberts, 1983). Zone has steeply dipping, upthrust profiles that merge at depth into single, subvertical strand.
Narrow horst at left margin of line closely resembles strike-slip zone and demonstrates fallibility of structural-style identifications
made with structural criteria from a single seismic profile.

segments the degree and symmetry of outward spreading along trend from the widely spread splays of Figure 6 to a
by the fault splays and the number of splays can change, steep horst slice. At the end of the zone, the fault is a sin-
These variations can be quite distinct on a series of seismic gle, subvertical break with little associated deformation
lines. (R. F. Gregory, personal communication, 1970). Roberts
The Ardmore basin wrench fault, for example, changes (1983) has illustrated a positive flower structure with a
 T. P. Harding

SOUTHWEST
0.0

3.0-
Ml

KM

Figure 13—Seismic profile across detached box fold near front of Macicenzie Mountains, Canada. Regional tlirust transport is
toward northeast. Structure is bounded by westward-dipping, listric overthrusts and east-dipping back thrust. Large change in inter-
val velocities has caused apparent uplift below leading edge of westward-dipping thrusts. Approximately no vertical exaggeration.
(Interpretation modified from J. E. Thorpe, 197S, personal communication.)

narrowly confined, steep downward taper (Figure 12) that
resembles the intermediate segment of the Ardmore fault
zone. Robert's example is from a foreland setting within
the Palawan shelf area of the South China Sea where there
is a complex mix of several types of late Miocene to Plio-
cene contractional structures. The strike-slip fault has off-
set thickness trends of a wedge of lower Tertiary(?)
sediments a small amount (about 2 km or 1.2 mi) left later-
ally. It is not certain, however, if such differences in fault
architecture will accompany changes in displacement
magnitude in all cases.
Folds associated with convergent wrench faults and
contractional fault blocks can also differ, but this criterion
is not as definitive. The antiforms and en echelon buckle
folds can have symmetric or curvilinear profiles, and both
flanks can dip steeply. The force folds of contractional
fault blocks typically have a single steep flank and broad
step-uplift or monocline profile (compare Figures 6 and
11).
Positive Flower Structures and Detached Folds
Positive flower structures may also resemble anticlines
cored with thrust faults, such a box folds (Figures 10c and
13) or delta structures (termed "triangle zones" by Jones,
1982) (Figure lOd), detached tear faults, and possibly cer-
tain salt or shale-cored structure (Figure lOe). The likeli-
hood of misidentification is increased if the basement
reflectors are not discernible, or if the antiform developed
with the flower structure does not have basement relief.
These style differentiations may depend on the identifi-
cation of a central, high-angle offset of basement beneath
the flower structure (compare Figure 10a with c and d). A
downgoing, basement-involved fault is the essential ele-
ment of all wrench zones; detached structures, however,
would overlie a basement offset only coincidentally. In
598 Negative and Positive Flower Structures, Positive Structural Inversion
addition, the basement fauh underlying the antiforni of
the flower structure may have important identifiable
strike-slip characteristics described previously. Such a
fault is suggested in the Ardmore basin profile (Figure 6),
but its identification would be more conclusive if there
were a more narrowly confined position for the fault and,
especially, a direct observation of basement offset.
Many anticlines cored with thrust faults are part of
broad, detached foldbelts consisting of numerous closely
spaced, parallel structures. The generally greater abun-
dance of contractional faults and the curvate traces of
structural salients and reentrants distinguishes these thrust
settings from convergent wrench faults. The identification
of a wrench fault within a fold-thrust belt, or its differenti-
ation from an isolated thrust or detached tear fault, may
be more difficuh, however.
Tightly shortened structures cored with salt or overpres-
sured shale may be confused with positive flower struc-
tures because the injection of mobile material may elevate
the roof of the structure and complicate its core (compare
Figures 10a and e). In addition to other criteria, differenti-
ation may again depend on the type of occurrence (e.g., a
solitary wrench vs. a cluster of tectonically similar struc-
tures) or, in some cases, on the identification of a subverti-
cal basement-involved fault with wrench characteristics
below the structure.
