ROUT edition, A Practical Ast dE ihn heese La ead et tea tee pes eee ei ee ia baa Race) eee eae caer Cha eet Usain oot ea ate Worn eS | jo Pesan oats IContents References are to sections, unless ‘therwise sated 1 Articles and one, a lite! afew. this, that’ page 15 alan (he indefinite article) 1 Uneot sian 2 Omission of sam 3 ‘anand one 4 Sites few and Hlestew 5 the the defi article) Onision of the 1 ‘rision of the Belore home ete. 8 tiinihese, tauithowe 9 2 Nouns page 24 Kinds and function 10 Unenuntable nouns 13 Form of possessive case 14 Use of ponsessive case etc. 15 Compound nouns 16 3 Adjectives page 32 Position of adjectives 18 (Onder of adjectives of quality 29 Comparison: 20 Constructions with comparisons 21 the + adjective 28 ‘Adjectives + onelones etc. 24 ‘any and much 25 ‘Adjectives + iaitives 25, $4 Adverbs page 47 Formation of adverbs with ly 29 ‘he same form 30 ‘Comparative and superlative 31 far fartherfathest ete 32 such, more, most 33 Constructions with comparisons 24 Position ‘Adverbs of manner 35 ‘avers of pace 36, Adverbs of feavency 538 Onder of verbs 39 Sencence verbs 40 ‘Adverbs of degree 41 fairy, rather, quite, hardly ete Tardy seareey, barely 44 Iverson after certain adverbs 45 5 all, each, every, both, neither, either, some, any, 6, none. page Gt al each, every, everyone ete 46 AlUbotheach + of ete. 48 neither, either #0 Some, a09, no nd none 50 Someone, anyone, noone ete. St ‘lee after someonelnnybody et. 82 nother, other ets with one, omeContents 6 Inmterrogatives: wh-? words and how? page’ 71 Interogative adjectives and pronouns Se Alfrmative verb ater who etc. 55 ‘who, whom, whose, which, what 56 ‘ho, whom, which si whats objects af prepositions 57 Uses of what 58 Which compared with wh, what 59 Inerrogative saver: ‘why. hen, where, how 60 ever aicer who, whl ete, 61 7 Possessives, personal anid reflexive pronouns: my. mine, I, myself ete. page 75 Possessive adjectives and ronoune 2 Agreement and vse of Posscarve adjectives 63 Possessive pronouns replacing Doessive adjectives snows 64 Personal pronouns 6 Use oft 67 Indefinite pronouns 68 ‘Use of theyithemtheir with neltherleither. someone ec. 69 Reflexive pronouns 70 Emphasizing pronouns 71 8 Relative pronouns and clauses. page 81 Defining retatve clauses 72 Relative pronouns used in ‘efining cauees 72 Defining clauses: persons. 74 Detining claices: things 75 lett sentences 76 Relative clause replaced by intiitive or participle 77 [Non defining relative clases 75 Nondefining clauces: persons 79 al, oth, few, mot, several ete. + St whom 80 [Nondetining lass! things 8t Connective relative cluses 82 what (elative pronoun) od hich (connective relative) 89 Commas relative ciawses 84 whoever, whichever ete 85 9 Prepositions page 92 Introduction 86 ‘Omission of to and for before Indirect objects 88 ‘Use and omission of to with ‘verbs of comminiestion 89 Time and date: at, on, by ete, 90 ‘Time: from, since for ete. Time: to unt afer siterwards(advecb) 92 ‘Travel and movement: from, to, fa in by. oa, iat et a ati: I, ito; on, ante Shove, over andere. 93 Prepositions used with djectves and participles 96 \erbs and prepositions 97 Gerunds after prepositions 98 Prepositionsadverns 99 10 Introduction to verbs page 105 Cass of verbs 100 Principal parts 101 Active tenses 102 Negatives of tenses 103 Inerrogative for questions and requests 104 Negative interrogative 105, ‘Asiiey verbs ‘Auris ad modals. 106 Forms and patterns 107 Use of auiiaris in short answers Inshort answers 108 Agreements and ‘isagreements 109 hestion tgs 110 Comment tage 12% ‘Additions to remarks 112, AI be, have, do page 116 be as an auiiey vers Form and wse 113 ber infinitive 114 be as an ordinary verb be to dante existence, ‘bes adjective 115, there isarelwasiwere ete. 116 itis and theres compared 117 Form and wee 118 Ihave object + past participle 119 Innd better «bare infinitive. 