5729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
WIKIPEDIA
The Free Encyclopedia
Postcolonial
feminism
Postcolonial feminism is a form of feminism
that developed as a response to feminism
focusing solely on the experiences of women in
Western cultures and _ former colonies.
Postcolonial feminism seeks to account for the
way that racism and the long-lasting political,
economic, and cultural effects of colonialism
affect non-white, non-Western women in the
postcolonial world. Postcolonial feminism
originated in the 1980s as a critique of feminist
theorists in developed countries pointing out the
universalizing tendencies of mainstream feminist
ideas and argues that women living in non-
Western countries are misrepresented.|2]Postcolonial feminism argues that by using the
term "woman" as a universal group, women are
then only defined by their gender and not by
social class, race, ethnicity, or sexual
preference.3! Postcolonial feminists also work to
incorporate the ideas of indigenous and other
Third World feminist movements into
mainstream Western feminism. Third World
feminism stems from the idea that feminism in
Third World countries is not imported from the
First World, but originates from internal
ideologies and socio-cultural factors. /4!
Postcolonial feminism is sometimes criticized by
mainstream feminism, which argues that
postcolonial feminism weakens the wider
feminist movement by dividing it.!5! It is also
often criticized for its Western bias which will be
discussed further below.!¢
History5729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
The history of
modern
feminist
movements
can be (
divided into qt )
three waves.
When _ first-
wave
feminism
originated in
the late
nineteenth
century, it
arose as a
movement
among white,
middle-class
women in the
global North
who were reasonably able to access both
resources and education. Thus, the first wave of
feminism almost exclusively addressed the issues
of these women who were relatively well off.!Z!
The first-wavers focused on absolute rights such
Feminism logo originating in 1970as suffrage and overturning other barriers to
legal gender equality. This population did not
include the realities of women of color who felt
the force of racial oppression or economically
disadvantaged women who were forced out of the
home and into blue-collar jobs.!8! However, first-
wave feminism did succeed in getting votes for
women and also, in certain countries, changing
laws relating to divorce and care and
maintenance of children.
Second-wave feminism began in the early 1960s
and inspired women to look at the sexist power
struggles that existed within their personal lives
and broadened the conversation to include issues
within the workplace, issues of sexuality, family,
and reproductive rights. It scored remarkable
victories relating to Equal Pay and the removal of
gender based discriminatory practices. First and
second-wave feminist theory failed to account for
differences between women in terms of race and
class—it only addressed the needs and issues of
white, Western women who started the
movement. Postcolonial feminism emerged as
part of the third wave of feminism, which beganin the 1980s, in tandem with many other racially
focused feminist movements in order to reflect
the diverse nature of each woman's lived
experience.!9! Audre Lorde contributed to the
creation of Postcolonial Feminism with her 1984
essay "The Master's Tools Will Never Dismantle
the Master's House". Chandra Talpade
Mohanty's essay "Under Western Eyes" also
came out in 1984, analyzing the homogenizing
western feminist depiction of the "third world
woman." These works, along with many others,
were foundational to the formation of
postcolonial feminism.
Many of the first key theorists of postcolonial
feminism hail from India and were inspired by
their direct experiences with the effects that
colonization had left in their society. When
colonizers came to India, an importance that was
not as prevalent before was placed on gender.
Many women lost power and _ economic
autonomy as men gained much more of it, and
this had a lasting effect even after India gained
independence!°!In efforts to move away from ‘grand narratives’
stemmed from ‘globalization’, postcolonial
theory was formed as a scholarly critique of
colonial literature.44] By acknowledging the
differences among diverse groups of women,
postcolonial feminism addresses what some call
the oversimplification of Western feminism as
solely a resistance against sexist oppression.
Postcolonial feminism, in contrast, also relates
gender issues to other spheres of influence within
society. [91
Theory
Postcolonial feminism is a relatively new stream
of thought, developing primarily out of the work
of the postcolonial theorists who concern
themselves with evaluating how different
colonial and imperial relations throughout the
nineteenth century have impacted the way
particular cultures view themselves.42! This
particular strain of feminism promotes a wider
viewpoint of the complex layers of oppression
that exist within any given society.!8!Postcolonial feminism began simply as a critique
of both Western feminism and_ postcolonial
theory, but later became a burgeoning method of
analysis to address key issues within both
fields.{5] Unlike mainstream postcolonial theory,
which focuses on the lingering impacts that
colonialism has had on the current economic and
political institutions of countries, postcolonial
feminist theorists are interested in analyzing why
postcolonial theory fails to address issues of
gender. Postcolonial feminism also seeks to
illuminate the tendency of Western feminist
thought to apply its claims to women around the
world because the scope of feminist theory is
limited.@3] In this way, postcolonial feminism
attempts to account for perceived weaknesses
within both postcolonial theory and within
Western feminism. The concept of colonization
occupies many different spaces within
postcolonial feminist theory; it can refer to the
literal act of acquiring lands or to forms of social,
discursive, political, and economic enslavement
in a society.In Audre Lorde's foundational essay, "The
Master's Tools Will Never Dismantle the
Master's House", Lorde uses the metaphor of
"the master's tools" and "the master's house” to
explain that western feminism is failing to make
positive change for third world women by using
the same tools used by the patriarchy to oppress
women. Lorde found that western feminist
literature denied differences between women and
discouraged embracing them. The differences
between women, Lorde asserts, should be used
as strengths to create a community in which
women use their different strengths to support
each other_!'41
Chandra Talpade Mohanty, a principal theorist
within the movement, addresses this issue in her
seminal essay "Under Western Eyes"! In this
essay, Mohanty asserts that Western feminists
write about Third World women as a composite,
singular construction that is arbitrary and
limiting. She states that these women are
depicted in writings as victims of masculine
control and of traditional culture without
incorporating information about historicalcontext and cultural differences with the Third
World. This creates a dynamic where Western
feminism functions as the norm against which
the situation in the developing world is
evaluated.!9] Mohanty's primary initiative is to
allow Third World women to have agency and
voice within the feminist realm.
