MECHANICAL WORKING AND TESTING OF

MATERIALS (PCMT 4304)

B. Tech 6th Semester

Compiled By:

Mrs. Renu prava Dalai Subhadra Sahoo

Asst. Professor Himanshu Sahoo
Email id: Guest Lecturer
dalai.renu@gmail.com

Department of Metallurgical and Material Engineering,

Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology (IGIT), Sarang, Dhenkanal –
759146, Odisha, India.

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PCMT4304 MECHANICAL WORKING AND TESTING OF
MATERIALS (3-0-0)
Module I (14 Hours)
Classification of forming processes.
Fundamentals of metal working – Effect of temperature, strain rate, metallurgical
structure, friction & lubrication, workability and residual stress.
Rolling - Classification & processes, load, torque, power, variables controlling process,
forward slip. Fundamentals of roll pass design, mill type. Rolling defects and their
control.
Forging - Classification & processes, load for circular & rectangular plate.
Extrusion - Classification & processes, force & variables affecting it.
Module II (12 Hours)
Drawing of Wires and Tubes- Processes, drawing stress.
Sheet Metal Forming- Forming methods, Forming limit criterion, Special Forming
techniques and defects in formed products
National and International Standards for Mechanical tests
Hardness Tests- Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, Meyer, Knoop, etc., relationship with flow
curve.
Compression Test- Comparison with tension, phenomenon of buckling & barreling.
Torsion Test- Stresses for elastic & plastic strain, Torsion vs. Tension.
Bend Test- Pure bending & flexure formula.
Impact Test- Notched bar impact tests, transition temperature & metallurgical factors
affecting it.
Module III (14 Hours)
Fracture- Energy based criterion, Strain energy release rate, stress intensity factor,
fracture toughness estimation and design of engineering component.
Fatigue – Stress cycles & S-N curve, effect of mean stress, stress concentration,
surface, size, metallurgical factors etc. on endurance limit, Cyclic stress-strain curve,
Low cycle fatigue, Paris law.
Creep- Creep & Stress rupture tests, Mechanism of creep deformation, Deformation
mechanism Maps, Development of creep resistant alloys, Prediction of long time
properties.
Non Destructive Testing: Scope and significance of non destructive testing. Principles,
equipment, specifications and limitations of liquid penetrant, Magnetic particle, Eddy
current, Ultrasonic and Acoustic emissions, and Radiography (X-Ray and Gamma Ray).
Books for reference:
1. Mechanical Metallurgy by G. E. Dieter, McGraw-Hill.
2. Roll Pass Design, The United Steel Companies Ltd., U.K.
3. Testing of Metallic materials by C. Suryanarayana.
4. Principles of Industrial Metal Working Processes by C. Russak, G. W. Rowe.
5. Practical Non Destructive Testing by Baldev R

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Module I (14 Hours)

Classification of forming processes.

Fundamentals of metal working – Effect of temperature, strain rate, metallurgical structure,

friction & lubrication, workability and residual stress.

Fundamentals of metal working

subjects of interest

• Introduction/objectives Classification of metal processes

• Mechanics of metalworking
• Flow curves
• Effects of temperature on metalworking Hot working Cold working
• Effects of metallurgical structure
Classification of Metal working Processes

(based on the type of force applied on to the workpiece it is formed into shape).

Direct compression type

Indirect compression process
Tension type processes
Bending processes
Shearing processes
Direct compression type processes:

The applied force is normal to the direction of the metal flow in compression, i.e., forging
and rolling processes.

Indirect compression type processes:

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The primary forces are frequently tensile, with indirect compressive forces developed by the
reaction of the work piece. The metal flow is therefore under the combined stress state, i.e.,
extrusion, wiredrawing, tube drawing.

Tension type processes

The applied force is tensile, i.e., stretch forming.

Bending processes:

The applied force involves the application of bending moments to the sheet.

Shearing processes

The applied force involves the application of shearing forces of sufficient magnitude to
rupture the metal in the plane of shear.

Mechanics of metal working

• Metal working occurs due to plastic deformation which is associated with analysis of
complex stress distribution require simplification.

1. Only (large) plastic strain is considered while elastic strain is very small and can be
neglected.

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 2. Strain hardening is often neglected.
3. Metal is considered to be isotropic and homogeneous.Normally plastic deformation is
not uniform and also have frictions, but we need to simplify the stress analysis in
order to determine the force required to produce a given amount of deformation
to obtain a product in a required geometry.

Required theory of plasticity, and for plastic deformation a constant volume relationship is
required.

ε1 + ε 2 + ε 3 = 0 ..................eq.1

In metalworking, compressive stress and strain are predominated. If a block of initial height
ho is compressed to h1, the axial compressive strain will be:

For true strain

..................eq.2

For conventional strain

.............................e.q3

Note:the calculated strain is negative_ compressive strains.

However the convention is reversed in metalworking problems so that compressive stresses
and strains are defined as positive. Note: e0 is used as strain in deformation process.
And the fractional reduction (reduction of area) in metal working deformation is given by

From the constantvolume relation

..............e.q4

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 .........................e.q5

........................e.q6

Example: Determine the engineering strain, true strain, and reduction for (a) a bar which is
doubled in length and (b) a bar which is halved in length.

(a) For a bar which is double in length

(b) For a bar which is halved in length,

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Yield criteria and stresss train relations

Yielding in unidirectional tension test takes place when the stress σ = F/A reaches the critical
value.

• Yielding in multiaxial stress states is not dependent on a single stress but on a combination
of all stresses.

Von Mises yield criterion (Distortion energy criterion)

Tresca yield criterion (maximum shear stress)

Von Mises yield criterion Yielding occurs when the second invariant of the stress deviator J2
> critical value k2.

..........e.q8

In uniaxial tension, to evaluate the constant k, note to evaluate the constant k, note σ1=σo,
σ2-σ3=0,where σo is the yield stress;

.......................................... e.q9

Substituting k from Eq.9 into 8

In pure shear,to evaluate the constant k, note σ1=σ3=τy,σ2=0,where σo is the yield stress;
when yields:τy2+τy2+4τy2=6k2 then k=τy

......................e.q10
By comparing with Eq9 we then have

..............................e.q11

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Yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress τmax reaches the value of the shear stress in
the uniaxal tension test, τo.
Where σ1 is the algebraically largest and σ3 is the algebraically smallest principal stress
For uniaxial tension, σ1=σo, σ2=σ3=0, and the shearing yield stress τo=σo/2.
Therefore the maximum shear stress criterion is given by
In pure shear, σ1=-σ3=k, σ2=0, τmax=τy

...............e.q12

........................e.q13

..................................e.q14

FEM analysis

Finite element method (FEM) is used in metal working plasticity where stresses are complex.
•FEM is a very powerful technique for determining stress strain distributions in plane strain
or plane stress conditions.

Distortion of FEM grid in forging of a compressor disk.

Flow curve:
Flow curve indicates whether metal is readily deformed at given conditions, i.e. strain rate,
temperature

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•Flow curve is strongly dependent on strain rate and temperature.

Flow curves of some metals at room emperature

Determination of flow curve

Stress strain curve

•Hook’s law is followed upto the yield point, σo

•Beyond σo, metal deforms plastically (strain hardening).

•Unloading from A immediately decreases the strain from ε1toε2=σ/E the strain decrease ε1-
ε2 is the recoverable elastic strain.

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Working processes:
The methods used to mechanically shape metals into other product forms are called Working
Processes.
Hot working (0.60.8Tm)

Definition : deformation under conditions of temperature and strain rate such that
recrystallisation process take place simultaneously with the deformation.

Examples : rolling, forging, extrusion

Cold working (< 0.3Tm)

Definition : deformation carried out under conditions where recovery processes are not
effective.

Examples : rolling, forging, extrusion, wire/tube drawing, swaging, coining

• The products resulting from the working of metals are called Wrought Products. such as
sheet, plate, bar, forging.

• Plastic working processes can also divided into:

Primary mechanical working process : Designed to reduce an ingot or billet to a standard mill
product of simple shape, i.e., sheet, plate, bar.

Secondary mechanical working process: Primary sheets, plates or bars are formed into final

finished shapes, i.e., wire & tube drawing, sheet metal forming operation.

Hot working

Hot working involves deformation at temperatures where recrystallisation can occur (0.60.8
Tm).

Effects of temperature on metal forming processes

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Recrystallisation during hot working

The minimum temperature at which reformation of the crystals occurs is called

Recrystallisation Temperature.

Above the recrystallisation temperature the kinetic energy of atoms increases and therefore
they are able to attach themselves to the newly formed nuclei which in turn begin to grow
into crystals. This process continues until all the distorted crystals have been transformed.

Hot working results in grain refining.

Recrystallisation

• Recrystallisation takes place at higher temperatures than recovery which leads to a new
formation of grains.

• The process includes 1) primary recystallisation and 2) secondary recrystallisation and grain
growth.

Primary recrystallisation

Primary recrystallisation occurs at the beginning of the new grain formation process.
Recrystallisation temperature does not depend on the metal alone, but on a whole number of
variables temperature, strain and minimum dislocation density available (amount of
deformation). Small impurities in pure metals can considerably increase the recrystallisation
temperature.

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Recrystallised grain size and prior plastic strain

The greater the driving force (greater prior plastic deformation), the greater the number of
nuclei that will form and the finer will be the final grain size.

Effects of grain size and strain on recrystallisation temperature

Schematic of recrystallisation diagram

• Small grains make dislocations more difficult to move

• More slip plane, therefore, greater ductility

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Effects of metallurgical structure on working processes

The presence of preferred orientation causes anisotropy of mechanical properties, especially

in rolled sheets.

• The development of texture is the formation of deformation bands or shear bands, which are
regions of distortion where a portion of grains have rotated towards another orientation to
accommodate the applied strain.

Example: Pllastic working in twophase alloys

The plastic working characteristics of two phase alloys depends on the microscopic
distribution of the two phases.

• A high Vf of hard uniformly dispersed particles increases the flow stress and makes
working difficult.

• Hard and massive particles tend to fracture on deformation with softer matrix.

• Second phase particles or inclusions will be distorted in the principal working direction
(fibrous structure) affect mechanical properties.

• Precipitation hardening during hot working results in high flow stress and lowered ductility

Effect of principal stresses in metal working

When there is no shear stresses acting on the planes_giving the maximum normal stress
acting on the planes.
•These planes are called the principal planes,and stresses normal to these planes are the
principal stress σ1,σ2 and σ3 which in general do not coincide with the Cartesian coordinate
axes x,y,z.
Directions of principal stresses are1, 2and3.
Bi-axial plane strain condition:
Stresses are 1,2and3. Triaxial plane strain condition
•Two principal stresses σ1and σ2.
•Three principal stressesσ1,σ2 and σ3,where σ1>σ2>σ3.
Effects of speed of deformation

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High deformation speed (high strain rate) High flow stress.
• Increased the temperature of the workpiece improved lubrication at the toolmetal interface.
If the speed of deformation is too high, metal cracking is possible.
• Can cause plastic instability in cold working

• Can cause hot shortness in hot working

Flow stress dependence on strain rate and temperature

Effects of friction and lubrication

Friction at toolworkpiece interface depends on geometry of the tooling and the geometry of
the deformation, temperature, nature of metal, speed of deformation.