Differentiation of Positive Inverted Structures and Other Styles
In some instances, positive inversion involves flexurd
arching of prior lows or sedimentary thicks and is not
dependent on fault slip for its development (see Ziegler,
1983, line 37/56/11). This type of deformation should not
be difficult to distinguish from other styles, but identifica-
tion of the type of slip involved in structures inverted by
fault displacements can be difficult (compare Figures 10a
and f). The Rambutan structure demonstrates several
characteristics of inversion by dip slip, but establishment
of universally applicable criteria for differentiating all
types of inversion requires more study.
Two structural relationships identify positive structural
inversion at the Rambutan oil field: the superposition of a
shallow anticlinorium directly above a thick sequence of
sedimentary strata in a structural low and the change in
separation sense at depth on faults bounding the low (Fig-
ure 8). Other authors have documented similar character-
istics at strike-slip zones. Eubank and Makki (1981) have
suggested inversion by strike sUp at the Pungut-Tandun
trend in the Central Sumatra basin. Only the Tandun
structure is inverted, and other manifestations of wrench
faulting exist: (1) the main fault extends to both structures
along a nearly straight, throughgoing trace; (2) normal
profile separation exists at all levels at the Pungut oil field,
and the upthrown block is on the west; and (3) at shallow
levels at Tandun, the fault is upthrown on the east and has
a reverse separation. At the Sand Creek fault, Montana,
Plowman (1983) has illustrated the seismic reflection
expression of several superimposed changes in the appar-
ent vertical displacement. This fault is a single, straight
strand at depth, but at shallow levels it consists of a com-
plex pattern of en echelon faults that may be indicative of
dominant strike slip. Bodenhausen and Ott (1981) and
Glennie and Boegner (1981) also attributed inversion to
strike-slip tectonics. However, where the sense of separa-
tion changes at depth across wrench faults, the positive
relief at the top of the thicker block may only represent an
apparent inversion. The strike-slip displacement need not
have had an actual vertical component of the sense indi-
cated by this separation, and the apparent reversal of verti-
cal displacement could result from a single lateral
movement.
If strike sMp is considered to be the cause of inversion,
the shallow folding and reverse separations common at
inverted structures would require convergent or parallel
wrench displacements. There should be a dominant mas-
ter fault and its profile, in the case of a single faulting
event (i.e., strike-slip offset of a previously unfaulted
low), should have the structural characteristics of a
wrench fault. At the Rambutan oil field there is no domi-
nant master fauk or merging of splays at depth, and the
faults lack the structural variability typical of wrench
zones that was described in the previous section. Instead,
the dislocations resemble dip-slip faults. They consist of a
set of mostly parallel-dipping, listric surfaces that have
similar structural features and approximately equal dis-
placements (Figure 8).
A second wrench interpretation, that the positive relief
of an inverted structure results from strike sUp superim-
posed along a preexisting graben edge, require more evi-
dence to refute. The younger and shallower beds at
Rambutan that would have been deformed solely by strike
slip lack the dual, steeply outward-dipping flanks that
characterize positive flower structures and some conver-
gent wrench faults (e.g.. Figure 6). Instead, the shallow
levels have consistent block-edge, step flexures or mono-
cUnes, which more typically identify dip slip (e.g., the
monocline at 0.9 sec at reference point 2.8 in Figure 8).
Reches et al (1981) has made a similar interpretation of
monochnes and positive inversion in Israel.
Differences in lateral continuity, however, can be a more
decisive criterion than profile characteristics. Faults that
have transported structures laterally should persist in an
approximately straight path across the seismic grid, new
fault segments being established where necessary for the
propagation of a straight zone. Conversely, the faults
bounding a structural low uplifted by dip-slip inversion
should have map trends either that were inherited from the
pattern of a preexisting graben system or, if the structural
low was previously unfaulted, that reflect a superimposed
dip-slip deformation. In either case, these uplifts will com-
monly terminate, bifurcate, or shift position abruptly
across the seismic grid (Harding, 1984). Hydrocarbon
