Horse

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Horse (disambiguation).
Horse
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Equidae
Genus: Equus
Species: E. ferus
Subspecies: E. f. caballus
Trinomial name
Equus ferus caballus
Linnaeus, 1758[1]
Synonyms[2]
at least 48 published
The horse (Equus ferus caballus)[2][3] is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the

taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. The horse
has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, close to Eohippus, into
the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BCE, and
their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BCE. Horses in the
subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral
horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term refers to horses that have never
been domesticated. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related
concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion,
and behavior.
Horses are adapted to run, allowing them to quickly escape predators, and possess an excellent sense of
balance and a strong fight-or-flight response. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an
unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down, with younger horses tending to
sleep significantly more than adults.[4] Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately
11 months and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most
domesticated horses begin training under a saddle or in a harness between the ages of two and four.
They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years.
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot
bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for
slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods,
often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more
than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for many different uses.
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational
pursuits as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy.
Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques
developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived
from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of
pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water, and shelter as well as attention
from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers.
Biology
Main article: Equine anatomy
Points of a horse[5][6]
Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy, different life stages, colors,
and breeds.
Lifespan and life stages
Depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy
of 25 to 30 years.[7] Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond.[8] The
oldest verifiable record was "Old Billy", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62.[7] In modern
times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in Guinness World Records as the world's oldest living pony, died
in 2007 at age 56.[9]
Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its
age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere[7][10] and each August 1 in the Southern
Hemisphere.[11] The exception is in endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on
the animal's actual calendar age.[12]
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:
Foal
A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling, and a
foal that has been weaned is called a weanling.[13] Most domesticated foals are weaned at five
to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical
effects.[14]
Yearling
A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.[15]
Colt
A male horse under the age of four.[16] A common terminology error is to call any young horse a
"colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.[17]
Filly
A female horse under the age of four.[13]
Mare
A female horse four years old and older.[18]
Stallion
A non-castrated male horse four years old and older.[19] The term "horse" is sometimes used
colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion.[20]
Gelding
A castrated male horse of any age.[13]
In horse racing, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British
Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five
years old.[21] However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and
fillies as less than four years old.[22]
Size and measurement
The height of horses is measured at the highest point of the withers,
where the neck meets the back.[23] This point is used because it is a
stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and
down in relation to the body of the horse.
Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this full-sized horse and
small pony.
In English-speaking countries, the height of horses is often stated in units
of hands and inches: one hand is equal to 4 inches (101.6 mm). The height
is expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a point, then the
number of additional inches, and ending with the abbreviation "h" or "hh"
(for "hands high"). Thus, a horse described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands plus
2 inches, for a total of 62 inches (157.5 cm) in height.[24]
The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by nutrition.
Light-riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands (56 to
64 inches, 142 to 163 cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840
to 1,210 lb).[25] Larger-riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands
(62 inches, 157 cm) and often are as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm),
weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,320 lb).[26] Heavy or draft
horses are usually at least 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) high and can be as
tall as 18 hands (72 inches, 183 cm) high. They can weigh from about 700
to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200 lb).[27]
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire
horse named Mammoth, who was born in 1848. He stood 21.2 1⁄4 hands
(86.25 inches, 219 cm) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1,524
kilograms (3,360 lb).[28] The record holder for the smallest horse ever
is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism. She
was 43 cm (17 in) tall and weighed 26 kg (57 lb).[29][30]
Ponies
Main article: Pony
Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses. The distinction
between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height,
especially for competition purposes. However, height alone is not
dispositive; the difference between horses and ponies may also include
aspects of phenotype, including conformation and temperament.
The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is
14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An animal 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm)
or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14.2 hands
(58 inches, 147 cm) a pony,[31] but there are many exceptions to the
traditional standard. In Australia, ponies are considered to be those under
14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm).[32] For competition in the Western division
of the United States Equestrian Federation, the cutoff is 14.1 hands
(57 inches, 145 cm).[33] The International Federation for Equestrian
Sports, the world governing body for horse sport,
uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse
measuring less than 148 centimetres (58.27 in) at the withers without
shoes, which is just over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), and 149
centimetres (58.66 in; 14.2+1⁄2 hands), with shoes.[34]
Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from
ponies. Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both
under and over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) consider all animals of that
breed to be horses regardless of their height.[35] Conversely, some pony
breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals
may occasionally mature at over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), but are
still considered to be ponies.[36]
Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have
proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and
thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have
calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of intelligence that
may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers.[31] Small size,
by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the Shetland
pony which averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony.
[31] Conversely, breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horses,
which can be no taller than 76 centimetres (30 in), are classified by
their registries as very small horses, not ponies.[37]
Genetics
Horses have 64 chromosomes.[38] The horse genome was sequenced in
2007. It contains 2.7 billion DNA base pairs,[39] which is larger than
the dog genome, but smaller than the human genome or the bovine
genome.[40] The map is available to researchers.[41]
Colors and markings
Bay (left) and chestnut (sometimes called "sorrel") are two of the most