Dieworkpiece interface (a) on the macroscale, (b) on the microscale

When two surfaces are brought into contact, the high spot (asperities) will come into contact

• As we increase the load, the metal at the asperities deform plastically and produce subshear
zone.

• The coefficient of friction is given by

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(a)Contact at asperities (b) overlap of deformation zones to produce subsurface shear zone.
Functions of a metal working lubricant

 Reduces deformation load

 Increases limit of deformation before fracture
 Controls surface finish
 Minimises metal pickup on tools
 Minimises tool wear
 Thermally insulates the workpiece and the tools
 Cools the workpiece and/or tools

Effect of residual stresses

Residual stresses are generated by non uniform plastic deformation when external stresses are
removed.

• Ex: in rolling process, the surface grains in the sheet are deformed and tend to elongate,
while the grain in the centre are unaffected.

• Due to continuity of the sheet, the central fibres tend to restrain the surface fibres from
elongating while the surface fibres tend to stretch the central fibres.

• Residual stress pattern consisting of high

a) Inhomogeneous deformation in rolling of sheet, (b) resulting distribution of longitudinal

residual stress over thickness of sheet.

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Residual stresses are only elastic stresses. The maximum value which a residual stress can
reach is the yield stress of the material.
Residual stresses can be considered the same as ordinary applied stresses.
Compressive residual stress can effectively subtract from the applied tensile stresses.
Metals containing residual stresses can be stress relieve by heating to a temperature where the
yield strength of the material is the same or lower than the value of the residual stress such
that the material can deform and release stress. However slow cooling is required other wise
residual stress can again develop during cooling.
Workability
• Workability is concerned with the extent to which a material can be deformed in a specific
metal working process without the formation of cracks.

• Cracks which occur in metal working processes can be grouped into three broad categories:

1. Cracks at a free surface

2. Cracks that develop in a surface where interface friction is high

3. Internal cracks.

Examples of cracks in metal working (a) free surface crack (b)surface crack from heavy die
friction in extrusion,(c)centre burst or chevron cracks in a drawnrod.

Fig. Dependence of forming limit of mean normal stress σm.

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ROLLING

Introduction- Definition of rolling process

• Definition of Rolling:
The process of plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls.

Rolling is the most widely used forming processes, which provides high production and

close control of final product.

The metal is subjected to high compressive stresses as a result of friction between the rolls

and metal surface.

Rolling process can be divided into cold rolling and hot rolling

Hot rolling:
The initial breakdown of ingots into blooms and billets, this is followed by further hot rolling
into plate, sheet, rod, bar, pipe, rail.
Cold-rolling:
The cold rolling of metal has played a major role in industry by providing sheet, strip, foil,
with good surface finishes and increased mechanical strength with close control of product
dimensions.
Terminology
Semifinished product
Bloom is the product of first breakdown of ingot(cross sectional area >230cm2)
Billet is the product obtained from a further reduction by hot rolling (cross sectional area
40*40mm2)
Slab is the hot rolled ingot (cross sectional area >100cm2)
Further rolling steps: milled products
Plate is the product with a thickness >6mm
Sheet is the product with a thickness<6mm and width >600mm
Strip is the product with a thickness >6mm and width<600mm

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Typical arrangement of rollers for rolling mills

(f)
(a)Two-high mill: the stock is returned to the entrance for further reduction

(b) Two-high mill, reversing: the work can be passed back and forth through the rolls by

reversing their direction of rotation

(c) Three-high mill: consists of the upper and lower driven rolls, which rotates by friction

(d) Four-high mill: smaller diameter rolls (less strength and rigidity) are supported by large

backup rolls

(e)Cluster mill or Sendzimir mill: each of the work rolls is supported by two backing rolls

(f)Continuous rolling: use a series of rolling mill and each set is called a stand. The strip

will be moving at different velocities at each stage in the mill.

(g)Planetary rolling mill: consists of a pair of heavy backing rolls. Each planetary roll gives

an almost constant reduction to the slab as it sweeps out a circular path between the backing

rolls and the slab.

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Different types of rolling processes:
• Continuous rolling
• Transverse rolling
• Shaped rolling or section rolling
• Ring rolling
• Powder rolling
• Continuous casting and hot rolling
• Thread rolling
Conventional hot or cold-rolling
The objective is to decrease the thickness of the metal with an increase in length and
with little increase in width.

The material in the centre of the sheet is constrained in the z-direction(across the width
of the sheet)
Transverse rolling

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Fundamental concept of metal rolling

Assumptions:
1) The arc of contact between the rolls and the metal is a part of a circle.
2) The coefficient of friction, μ varies along the arc of contact.
3) The metal is considered to deform plastically during rolling.
4) The volume of metal is constant before and after rolling. In practical the volume
might decrease a little bit due to close up pores.
5) The velocity of the rolls is assumed to be constant
6) The metal oly extends in the rolling direction and no extension in the width of the
material.
7) The cross sectional area normal to the rolling direction is not distorted.

- A metal sheet with a thickness h0 enters the rolls at the entrance plane xx with a
velocity V0.
- It passes through the roll gap and leaves the exit plane yy with a reduced thickness hf
and at a velocity Vf.
- Given that there is no increase in width, the vertical compression of the metal is
translated into an elongated in the rolling direction.
- since there is no change in metal volume at a given point per unit time throughout the
process, therefore

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From eq.1

given that b0=bf

when ho > hf, then Vo < Vf

the velocity of the sheet must steadily increase from the entrance to exit such that a
vertical element

-At only one point along the surface of contact between the roll and the sheet, two forces act
on the metal, 1) a radial force P, and 2)a tangential frictional force F.
-If the surface velocity of the roll Vr equal to the velocity of the sheet, this point is called
neutral point or no-slip point. E.g,point N.
-Between the entrance plane(xx) and the neutral point the sheet is moving slower than the roll
surface, and the tangential frictional force, F, act in the direction to draw the metal into the
roll.

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-On the exit side (yy) of the neutral point, the sheet moves faster than the roll surface. The
direction of the frictional force is then reversed and oppose the delivery of the sheet from the
rolls.

Pr is the radial force, with a vertical component P(rolling load-the load with which the rolls
press against the metal). The specific roll pressure, P is the rolling load divided by the contact
area Where b is the width os the sheet Lp is the projected length of the arc of contact

..............................................................................................e.q3

....................e.q4

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-The distribution of roll pressure along the arc of contact shows taht the pressure rises to
maximum at the neutral point and then falls off.
-The pressure distribution does not come to a sharp peak at the neutral point, which indicates
that the neutral point is not really a lineon the roll surface but an area.
-The areaunder the curve is proportional to the rolling load.the area in shade represents the
force required to over come frictional forces between the roll and the sheet.
-The area under the dashed line AB represents the force required to deform the metal in plane
homogeneous compression.
Roll bite condition:

For the wolrkpiece to enter the throat of the roll, the component of the friction force must be
equal to or greater than the horizontal component of the normal force.

...............................e.q5

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Therefore free engagement will occur when μ > tan α
when
Increase the effective values of μ, for example grooving the rolls parallel to the roll axis.
+
Using big rolls to reduce tan α or if the roll diameter is fixed, reduce h0

Therefore

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From triangle ABC

Simplified analysis of rolling load

The main variables in rolling are:
-the roll diameter
-the deformation resistance of the metal as influenced by metallurgy, temperature and strain
rate
-the friction between the rolls and the workpiece
-the presence of the front tension and /or back tension in the plane of the sheet
We consider in three conditions:
1) no friction condition
2) normal friction condition
3) sticky friction condition
1-no friction condition

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2-normal friction condition

AS

QUESTION

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ROLLING DEFECTS
Defects from cast ingot before rolling:
Defects other than cracks can result from defects introduced during the
ingot stage of production.
• Porosity, cavity, blow hole occurred in the cast ingot will be closed up
during the rolling process.
• Longitudinal stringers of non-metallic inclusions or pearlite banding
are related to melting and solidification practices. In severe cases, these
defects can lead to laminations which drastically reduce the strength in the
thickness direction.
Defects during rolling
There are two aspects to the problem of the shape of a sheet.
1) Uniform thickness over the width and thickness – can be precisely
controlled with modern gage control system.

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 2) Flatness – difficult to measure accurately

Uniform thickness
• Under high rolling forces, the rolls flatten and bend, and the entire mill is elastically
distorted.
• Mill spring causes the thickness of the sheet exiting from the rolling mill to be
greater than the roll gap set under no-load conditions.
• Precise thickness rolling requires the elastic constant of the mill. Calibration
curves are needed

o 1–3 GNm-1 for screw-loaded rolling mills,

o 4 GNm-1 for hydraulically loaded mills)

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• Roll flattening increases the roll pressure and eventually causes the rolls to deform more
easily than the metal.
•The limiting thickness is nearly proportional to µ, R, σ’o butinversely proportional to E.
For example in steel rolls the limiting thickness is given by

In general, problems with limiting gauge can be expected when the

sheet thickness is below 1/400 to 1/600 of the roll diameter.
Flatness
• The roll gap must be perfectly parallel to produce sheets/plates with equal thickness at
both ends.
• The rolling speed is very sensitive to flatness. A difference in elongation of one part in
10,000 between different locations in the sheet can cause waviness.

Solutions to flatness problems

• Camber and crown can be used to correct the roll deflection (at only one
value of the roll force). Or use rolling mill equipped with hydraulic jacks to
permit the elastic distortion of the rolls to correct deflection.

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(a) The use of cambered rolls to compensate for roll bending.
(b) Uncambered rolls give variation of thickness.
Possible effects when rolling with insufficient camber

• Thicker centre means the edges would be plastically elongated more

than the centre, normally called long edges.
• This induces the residual stress pattern of compression at the edges
and tension along the centreline.
• This can cause centreline cracking (c), warping (d) or edge
wrinkling or crepe-paper effect or wavy edge (e).
Possible effects when rolls are over-cambered:

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• Thicker edges than the centre means the centre would be plastically
elongated more than the edges, resulting in lateral spread.
•The residual stress pattern is now under compression in the centreline and
tension at the edges (b).
• This may cause edge cracking (c), centre splitting (d), centreline
wrinkling (e).
• Shape problems are greatest when rolling in thin strip (<0.01 in) because fractional
errors in the roll gap profile increase with ecrease in thickness, producing larger internal
stress.
• Thin sheet is also less resistant to buckling.
• Mild shape problems may be corrected by stretch levelling the sheet in tension or by
bend flexing the sheet in a roller-leveller,
see Fig.