In the article "Third World Women and the
Inadequacies of Western Feminism", Ethel
Crowley, sociology professor at Trinity College of
Dublin, writes about how western feminism is
lacking when applied to non-western societies.
She accuses western feminists of theoretical
reductionism when it comes to Third World
women. Her major problem with western
feminism is that it spends too much time in
ideological "nit-picking" instead of formulating
strategies to redress the highlighted problems.
The most prominent point that Crowley makes in
her article is that ethnography can be essential to5729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
problem solving, and that freedom does not
mean the same thing to all the women of the
world, [5]
Relationship to Western
feminisms
Postcolonial feminism began as a criticism of the
failure of Western feminism to cope with the
complexity of postcolonial feminist issues as
represented in Third World feminist movements.
Postcolonial feminists seek to incorporate the
struggle of women in the global South into the
wider feminist movement.6] Western feminists
and feminists outside of the West also often
differ in terms of race and religion, which is not
acknowledged in Western feminism and can
cause other differences. Western feminism tends
to ignore or deny these differences, which
discursively forces Third World women to exist
within the world of Western women and their
oppression to be ranked on an ethnocentric
Western scale.271
0148Postcolonial feminists do not agree that women
are a universal group and reject the idea of a
global sisterhood. Thus, the examination of what
truly binds women together is necessary in order
to understand the goals of the feminist
movements and the similarities and differences
in the struggles of women worldwide.°! The aim
of the postcolonial feminist critique to traditional
Western feminism is to strive to understand the
simultaneous engagement in more than one
distinct but intertwined emancipatory battle.8!
This is significant because feminist discourses
are critical and liberatory in intent and are not
thereby exempt from inscription in their internal
power relations. The hope of postcolonial
feminists is that the wider feminist movement
will incorporate these vast arrays of theories
which are aimed at reaching a_ cultural
perspective beyond the Western world by
acknowledging the individual experiences of
women around the world. Ali Suki highlights the
lack of representation of women of color in
feminist scholarship comparing the weight of
whiteness similar to the weight of
smemasculinities.“ This issue is not due to a
shortage of scholarly work in the global South
but a lack of recognition and circulation. This
reinforces Western hegemony and supports the
claim of outweighed representation of white,
Western scholars. Most available feminist
literature regarding the global South tends to be
written by Western theorists resulting in the
whitewashing of histories.29!
Feminist postcolonial theorists are not always
unified in their reactions to postcolonial theory
and Western feminism, but as a whole, these
theorists have significantly weakened the bounds
of mainstream feminism.23! The intent of
postcolonial feminism is to reduce homogenizing
language coupled with an overall strategy to
incorporate all women into the theoretical
milieu. While efforts are made to eliminate the
idea of the Third World "other", a Western
Eurocentric feminist framework often presents
the "other" as victim to their culture and
traditions. Brina Bose highlights the ongoing
process of "alienation and alliance" from other
theorists in regards to postcolonial feminism; she
raeemphasizes, "...the obvious danger both in
‘speaking for’ the silent/silenced as well as in
searching for retaliatory power in elusive
connections..."2°] There is a tendency
throughout many different academic fields and
policy strategies to use Western models of
societies as a framework for the rest of the world.
This critique is supported in other scholarly work
including that of Sushmita Chatterjee who
describes the complications of adding feminism
as a "Western ideological construct to save brown
women from their inherently oppressive cultural
patriarchy."(6
Relationship to postcolonial
theory
The postcolonial feminist movements look at the
gendered history of colonialism and how that
continues to affect the status of women today. In
the 1940s and 1950s, after the formation of the
United Nations, former colonies were monitored
by the West for what was considered social
13485729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
progress. The definition of social progress was
tied to adherence to Western socio-cultural
norms. The status of women in the developing
world has been monitored by organizations such
as the United Nations. As a result, traditional
practices and roles taken up by women,
sometimes seen as distasteful by Western
standards, could be considered a form of
rebellion against colonial rule. Some examples of
this include women wearing headscarves or
female genital mutilation. These practices are
generally looked down upon by Western women,
but are seen as legitimate cultural practices in
many parts of the world fully supported by
practicing women.!9! Thus, the imposition of
Western cultural norms may desire to improve
the status of women but has the potential to lead
to conflict.