common coat colors, seen in almost all breeds.
Main articles: Equine coat color, Equine coat color genetics, and Horse
markings
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings,
described by a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its
coat color, before breed or sex.[42] Horses of the same color may be
distinguished from one another by white markings,[43] which, along with
various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.[44]
Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been
identified. Current genetic tests can identify at least 13
different alleles influencing coat color,[45] and research continues to
discover new genes linked to specific traits. The basic coat colors
of chestnut and black are determined by the gene controlled by
the Melanocortin 1 receptor,[46] also known as the "extension gene" or
"red factor,"[45] as its recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and its dominant
form is black.[47] Additional genes control suppression of black color
to point coloration that results in a bay, spotting patterns such
as pinto or leopard, dilution genes such as palomino or dun, as well
as greying, and all the other factors that create the many possible coat
colors found in horses.[45]
Horses that have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that
looks "white" is usually a middle-aged or older gray. Grays are born a
darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin
underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under
white markings). The only horses properly called white are born with a
predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence.
[47] Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors
in horses, including several different alleles of dominant white and
the sabino-1 gene.[48] However, there are no "albino" horses, defined as
having both pink skin and red eyes.[49]
Reproduction and development
Main article: Horse breeding
Mare with a foal

Gestation lasts approximately 340 days, with an average range 320–370
days,[50][51] and usually results in one foal; twins are rare.[52] Horses are
a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a
short time following birth.[53] Foals are usually born in the spring.
The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs
from early spring into autumn. Most mares enter an anestrus period
during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period.[54] Foals are
generally weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age.
[55]
Horses, particularly colts, are sometimes physically capable of
reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely
allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females.[56] Horses
four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally
continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the
horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Larger horses have larger
bones; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue,
but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert
from cartilage to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the
bones, and are crucial to development.[57]
Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put
under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four.
[58] Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as
the age of two in some countries,[59] horses specifically bred for sports
such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or
four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed.
[60] For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature
enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (five years)
old.[12]
Anatomy
Main articles: Equine anatomy, Muscular system of the horse, Respiratory
system of the horse, and Circulatory system of the horse
Skeletal system
Main article: Skeletal system of the horse
The skeletal system of a modern horse