120, have objec present participle 122, have as an ordinary verb Ihave mening possess ane ster (to) penis 122 have meaning take’ "give" 229, Form 124 doused a2 an auxiliary 125, 44 used ae an ordinery verb 126, 12 may and can for permission and possibilty page 128 Permission may for permission: forms 127 fan for permission forme 128 ‘ay and cam used for permission Tn the present. ture. 128 could or waslwere allowed tof ‘permission inthe pass 129, Requests for permission 131 Possiiity smay/might for possibility 15 Imayimight © pertect infinite. > ould of may/might 134 ‘an for possibly 135 13 can and be able for abst poe 134 can and beable forms 135 faniam able, could was able 137 ould perf infintive 138 14 ought, should, must, ha to, need for obligation page 137 ought: forms 129 Shout forme 140 ‘ughtshould compared te ‘ust and have 132 ‘ughtishould wits the continue Infinitive 142 ‘oughishould with the pertec ‘ative 143 must and have to: forms 144 ‘ast sn have to: fener. 2 ‘eed not sd must notin he present and future 1A nce ot bust not and most The present and future 127 cds forme 148 ‘Absence of obligation 149 heed not and ater forms 180 ‘must, have to and need the interogative 131 needn't + perfect infinitive 152 ‘eed have (done) snd ‘ida’ haverneed odo) 153 ced, could and should + erie infinitive 15d tweed meaning reqvire” 159* 15 must, have, wii and should for deduction and assumption "page 147 must for deduction 156, ‘iis compared to may/might 157 Ievethad for deduction 158 ‘n't and couldnt eet for teyative deduction 189 will and should assumption 150 16 The auxiliaries dare and used page 150) dare 161 ted 162 Torberecomeiget used to 163 17 The present tenses bage 153 “The present continuous Form 104 Present participle: spelling 165 Uses 166 Other possible uses 167 Verbs not normally used 168, {eel ook, smell and taste 169 sce and hear 170 fhink, assume and expect 172 ‘The simple present tense Form 172 Used for habitual action 173 Other uses 174 18 The past and perfect teases page tor ‘The simple par tense Form 175 Ireegular verbs: frm 176 Use for past events 177 ‘The past continuous tense ist person will an shall 208, Seas eetoeane a ‘The future continous tence 211 | “The present perfect tense Foun and use 182 Use with jos 18 Past actions: indent time 184 Actions an incomplete period 185 Actions asting troughout Yaris fare forms 215, tnincompler ee ‘The fatre perder ad the fate Use with for andsince 18? perfect continaous 216 bevtecttenee 18 Present perfect and simple pest 169 | 20 The sequence of tenses Tre present prec continus seme |g MBE TSS pean Subordinate clauses 217 ae ‘The sequence of tenses 218 Cmparizon ofthe present perfect eas 21 The conditional page 195 “he present conditional tense 219 The perfect constional nce 222 CContitonat sentences onion sentences type 221 {Gentional centences pe 2 232 onaitiona sentences ype 8 223 srllwoutd and should 224 IP were an inverion 295 it-evenif. whether, unless, inttor otherene ee 26 an ordinary continuous tense 212 “The future continunss woes to press future without intention 215, ‘The futsre continuous and will ini compared 214 ‘The past perfect tense Form and use 194 Intime clauses 295 Ta indirect speech 196 “The past perfect continuous tense | sane | | 19 The future page 180 Eucure forms 198 ‘The simple present 199 and incase 22 Futur with incention 200 Honig 228 ssl intntive 201 Inincirect speech 229 The present continous 202 ‘The be going to form 203 bewoing to used for intention 204 | yf 22 Other uses of williwould, be going to sna will - ifive Shallishould page 200) {express intention 208 bbe going to used for prediction 206 ‘The future simple 207 Habits expressed by will, would 230 shouldiwoul think = Mhatlause or soinoe 231 Coneuts Shall Uwe? 259, hal: second and third persons 23 that should 295 ‘hat ‘should 280 other ies of shuld 2937 23 The infinitive page 212 Form 238 Uses of the infinitive 299 ‘The infntive an subject 240 As object or complement 241 Verh how what ete sntitive 2 Infinitive ater verb or ver + abject 243, Intintive ater verb + object 244 Tntiitive ater verbs of ‘enowing and thinking ete, 249, ‘The bare infinitive 246, Iisiive represented by to 247, Split intinitives 248 Infinitive ne