In order to understand the postcolonial feminist
theory, one must first understand the
postcolonial theory. In sociology, postcolonial
theory is a theory that is preoccupied with
understanding and examining the social impacts
of European colonialism, its main claim is that
s4iae5729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
the modern world as it is now is impossible to
understand without understanding its relation
with and history of imperialism and colonial
rule.!24] Postcolonialism can provide an outlet for
citizens to discuss various experiences from the
colonial period. These can include: "migration,
slavery, oppression, resistance, representation,
difference, race, gender, place and responses to
the influential discourses of imperial Europe."!22!
Ania Loomba critiques the terminology of
‘postcolonial’ by arguing the fact that ‘post’
implicitly implies the aftermath of colonization;
she poses the question, "when exactly then, does
the ‘postcolonial’ begin?"!23! Postcolonial
feminists see the parallels between recently
decolonized nations!24! and the state of women
within patriarchy taking "perspective of a socially
marginalized subgroup in their relationship to
the dominant culture."!22] In this way feminism
and postcolonialism can be seen as having a
similar goal in giving a voice to those that were
voiceless in the traditional dominant social
order. While this holds significant value aiding
new theory and debate to arise, there is no single
story of global histories and Western imperialism
pea. org 19148is still significant. Loomba suggests that
colonialism carries both an inside and outside
force in the evolution of a country concluding
‘postcolonial’ to be loaded with
contradictions. /23]
Race and religion
Postcolonial feminism has strong ties with
indigenous movements and wider postcolonial
theory. It is also closely affiliated with black
feminism because both black feminists and
postcolonial feminists argue that mainstream
Western feminism fails to adequately account for
racial differences. Racism has a major role to
play in the discussion of postcolonial feminism.
Postcolonial feminists seek to tackle the ethnic
conflict and racism that still exist and aims to
bring these issues into feminist discourse. In the
past, mainstream Western feminism has largely
avoided the issue of race, relegating it to a
secondary issue behind patriarchy and somewhat2923 10:90 Posteo nin pea
separate from
feminism.
Until more
recent
discourse,
race was not
seen aS an
issue that
white women
needed to
address. 25]
Audre Lorde wrote about
postcolonial feminism and race.
In her article "Age, Race, Class and Sex: Women
Redefining Difference", Lorde — succinctly
explained that, "as white women ignore their
built-in privilege and define woman in terms of
hitpsien wikipedia. aise5729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
their own experiences alone, then women of
Color become 'other'...". which prevents the
literary work produced by women of color from
being represented in mainstream feminism.!2°!
Postcolonial feminism attempts to avoid
speaking as if women were a homogeneous
population with no differences in race, sexual
preference, class, or even age. The notion of
whiteness, or lack thereof, is a key issue within
the postcolonial feminist movement.!22! This is
primarily due to the perceived relationship
between postcolonial feminism and other racially
based feminist movements, especially Black
feminism and indigenous feminisms. In Western
culture, racism is sometimes viewed as an
institutionalized, ingrained facet of society.
Postcolonial feminists want to force feminist
theory to address how individual people can
acknowledge racist presumptions, practices, and
prejudices within their own lives attempting to
halt its perpetuation through awareness.|271
1848Vera C. Mackie describes the history of feminist
rights and women's activism in Japan from the
late nineteenth century to present day. Women
in Japan began questioning their place in the
social class system and began questioning their
roles as subjects under the Emperor. The book
goes into detail about iconic Japanese women
who stood out against gender oppression,
including documents from Japanese feminists
themselves. Japan's oppression of women is
written about displaying that women from yet
another culture do not live under the same
circumstances as women from western/white
cultures. There are different social conducts that
occur in Asian countries that may seem
oppressive to white feminists; according to Third
World feminist ideologies, it is ideal to respect
the culture that these women are living in while
also implementing the same belief that they
should not be oppressed or seen in any sort of
sexist light.!28] Chilla Bulbeck discusses how
feminism strives to fight for equality of the sexes
through equal pay, equal opportunity,
reproductive rights, and education. She also goes
on to write about how these rights apply to
19148women in the global South as well but that
depending on their country and culture, each
individual's experience and needs are unique.
"False consciousness" is perpetuated throughout
mainstream feminism assuming that people in
the global South don't know what is best for
them. Postcolonial framework attempts to shed
light on these women as "full moral agents" who
willingly uphold their cultural practices as a
resistance to Western imperialism. For
example, representation of the Middle East and
Islam focuses on the traditional practice of
veiling as a way of oppressing women. While
Westerners may view the practice in this way,
many women of the Middle East disagree and
cannot understand how Western standards of
oversexualized dress offer women liberation.[3°]
Such Eurocentric claims have been referred to by
some as imperial feminism.