• Edging can also be caused by inhomogeneous deformation in the

thickness direction.
• If only the surface of the workpiece is deformed (as in a light reduction on a
thick slab), the edges are concaved (a). The overhanging material is not
compressed in the subsequent step of rolling, causing this area under tensile
stress and leading to edge cracking. This has been observed in initial
breakdown of hot-rolling when h/Lp > 2
• With heavy reduction, the centre tends to expand more laterally than the surface
to produced barrelled edges (b). This causes secondary tensile stresses by barrelling,
which are susceptible to edge cracking.
• Alligatoring (c) will occur when lateral spread is greater in the centre than the
surface (surface in tension, centre in compression) and with the presence ofmetallurgical
weakness along the centreline.

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• Surface defects are more easily in rolling due to high surface to volume ratio. Grinding,
chipping or descaling of defects on the surface of cast ingots or billets are recommended
before being rolled.
• Laps due to misplace of rolls can cause undesired shapes.

• Flakes or cooling cracks along edges result in decreased ductility in hot rolling such as
blooming of extra coarse grained ingot.
• Scratches due to tooling and handling.
• Variation in thickness due to deflection of rolls or rolling speed.
Rolling mill control:
• Modern continuous hot-strip and cold rolling mills operated under automatic control
provide high throughput and production rate.
• Of all the metal working processes, rolling is the best suited for the adoption of
automatic control because it is an essentially steady-state process in which the tooling
geometry (roll gap) may be changed readily during the process.
• Automatic control in rolling such as the development of online sensors to continuously
measure sheet thickness. The most widely used instruments are
1) flying micrometer
2) x-ray or isotope, gauges which measure thickness by monitoring the amount of
radiation transmitted through the sheet.
• More recently control procedures have been aimed at controlling strip
shape as well as thickness.
*************

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Forging
Forging: is the working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing.

• The oldest of the metalworking arts (primitive blacksmith).

• Replacement of machinery occurred during early the Industrial revolution.
• Forging machines are now capable of making parts ranging in size of a bolt to a turbine
rotor.
• Most forging operations are carried out hot,although certain metals may be cold-forged.
Forging operations

Edging is used to shape the ends of the bars and to gather metal. The metal flow is confined
in the horizontal direction but it is free to flow laterally to fill the die.
Drawing is used to reduce the cross-sectional area of the workpiece with concurrent increase
in length.
Piercing and punching are used to produce holes in metals.
Fullering is used to reduce the cross-sectional area of a portion of the stock. The metal flow
is outward and away from the centre of the fuller. i.e.,forging of connecting rod for an
internal-combustion engine.

Swaging is used to produce a bar with a smaller diameter (using concave dies).

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• Swaging is a special type of forging in which metal is formed by a succession of rapid
hammer blows

• Swaging provides a reduced round cross section suitable for tapping, threading, upsetting or
other subsequent forming and machining operations.

Classification of forging processes

By equipment

1) Forging hammer or drop hammer

2) Press forging
By process
1) Open - die forging
2) Closed - die forging
Hammer and press forging processes

Forging hammers: There are two basic types of forging hammers used;
• Board hammer
• Power hammer
Forging presses: There are two basic types of forging presses available;
• Mechanical presses
• Hydraulic presses

Board hammer –forging hammer

The upper die and ram are raised by friction rolls gripping the board.
• After releasing the board, the ram falls under gravity to produce the blow energy.
• The hammer can strike between 60-150 blows per minute depending on size and capacity.
• The board hammer is an energy-restricted machine. The blow energy supplied equal the
potential energy due to the weight and the height of the fall.
Potential energy = mgh
• This energy will be delivered to the metal workpiece to produce plastic

34
Forging hammer or drop hammer
• Provide rapid impact blows to the surface of the metal.
• Dies are in two halves

- Lower: fixed to anvil

- Upper: moves up and down with the TUP.
• Energy (from a gravity drop) is adsorbed onto the metal in which the maximum impact is on
the metal surface.

• Dies are expensive being accurately machined from special alloys (susceptible to thermal
shock).
• Drop forging is good for mass production of complex shapes.
The energy supplied by the blow is equal to the potential energy due to the weight of the ram
and the height of the fall.

Power hammer
• Power hammer provides greater capacity, in which the ram is accelerated on the downstroke
by steam or air pressure in addition to gravity.
• Steam or air pressure is also used to raise the ram on the upstroke.
• The total energy supplied to the blow in a power drop hammer is given by

35
Where m = mass, v = velocity of ram at start of deformation, g = acceleration of gravity, p =
air or steam pressure acting on ram cylinder on downstroke, A = area of ram cylinder, H =
height of the ram drop
Hydraulic press forging
• Using a hydraulic press or a mechanical press to forge the metal, therefore, gives
continuous forming at a slower rate.

• Provide deeper penetration.

• Better properties (more homogeneous).
• Equipment is expensive.
Mechanical press forging: • Crank press translates rotary motion into reciprocating linear
motion of the press slide.
• The ram stroke is shorter than in a hammer or hydraulic press.
• Presses are rated on the basis of the force developed at the end of the stroke.
• The blow press is more like squeeze than like the impact of the hammer, therefore, dies can
be less massive and die life is longer than with a hammer.
• The total energy supplied during the stroke of a press is given by

Where I is moment of inertia of the flywheel

ω is angular velocity, ωo-original, ωf-after deformation, rad.s-1

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Open-die forging

• Open-die forging is carried out between flat dies or dies of very simple shape.
The process is used for mostly large objects or when the number of parts produced is small.
• Open-die forging is often used to preform the workpiece for closed-die forging.

Closed-die forging (or impression-die forging)

The workpiece is deformed between two die halves which carry the impressions of the
desired final shape.
The workpiece is deformed under high pressure in a closed cavity.
Normally used for smaller components. The process provide precision forging with close
dimensional tolerance.
Closed dies are expensive.

37
Typical curve of forging load vs. stroke forclosed-die forging.
Flash is the excess metal, which squirts out of the cavity as a thick ribbon of metal.
Functions of flash: The flash serves two purposes:
• Acts as a ‘safety value’ for excess metal.

38
• Builds up high pressure to ensure that the metal fills all recesses of the die cavity.
General considerations for preform design

Area of each cross section = area in the finished cross section + flash.
• Concave radii of the preform > radii on the final forging part.
• Cross section of the preform should be higher and narrower than the final cross section, so
as to accentuate upsetting flow and minimise extrusion flow.

• Shape with thin and long sections or projections (ribs and webs) are more difficult to
process because they have higher surface area per unit volume increasing friction and
temperature effects.

Calculation of forging loads

The total energy required for deformation process;
Utotal = Uideal + Ufriction + Uredundant
Note: redundant work = work that does not contribute to shape change of the workpiece
Efficiency of a given deformation process η is

39
The calculation for forging load can be divided into three cases according to friction:
• In the absence of friction
• Low friction condition (lower bound analysis or sliding condition)
• High friction condition (sticky friction condition)

1) In the absence of friction

By assuming that there is no friction at die-workpiece interface, the forging
load is therefore the compressive force (P) acting on a round metal bar.
P = σo A.....................e.q1

....................e.q2

We have engineering strain in compression

.................................e.q3

and true strain in compression

.........................e.q4
The relationship between e and ε is

...........................................e.q5
2) Low friction condition (Lower bound analysis)
By considering the equilibrium of forces acting on the workpiece at any instant of
deformation.

40
• For example, if we consider the effect of friction on an upset forging operation in plane
strain condition (rigid-plastic behaviour, see Fig).

• To calculate the total forming load, we have to determine the local stresses needed to
deform each element of a workpiece of height h and width 2a.
• In plane strain condition, as the workpiece is reduced in height, it expands laterally and all
deformation is confined in the x-y plane. This lateral expansion causes frictional forces to act

in opposition to the movement.

• Assuming that there is no redundant work and the material exhibits rigid-plastic behaviour,
and all stress on the body are compressive.
• Consider the force acting on a vertical element of unit length and width dx. The element is
at some distance x from the central ‘no-slip’ point, in this case to the right.
• The vertical force acting on the element is

......................e.q6
• If the coefficient of friction for the die-workpiece interface is µ, the magnitude of the
friction force will be µσydx. The frictional force acts at both ends of the element so the total
horizontal force from the right is 2µσydx.

• Acting on the left will be the force σxh and from the right the force (σx+dσx)h.
The horizontal compressive stress σx varies from a maximum at the centre of the workpiece
to zero at the edge and changes by dσx across the element width dx.

41
 .......................e.q7

..............................................e.q8

............................................................e.q9

........................................e.q10

........................................................e.q11

.........e.q12

...............................................e.q13

..............................e.q14

The total forging load, P, is given by ...............e.q15

42
Where p is the average forming pressure across the workpiece
W is the width of the workpiece (in the plane of the paper).
This equals σy and can be estimated by integrating

........................e.q16

The general series expansion for exp x is

..............................................e.q17

....................................e.q18

.......................................e.q19

...............................................................e.q20

..................................................................e.q21

.........e.q22

43
 .......................e.q23

..........................e.q24

Forging defects:

Flash line crack: after trimming-occurs more often in thinworkpieces. Therefore should
increase the thickness of the flash.
Cold shut or fold: due to flash or fin from prior forging steps isforced into the workpiece.
Internal cracking: due to secondary tensile stress.

*************************

44
 Extrusion
Extrusion is the process by which a block/billet of metal is reducedin cross section by forcing
it to flow through a die orifice under high pressure.
-In general, extrusion is used to produce cylindrical bars or hollow tubes or for the starting
stock for drawn rod, cold extrusion or forged products.

-Most metals are hot extruded due to large amount of forces required in extrusion. Complex
shape can be extruded from the more readily extrudable metals such as aluminium
-The reaction of the extrusion billet with the container and die results in high compressive
stresses which are effective in reducing cracking of materials during primary breakdown from
the ingot.
-This helps to increase the utilisation of extrusion in the working of metals that are difficult to
form like stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, and other high-temperature materials.
-Similar to forging, lower ram force and a fine grained recrystallised structure are possible in
hot extrusion.
-However, better surface finish and higher strengths (strain hardened metals) are provided by
cold extrusion.

Classification of extrusion processes

There are several ways to classify metal extrusion processes;

By direction Direct / Indirect extrusion
• Forward / backward extrusion
By operatingtemperature • Hot / cold extrusion
By equipment • Horizontal and vertical extrusion

Direct and indirect extrusions

1) Direct extrusion
The metal billet is placed in a container and driven through the die by the ram.
• The dummy block or pressure plate, is placed at the end of the ram in contact with the billet.
• Friction is at the die and container wall requires higher pressure than indirect extrusion.