The horse skeleton averages 205 bones.[61] A significant difference
between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a collarbone
—the horse's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful
set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to
the torso. The horse's four legs and hooves are also unique structures.
Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For
example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up
of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist. Similarly,
the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel.
The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human
hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the
proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single equivalent
to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal
phalanges, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse
also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair,
bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues
that make up the hoof.[62]
Hooves
Main articles: Horse hoof, Horseshoe, and Farrier
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the
traditional adage, "no foot, no horse".[63] The horse hoof begins with
the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the
toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues
such as the laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made
of keratin, the same material as a human fingernail.[64] The result is that a
horse, weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb),[65] travels on the
same bones as would a human on tiptoe.[66] For the protection of the
hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on
their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof continually grows, and in most
domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used)
every five to eight weeks,[67] though the hooves of horses in the wild
wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain.
Teeth
Main article: Horse teeth
Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors at
the front of the mouth, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation.
There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars, at the
back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just
behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth called "tushes". Some horses,
both male and female, will also develop one to four very
small vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which
are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit. There is an
empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the
bit rests directly on the gums, or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the
horse is bridled.[68]
An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The
teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing.
Therefore, the incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a
distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at
which the chewing surfaces meet. This allows a very rough estimate of a
horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of
tooth wear.[7]
Digestion
Main articles: Equine digestive system and Equine nutrition
Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of
grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day.
Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but
very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram
(990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and,
under normal use, drink 38 to 45 litres (8.4 to 9.9 imp gal; 10 to 12 US gal)
of water. Horses are not ruminants, they have only one stomach, like
humans, but unlike humans, they can digest cellulose, a major component
of grass. Horses are hindgut fermenters. Cellulose fermentation by
symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum, or "water gut", which food goes
through before reaching the large intestine. Horses cannot vomit, so
digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death.
[69] Horses do not have a gallbladder; however, they seem to tolerate high
amounts of fat in their diet despite lack of a gallbladder.[70][71]
Senses
A horse's eye
See also: Equine vision
The horses' senses are based on their status as prey animals, where they
must be aware of their surroundings at all times.[72] They have the largest
eyes of any land mammal,[73] and are lateral-eyed, meaning that their
eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads.[74] This means that horses
have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this
being binocular vision and the remaining 285° monocular vision.
[73] Horses have excellent day and night vision, but they have two-color,
or dichromatic vision; their color vision is somewhat like red-green color
blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related
colors, appear as a shade of green.[75]
Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not quite
as good as that of a dog. It is believed to play a key role in the social
interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the
environment. Horses have two olfactory centers. The first system is in the
nostrils and nasal cavity, which analyze a wide range of odors. The second,
located under the nasal cavity, are the vomeronasal organs, also called
Jacobson's organs. These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and
appear to primarily analyze pheromones.[76]
A horse's hearing is good,[72] and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to
180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the
head.[77] Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise
may contribute to stress: A 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled
horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or if listening to country or classical
music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock
music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of
21 decibels.[78] An Australian study found that stabled racehorses
listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses
listening to music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a
higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no
radio playing.[79]
Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel
their footing and partly to highly developed proprioception—the
unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times.[80] A
horse's sense of touch is well-developed. The most sensitive areas are
around the eyes, ears, and nose.[81] Horses are able to sense contact as
subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.[82]
Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort
through fodder and choose what they would most like to eat,[83] and
their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains. Horses generally will
not eat poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will
occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is
adequate healthy food.[84]
Movement
Main articles: Horse gait, Trot, Canter, and Ambling
Walk 5–8 km/h (3.1–5.0 mph)

Trot 8–13 km/h (5.0–8.1 mph)

Pace 8–13 km/h (5.0–8.1 mph)

Canter 16–27 km/h (9.9–16.8 mph)


Gallop 40–48 km/h (25–30 mph), record: 70.76 km/h (43.97 mph)

All horses move naturally with four basic gaits:[85]
 the four-beat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour

(4.0 mph);
 the two-beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour (8.1
to 11.8 mph) (faster for harness racing horses);
 the canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24
kilometres per hour (12 to 15 mph);
 the gallop, which averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to
30 mph),[86] but the world record for a horse galloping over a
short, sprint distance is 70.76 kilometres per hour
(43.97 mph).[87]
Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead
of the trot.[88] There also are several four-beat 'ambling' gaits that are
approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These
include the lateral rack, running walk, and tölt as well as the diagonal fox
trot.[89] Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known
collectively as gaited horses.[90] These horses replace the trot with one of
the ambling gaits.[91]
Behavior
Main articles: Horse behavior and Stable vices
0:03
Horse neigh
Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response. Their first
reaction to a threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand
their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their
young are threatened.[92] They also tend to be curious; when startled,
they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and
may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-
threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed,
agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their
wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of
horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.[93]
Horses fighting as part of herd dominance behaviour
Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant
individual, usually a mare. They are also social creatures that are able to
form companionship attachments to their own species and to other
animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including
vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body
language. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated,
but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and
thus be comfortable away from other horses.[94] However, when confined
with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may
develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly stereotypies of
psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving"
(rocking back and forth), and other problems.[95]
Intelligence and learning
Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on
a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include food
procurement and identification of individuals within a social system. They
also have good spatial discrimination abilities.[96] They are naturally
curious and apt to investigate things they have not seen before.
[97] Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem
solving, speed of learning, and memory. Horses excel at simple learning,
but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that
involve categorization and concept learning. They can learn
using habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant
conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement.[96] One study has
indicated that horses can differentiate between "more or less" if the
quantity involved is less than four.[98]
Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses,
because they live in artificial environments that
prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural.
[96] Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regimentation, and
respond best when the same routines and techniques are used
consistently. One trainer believes that "intelligent" horses are reflections
of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning
techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that best fits
with an individual animal's natural inclinations.[99]
Temperament
Main articles: Draft horse, Warmblood, and Oriental horse
Main article: Hot-blooded horse
Horses are mammals, and as such are warm-blooded,
or endothermic creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded,
or poikilothermic animals. However, these words have developed a
separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe
temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such
as many race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy,[100] while the
"cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer.
[101] Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding
horses",[102] with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work
horses".[103]
Illustration of assorted breeds; slim, light hotbloods, medium-sized