Colonial and postcolonial
race influence
201485729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
The U.S., where Western culture flourishes most,
has a majority white population of 77.4% as of
the 2014 U.S. census.!3+J They have also been the
majority of the population since the 16th century.
Whites have had their role in the colonialism of
the country since their ancestors settlement of
Plymouth Colony in 1620. Although they ruled
majority of the U.S. since their settlement, it was
only the men who did the colonizing. The women
were not allowed to have the same freedoms and
rights that men had at the time. It was not until
the victory of World War I that the Roaring
Twenties emerged and gave women a chance to
fight for independence.!32] It is also the reason
that first-wave feminist were able to protest.
Their first major accomplishment was the
ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment. Some
of the women that led the first-wave feminist
movement were Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth
Cady Stanton. Anthony, Stanton, and many other
feminist fought for the equality of rights for both
women and African Americans; however, their
accomplishments only benefited white middle-
class women. The majority of equality achieved
through first and second wave feminism and
21148other movements still benefits mainly the white
population. The lack of acknowledgement and
acceptance of white privilege by white people is a
main contributor to the inequality of rights in the
United States. In the book Privilege Revealed:
How Invisible Preference | Undermines,
Stephanie M. Wildman states, "The notion of
privilege... has not been recognized in legal
language and doctrine. This failure to
acknowledge privilege, to make it visible in legal
doctrine, creates a serious gap in legal reasoning,
rendering law unable to address issues of
systemic unfairness."[831 White _ privilege,
oppression, and exploitation in the U.S. and
Western influenced countries are main
contributors to the formation of other feminist
and philosophical movements such as_ black
feminism, Islamic feminism, Latinx philosophy,
and many other movements.
Relationship to Third
World feminism
aiseDepending on feminist literature, Third World
and postcolonial feminism can often be used
interchangeably. In a review upon other scholars
work of the two terms, Nancy A. Naples
highlights the differences; "Third World"
nations, termed as such by North America and
Europe, were characterized as underdeveloped
and poor resulting in a dependency of "First
World" nations for survival. This term started
being widely used in the 1980s but shortly after
began to receive criticism from postcolonial
scholarship.!341 Naples defines the term
‘postcolonial’ as, "...typically applied to nations
like India where a former colonial power has
been removed." Both terms can be argued as
problematic due to the reinforced idea of
"othering" those from non-Western culture. !35]
Though postcolonial feminism was supposed to
represent the evolution of Third World into a
more reformed ideology, Ranjoo Seodu Herr
argues for Third World Feminism to be
reclaimed highlighting the importance of the
local/national,"...in order to promote inclusive
23148and democratic feminisms that accommodate
diverse and multiple feminist perspectives of
Third World women on the ground."!291
The term is also in relation with other strands of
feminism, such as Black feminism and African
feminism.
Double colonization
Double colonization is a term referring to the
status of women in the postcolonial world.
Postcolonial and feminist theorists state that
women are oppressed by both patriarchy and the
colonial power, and that this is an ongoing
process in many countries even after they
achieved independence. Thus, women are
colonized in a twofold way by imperialism and
male dominance.
Postcolonial feminists are still concerned with
identifying and revealing the specific effects
double colonization has on female writers and
how double colonization is represented and
referred to in literature. However, there is an
en.wikipedia.org 244ongoing discussion among theorists about
whether the patriarchal or the colonial aspect are
more pressing and which topic should be
addressed more intensively. !31
The concept of double colonization is particularly
significant when referring to colonial and
postcolonial women's writing. It was first
introduced in 1986 by Kirsten Holst Petersen and
Anna Rutherford in their anthology "A Double
Colonization: Colonial and Postcolonial Women's
Writing", which deals with the question of female
visibility and the struggles of female writers in a
primarily male's world.!32] As Aritha van Herk, a
Canadian writer and editor, puts it in her essay
"A Gentle Circumcision": "Try being female and
living in the kingdom of the male virgin; try
being female and writing in the kingdom of the
male virgin."/371
Writers that are usually identified with the topic
of double colonization and critique on Western
feminism are for example Hazel V. Carby and
Chandra Talpade Mohanty. "White Woman
Listen!", an essay composed by Carby, harshly
2si4esans, 13 Poa ero -Whpoda
critiques
Western
feminists
who she
accuses of
being
prejudiced
and
oppressors of ss
black women Chandra Talpade Mohanty, author of
rather than "Under Western Eyes"
supporters.