45
2) Indirect extrusion
The hollow ram containing the die is kept stationary and the container with the billet is
caused to move.
Friction at the die only (no relative movement at the container wall) requires roughly constant
pressure.
• Hollow ram limits the applied load.

DIRECT EXTRUSION INDIRECT EXTRUSION

Forward and backward extrusion

1) Forward extrusion: Metal is forced to flow in the same direction as the punch.

• The punch closely fits the die cavity to prevent backward flow of the material.
2) Backward extrusion: Metal is forced to flow in the direction opposite to the punch
movement.
• Metal can also be forced to flow into recesses in the punch, see Fig.

Forward extrusion Backward extrusion

Cold extrusion
Cold extrusion is the process done at room temperature or slightly elevated temperatures.
This process can be used for most materials-subject to designing robust enough tooling that
can withstand the stresses created by extrusion. Examples of the metals that can be extruded
are lead, tin, aluminium alloys, copper, titanium, molybdenum, vanadium, steel. Examples of
parts that are cold extruded are collapsible tubes, aluminium cans, cylinders, gear blanks.

Advantages
• No oxidation takes place.

46
• Good mechanical properties due to severe cold working as long as the temperatures created
are below the re-crystallization temperature.

• Good surface finish with the use of proper lubricants.

Hot extrusion: Hot extrusion is done at fairly high temperatures, approximately 50 to 75 %
of the melting point of the metal. The pressures can range from 35-700 MPa (5076 - 101,525
psi).
The most commonly used extrusion process is the hot direct process. The cross-sectional
shape of the extrusion is defined by the shape of the die.

• Due to the high temperatures and pressures and its detrimental effect on the die life as well
as other components, good lubrication is necessary. Oil and graphite work at lower
temperatures, whereas at higher temperatures glass powder is used.

Impact extrusion
Produce short lengths of hollow shapes, such as collapsible toothpaste tubes or spray cans.
Requires soft materials such as aluminium, lead, copper or tin are normally used in the
impact
extrusion.
A small shot of solid material is placed in the die and is impacted by a ram, which causes
cold flow in the material. It may be either direct or indirect extrusion and it is usually
performed on a high- speed mechanical press.

Extrusion was originally applied to the making of lead pipe and later to the lead sheathing on
electrical cable.
Horizontal extrusion presses: (15- 50 MN capacity or upto 140 MN)
Used for most commercial extrusion of bars and shapes.
Disadvantages: deformation is non-uniform due to different temperatures between top and
bottom parts of the billet.

Vertical extrusion presses (3- 20 MN capacity)

47
Chiefly used in the production of thin-wall tubing.
Advantages:
-Easier alignment between the press ram and tools.
-Higher rate of production.

-Require less floor space than horizontal presses.

- uniform deformation, due to uniform cooling of the billet in the container.
Die materials
• Dies are made from highly alloy tools steels or ceramics (zirconia, Si3N4 ). (for cold
extrusion offering longer tool life and reduced lubricant used, good wear resistance).
• Wall thickness as small as 0.5 mm (on flat dies) or 0.7 mm (on hollow dies) can be made
for aluminium extrusion.
• Heat treatments such as nitriding are required (several times) to increase hardness (1000-
1100 Hv or 65-70 HRC).

There are two general types of extrusion dies:

1) Flat-faced dies
2) Dies with conical entrance angle.

• Metal entering the die will form a • requires good lubricants.

dead zone and shears internally to form its own die angle.
• A parallel land on the exit side of the die helps strengthen the die and allow for reworking
of the flat face on the entrance side of the die without increasing the exit diameter.

The principal variables influencing the force required to cause extrusion;

1) Type of extrusion (direct / indirect)
2) Extrusion ratio
3) Working temperature

48
4) Deformation
5) Frictional conditions at the die and the container wall.
Extrusion pressure = extrusion force /cross sectional area
• The rapid rise in pressure during initial ram travel is due to the initial compression of the
billet to fill the extrusion container.
• For direct extrusion, the metal begins to flow through the die at the maximum pressure, the
breakthrough pressure.
• As the billet extrudes through the die the pressure required to maintain flow progressively
decreases with decreasing length of the billet in the container.

For indirect extrusion, extrusion pressure is ~ constant • At the end of the stroke, the
pressure rises up rapidly and it is usual to stop the ram travel so as to leave a small discard in
the container.

Extrusion ratio
Extrusion ratio, R, is the ratio of the initial cross-sectional area , Ao, of the billet to the final
cross-sectional area , Af , after extrusion.

Note: R is more descriptive at large deformations!

Ex: R = 20:1 and 50:1

r = 0.95 and 0.98 respectively.

Deformation in extrusion, lubrication and defects

a) Low container friction and a well-lubricated billet – nearly homogeneous
deformation.

49
b) Increased container wall friction, producing a dead zone of stagnant metal at corners which
undergoes little deformation. Essentially pure elongation in the centre and extensive shear
along
the sides of the billet. The latter leads to redundant work.
c) For high friction at the container-billet interface, metal flow is concentrated toward the
centre and an internal shear plane develops – due to cold container. In the sticky friction, the
metal will separate internally along the shear zone. A thin skin will be left in a container and
a new metal surface is obtained.

d) Low container friction and a well lubricated billet in indirect extrusion.

Hydrostatic extrusion
-The billet in the container is surrounded with fluid media, is also called hydrostatics
medium.
-The billet is forced through the die by a high hydrostatic fluid pressure.
-The rate, with which the billet moves when pressing in the direction of the die, is thus not
equal to the ram speed, but is proportional to the displaced hydrostatics medium volume.
- The billet should may have large length-to-diameter ratio and may have an irregular cross
section.

Advantages and disadvantages in hydrostatic extrusion

Advantages:
• Eliminating the large friction force between the billet and the container wall.

 extrusion pressure vs ram travel curve is nearly flat.

 Possible to use dies with a very low semicone angle (α ~ 20 o)
 Achieving of hydrodynamic lubrication in the die.

50
 Limitations:

 Not suitable for hot-working due to pressurised liquid.

 A practical limit on fluid pressure of around 1.7 GPa currently exists because of the
strength of the container.

Hot extrusion lubricants

• Low shear strength.
• Stable enough to prevent breakdown at high temperature.
• Molten glass is the most common lubricant for steel and nickel based alloys (high temp
extrusion).

Ugine-Sejournet process
The billet is heated in an inert atmosphere and coated with glass powder before being
pressed. The glass pad placed between the die and the billet provide the main source of
lubricant.

51
Extrusion defects
1) Inhomogeneous deformation in direct extrusion provide the dead zone along the outer
surface of the billet due to the movement of the metal in the centre being higher than the
periphery.
• After 2/3 of the billet is extruded, the outer surface of the billet (normally with oxidised
skin) moves toward the centre and extrudes to the through the die, resulting in internal oxide
stringers. - transverse section can be seen as an annular ring of oxide.

Surface cracking Centre burst or chevron cracking

2) Surface cracking, ranging from a badly roughened surface to repetitive transverse
cracking called fir-tree cracking, see Fig. This is due to longitudinal tensile stresses generated
as the extrusion passesthrough the die. In hot extrusion, this form of cracking usually is
intergranular and is associated with hot shortness. The most common case is too high ram
speed for the extrusion temperature. At lower temperature, sticking in the die land and the
sudden building up of pressure and then breakaway will cause transverse cracking.
3) Centre burst or chevron cracking, see Fig, can occur at low extrusion ratio due to low
frictional conditions on the zone of deformation at the extrusion die.

High friction at a the tool-billet interface sound product.

Low friction centre burst
4) Hot shortness (in aluminium extrusion).
High temperatures generated cause incipient melting, which causes cracking.

52
 MODULE II (12hours)

Drawing of rods, wires and tubes

Introduction
 This chapter provides fundamental background on processes of drawing of rods, wires
and tubes.
 Mathematical approaches for the calculation of drawing load will be introduced.
 Finally drawing defects occurring during the process will be highlighted and its
solutions will be included.

Drawing:
 Drawing operations involve pulling metal through a die by means of a tensile
force applied to the exit side of the die.
 The plastic flow is caused by compression force, arising from the reaction of
the metal with the die.
 Starting materials: hot rolled stock (ferrous) and extruded (non-Ferrous).
 Material should have high ductility and good tensile strength.
 Bar wire and tube drawing are usually carried out at room temperature, except
for large deformation, which leads to considerable rise in temperature during
drawing.
 The metal usually has a circular symmetry (but not always, depending on
requirements).

Rod and wiredrawing:

 Wire drawing involves reducing the diameter of a rod or wire by passing
through a series of drawing dies or plates.
 The subsequent drawing die must have smaller bore diameter than the
previous drawing die.
 Reducing the diameter through plastic deformation while the volume remains
the same.
 Same principals for drawing bars, rods, and wire but equipment are different
in sizes depending on products.

53
  Rod- relatively large diameter products.
 Wires -small diameter products < 5 mm diameter.

Rod drawing:
Rods which cannot be coiled are produced on draw benches.

54
 Procedure for wire and rod drawing:

Rod is swaged

Inserted through the die

Clamped to the jaw of the draw head

The draw head is moved by hydrolic mechanisim

Machine capacity:

 1 MN draw bench
 30 m of run out
 150-1500 mm.s-1 draw speed

Wire drawing die:

Conical drawing die is used for wire drawing.

Bell:
Shape of the bell causes hydrostatic pressure to increase and promotes the flow of
lubricant into the die.

Approach angle:
The approach angle – where the actual reduction in diameter occurs, giving the half
die angle.

55
Bearing region:
The bearing region produces a frictional drag on the wire and also removes surface damage
due to die wear, without changing dimensions.

Back relief:
The back relief allows the metal to expand slightly as the wire leaves the die and also
minimises abrasion if the drawing stops or the die is out of alignment.

Die nib:

The die nib made from cemented carbide or diamond is encased for protection in a thick steel
casing.

Example of wiredrawing dies

 Wire drawing die made from cemented tungsten carbide with polycrystalline diamond
core.

Drawing dies materials:

 Most drawing dies are cemented carbide or industrial diamond (for fine wires).
 Cemented carbide is composed of carbides of Ti, W, Ni, Mo, Ta, Hf.
 Cemented carbides are the most widely used for drawing dies due to their superior
strength, toughness, and wear resistance.
 Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) used for wire drawing dies – for fine wires. Longer
die life, high resistance to wear, cracking.

56
Wire drawing equipment:
 The wire is first passed through the overhead loop and pulley, brought down and then
inserted through the die of the second drum and drawn through this die for further
reduction. Thus, the wire is drawn through all the wire drawing drums of the set in a
continuous manner to get the required finished diameter of the wire. Speed of each
draw block has to be synchronised to avoid slippage between the wire and the block.
 The drawing speed ~ up to 10 m.s-1 for ferrous drawing

~ up to 30 m.s-1 for nonferrous drawing.