connective link 249 Intinstive used ta replace relative lause 250 ‘Alter too. enough, 10." ae 252 Inne piraces 298 ‘The continuous infinitive 254 ‘The perfect infinitive 255 Perfect ntintive continous 256 24 The gerund page 228 Form and use 257 ‘The werund as subject 258 Gerunds ater prepositions 259 The word to. 260, ‘Verbs followed by the gerund 261 ‘Verbs + poncossve adective! Dronoun object * gerund 262 ‘The ver mind 262 The perfect gerund 264 The passive gerund 265,25 Infinitive and gerund 28 The subjunctive page 253 constructions pase 234 om sah ‘Verbs + inritive or gerund 255 _Ureof the present subjunctive 291 Verbs + intntive or gerund asifete.« part sbjonctive 292 ‘without change of meaning 267 itis time + past subjunctive 298 regret, remember, forget 258 goon. uoptryrured(iy 270 29 care, like, ove, hate, De tra oe sorey ton, prefer, wish age 255 ‘be ashamed (of) 271 care and like 294 ‘are le, lve, hate, refer 205 P ‘would tke and want’ 205, 26 The participles page 239 oad ratherisoomer and resent (or active) participle 272 Deferiwoutd preter 297 ‘ter eb of seston 33 More examples o preference 208 ‘nto, find, eave + object + wish, want and would like 200 present participle 274 ‘wish "subject + unreal past 300 9, come, spend, waste cc. 275 ‘wish Gat) subject » would 302 Rpenend pile pase “itclng aan cla 276 ; a'ploon par poe $30. The passive voice page 269 ‘pacing s sorte cause zor go MES arte parcnie active) 278 ‘Arive and pasive equivalent 3 Berfec participle passive) 279 Pececrsiongnt passe verbs 305 Mise partes 280 Intnve construct ner 27 Commands, requests, invitations, advice, suggestions page 240 “The imperative fr commands 281 Other ways of expreseing commands 280 Requests with ‘hu/coullmay/might thee 28 ‘oul’ Would you ee. 284 Requests with might 285 BI Indirect speech page 269 Dieect and indioct speech 207 Statements in indirect speech Tene changes necessary 308 at tenses 409, Unreal past tenses 320 ‘might ought, should, woul, ‘sed to in inivect statements 902 «ould in indirect statements 312 ‘Pronoun and adjective 319 Tavieations 286 Expressions of time and place S14 atic forms 287 Innate and gerund 38 ‘Avice withmarimight well « Steele 310 ‘ntntve 288 ‘estions in indirect speech 317 Suggestions 289 Questions erioning shall we? 818 Questions begining wil you! would youleould yout 219 CCommanis, requests advice 520 Other wa of expressing Indirect commands 22 Jets tet us, et hizwthem 322 Exclamations and yes and no. 323 Indirect speech: mixed tyres $24 must and needa 328 82 Conjunetions page 288 Coordinating connections 226 Deside, so, still yet ete 227 Suborinating eonjanctons, 228 ‘houghalthough tn spite of ‘espe 220, for and because 330 essing when hie or 4 when, while weed to mean ‘although, But, nein that 383 33 Purpose page 204 Purpose expressed by infinitive 334 Inintives after go and come 385 Clauses of purpose 336 Incase and let 397 34 Clauses of reason, result, ‘concession, compatson, time” page 298 Reason and resulvenuse 358 Result with such’se that 399 Clauses of concession 340 {Guses of comparison S12 Time ciases 32 Cont 35 Noun clauses page 30: Noun clauses as subject 348 ‘atclauses after eetain ‘ijectivesipartiiplen 344 thatclauses eter nouns 345 Noun clauses as objects 346 sosnd not representing ‘that elauee 347 36 Numerals, dates, and ‘weights and measures page 307 Cardinal numbers 348 Points abost cardinal numbers Ordinal numbers 360, Points about ordinal qumbers 3 Dates 359 Weights, length, tiguids 252 37 Spelling rules page $12 Incroduction 354 Doubling the consonant 265 Omission of fina ¢ 356, ‘Words ending in ge and Be 357 “The su ful 358 Words ending in y 350 fe and et 360 Hyphens 361 38 Phrasal verbs page 315 Inteotetion 352 Verb + preposition/advert 263 39 List of irregular verbs, page 353 Ivegular verbs 364 Index pege 359Articles and one, a little/a few, this, that alan (the indefinite article) ‘The form a is used before a word begining with a consonant, oF 4 vowel with 2 consonant sound ‘man ahat a xsiversity @ Ewropean The form an is used before words