In this
context she also talks about "triple" oppression:
"The fact that black women are subject to the
simultaneous oppression of patriarchy, class and
"race" is the prime reason for not employing
parallels that render their position and
experience not only marginal but also
invisible” {381
Mohanty's argument in "Under Western Eyes:
Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses"
goes into the same direction. She blames
20i4e5729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
Western feminists of presenting women of color
as one entity and failing to account for diverse
experiences. |341
Postcolonial feminist
literature
With the continued rise of global debt, labor, and
environmental crises, the precarious position of
women (especially in the global south) has
become a prevalent concern of postcolonial
feminist literature.'89 Other themes include the
impact of mass migration to metropolitan urban
centers, economic terrorism, and how to
decolonize the imagination from the multiple
binds of writing as a woman of color.!4°! Pivotal
novels include Nawal El Saadawi's The Fall of the
Iman about the lynching of women,!4#]
Chimamanda Adichie's Half of a Yellow Sun
about two sisters in pre and post war Nigeria, /42!
and Giannina Braschi's United States of Banana
about Puerto Rican independence./431l44] Other
major works of postcolonial feminist literature
2riseinclude novels by Maryse Condé, Fatou Diome,
and Marie Ndiaye,!39! poetry by Cherrie Moraga,
Giannina Braschi, and Sandra Cisneros, and the
autobiography of Audre Lorde (Zami: A New
Spelling of My Name),/45]
Maria Lugones’ “Toward a Decolonial Feminism”
is another piece of postcolonial feminist
literature that explores gender norms in relation
to the Indigenous people of the United States and
the oppression that came with Christianity and
the bourgeoisie.|46!
Further reading
= Olive Senior: The Two Grandmothers
(belletristic)
= Shirley Geok-lin Lim: Between Women
(poetry)
281485729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
= Chandra Talpade Mohanty: Feminism
Without Borders: Decolonizing Theory,
Practicing Solidarity (novel)
Critiques
As postcolonial feminism is itself a critique of
Western feminism, criticism of postcolonial
feminism is often understood as a push back
from Western feminism in defense of its aims.
One way in which the Western feminist
movement criticizes postcolonial feminism is on
the grounds that breaking down women into
smaller groups to address the unique qualities
and diversity of each individual causes the entire
movement of feminism to lose purpose and
power. This criticism claims that postcolonial
feminism is divisive, arguing that the overall
feminist movement will be stronger if women can
present a united front.!5]
Another critique of postcolonial feminism is
much the same as the critiques that postcolonial
feminism has for Western feminism. Like
20i4e5729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
Western feminism, postcolonial feminism and
Third World feminism are also in danger of being
ethnocentric, limited by only addressing what is
going on in their own culture at the expense of
other parts of the world. Colonialism also
embodies many different meanings for people
and has occurred across the world with different
timelines. Chatterjee supports the argument that
postcolonial perspective repels "Holistic
perspectives of the grand narrative of
enlightenment, industrial revolution, and
rationality render ‘other’ histories and people
invisible under hegemonic constructions of truth
and normalcy."{6 Generalizing colonialism can
be extremely problematic as it translates into
postcolonial feminism due to the contextual
‘when, what, where, which, whose, and how' Suki
Ali mentions in determining the postcolonial.
Sara Suleri is a common critic of postcolonial
feminism, in her work “Woman Skin Deep:
Feminism and the Postcolonial Condition” she
questions whether the language used in
feminism and ethnicity were not so similar, if
racial identity and feminism would be connected
30148or “so radically inseparable” from each other. She
also states that postcolonial feminism is “not
matched with any logical or _ theoretical
consistency” because it reduces sexuality to “the
literal structure of the racial body” which is not
consistent with postcolonial feminism's stance
on the removal of oppressive labels and
categorization. [471
While postcolonial discourse has brought
significant expansion of knowledge regarding
feminist work, scholars have begun to rework
and critique the field of postcolonial feminism
developing a more well-rounded discourse
termed transnational feminism. Where
postcolonial theory highlighted representation
and the "othering" of experience of those in the
global South, transnational feminism aids in
understanding "new global realities resulting
from migrations and the creation of
transnational communities."/48]
Postcolonial feminism is also criticized for the
implications behind its name. The term
"postcolonial", consisting of the prefix "post-"
3148and suffix "colonial", insinuates that the
countries it is referring to have left the era of
colonialism and are progressing from it. This way
of thinking promotes the idea that all developing
countries underwent colonizing and began the
process of decolonizing at the same time when
countries referred to as "postcolonial" have
actually endured colonization for different time
frames. Some of the countries that are called
"postcolonial" can in fact still be considered
colonial. Another issue with the term
"postcolonial" is that it implies a_ linear
progression of the countries it addresses, which
starkly contrasts the goal of postcolonial theory
and postcolonial feminism to move away from a
presentist narrative.[49]
See also
@ Feminism portal
= Chicana feminism
= Coloniality of gender
= Feminationalism
sae5729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
= Global feminism
= Gypsy feminism
= History of feminism
= Imperial feminism
= Indigenous feminism
Intersectionality
Islamic feminism
Latinx philosophy
= Postfeminism
Purplewashing
= Sex segregation and Islam
= Transnational feminism
= Womanism
References
1. Weedon, Chris (2000). Feminist practice &
poststructuralist theory (2nd which
page? ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Blackwell.