warmbloods and draft and pony-type coldblood breeds
"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses" such as the Akhal-
Teke, Arabian horse, Barb, and now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as
the Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England from the older oriental
breeds.[100] Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They
are bred for agility and speed.[104] They tend to be physically refined—
thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged.[105] The original oriental breeds were
brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European
breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses.
[106][107]
Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred
not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament
needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people.[101] They are
sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants".[108] Well-known draft breeds
include the Belgian and the Clydesdale.[108] Some, like the Percheron, are
lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in
drier climates.[109] Others, such as the Shire, are slower and more
powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils.[110] The cold-
blooded group also includes some pony breeds.[111]
"Warmblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed
when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or
Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a
draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed.
[112] Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been
developed for smaller riders.[113] Warmbloods are considered a "light
horse" or "riding horse".[102]
Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport
horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping.
[114] Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to any cross between
cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds.[115] Examples include breeds such
as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay. The term was once used to refer
to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such
as the Morgan horse.[104]
Sleep patterns
See also: Horse sleep patterns and Sleep in non-humans
When horses lie down to sleep, others in the herd remain standing, awake,
or in a light doze, keeping watch.
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation
from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a "stay
apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing.
[116] Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep
while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will
not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for
danger.[117]
Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time,
but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a
day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down.
Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several minutes to a
couple of hours,[117] mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each.
[118] The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours
per day.[119]
Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for
an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep
requirements.[117] However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after
several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly
collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing.
[120] This condition differs from narcolepsy, although horses may also
suffer from that disorder.[121]
Taxonomy and evolution
Diagram of evolution in horses showing size development, biometrical

changes in the cranium and reduction of toes (left forefoot)
Main articles: Evolution of the horse, Equus (genus), and Equidae
The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse
vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals,
especially ruminants, could not.[122] Horses and other equids are odd-
toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla, a group of mammals dominant
during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order contained 14 families,
but only three—Equidae (the horse and related
species), Tapiridae (the tapir), and Rhinocerotidae (the rhinoceroses)—
have survived to the present day.[123]
The earliest known member of the family Equidae was the Hyracotherium,
which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during
the Eocene period. It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each
back foot.[124] The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with
the Mesohippus, which lived 32 to 37 million years ago.[125] Over time,
the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of
them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below
the knee,[126] known informally as splint bones.[127] Their legs also
lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal
capable of running at great speed.[126] By about 5 million years ago, the
modern Equus had evolved.[128] Equid teeth also evolved from browsing
on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to
grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-
eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions
worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North
America.
By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a
widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period, the
late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North
America.[129] Yet between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became
extinct in North America.[130][131][132] The reasons for this extinction
are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America
paralleled human arrival.[133] Another theory points to climate change,
noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of
a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with
unpalatable plants.[134]
Wild species surviving into modern times
A small herd of Przewalski's Horses