beginning witha vowel (4. eo, t) oF words begng witha mute Cn pple a island an nce ‘or india letters spoken with 4 vowel sound ‘ia Leplae a MP an SOS as van is the seme fora genders Use of alan alan i wed Before a singular noun whic is countable i.e. of which there is more than one) when itis mentored forthe fs ume and represents ko, ‘article person or thing Teed tse.” They Bee ia Rat. He bouaht an ie-ersam Before a singular countable noun wich is used as an example ofa cass of thing: “Acar mut be insured = All cars cor stb insured ‘old mente lve = All hve weeded needs lowe. With 2 noun complement. Tis nctdes names of professions: ‘hasan earthquake. She'll boa dancer, He ison actor, In certain expressions of gut tof ‘coupe ‘great many 4 docen (but one doen is also possible) (hpreat dea of 15ce With certin numbers ‘zhundyed a thousand (See 349.) efoe half when half fats 9 whole number al = oe and half Rs or ilo anda hal But teke = haifa inn a before ha though a + half + noun ie ometimes possible ‘haholdey halfportion a holfshave wi, ete aie orale third, quarter ets but ope also posse e380) In expressions of pic, speed, ratio et. ‘Spakilo aiamatre stay lelomelves an hour Top a dicen our fies a day F (tere a/an = per) In exclamations before singul “Such omg quena! Wht prety git! ‘Suc lone gues! What prety gi? (Pura nouns, s0'n0 stile See'3.) countable nouns Bat 1 can be placed before Mr/Ms/Mise + sumame: "er Smith a Sirs Smith a Mise Sth «2 Mr Smite moans “aman eiled Smith’ ad impbes that he sa stranger to the speaker. Mr Smith without a imps tat the speaker knows Me Smith of knows of hi existence (or the diference between aan and one, see 4. Fora few and @ Tittle see5) Omission of aan yan is omitted Before pra nouns fan hae no paral form, So the plural of «dog is dogs, ‘nea one, Before uncountable nouns (see 15) Before mimes of mess, except when these are preceded by an adjecuve We have breajas at eight. “He gave usa good breakfast. ‘The are ie also used when its a special mea given to celebrate something oF in someone's honour seas sted 0 der (a thet house. inthe ordinary way) but Tras ime diner pen 10 elcome the ew ambassador 4 2 Artces ‘alan and one Afan and one (adiective) ‘When counting or measuring time, distance, weight etc. we can use either alan or one forthe sng. ‘1'= alone pound £1,000,000 ~ a/ons milion pounds (See chapter 36) ‘But note that in The vent £1004 week the m before wee isnot tepacesbe by one (see 2F) nother typeof statement a/an and one are not normaly interchangeable, because one + noun normally means “one only/not ‘more than one" ad aan tines ot une this “A shogun iso ood. (Us the rong sort of thing) ‘One shotaun i mo good. (need two or thece) Special dees of one {@) one Gadjectiverpronoun) used with another/athers ‘One oy) wanted to read, onitherlothers waned fo tatch TV. (See 53) (One day he wanted his teh cary, another day he wanted it late. (b) ome can be used before day/eek manth/uaysummer ener et before the name ofthe day or month t denote 4 particular time whet something happened: ‘One might tere was a terrible storm. (Ome wintar the sow el early. One daya telegram arrived. (© ome day can also be uted to mean at some fture date ‘One ay yo tbe sorry you treated hie so bay (Some day would also be posite) (Por one and you. soe 08) ‘A/an and one (pronoun) ‘ome isthe pronoun equtvalent of a/an: Did you get aticket? ~ Yer, mamaged to get oe ‘The purl of ome used in ths way some: ‘id you get ckets? ~ Yee, T managed to get some a little/a few and little/few a littettte (adjectives) are used before uncountable nouns litle slit sat a fewlfew ajctves) are used before pra nouns: 1 feu pope people All for forms can alo be used a8 pronouns, either alone or with of Sugar? = A ite, please Only afow of these are ay gd, 4 litte, a few (adjectives and pronouns) ‘litle is smell amount, or what the speaker considers a smallamount. a few is a smal number, of what the speker considers a Sra nomber . ‘only placed before a itdela few emphasizes thatthe number or moun really ss small inthe