ISBN 978-0-631-19825-3.
331482. McEwan, Cheryl (2001). "Postcolonialism,
feminism, and development: intersections
and dilemmas" (http://salises.mona.uwi.edu/s
em1_11_12/SALI6010/Postcolonialismfemini
smdev_6010_11.pdf) (PDF). Progress in
Development Studies. 1 (2): 93-111.
doi:10.1177/146499340100100201 (https://do
i.org/10.1177%2F 146499340100100201).
S2CID 144649971 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:144649971).
3. Narayan, Uma (2000). "Decentering the
Center". In Narayan; Harding (eds.). Essence
of Culture and a Sense of History: A Feminist
Critique of Cultural Essentialism.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
4. Jayawardena, Kumari (1986). Feminism and
nationalism in the Third World (Rev. ed.).
New Delhi: Kali for Women. ISBN 978-0-
86232-265-6.
5. Bulbeck, Chilla (1998). Re-orienting western
feminisms: women's diversity in a
postcolonial world. Cambridge New York:
Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 9780521589758.
hitpsion wikipedia or6. Chatterjee, Sushmita (2016-02-01). "What
Does It Mean to Be a Postcolonial Feminist?
The Artwork of Mithu Sen". Hypatia. 31 (1):
22-40. doi:10.1111/hypa.12225 (https://doi.or
g/10.1111%2Fhypa.12225). ISSN 1527-2001
(https:/Awww.worldcat.org/issn/1527-2001).
S2CID 151755182 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:151755182).
7. Suleri, Sara (1992). Women Skin Deep:
Feminism and the Postcolonial Condition (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=zcpiQwtw4
hMC&pg=PA250). Critical Inquiry. Vol. 18.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
pp. 756-769. doi:10.1086/448655 (https://doi.
org/10.1086%2F 448655).
ISBN 9780415345651. S2CID 162324294 (ht
tps://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpus!D:1623
24294).
8. Lewis, Reina; Sara Mills (2003). Feminist
Postcolonial Theory: A Reader. New York:
Routledge.
hitpsion wikipedia or 35489. Mohanty, Chandra Talpade (Autumn 1988).
"Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship
and Colonial Discourses" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20150621011919/http://blog.lib.um
n.edu/raim0007/RaeSpot/under%20wstrn%2
Oeyes.pdf) (PDF). Feminist Review: 333—
358. Archived from the original (http://blog.lib.
umn.edu/raim0007/RaeSpot/under%20wstr
n%20eyes.pdf) (PDF) on 2015-06-21.
Retrieved 2013-04-22.
10. Liddle, Joanna; Joshi, Rama (1985). "Gender
and Imperialism in British India" (https://www.j
stor.org/stable/4374973). Economic and
Political Weekly. 20 (43): WS72-WS78.
ISSN 0012-9976 (https:/Awww.worldcat.org/is
sn/0012-9976). JSTOR 4374973 (https:/Aww
w.jstor.org/stable/4374973).
11. Ali, Suki (2007-03-01). "Feminism and
Postcolonial: Knowledge/Politics". Ethnic and
Racial Studies. 30 (2): 191-212.
doi:10.1080/01419870601143877 (https://doi.
org/10.1080%2F01419870601143877).
ISSN 0141-9870 (https:/Awww.worldcat.org/is
sn/0141-9870). S2CID 142840229 (https://ap
i.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142840229).
hitpsion wikipedia or 6485129128, 10:13AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
12.
13.
14.
15.
Said, Edward (1993). Culture and
Imperialism (https://archive.org/details/culture
imperiali00edwa). New York: Alfred A. Knopf
Inc. ISBN 9780394587387.
Mills, Sara (1998). Stevi Jackson; Jackie
Jones (eds.). Contemporary Feminist
Theories. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press.
Lorde, Audre (1983). Moraga, Cherrie;
Anzaldua, Gloria (eds.). The Master's Tools
Will Never Dismantle the Master's House.
This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by
Radical Women of Color. New York: Kitchen
Table Press. pp. 94-101.
Crowley, Ethel. "Third World Women and the
Inadequacies of Western Feminism." Global
Research. N.p., 8 Mar. 2014. Web. 21 Sept.
2015.
ntps:ifen. wikipedia. orgwikiPostcotonal_feminism arise5729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
16.
17.
18.
19.
hitpsion wikipedia or
Mohanty, Chandra Talpade (1995). "Feminist
Encounters: locating the politics of
experience" (http://ebooks.cambridge.org/cha
pter.jsf?bid=CBO9780511520792&cid=CBO9
780511520792A011). Social Postmodernism:
beyond identity politics. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
doi:10.1017/CBO9780511520792 (https://doi.
org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511520792).
ISBN 9780521475716.
Mohanty, Chandra; Talpade (1988). "Under
Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and
Colonial Discourses" (https://doi.org/10.105
7%2Ffr.1988.42). Feminist Review. 30: 65—
88. doi:10.1057/fr.1988.42 (https://doi.org/10.