Main article: Wild horse
A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were
ever successfully domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses today are
actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned loose from
domestic herds and the descendants of those animals.[135] Only two wild
subspecies, the tarpan and the Przewalski's horse, survived into recorded
history and only the latter survives today.
The Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), named after the Russian
explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, is a rare Asian animal. It is also known as the
Mongolian wild horse; Mongolian people know it as the taki, and
the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag. The subspecies was presumed extinct in
the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population
survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild
by the conservation efforts of numerous zoos.[136] Today, a small wild
breeding population exists in Mongolia.[137][138] There are additional
animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world.
The question of whether the Przewalski's horse was ever domesticated
was challenged in 2018 when DNA studies of horses found at Botai
culture sites revealed captured animals with DNA markers of an ancestor
to the Przewalski's horse. The study concluded that the Botai animals
appear to have been an independent domestication attempt and
apparently unsuccessful, as these genetic markers do not appear in
modern domesticated horses. However, the question of whether all
Przewalski's horses descend from this population is also unresolved, as
only one of seven modern Przewalski’s horses in the study shared this
ancestry.[139][140][141]
The tarpan or European wild horse (Equus ferus ferus) was found in
Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but
became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo.
[142] Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to
recreate the tarpan,[142][143][144] which resulted in horses with outward
physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated
ancestors and not true wild horses.
Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to
be relict populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be
feral or domestic. For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed
as such,[138] but testing did not reveal genetic differences from
domesticated horses.[145] Similarly, the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed
as a direct descendant of the Tarpan on the basis of shared characteristics,
[146][147] but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely
related to other horse breeds, and that the outward similarity is an
unreliable measure of relatedness.[146][148]
Other modern equids
Main article: Equus (genus)
Besides the horse, there are six other species of genus Equus in the
Equidae family. These are the ass or donkey, Equus asinus; the mountain
zebra, Equus zebra; plains zebra, Equus quagga; Grévy's Zebra, Equus
grevyi; the kiang, Equus kiang; and the onager, Equus hemionus.[149]
Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus. The most
common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a "jack" (male donkey) and
a mare. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a
"jenny" (female donkey).[150] Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross
between a zebra and a horse.[151] With rare exceptions, most hybrids
are sterile and cannot reproduce.[152]
Domestication and history

Main articles: History of horse domestication theories and Domestication
of the horse
Bhimbetka rock painting showing a man riding on a horse, India
Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to
3500 BCE. Two major sources of information are used to determine where
and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated
horse spread around the world. The first source is based
on palaeological and archaeological discoveries; the second source is a
comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and
teeth of ancient horse remains.
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the
horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to
approximately 4000–3500 BCE.[153][154][155] By 3000 BCE, the horse
was completely domesticated and by 2000 BCE there was a sharp increase
in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in
northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses
throughout the continent.[156] The most recent, but most irrefutable
evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were
interred with chariots in graves of
the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BCE.[157]
A 2021 genetic study suggested that most modern domestic horses
descend from the lower Volga-Don region. Ancient horse
genomes indicate that these populations influenced almost all local
populations as they expanded rapidly throughout Eurasia, beginning about
4,200 years ago. It also shows that certain adaptations were strongly
selected due to riding, and that equestrian material culture,
including Sintashta spoke-wheeled chariots spread with the horse itself.
[158][159]
Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present-day
horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones
and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological
excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild
stallions contributed to the domestic horse,[160][161] while many mares
were part of early domesticated herds.[148][162][163] This is reflected in
the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on
along the paternal, or sire line (Y-chromosome) versus that passed on
along the maternal, or dam line (mitochondrial DNA). There are very low
levels of Y-chromosome variability,[160][161] but a great deal of genetic
variation in mitochondrial DNA.[148][162][163] There is also regional
variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in
domestic herds.[148][162][163][164] Another characteristic of
domestication is an increase in coat color variation.[165] In horses, this
increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BCE.[166]
Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related
to the domestication of the horse, various hypotheses were proposed.
One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting
the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their
environment prior to domestication.[111] Another hypothesis held that
the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all
different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after
domestication.[167] However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the
horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.
Feral populations
Main article: Feral horse
Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from
domesticated animals.[135] Many populations of feral horses exist
throughout the world.[168][169] Studies of feral herds have provided
useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses,[170] as well as
greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that
live in domesticated conditions.[171]
There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such
as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK, where the animals are all
privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in "wild"
conditions on undeveloped, often public, lands. Owners of such animals
often pay a fee for grazing rights.[172][173]
Breeds
Main articles: Horse breed, List of horse breeds, and Horse breeding
The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed
registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern
times. Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called
"thoroughbreds". Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse, while a
"purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a
defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry.[174] Horse breeds are
groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted
consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance
ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of
natural crosses and artificial selection methods. Horses have
been selectively bred since their domestication. An early example of
people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who
had a reputation for careful practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of
their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines.
[175] These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition.
[176] In the 14th century, Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept
meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in
the Andalusian horse.[177]
Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to
develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of
work.[178] Thus, a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian
developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage.[178] Heavy draft
horses were developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work
and pull heavy wagons.[179] Other horse breeds had been developed
specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various
sport disciplines, or simply as pets.[180] Some breeds developed through
centuries of crossing other breeds, while others descended from a
single foundation sire, or other limited or restricted foundation
bloodstock. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for
Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation
bloodstock for the breed.[181] There are more than 300 horse breeds in
the world today.[182]
Interaction with humans
Finnhorse pulling a heavy wagon.

Worldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for
millennia. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and working
purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that in
2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the world, with around
33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia and 6,300,000 in Europe
and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania. There are estimated to be
9,500,000 horses in the United States alone.[183] The American Horse
Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the
economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect
spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion.[184] In a 2004
"poll" conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73
countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.[185]
Communication between human and horse is paramount in any
equestrian activity;[186] to aid this process horses are usually ridden with
a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning,
and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control.
[187] Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle,[188] and
occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other
headgear.[189] Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness,
bridle, and some type of vehicle.[190]
Sport
A horse and rider in dressage competition at the Olympics

Main articles: Equestrianism, Horse racing, Horse training, and Horse tack
Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races.
Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the
excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many sports, such
as dressage, eventing, and show jumping, have origins in military training,
which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider. Other
sports, such as rodeo, developed from practical skills such as those needed
on working ranches and stations. Sport hunting from horseback evolved
from earlier practical hunting techniques.[186] Horse racing of all types
evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. All forms
of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse
and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds
and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports
through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would
otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat.
[186]
Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting
competitions. Examples include show jumping, dressage, three-
day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos,
and fox hunting.[191] Horse shows, which have their origins in medieval
European fairs, are held around the world. They host a huge range of
classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as "In-
hand" classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be
evaluated on their conformation. The method of judging varies with the
discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse
and rider.[192] Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather
use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of
the game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate,
the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's
actions—be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task.
[193] Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse
include jousting, in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the
other,[194] and buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia,
the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.[193]
Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry,
watched in almost every nation of the world. There are three types: "flat"
racing; steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where
horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as
a sulky.[195] A major part of horse racing's economic importance lies in
the gambling associated with it.[196]
Work
Horse pulling a cart
A mounted police officer in Poland