Wire drawing process:

Pickling:

 pickling remove the scale which causes the surface defects.

Lubrication:
 Cu and Sn are used as lubricants for high strength materials or conversion
coating such as sulphates and oxalates.
 Oil and greases for wire drawing.
 Mulsifiable oils is for wet wire drawing.
 Soap is used for wet wire drawing.

57
  Bull block drawing allows the generation of long lengths
 Area reduction per drawing pass is rarely greater than 30-35%.

Stepped-cone multiple-pass wiredrawing:

 More economical design.

 Use a single electrical motor to drive a series of stepped cones.
 The diameter of each cone is designed to produce a peripheral Speed equivalent to a
certain size reduction.

Defects in rod and wire drawing:

 Defects in the starting rod (seams, slivers and pipe).
 Defects from the deformation process, i.e., centre burst or chevron cracking
(cupping).
 This defect will occur for low die angles at low reductions.
 For a given reduction and die angle, the critical reduction to prevent fracture
increases with the friction.

Analysis of wire drawing:

From the uniform-deformation energy method, a draw stress is given by

Eqn-1

58
(This however ignore friction, transverse stress and redundant deformation.)

Consider the problem of strip drawing of a wide sheet.

A wide strip is being drawn through a frictionless die with a total included angle of 2α.

Plane strain condition is applied (no strain in the width direction)

The equilibrium of forces in the x direction is made up of two components

1. Due to the change in longitudinal stress with x increasing positively to the left.

2. Due to the die pressure at the two interfaces.

Taking the equilibrium of force in the x direction and neglect dσ xdh

Eqn-2

59
 We shall now consider the problem of strip drawing where a Coulomb friction coefficient
µ exists between the strip and the die.

The equilibrium now includes 2µpdx.

Taking equilibrium of forces in the x direction Eq.2 then becomes

Since h = 2x tan α, and dh = 2 dx tan α , then 2dx = dh/tan α

Now we have

……..Eqn3

Since the yield condition for plane strain is σx + p = σ’o and

B = µ cot α, the differential equation for strip drawing is

………………..Eqn4

If B and σ’o are both constant, Eq.4 can be integrated directly to give the draw stress σxa.

60
For wiredrawing conducted with conical dies,

…………………Eqn5

Analysis for wiredrawing with friction by Johnson and Rowe

The surface area of contact between the wire and the die is given by

……………..Eqn.6

P is the mean normal pressure on this area. Pd is the draw force.

Balancing the horizontal components of the frictional force and the normal pressure.

………….Eqn.7
In the absence of friction, B = 0 and

61
 …………….. Eqn.8
The draw stress with friction is given by

……………………….. Eqn.9

Question:
If the wire is moving through the die at 3 ms-1, determine the power required to produce the
deformation.

Drawing force

Power

If redundant work is included in Eq.9, the expression becomes

………………… Eqn.10

Where φ is a factor for the influence of redundant work, which can be defined as

……………… Eqn.11

62
Where φ = the redundant work factor.

ε* = the ‘enhanced strain’ corresponding to the yield stress of the metal, which has
been homogeneously deformed to a strain ε.

Tube-drawing processes:
• Following the hot forming process, tubes are cold drawn using dies, plugs or mandrels to
the required shape, size, tolerances and mechanical strength.

• provides good surface finishes.

• increase mechanical properties by strain hardening

• can produce tubes with thinner walls or smaller diameters than can be obtained from other
hot forming methods.

• can produce more irregular shapes.

Classification of tube drawing processes:

63
 There are three basic types of tube-drawing processes

 Sinking
 Mandrel drawing.
 Plug drawing

- Fixed plug

- Floating plug

Tube sinking

-The tube, while passing through the die, shrinks in outer radius from the original radius Ro
to a final radius Rof.

-No internal tooling (internal wall is not supported), the wall then thicken slightly.

-Uneven internal surface

-The final thickness of the tube depends on original diameter of the tube, the die diameter and
friction between tube and die.

- Lower limiting deformation

Fixed plug drawing:

• Use cylindrical / conical plug to control size/shape of inside diameter.
• Use higher drawing loads than floating plug drawing.
• Greater dimensional accuracy than tube sinking
• Increased friction from the plug limit the reduction in area (seldom > 30%).
• can draw and coil long lengths of tubing

64
Floating plug drawing:
• A tapered plug is placed inside the tube.
• As the tube is drawn the plug and the die act together to reduce both
the outside/inside diameters of the tube.
• Improved reduction in area than tube sinking (~ 45%).
• Lower drawing load than fixed plug drawing.
• Long lengths of tubing is possible.
• Tool design and lubrication can be very critical

Moving mandrel drawing

65
  Draw force is transmitted to the metal by the pull on the exit section and by
the friction forces acting along the tube –mandrel interface
 minimised friction.
 Vmandrel = Vtube
 The mandrel also imparts a smooth inside finish surface of the tube
 mandrel removal disturbs dimensional tolerance.

Example: alternate pass reduction schedule for tube making

66
Analysis of tube drawing:

• The greatest part of deformation occurs as a reduction in wall

thickness.
• The inside diameter is reduced by a small amount equal to dimensions
of the plug or mandrel inserted before drawing.
• There is no hoop strain and the analysis can be based on plane-strain
conditions.

For tube drawing with a plug, the draw stress can be expressed by

µ1 = friction coefficient between tube and die wall.

µ2 = friction coefficient between tube and plug.
α = semi die angle of the die.
β = semi cone angle of the plug.
In tube drawing with a moving mandrel, the friction forces at the
mandrel-tube interface are directed toward the exit of the die. For a
moving mandrel, B’ can be expressed as

If µ1 = µ2, which is often be the case, then B’ = 0. The differential equation of

equilibrium for this simple case is

67
 Integration of this equation and by using Boundary condition
σ xb = 0 and h = hb, the draw stress becomes

For deal homogeneous deformation

It is possible that µ2 > µ1, B is negative, the draw stress is there for less than required
by frictionless ideal deformation.
The stresses in tube sinking have been analysed by Sachs and Baldwin.
Assumption: the wall thickness of the tube remains constant. The draw stress at the
die exit is similar to wiredrawing. The cross sectional area of the tube is related to the
mid-radius r
and the wall thickness h by A ~ 2πrh.

Where σ’’o ~ 1.1σo to account for the complex stresses in tube sinking.

Residual stresses in rod, wire and tubes:

Two distinct types of residual-stress patterns in cold-drawn rod and wire:

68
 Defects in cold drawn products
• Longitudinal scratches (scored die, poor lubrication , or abrasive
particles)
• Slivers (swarf drawn into the surface).
• Long fissures (originating in ingot).
• Internal cracks (pre-existing defects in starting material or ruptures in
the centre due to overdrawing).
• Corrosion induced cracking due to internal residual stresses

Sheet-metal forming
Introduction:
 Methods of sheet metal processes such as stretching, shearing, blanking,
bending, deep drawing, redrawing are introduced.
 Variables in sheet forming process will be discussed together with formability
and test methods.
 Defects occurring during the forming process will be emphasised. The
solutions to such defect problems will also be given.

Sheet-metal forming:
 Sheet metal forming is a process that materials undergo permanent
deformation by cold forming to produce a variety of complex three
dimensional shapes.
 The process is carried out in the plane of sheet by tensile forces with high
ratio of surface area to thickness.
 Friction conditions at the tool-metal interface are very important and
controlled by press conditions, lubrication, tool material and surface
condition, and strip surface condition.
 High rate of production and formability is determined by its mechanical
properties.

69
Classification of sheet metal parts (based on contour)

 Singly curved parts

 Contoured flanged parts, i.e., parts with stretch flanges and shrink flanges.
 Curved sections
 Deep-recessed parts, i.e., cups and boxes with either vertical or sloping walls.
 Shallow-recessed parts, i.e., dish- shaped, beaded, embossed and corrugated
parts.

Classification of sheet metal forming (based on operations)

70
Forming equipments:
Forming equipments include

 Forming presses
 Dies
 Tools

71
Forming machines

• Using mechanical or hydraulic presses.

1) Mechanical presses

 Energy stored in a flywheel is transferred to the movable slide on the down

stroke of the press.
 Quick - acting , short stroke.

2) Hydraulic presses

 slower - acting, longer stroke.

Shearing machine (mechanical)

Hydraulic deep drawing press

72
Actions of presses:
According to number of slides, which can be operated independently of each other.)

1) Single - action press:

 one slide
 vertical direction

2) Double - action press

 two slides
 the second action is used to operated the hold-down which
prevents wrinkling in deep drawing

3)Triple - action press

 two actions above the die, one action below the die.

Example:

Press brake – single action

• A single action press with a very long narrow bed.

• Used to form long, straight bends in pieces such as channels and corrugated sheets.

Tooling:
Basic tools used with a metalworking press are the punch and the die.

Punch: A convex tool for making holes by shearing, or making surface or displacing metal with
a hammer.

Die: A concave die, which is the female part as opposed to punch which is the male part.

73
Die materials:

High alloy steels heat treated for the punches and dies.

Compound dies:
 Several operations can be performed on the same piece in one
stroke of the press.
 Combined processes and create a complex product in one shot.
 Used in metal stamping processes of thin sheets.

Transfer dies
 Transfer dies are also called compounding type dies.
 The part is moved from station to station within the press for each operation.

A die set is composed of

 Punch holder which holds punch plate connected with blanking and piecing punches
for cutting the metal sheet.
 Die block consists of die holder and die plate which was designed to give the desired
shape of the product.
 Pilot is used to align metal sheet at the correct position before blanking at each step.
74
  Striper plate used for
o alignment of punch and die blocks
o navigate the punch into the die using harden striper inserts and
o remove the cut piece from the punch.

Forming method:
There are a great variety of sheet metal forming methods, mainly using shear and
tensile forces in the operation.

• Progressive forming
• Rubber hydroforming
• Bending and contouring
• Spinning processes
• Explosive forming
• Shearing and blanking
• Stretch forming
• Deep drawing

Progressive forming:
• Punches and dies are designed so that successive stages in the forming
of the part are carried out in the same die on each stroke of the press.
• Progressive dies are also known as multi-stage dies.

Example: progressive blanking and piercing of flat washer

Rubber hydroforming:

-Using a pad of rubber or polyurethane as a die.

75
-A metal blank is placed over the form block, which is fastened to the bed of a single - action
hydraulic press.

-During forming the rubber (placed in the retainer box on the upper platen of the press)
transmits a nearly uniform hydrostatic pressure against the sheet.

-Pressure ~ 10 MPa, and where higher local pressure can be obtained by using auxiliary
tooling.

-Used for sheet forming of aluminium alloys and reinforced thermoplastics.