1057%2Ffr.1988.42).
Belleau, Marie-Claire (2007).
"L'intersectionnalité": Feminisms in a Divided
World”. In Orr; Taylor; Kahl; Earle; Rainwater;
McAlister (eds.). Feminist politics: identity,
difference, and agency. Lanham, MD:
Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. p. 54.
ISBN 978-0-7425-4778-0.
"Meeting at the edge of fear: theory ona
world scale". Feminist Theory. 16 (1).
8485729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
hitpsion wikipedia or
"Postcolonial feminisms". Feminist Theory. 6
(1).
Young, Robert J. C. (2003). Postcolonialism:
A Very Short Introduction (https://www.verysh
ortintroductions.com/view/10.1093/actrade/97
80192801821.001.0001/actrade-9780192801
821). Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/actrade/9780192801821.001.00
01 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Factrade%2F9
780192801821.001.0001). ISBN 978-0-19-
177545-1.
Kramarae, Cheris; Dale Spender (2000).
Routledge International Encyclopedia of
Women: Global Women's Issues and
Knowledge. New York, London: Routledge.
Loomba (1998). Colonialism/postcolonialism:
Situating colonial and postcolonial studies.
London: Routledge.
Nolen, Jeannette L. "Decolonization" (https://
www. britannica.com/topic/decolonization).
Brittanica.
Lorde, Audre (1984). Sister Outsider.
Freedom, CA: The Crossing Press.
3914826. Lorde, Audra (1984). Age, Class, Race, and
Sex: Women Redefining Difference. Sister
Outsider: Essays and Speeches. Freedom,
CA: Crossing Press. pp. 114-123.
27. Moraga, Cherrie (1981). "Refugees of a
World on Fire. Forward to the Second
Edition". In Cherrie Moraga; Gloria Anzaldua
(eds.). This Bridge Called My Back: Writings
by Radical Women of Color. New York:
Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press.
28. Mackie, Vera C. Feminism in Modern Japan:
Citizenship, Embodiment, and Sexuality.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003. Print.
29. "Reclaiming third world feminism: or why
transnational feminism needs third world
feminism". Meridians: Feminism, Race,
Transnationalism. 12 (1).
30. Cawley, Stephanie. "Veils and postcolonial
feminism" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190
703160158/https://blogs.stockton.edu/postcol
onialstudies/veils-and-postcolonial-feminis
m/). Archived from the original (https://blogs.s
tockton.edu/postcolonialstudies/veils-and-pos
tcolonial-feminism/) on 2019-07-03.
ntps:ifen. wikipedia. orgwikiPostcotonal_feminism 40485729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
31.
32.
33.
"Population estimates, July 1, 2015, (V2015)"
(https://Awww.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST
045215/00). www.census.gov. Retrieved
2016-03-17.
Reinsch, Ole. "Gender Forum: Flapper Girls:
Feminism and Consumer Society in the
1920s" (https://web.archive.org/web/2016050
3151305/http://www.genderforum.org/issues/
gender-and-consumerism/flapper-girls-femini
sm-and-consumer-society-in-the-1920s/).
www.genderforum.org. Archived from the
original (http:/Awww.genderforum.org/issues/g
ender-and-consumerism/flapper-girls-feminis
m-and-consumer-society-in-the-1920s/) on
2016-05-03. Retrieved 2016-04-21.
Law, Sylvia (1999). "White Privilege and
Affirmative Action" (https://www.uakron.edu/d
otAsset/726850.pdf) (PDF). University of
Akron. University of Akron. Retrieved
March 15, 2016.34. Mohanty, Chandra Talpade (2003-01-01).
""Under Western Eyes" Revisited: Feminist
Solidarity through Anticapitalist Struggles" (htt
ps://semanticscholar.org/paper/ce04701 70bd
a9ec47deedcac10fc15325a61f47a). Signs:
Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 28
(2): 499-535. doi:10.1086/342914 (https://do
i.org/10.1086%2F 342914). ISSN 0097-9740
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0097-9740).
S2CID 2073323 (https://api.semanticscholar.
org/CorpusID:2073323).
35. Naples (2002). Changing the terms:
Community activism, globalization, and the
dilemmas of transnational feminist praxis.
London: Routledge.
36. Post-Colonial Studies The Key Concepts.
Routledge. 2000. pp. 66-67. ISBN 978-0-
203-93347-3.
37. Holst Petersen, Kirsten; Rutherford, Anna,
eds. (1986). A Double Colonization Colonial
and Post-Colonial Women's Writing.
Dangaroo Press.
38. Carby, Hazel V. Mirza, Heidi Safia (ed.).
Black British Feminism. London and New
York: Routledge. p. 46.
hitpsion wikipedia or ism 42485729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
39.
40.
41
Perisic, Alexandra (2019). Precarious
crossings: Immigration, Neoliberalism, and
the Atlantic (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10
96294244). Columbus: The Ohio State
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8142-1410-7.