There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet
developed to fully replace them. For example, mounted police horses are
still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control.
[197] Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle
that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain.[198] Search and
rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to
locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster
relief assistance.[199] Horses can also be used in areas where it is
necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature
reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed
in wilderness areas. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles. Law
enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use
horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails
or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.
[200]
Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an
estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for
agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number
includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone.[201] Some
land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be
efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and
increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use
of draft animals such as horses.[202][203] Logging with horses can result
in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more
selective logging.[204]
Warfare
Main article: Horses in warfare
Ottoman cavalry, 1917
Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history. The first
archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000
and 3000 BCE,[205] and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by
the end of the Bronze Age.[206][207] Although mechanization has largely
replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in
limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for
reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where
motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st
century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur.[208]
Entertainment and culture
The horse-headed deity in Hinduism, Hayagriva
See also: Horses in art and Horse worship
Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work
purposes. Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a
meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical
reenactments of specific periods of history, especially recreations of
famous battles.[209] Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions
and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still
use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from
certain culturally significant events.[210] Public exhibitions are another
example, such as the Budweiser Clydesdales, seen in parades and other
public settings, a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to
that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck.[211]
Horses are frequently used in television, films and literature. They are
sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals,
but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical
stories.[212] Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used
in advertising to promote a variety of products.[213] The horse frequently
appears in coats of arms in heraldry, in a variety of poses and equipment.
[214] The mythologies of many cultures, including Greco-
Roman, Hindu, Islamic, and Germanic, include references to both normal
horses and those with wings or additional limbs, and multiple myths also
call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun.[215] The
horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese
zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.[216]
Horses serve as the inspiration for many modern automobile names and
logos, including the Ford Pinto, Ford Bronco, Ford Mustang, Hyundai
Equus, Hyundai Pony, Mitsubishi Starion, Subaru Brumby, Mitsubishi
Colt/Dodge Colt, Volkswagen Polo, Pinzgauer, Steyr-Puch
Haflinger, Pegaso, Porsche, Rolls-Royce
Camargue, Ferrari, Carlsson, Kamaz, Corre La Licorne, Iran Khodro, Eicher,
and Baojun.[217][218][219] Indian TVS Motor Company also uses a horse
on their motorcycles & scooters.
Therapeutic use
See also: Equine-assisted therapy and Therapeutic horseback riding
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial
results from an association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to
mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve
their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-
confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and independence.[220] The
benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been
recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic
Games and recognition of para-equestrian events by the International
Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI).[221] Hippotherapy and therapeutic
horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and
speech therapy treatment strategies that use equine movement. In
hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to improve their
patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas
therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.[222]
Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually
ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of
experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to
assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic
disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, and those who are going
through major life changes.[223] There are also experimental programs
using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the
behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave.[224]
Products
Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout
history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as
materials collected from living horses.
Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people
with large horse herds, such as the Mongols, who let it ferment to
produce kumis.[225] Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols
and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition
when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to
ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat.[225] The
drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of
pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urine), and was previously a widely used
drug for hormone replacement therapy.[226] The tail hair of horses can be
used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello,
and double bass.[227]
Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous
animals throughout the ages. Approximately 5 million horses are
slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.[228] It is eaten in many parts
of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures,[229] and a
subject of political controversy in others.[230] Horsehide leather has been
used for boots, gloves, jackets,[231] baseballs,[232] and baseball gloves.
Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue.[233] Horse bones
can be used to make implements.[234] Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the
horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto, which is used to test
the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.[235] In Asia, the saba is a
horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis.[236]
Care
Main article: Horse care
See also: Equine nutrition, Horse grooming, Veterinary medicine,
and Farrier
Checking teeth and other physical examinations are an important part of

horse care.
Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-
quality forage from hay or pasture.[237] They can consume approximately
2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a 450-
kilogram (990 lb) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms (24 lb) of food.
[238] Sometimes, concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to
pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active.[239] When grain
is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's
diet by weight should still be forage.[240]
Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of 38 to 45
litres (10 to 12 US gal) per day.[241] Although horses are adapted to live
outside, they require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can
range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable.[242]
Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier, as well as vaccinations to
protect against various diseases, and dental examinations from
a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist.[243] If horses are kept
inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health
and mental well-being.[244] When turned outside, they require well-
maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained.[245] Regular grooming is
also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and
underlying skin.[246]
See also
 Glossary of equestrian terms
 Lists of horse-related topics
o List of historical horses
References
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External links
Wikispecies has information related to Equus caballus.
 "Ancient horse bone yields oldest DNA sequence"

 "Horse" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
 "Horse" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
 Genome of Equus caballus, via Ensembl
 Genome of Equus caballus (version EquCab3.0/equCab3),
via UCSC Genome Browser
 Data of the genome of Equus caballus, via NCBI
 Data of the genome assembly of Equus caballus (versión
EquCab3.0/equCab3), via NCBI
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Equus ferus caballus

The horse (Equus ferus caballus)[2][3] is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the

Bay (left) and chestnut (sometimes called "sorrel") are two of the most

Mare with a foal

The skeletal system of a modern horse

Gallop 40–48 km/h (25–30 mph), record: 70.76 km/h (43.97 mph)

 the four-beat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour

Illustration of assorted breeds; slim, light hotbloods, medium-sized

Taxonomy and evolution

Diagram of evolution in horses showing size development, biometrical

A small herd of Przewalski's Horses

Domestication and history

Interaction with humans

Finnhorse pulling a heavy wagon.

A horse and rider in dressage competition at the Olympics

Horse pulling a cart

A mounted police officer in Poland

Checking teeth and other physical examinations are an important part of

1. ^ Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per regna

 Belknap, Maria (2004). Horsewords: The Equine

 Chamberlin, J. Edward (2006). Horse: How the Horse Has

Wikispecies has information related to Equus caballus.

 "Ancient horse bone yields oldest DNA sequence"

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