Bending and contouring:

(a) Three-roll bender: sometimes does not provide uniform deformation in thin-gauge
sheet due to the midpoint of the span localisation of the strain Often need the forth roll
(b) ) Wiper-type bender: The contour is formed by successive hammer blows on the
sheet, which is clamped at one end against the form block. Wiper rolls must be
pressed against the block with a uniform pressure supplied by a hydraulic cylinder.
(c) Wrap forming: The sheet is compressed against a form block, and at the same time a
longitudinal stress is applied to prevent buckling and wrinkling.
Ex: coiling of a spring around a mandrel.

76
Spinning processes:
• Deep parts of circular symmetry such as tank heads, television cones.
• Materials: aluminium and alloys, high strength - low alloy steels,
copper, brass and alloys, stainless steel.

• The metal blank is clamped against a form block, which is rotated at

high speed.
• The blank is progressively formed against the block, by a manual tool
or by means of small-diameter work rolls.

77
 Note: (a) no change in thickness but diameter,

(b) diameter equals to blank diameter

Explosive forming:

• Produce large parts with a relatively low production lot size.

• The sheet metal blank is placed over a die cavity and an explosive
charge is detonated in medium (water) at an appropriate standoff
distance from the blank at a very high velocity.

78
 • The shockwave propagating from the explosion serves as a ‘friction-
less punch’

Shearing and blanking:

Shearing:

• The separation of metal by the movement of two blades operated based on

shearing forces.
• A narrow strip of metal is severely plastically deformed to the point where it
fractures at the surfaces in contact with the blades.
• The fracture then propagates inward to provide complete separation.
• Clearance: normally 2-10% thickness
• Proper Clearance: clean fracture surface
• Insufficient Clearance: ragged fracture surface
• Excessive Clearance: greater distortion, greater energy required to separate
metal

Maximum punch force

• No friction condition.

79
 • The force required to shear a metal sheet ~ length cut, sheet thickness,
shearing strength.
• The maximum punch force to produce shearing is given by

Pmax ≈ 0.7σu hL

where σu = the ultimate tensile strength

h= sheet thickness

L= total length of the sheared edge

Blanking:

The shearing of close contours, when the metal inside the contour is the desired part.

Punching or piercing:

The shearing of the material when the metal inside the contour is discarded.

80
Notching:

The punch removes material from the edge or corner of a strip or blank or part.

Parting:

The simultaneous cutting along at least two lines which balance each other from the
standpoint of side thrust on the parting tool.

Slitting:

Cutting or shearing along single lines to cut strips from a sheet or to cut along lines of a given
length or contour in a sheet or work piece.

Trimming:

Operation of cutting scrap off a partially or fully shaped part to an established trim line

Shaving:

A secondary shearing or cutting operation in which the surface of a previously cut

edge is finished or smoothed by removing a minimal amount of stock.

Ironing:

A continuous thinning process and often accompanies deep drawing, i.e., thinning of
the wall of a cylindrical cup by passing it though an ironing die.

81
Fine blanking: Very smooth and square edges are produced in small parts such as gears,
cams, and levers.

Bending: A process by which a straight length is transformed into a curved length. produce
channels, drums, tanks

The bend radius R = the radius of curvature on the concave, or inside surface of the
bend. Fibres on the outer surface are strained more than fibres on the inner surface are
contracted. Fibres at the mid thickness is stretched. Decrease in thickness (radius
direction) at the bend to preserve the constancy of volume.

Springback:

Dimensional change of the formed part after releasing the pressure of the forming tool
due to the changes in strain produced by elastic recovery.

Tube bending
• Bending of tube and structural material for industry, architecture, medical,
refinery.
• Heat induction and hot slap bending require the heating of pipe, tube or
structural shapes.
• Heat Induction bending is typically a higher cost bending process and is
primarily used in large diameter material.

82
Stretch forming:
• Forming by using tensile forces to stretch the material over a tool or
form block.
• used most extensively in the aircraft industry to produce parts of large
radius of curvature. (normally for uniform cross section).
• equired materials with appreciable ductility.
• Springback is largely eliminated because the stress gradient is
relatively uniform.

Stretch forming equipment:

• Using a hydraulic driven ram (normally vertical).
• Sheet is gripped by two jaws at its edges.
• Form block is slowly raised by the ram to deform sheet above its yield
point.
• The sheet is strained plastically to the required final shape.

Examples: large thin panel, most complex automotive stamping involve a stretching
component.

83
Diffuse necking:

• In biaxial tension, the necking which occurs in uniaxial tension is

inhibited if σ2/σ1 > 1/2, and the materials then develops diffuse
necking. (not visible) The limit of uniform deformation in strip
loading occurs at a strain equals to the strain-hardening exponent n.

Localised necking

• Plastic instability of a thin sheet will occur in the form of a narrow

localised neck followed by fracture of the sheet.

Deep drawing

• The metalworking process used for shaping flat sheets into cup-shaped
articles.
• Examples: bathtubs, shell cases, automobile panels. Deep drawing of a
cylindrical cup Pressing the metal blank of appropriate size into a
shaped die with a punch.
• It is best done with double-action press.
• Using a blank holder or a holddown ring Holddown ring
• Complex interaction between metal and die depending on geometry.
• No precise mathematical description can be used to represent the
processes in simple terms.

84
Redrawing

• Use successive drawing operations by reducing a cup or drawn part to

a smaller diameter and increased height – known as redrawing.

Examples: slender cups such as cartridge case and closed- end tubes.

1) Direct or regular redrawing

smaller diameter is produced by means of a hold-down ring. The metal must be bent at the
punch and unbent at the die radii see Fig (a). Tapered die allows lower punch load, Fig (b).

2) Reverse or indirect redrawing :

the cup is turned inside out the outside surface becomes the inside surface, Fig (c). Better
control of wrinkling and no geometrical limitations to the use of a hold- down ring.

Punch force vs. punch stroke

Punch force = F deformation + F frictional + (F ironing)

Fdeformation = varies with length of travel

Ffrictiona l= mainly from hold down pressure

Fironing =-after the cup has reached the maximum thickness

Drawability (deep drawing)

Drawability is a ratio of the initial blank diameter (Do) to the diameter of the cup
drawn from the blank ~ punch diameter (DP) Limiting draw ratio (LDR).

Where η is an efficiency term accounting for frictional losses.

Normally the average maximum reduction in deep drawing is ~ 50%.

Defects in formed parts:

• Edge conditions for blanking.

• Local necking or thinning or buckling and wrinkling in regions of compressive stress.

85
• Springback tolerance problems.

• Cracks near the punch region in deep drawing minimised by increasing punch radius,
lowering

• Radial cracks in the flanges and edge of the cup due to not sufficient ductility to withstand
large circumferential shrinking.

• Wrinkling of the flanges or the edges of the cup resulting from buckling of the sheet (due to
circumferential compressiveto suppress the buckling.

• Surface blemishes due to large surface area. EX: orange

peeling especially in large grain sized metals because each grain tends to deform
independently use finer grained metals.

• Mechanical fibering has little effect on formability.

• Crystallographic fibering or preferred orientation may have a large effect. Ex: when bend
line is parallel to the rolling direction, or earing in deep drawn cup due to anisotropic
properties.

Stretcher strains or ‘worms’ (flamelike patterns of depressions). Associated with yield point
elongation.

• The metal in the stretcher strains has been strained an amount = B, while the remaining
received essentially zero strain

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86
 Hardness Test

Definition: Hardness is a resistance to deformation.(for people who are concerned with

mechanics of materials, hardness is more likely to mean the resistance to indentation).
Deeper or larger impression-----------------Softer materials
There are three general types of hardness measurements
1) Scratch hardness
• The ability of material to scratch on one another

• Important to mineralogists, using Mohs’scale 1= talc, 10 = diamond,

annealed copper = 3, martensite = 7, Not suited for metal
2) Indentation hardness
• Major im• Different types : Brinell, Meyer, Vickers, Rockwell hardness tests.

3) Rebound or dynamic hardness

• The indentor is dropped onto the metal surface and the hardness is expressed
as the energy of impact.

Brinell hardness

 J.A. Brinell introduced the first standardised indentation-hardness test in 1900. The
Brinell hardness test consists in indenting the metal surface with a 10-mm diameter
steel ball at a load range of 500-3000kg, depending of hardness of particular
materials.

87
• The load is applied for a standard time (~30 s), and the diameter of the indentation is
measured. giving an average value of two readings of the diameter of the indentation at right
angle.
• The Brinell hardness number (BHN or HB ) is expressed as the load P divided by surface
area of the indentation.

P is applied load, kg
D is diameter of ball, mm
d is diameter of indentation, mm
t is depth of the impression, mm

Advantages and disadvantages of Brinell hardness test

Large indentation averages out local heterogeneities of microstructure.

• Different loads are used to cover a wide rage of hardness of commercial metals.
• Brinell hardness test is less influenced by surface scratches and roughness than other
hardness tests.
The test has limitations on small specimens or in critically stressed parts where indentation
could be a possible site of failure.
Advantages and disadvantages of Brinell hardness test
Large indentation averages out local heterogeneities of microstructure.
• Different loads are used to cover a wide range of hardness of commercial metals.

• Brinell hardness test is less influenced by surface scratches and roughness than other
hardness tests.
• The test has limitations on small specimens or in critically stressed parts where
indentation could be a possible site of failure.

Brinell hardness test with nonstandard load or ball diameter

From fig, d = Dsinφ , giving the alternative expression of Brinell hardness number as

• In order to obtain the same BHN with a non-standard load or ball diameter, it is necessary to
produce a geometrical similar indentations.

88
 • The included angle 2φ should remain constant and the load and the ball diameter must
be varied in the ratio

Meyer hardness
Meyer suggested that hardness should be expressed in terms of the mean pressure between
the surface of the indenter and the indentation, which is equal to the load divided by the
projected area of the indentation.

Meyer hardness is therefore expressed as follows;

-Meyer hardness is less sensitive to the applied load than Brinell hardness.
- Meyer hardness is a more fundamental measure of indentation hardness but it is rarely used
for practical hardness measurement.

Vickers hardness
. Vickers hardness test uses a square-base diamond pyramid as the indenter with the included
angle between opposite faces of the pyramidof 136.
• The Vickers hardness number (VHN) is defined as the load divided by the surface area of
the indentation

P is the applied load kg, L is the average length of diagonals in mm, θ is the angle
between opposite faces of

89
Vickers hardness
Vickers hardness test uses the loads ranging from 1-120 kgf, applied for between 10 and 15
seconds.
• Provide a fairly wide acceptance for research work because it provides a continuous scale of
hardness, for a given load.
• VHN = 5-1,500 can be obtained at the same load level.