OCLC 1096294244 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/1096294244).
Homans, Margaret (1994). ""Women of
Color" Writers and Feminist Theory" (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/469441). New Literary
History. 25 (1): 73-94. doi:10.2307/469441 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.2307%2F 469441).
ISSN 0028-6087 (https:/Awww.worldcat.org/is
sn/0028-6087). JSTOR 469441 (https://www.j
stor.org/stable/469441).
. Upmanyu, Aditi (2017-08-16). "9 Women
Authors Who Pioneered Postcolonial
Feminism" (https://feminisminindia.com/2017/
08/17/9-women-authors-postcolonial-feminis
m/). Feminism In India. Retrieved
2020-10-20.42. Kiunguyu, Kylie (2018-02-12). "Postcolonial
theory is the force dismantling what
Chimamanda Adichie termed the "single
story" narrative" (https://thisisafrica.me/politic
s-and-society/postcolonial-theory-chimamand
a-adichie/). This is africa. Retrieved
2020-10-20.
43. Hitchcock, Peter (2019). "Novelization in
Decolonization, or, Postcolonialism
Reconsidered" (http://link-springer-com-443.
webvpn.fjmu.edu.cn/chapter/10.1007/978-3-0
30-14980-2_9). Other Globes: 177-194.
doi:10.1007/978-3-030-14980-2_9 (https://do
i.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-14980-2_9).
ISBN 978-3-030-14979-6. S2CID 182217266
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpus|ID:18
2217266).44. Riofrio, John (2020-03-01). "Falling for debt:
Giannina Braschi, the Latinx avant-garde,
and financial terrorism in the United States of
Banana" (https://doi.org/10.1057/s41276-019
-00239-2). Latino Studies. 18 (1): 66-81.
doi:10.1057/s41276-019-00239-2 (https://doi.
org/10.1057%2Fs41276-019-00239-2).
ISSN 1476-3443 (https:/Awww.worldcat.org/is
sn/1476-3443). S2CID 212759434 (https://ap
i.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:212759434).
45. Pearl, Monica B. (2009). ""Sweet Home":
Audre Lorde's Zami and the Legacies of
American Writing" (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/40464382). Journal of American Studies.
43 (2): 297-317.
doi:10.1017/S0021875809990041 (https://do
i.org/10.1017%2FS002187580999004 1).
ISSN 0021-8758 (https:/Awww.worldcat.org/is
sn/0021-8758). JSTOR 40464382 (https://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/40464382).
S2CID 145600404 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:145600404).5729125, 10:19AM Postcolonial feminism - Wikipedia
46.
47.
Lugones, Maria (2010). "Toward a Decolonial
Feminism" (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-
2001 .2010.01137.x). Hypatia. 25 (4): 742-
759. doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.2010.01137.x
(https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1527-2001.2010.
01137.x). ISSN 0887-5367 (https://www.world
cat.org/issn/0887-5367). S2CID 143897451
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpus|D:14
3897451).
Suleri, Sara (1992). "Woman Skin Deep:
Feminism and the Postcolonial Condition” (htt
ps://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/
448655). Critical Inquiry. 18 (4): 756-769.
doi:10.1086/448655 (https://doi.org/10.108
6%2F 448655). ISSN 0093-1896 (https://Aww
w.worldcat.org/issn/0093-1896).
S2CID 162324294 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:162324294).48. Marchand, Marianne H (2009). "The future of
gender and development after 9/11: insights
from postcolonial feminism and
transnationalism". Third World Quarterly. 30
(5): 921-935.
doi:10.1080/01436590902959149 (https://doi.
org/10.1080%2F01436590902959149).
S2CID 144522258 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:144522258).
49. McClintock, Anne (1992). "The Angel of
Progress: Pitfalls of the Term "Post-
Colonialism". Social Text. no. 31/32 (31/32):
84-98. doi:10.2307/466219 (https://doi.org/1
0.2307%2F 466219). JSTOR 466219 (https://
www. jstor.org/stable/466219).
External links
= Weedon, Chris (2002). "Key Issues in
Postcolonial Feminism: A Western
Perspective" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
160303175959/http://www.genderforum.org/fi
leadmin/archiv/genderforum/genderealisation
s/weedon.html). Genderealisations. 1.
Archived from the original (http://www.gender
hitpsion wikipedia orforum.org/fileadmin/archiv/genderforum/gend
erealisations/weedon.html) on 2016-03-03.
= Gould, Rebecca Ruth (2014) "Engendering
Critique: Postnational Feminism in
Postcolonial Syria (https:/Awww.jstor.org/stabl
e/24365004?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_cont
ents)," Women's Studies Quarterly Vol. 42,
No. 3/4
= Lugo-Lugo. Carmen R (2000)
https://public.wsu.edu/~amerstu/dis/content/1
2-00/1a.html
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Postcolonial_feminism&oldid=1100065526"