traps at oil fields north of Rambutan have block-fault map
characteristics (fold axis with zigzag traces at oil fields at
Benakat, north of Benakat, and at Talang Akar in Figure
7), and several are also inverted.
Several other structural assemblages (contractional
fault blocks, detached normal faults, and certain negative
inverted structures) may also contain hanging-wall anti-
clines (Figures 9c, d, 10b) and may resemble positive
inverted structures on seismic profiles. Contractional fault
blocks (Harding and Lowell, 1979) and positive inverted
 T. P. Harding
structures may be present within the same tectonic sett ing,
and both are bounded by reverse faults at shallow depths
and have associated forced folds (Stearns, 1978).
Furthermore, in some instances the two styles can have
similar fauh-block map patterns (e.g., trap doors, inter-
ference, or multidirectional folding). One inference is that
earlier normal faulting may establish zones of weakness
for the development of the contractional fauh blocks
(Harding and Lowell, 1979). The two styles can therefore
be closely related, some positive inverted structures being
a special type of contractional fault blocks. The Rambu-
tan and adjacent inverted folds in southern Sumatra are
considered in this way. In this case, the two styles may be
differentiated only where the presence or absence of prior
structural lows or early normal faulting is established
(consider Figures 10b and f without deep control).
The hanging-wall anticline often associated with
detached "growth" faults (Crans et al, 1980) typically con-
tains a markedly thicker section, and in this way has a fur-
ther similarity with positive inverted structures. When an
absence of stratal correlations makes it impossible to
determine the sense of separation at shallow segments of
faults bounding the anticline (compare Figures 9d and lOf
with this assumption), it may be quite difficult to differen-
tiate the two styles. But, unlike contractional fault blocks
and positive inversion, the tectonic settings of the styles
are quite dissimilar. Stratal correlations, where estab-
lished, will readily identify the detached normal-fault
assemblage by the absence of reverse separations. The
hanging-wall anticHne of this assemblage is further distin-
guished by a lack of positive relief relative to equivalent
layers within the footwall block.
CONCLUSIONS
The differentiation of structural styles with seismic data
is frequently difficult and imprecise. A particular struc-
tural characteristic may have several tectonic origins, and
many elements that define a certain assemblage are found
secondarily in other styles.
A persistent tendency to infer wrench faulting at the
exclusion of alternative structural styles is an example of a
serious misapplication of the styles approach. The sponta-
neous identification of all complex structures as wrench-
fault related is an illustration. This may be done as a
substitute for th&rigorous and time-consuming steps of a
comprehensive tectonic investigation or because the inter-
preter is not adequately prepared to differentiate styles.
The error can be as fundamental as the mistakes that
would occur if other segments of geology prejudged their
interpretations. Conversely, statements that describe tec-
tonic events only as fauhing (what kind?), uplift (what
type?), or orogeny are also inadequate.
Because wrench faults frequently exhibit normal and
reverse separation as well as vertical profiles, normal and
reverse faults may be misidentified as divergent and con-
vergent wrench faults, respectively. Partial structural
inversion results in reversals of relief at depth, and these in
turn may produce characteristics at dip-slip fauhs that
have previously been attributed to strike slip.
599
A well-regulated, disciplined methodology, similar to
the approaches used by other geologic disciplines, is
needed to ensure the reliability of structural styles identifi-
cation. Multiple criteria are required, and both evidence
affirming one tectonic style and evidence refuting others
should be sought in each instance. Explorationists, there-
fore, must have a working familiarity with all structural
categories. It is also necessary that such analysis always
consider both profile and map characteristics. Whereas
some styles may appear similar in profile, their structures
can have distinctly different areal distributions. Where
structures have distinctive profiles, determination of their
map distribution can provide a confirmation of the styles'
identification. Identifications should rarely be attempted
with a single seismic profile (e.g.. Figure 12) and, if this is
unavoidable, they should then be made only provisionally.
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