Impressions made by Vickers hardness

A perfect square indentation (a) made with a perfect diamond- pyramid indenter would be a
square.
• The pincushion indentation (b) is the result of sinking in of the metal around the flat faces
of the pyramid. This gives an overestimate of the diagonal length (observed in annealed
metals).
• The barrel-shaped indentation (c) is found in cold-worked metals, resulting from ridging or
piling up of the metal around the faces of the indenter. Produce a low value of contact area.

Types of diamond-pyramid indentation (a) perfect indentation (b) pincushion indentation due
to sinking in (c) barrelled indentation due to ridging.

Rockwell hardness
• The most widely used hardness test in the US and generally accepted due to-

1) Its speed
2) Freedom from personal error.
90
3) Ability to distinguish small hardness difference.
4) Small size of indentation.
The hardness is measured according to the depth of indentation, under a constant load.
Principle of the Rockwell Test

• Position the surface area to be measured close to the indenter.

• Applied the minor load and a zero reference position is established
• The major load is applied for a specified time period (dwell time) beyond zero
• The major load is released leaving the minor load applied.
The dial contains 100 divisions, each division representing a penetration of 0.002 mm.

Rockwell hardness scale

Rockwell hardness number (RHN) represents in different scale, A, B, C,.. depending on types
of indenters and major loads used.

91
Microhardness Determination of hardness over very small areas for example individual
constituents, phases, requires hardness testing machines in micro or sub-micro scales.

• Vickers hardness can also be measured in a microscale, which is based on the same
fundamental method as in a macroscale.
• The Knoop indenter (diamond-shape) is used for measuring in a small area, such as at the
cross section of the heat-treated metal surface.
• The Knoop hardness number (KHN) is the applied load divided by the unrecovered
projected area of the indentation.

Where P = applied load, kg

Ap= = unrecovered projected area of indentation, mm2
L= length of long diagonal, mm
C= a constant for each indenter supplied by manufacturer.

Relationship between hardness and the flow curve

Tabor suggested a method by which the plastic region of the true stress-strain curve may be
determined from indentation hardness measurement.
• This is under a condition such that the true strain was proportional to the d/D ratio
(ε = 0.2d/D).

92
Where σo= is the 0.2% offset yield strength, kgf.mm-2(=9.81 MPa), VHN is the Vickers
hardness number, n is the work hardening exponent.
Relationship between hardness and the flow curve
• For Brinell hardness, a very useful correlation has been used for heat-treated plain-carbon
and medium-alloy steels as follows:

UTS (MPa) = 3.4( BHN )

Hardness at elevated temperatures

• Hot hardness gives a good indication of potential usefulness of an alloy for high-
temperature strength applications.
• Hot hardness testers use a Vickers indenter made of sapphire and with provisions for testing
in either vacuum or an inert atmosphere.
• The temperature dependence of hardness could be expressed as follows;

Where H = hardness, kgf.mm-2

T= test temperature,
A,B= constant

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93
Torsion Tests
Torsion tests are made on materials to determine such properties as the modulus of elasticity
in shear, the torsion yield strength and the modulus of rupture.

Types of torsion failures

State of stress in torsion on the surface of a bar occurs on two mutually perpendicular planes
(longitudinal yy and transverse xx).

-the principal stresses σ1 (longitudinal), σ2 (compressive) make an angle of 45 and σ3=- σ1
(intermediate stress σ2=0)
-torsion failures are different from tensile failures in that there is little localised reduction of
area or elongation.
a) Shear (ductile) failure is along the maximum shear plane.

b) Tensile (brittle) failure is perpendicular to the maximum tensile stress (at 45), resulting in
a helical fracture.

Torsion Vs Tension test

94
 ********************

Impact Testing
• Charpy and Izod tests measure impact energy or notch toughness
• Charpy V- notch (CVN) most common Three main factors were producing these fractures
in service:
• Triaxial stress state (at notches, cracks etc)

• Low temperatures
• High strain or loading rates Before fracture mechanics
- impact testing was used to measure impact behaviour and likelihood of brittle fracture.
Developed in response to onset of brittle failure in ductile materials e.g. steel ships, bridges
etc. - Still used in quality control and Standards (ship plate etc). Impact testing is used for:
checking quality, tendency for brittle failure, temperature dependence.

Charpy Test

-use standard sized bar specimens with a central notch.

-weighted pendulum released from a height, h

-impacts the specimen behind the notch (stress concentration)

-fracture of specimen occurs and energy is absorbed
-the pendulum travels to point, h’ where h’ < h
-obtain the amount of absorbed energy from scale

95
Ductile to Brittle Transition in Steel
-Primary function of Charpy test
-at high temperature, CVN for steel is relatively high but drops with decrease in temperature
-at low temperature steel can be brittle
-the sudden drop in impact energy is the ductile-to-brittle transition (DBT)

-steels should always be used above their DBT

-DBT change with carbon content in steel

96
-Like tensile specimen, the fractures surface of an impact specimen also contains fibrous,
radial (crystallization zone) and shear zones.
-the proportions of fibrous zone, radial zone and shear lip zone vary with temperature,
resulting in different test results.
-usually is determined (as the temp. at which the failure surface is 50% shiny) as the area of
crystallization zone accounts for 50% of whole fractured surface, and it is denoted by
FATT50(Fracture Appearance Transition Temp)

97
Metallurgical Factors Affecting TT
-for steels: As %C increases, σy, σTS, hardness increases, % El, CVN decreases and TT
decreases.
-this can be countered by adding Mn:C should be 3:1
-phosphorous increases the TT, oxygen in steel increases the TT,
-rolled and forged products may have varying impact behaviour due to grain orientation.
-

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98
 Module III (14 Hours)

Fracture- Energy based criterion, Strain energy release rate, stress intensity factor, fracture
toughness estimation and design of engineering component.

What is fracture?

Fracture: separation of a body into pieces due to stress, at temperatures below the melting
point.

Steps in fracture:

Crack initiation.

Crack propagation.

Cause of fracture:

Stress concentration.

Design aspects.

Impurities.

Excessive load.

Types of fracture:
 Depending on the amount of plastic deformation a material undergoes before fracture.
 Brittle fracture-no prior plastic deformation
 Ductile fracture-considerable plastic deformation.

Brittle fracture vs. ductile fracture.

Brittle fracture:

 Occur in ceramic, glass.

 Cleavage fracture.

99
 White and granular.
 Mostly in BCC, HCP.
 River markings.

Ductile fracture:

 Most metals.
 Shear mode and void coalescence occurs.
 Gray and fibrous.
 FCC
 Cup and cone fracture, & dimpled fracture.
Brittle fracture
The brittle fracture in metals is believed to take place in three stages - (1) plastic
deformation that causes dislocation pile-ups at obstacles, (2) micro-crack nucleation
as a result of build-up of shear stresses, (3) eventual crack propagation under applied
stress aided by stored elastic energy.
When a crystal is subjected to tensile force, separation between atoms will be
increased. The repulsive force decreases more rapidly with this than the attractive
force, so that a net force between atoms balances the tensile force. With further
increase in tensile force, repulsive force continues to decrease. At an instant, repulsive
force becomes negligible because of increased separation, which corresponds to
theoretical cohesive strength of the material. Assume that inter-atomic spacing of
atoms in unstrained condition is a, and x is change in mean inter-atomic distance.
Strain, ε, is given by
=x/a
σ=E=Ex/a
and according to Hooke’s law, if E – Young’s modulus

100
in the figure.

101
102
Fracture mechanics

103
104
 Plane strain vs plane stress:
 Plane stress- stress in one of the principal direction is zero (thin specimen)
 Plane strain (thick specimen)

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105
 Fatigue
-Fatigue is the progressive and localised structural damage that occurs when a material is
subjected to cyclic or dynamic loading. e.g bridges, automobile and machine components.

-the nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage tend to be much lesser than the
strength of the material (ultimate tensile stress limit or the yield stress limit)

-here, if the loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the
stress concentrations such as the surface, persistent slip bands and grain interface. Eventually
a crack will reach a critical size, the crack will propagate suddenly and the structure will
fracture.

-this failure usually occurs without any warning

-failure usually occurs at a point of stress concentration

-around 80-90% of materials fail by fatigue

-Fatigue results in a brittle appearing fracture with no gross deformation at fracture.

-Fracture surface is usually normal to direction of the principal tensile stresses.

Fig. Fatigue fracture surface

106
-The fracture surface usually shows a smooth region, due to the rubbing action (during crack
propagation) and a rough region (where it has failed in a ductile manner when the cross
section was no longer able to carry the load)

-Failure progression is indicated as series of rings/beach marks, progressing inwards from the
point of initiation of fracture.

Cyclic Stresses
Nature of applied stress:
-axial (compression-tension)
-flexural (bending)
-torsion (twisting)

There are three fluctuating stress-time modes are possible:

1) Reversed stress cycle is where amplitude is symmetrical about mean zero stress level.
-σmax is tensile and σmin is compressive
2) Repeated stress occurs when σmax and σmin are asymmetrical relative to σ=0.
3) Random stress occurs in engineering (as in aircraft wing) and is less easy to quantify.

107
Factors necessary to cause Fatigue Failure

-Maximum tensile stress (of sufficient high value).

-Large enough variation/fluctuation in the applied stress.

-Sufficient large number of cycles of applied stress.

Variables Affecting Fatigue

Overload

108
 resses

S-N Curve
-plot of stress(S) VS no. of cycles to failure (N) chiefly dealing with the fatigue failure at
high number of cycle(N>105 cycles, stress is normally elastic)
-N= no. of stress cycles to cause complete specimen failure, this is usually in log scale.
-At high stress, fatigue life is decreased progressively. Here, interpretation of stress becomes
difficult due to gross plastic deformation.
-Basquin Equation:S-N curve in high cycle region

Where p and C are empirical constants

σa = stress amplitude

Two types of S-N curve

1. Fatigue endurance limit for ferrous and titanium alloys
FL =0.35-0.6σTS
2. No fatigue limit with non-ferrous alloys (Al, Mg, Cu)
-define fatigue strength at a specified number of cycles (10 7)
-fatigue life (Nf) is the number of cycles at a specified stress level (S 1).

109
Fatigue Life: Fatigue life, Nf : the number of stress cycles of a specified character that a

specimen sustains before failure of a specified nature occurs.

Low cycle fatigue:

- high loads- short Nf (104-105)

-high stress environment with design stress and small safety factor

-scheduled inspection and maintenance of parts (air craft)

-most common cause of fatigue cracking and failure

High cycle fatigue:

-low loads-long Nf (>105)

-typically involves low design stresses

-less common cause of failure, results from poor design or environmental effects

Low cycle fatigue

110
It has been observed that as the mean stress becomes more positive the allowable alternating

stress decreases.

The Goodman diagram presents the dependence of allowable stress ranges on mean stress for

a material. As shown in figure, allowable stress range increases with increasing compressive

mean stress i.e. compressive stress increases the fatigue limit.

Fig. Goodman diagram

111
An alternative method of presenting mean stress data is by using Heig-Soderberg diagram in

which alternating stress is plotted against the mean stress. As in the below figure depicts,

Goodman’s criterion appears as a straight line. Test data for ductile metals, however, follows

parabolic curve proposed by Gerber. Both these criteria can be expressed as:

where x=1 for Goodman line, x=2 for the Gerber parabola, and σ is the fatigue limit for
e

completely reversed loading. Soderberg line presents the data when the design is based on
yield strength (σ ).
0

Factors that affects fatigue-life

-Mean stress and Cyclic stress state:

-depending on the complexity of the geometry and the loading, one or more properties of the
stress state need to be considered, such as stress amplitude, mean stress, biaxiality, in-phase
or out-of-phase shear stress and load sequence.

112
-increasing the mean stress levels leads to a decrease in fatigue life.

-Surface effects:

Surface quality: surface roughness can cause microscopic stress concentrations that lower the
fatigue strength.

Design factors:

Notches and variation in cross section throughout a part lead to stress concentrations. The
probability of fatigue failure can be reduced by avoiding these structural irregularities or by
making suitable design modifications.

Surface treatments:

-improving the surface finish by polishing, enhances the fatigue life significantly.

Imposing residual compressive stresses within a thin outer surface layer partially nullifies the
surface tensile stresses and reduces its magnitude by residual compressive stress.

-case hardening:using carburising and nitriding, a carbon and nitrogen rich outer surface layer
is introduced by atomic diffusion from gaseous phase. This hard case, introduces the residual
compressive stresses thus improving the fatigue life.

-material type: fatigue life, as well as the behaviour during cyclic loading, varies widely for
different materials.

Residual stresses: welding, cutting, casting, grinding and other manufacturing processes
involving heat or deformation can produce high levels of tensile residual stress, which
decreases the fatigue strength.

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113
 Creep
Introduction
Why Creep Study is Important?
-Material strength decreases with increased stress and temperature

-High temperature results in: Greater dislocation mobility resulting in climb; equilibrium
vacancy concentration – the material strength becomes dependant on both the strain rates and
time of exposure
-Principal deformation processes at elevated temperatures: slip, sub grain formation, GB
sliding
-Diffusion controlled processes control the strength of a material

-A material subjected to a constant tensile load at an elevated temperature will creep and
undergo a time dependant increase in length.
-Tests are required to evaluate the material performance at different high temperature service
conditions:
- Creep test: dimensional changes occur from exposure to elevated temperature.
- Stress-rupture test: measures the effect of temperature on the long time load-bearing
characteristics.

Creep is the time dependant permanent deformation of a material when subjected to constant
load/stress.
Examples: turbine blades, steam generators
-It is observed in all material types.
Creep Behaviour
Creep test: A specimen is subjected to a constant load/stress (temperature is maintained
constant). The deformation/strain is measured and is plotted as a function of elapsed time.
For metals/ductile materials, generally creep tests are conducted in uniaxial tension. For
brittle materials, uniaxial compression tests are generally performed (to minimize flaw
effect).
Note: for most materials, the creep properties are independent of the loading direction.
Various creep tests:
- Creep rupture tests
- Tensile creep tests
- Compression creep tests

114
Characteristics:
- Steady state creep rate:
ϵs = dϵ/dt = K1σn
This is an engineering design parameter that is considered for long life applications (eg.
Nuclear power plant components), where the failure or too much strain is not an option.
- For short life creep situations (turbine blades in military aircraft, rocket motor nozzles):
time to rupture/rupture lifetime (tr) is the dominant design consideration. Creep tests used to
determine tr are known as creep rupture tests.
Results of creep rupture tests are commonly represented as logarithm of stress vs logarithm of
rupture lifetime.

Creep curve

The creep curve obtained generally consists of three regions:

I. Primary/transient creep
II. Secondary/steady-state creep
III. Tertiary creep: The degree to which these 3 stages are distinguishable, depends on
the applied stress and temperature
I. Primary/transient creep:
- A continuously decreasing creep rate is observed, where the slope of the curve diminishes
with time.
-The diminishing slope is due to the fact that the material experiences increase in creep
resistance due to strain hardening, causing material deformation difficult.

-Predominant at low temperature and stresses

115
II. Secondary/steady-state creep
- This stage is the longest and linear curve is obtained.
- Constant creep rate is observed due to balance between strain hardening and recovery.
- Its slope gives steady state creep rate, ϵs = dϵ/dt and minimum creep rate is the average
value of creep rate.
III. Tertiary creep
- Accelerated creep rate leading to rupture is observed
- Effective reduction in cross-sectional area due to necking/internal void formation
-Associated with metallurgical changes as coarsening of precipitate particles, recrystallization
or diffusional phase changes.

Stress Rupture tests:

 Similar to the creep tests
 Plot:
o Log-log plot stress vs rupture time
o A straight line is usually obtained for each test temperature
o Slope changes is due to its structural changes in materials due to intragranular
and transgranular fracture, recrystallisation, oxidation etc.
 Determines:
o Time to cause failure at a given nominal stress for a constant temperature.
o Elongation and area reduction at fracture.

116
 o Determine minimum creep rate.
o Relative high temperature strength of alloy(jet engine application)
o Since higher stress and creep rate are involved, the stress rupture tests can
cause structural changes in metals at shorter times (1000hr).

Structural changes during creep:

 Large change in creep rate occurs during a creep test.
 The variation in creep rate is the result of changes in the internal structure of material
with creep strain and time.
 Various deformation process at elevated temperature
o Principal processes: slip, sub grain formation, grain boundary sliding
o Secondary processes: multiple slip, formation of coarse slip bands, kink bands,
fold formation at GBs, GB migration

Deformation mechanism

 Dislocation glide – involves dislocation moving along slip planes by overcoming barrier
-2
with help of thermal activation. This occurs at high stresses, σ/G >10 .
 Dislocation creep – involves movement of dislocations which overcome barriers by
thermally assisted mechanisms like diffusion of vacancies or interstitials. Occurs at
-2 -4
moderate stresses, 10 >σ/G >10 .
 Diffusion creep – involves flow of vacancies and interstitials under the influence of
-4
applied stress. Occurs for σ/G <10 .
 Grain boundary sliding – involves sliding of grains against each other.

Deformation mechanism maps:

 Used:
o To illustrate and utilise the constitutive equations for various creep
deformation mechanisms
o Identifying the dominant deformation mechanisms
o For selection of any of two variables amongst σ, , T and establishing the third
value.
o Helpful in decisions involving alloy design and selection
 These are stress –temperature maps, develop by Ashby and co-workers.
 Various regions in map indicate the dominant deformation mechanisms for that stress-
temperature combination.
 Boundaries represent stress and temperature combination where respective strain rates
for two deformation mechanisms are equal.
 Upper bound of the diagram is the stress to produce slip in a perfect/dislocation free
lattice.

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 Non destructive testing method
The use of noninvasive techniques to determine the integrity of a material, component
or structure or quantitatively measure some characteristic of an object. i.e. Inspect or
measure without doing harm.

What are Some Uses of NDE Methods?

• Flaw Detection and Evaluation

• Leak Detection

• Location Determination

• Dimensional Measurements

• Structure and Microstructure Characterization

• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties

• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements

• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition Determination

There are NDE application at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of a
component.

– To assist in product development

– To screen or sort incoming materials

– To monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes

– To verify proper processing such as heat treating

– To verify proper assembly

– To inspect for in-service damage

Six Most Common NDT Methods

• Visual

• Liquid Penetrant

• Magnetic

• Ultrasonic

• Eddy Current

• X-ray

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Visual Inspection:

Most basic and common inspection method.

-Tools include fiberscopes, borescopes, magnifying glasses and mirrors.

-Portable video inspection unit with zoom allows inspection of large tanks and vessels,
railroad tank cars, sewer lines.

-Robotic crawlers permit observation in hazardous or tight areas, such as air ducts, reactors,
pipelines.

Liquid Penetrant Inspection:

• A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of the part
and allowed time to seep into surface breaking defects.

• The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the part.

• A developer (powder) is applied to pull the trapped penetrant out the defect and
spread it on the surface where it can be seen.

• Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The penetrant used is often loaded
with a fluorescent dye and the inspection is done under UV light to increase test
sensitivity.

Magnetic Particle Inspection:

The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment are then
applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields and will
cluster to form an indication directly over the discontinuity. This indication can be visually
detected under proper lighting conditions.

Magnetic Particle Crack Indications

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Radiography:

The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy (shorter wavelength) version of
the electromagnetic waves that we see as visible light. The radiation can come from an X-ray
generator or a radioactive source.

Film Radiography:

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The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film. The part will stop some
of the radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop more of the radiation.

The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of radiation reaching the film through
the test object.

Radiographic Images:

Eddy Current Testing:

Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks but can also be
used to make electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements. Here a small
surface probe is scanned over the part surface in an attempt to detect a crack.

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Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo):

High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and they are reflected back from
surfaces or flaws.

Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can visualize a cross section
of the specimen showing the depth of features that reflect sound.

Ultrasonic Testing:

High resolution images can be produced by plotting signal strength or time-of-flight using a
computer-controlled scanning system.

Common Application of NDT:

• Inspection of Raw Products

• Inspection Following Secondary Processing

• In-Services Damage Inspection

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 Model questions

Fundamentals of metal working

 What is the difference between hot working and cold working

Forging

 What is forging.explain the difference between open die and cold die forging.
 What are the equipments used in forging operation.
 Explain spread low.
 Explain types of forging defects.

Rolling

 What is rolling. Explain types of rolling mill.

 Describe types of rolling defects.

Extrusion

 What is extrusion andclassify its type.

 What is extrusion ratio.
 What are the variable affect the extrusion.
 What is hydrostatic extraction.

Drawing rods,wires and tubes

 What is the difference between tube drawing and tube sinking.

 What is cupping.
 What is the process of tube drawing.
 What is progressive forming.
 What is rubber rubber hydroforming.
 What is spring back.
 What is the difference between deep drawing and redrawing.

Fracture mechanics

 Explain Griffith theory of brittle fracture.

 What is the difference between stress intensity factor and stress concentration
factor.

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Fathigue

 What is endurance limit.

 What are the metallurgical factors affecting fatigue.

Creep

 What are the problem occur in high temperature.

 Describe the structural changes during creep.
 What are the mechanism of creep deformation.

• Books for reference:

• 1. Mechanical Metallurgy by G. E. Dieter, McGraw-Hill.

• 2. Roll Pass Design, The United Steel Companies Ltd., U.K.
• 3. Testing of Metallic materials by C. Suryanarayana.
• 4. Principles of Industrial Metal Working Processes by C. Russak, G. W. Rowe.
• 5. Practical Non Destructive Testing by Baldev R

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