sealers opinion ‘Only a fo of or catomers have occu But quite plised beforea few increase the number considerably Thave qt a fw bosks on at (gute el of books) litte and few (adjoctves and pronouns) tte and few denote searety oF lack and have almost the free of segative: There was lt ime for coneutation Lite 8 tse about the sift ofthis drug Few tnt hove such splendid tree ‘This ute of ltto and few = mainly confined vo wsiten English (robably because in conrersston Het tn few magi easly be ‘ustaken for a littela fawn conversation, therefore litle and few fate normaly eeplaced by hardly any. A nepative vero + much/many 5S aso possible We sa litle ~ esa hardly amything/We didn’t ee mach. Towrats come here bat fo say oncrnigat = ‘Tounts come here but har amy stay overnight But litte and few can be ured mote freely mbes they are qualied by 5, eo, foo extromely,cntparatvly, lately ete fewer (comparative) cr also be wee! move trl. Tom umuling oo 1 drag 1 Knows te about They have to may technscan, have fo fo. Thee are fewer bate every 0? a tietetette (adverbs) a litite can be use: (G) with verb: ra ite during the might “They grumbled te about havin fo wet (© with favourable” ctiver and adverbs (tie ansiows eile wmualingly. SG tite annoyed ale impatient (© with comparative actives or adver: “Tie pope should bea lit ack. Canyon sata litle faster? rather coud replace a ite in ©) and can ago be used belore comparaives (see 42, tough a litle more asia, In cologal Engen bm could be used inst of ete inal the shove cuamles Tittle ic used chien with etter oF more in fay forma tye: “is second suggestion was litle (~ notre) eter th hs fs, “He was lite (= not mach) more Dama child whem his father did ean aso informal Bngish, be paced Hefore certain verbo, for example expect, nw, ssc, think: Het expected tof himself prison, ett thought that ome day Note aso the adjectives lit noi and ite-ud ‘lite hnonen ainer a teased footpath the (the definite article) {he the same for singular and plural and for all genders: the boy the git the day thedoys the gis the days Use “The deite articl is use When the abject or group of object is unique or considered to he nique ‘he earth the sky the equator the stars Before a nous which has become definite ata result of being mentioned “ts car struck ates eu cam sill 6 the mark on the te, Before'a noun made dette by the addition ofa phrase or clause Chitin Bae the an sk the barner the ey that Inet the pace where Ine him Before 2 noun which by raion of locality ean represent only one “lnm i nthe garden, (he garden ofthis Rouse) ‘Pease pace te ene te we onthe table) ‘Sima’ the postman (be one who comes to) the ear (our ear, the newspaper (ie one we rad Before superlatives and fir, second ote. used a8 actives or pronouns. and ont the first eck) the sea the test day the only way ‘he singular noun can represent class of animals o¢ things: The whale ss dangerof becoming extinct The deepest has made life rasa for housewives But man, sed to represen: the human ace, has no arte ‘od supes ray owt. am may hase fo fall ack 0m the hore the cin be uted befor somber ofa ert group of people “he smal shaper i finding fe mereacoaly dieu the + singular notin use above takes a single verbs The pronoun Ish, she ort The st-class traveller pays mares hy exbcts some comfort. the « adietive represent clas of persons Ihe ld = old peopie in general (ete 22)EB the is used before certain proper names of seas, rivers. groups of islands, chains of mountains, paral names of countries, deserte, Fesons The Aantic the Netherlands ‘he Thames the Sahara the Azone the Crimea the Alpe the Rivera and before certain other names the City the Mall” the Sudan the Hague the Strand the Yemen the is also used before amer consisting of tun + of + noun the Bay of Biscay The Gul of evico (he Cape of Good Hope the Umted States of America ‘the is sed before names consisting of aajetive © noun (rove the stiecive i not csr wes fe the Arabian Sea the New Forest the High treet the is used before the adjectives castes ete. + noun in certain ‘he Eas/West Ed the North/South Pole ‘bo normaly omitted ‘South Anca North America West Germany the, however, is used before eatnest ete. whet these are nouns ‘the north of Spain the West \geogeapcal) the Middie Best” the West (pots Compare Go north verb: th a nother direction) with fe ives i he orth (pour: an ea nthe arth. ‘the Ease nies the is used before other proper names consisting of adjective + noun oF ous of = noun ‘he National Gallery the Tower of London tis also used before names of choirs, orchestras, pop grouns et, ‘the Bach Choir "the Phladtpaia Orchestra "ihe Bucs, ‘pd before mes of newspapers (The Times) nd shina (he Great Brain, the with names of people has a very ited use. the + pra surname fan be used to mean "the fay’ "he Smite = Mr and Bs Sih amd children) the + singular name + clalse/phrase can be tat to distinguish one person fom another ofthe same nan Weave two My Smiths Whisk do sow want? ~ I want the Mr ‘Sith who signed this eer the is used before ties containing of (the Due of York bat iis not ‘ese before other tiles or ranks (Lord tier, Captain Cao), though if Someone is referred to by Uleira alone the is ued The earl extected «The catain ordered Letters wniten to to oF more unmarried sisters oily may be addressed The Mises «surname! The Mises Smith, Omission of the The definite atic fs not use: Before names of places except as shown above, or before names of people Before abstract nouns except when they are used in a particular sense ‘Mo fear death at The death ofthe Prime Miniter Io his party without leader After noun inthe possessive case, of a possessive adjective the boy's wcle he unica ie boy is my (ue ook = The (ae) Bok is mine Before names of meals (but see 3 C): The Sets have porridge for reakast bux The wing brafas! as held om her father’s hose, Before names of games: He plays go Befoce parts ofthe body and ates of clothing, a8 these normaly prefer a possessive aecive ‘Raise your right hand. He tok off his coat, ‘But notice that Sentences ofthe tye ‘She seit the cat's clay 1 pated his shoulder, The bic ht Jon's ace. ‘She Sized the cild by the collar 1 pte him om he shld ‘The back ht Jon nthe face Simin the passive ‘He was fat onthe head. He was cin the hand Note that in some European languages the defite article is used before ‘ndednite plural nouns but that in English the ts never used in this wa) Women are especed to like Babies, tues momen in Genera Big hoes allover the wor are very mach the same le we put the Before women inthe fst example e would mean tht we ‘were refering toa parscalar group of women, ‘ature, where it means the spit cresting and mtivating the world of ‘Blnts ind anigals ete, used wathout the’ ‘W/sou trfere stn mature ysl sir for Omission of the before home, before church, hospital, prison, school etc. and before work, sea and town home ‘When home is uted alone, es not preceded of flowed by & Aesenpive word or phrase, the i omiied ‘He seat home,Anke ate 1 some used alone can be placed drctly afte a verb of maton or verb of ‘motion + abject, te seen be tested sean adver ‘He wont home. Tare home after dark. Tent hiv ome, ‘But when home is prececed or flloted bya descriptive word or phrase sis eated lke any athe nou They went tthe naw home re arived tthe bride's has or some soar hi was the home of yor queen ‘Ad asthe nly hone he had eer eno bed, church, court, hospital, prison, school/college/university the is not used before the nouns listed above when these places are ‘sted or used for thet pronary purpose. We so: Yo bed to step or astvalids fo hespal a patients to church to pray {0 pizon a6 provers tocnurt as Wigans ete, fo sehoo/eollegeuniersiyto ety ‘Simaary we ean be: ‘bed, sleeping or testing in host! ae patents Stehurch at worthgpers, at sthvol et. a students We cane/get back for aiget home) fron shoal/ollogniversy, ‘We can leave schol, lease hospital, be Teleased rom prison ‘When these paces ace sisted or used for other reasons the i Tent to the church to ee the stained glass He gest he prison somtimes ogee lecture. ‘We go to sta a8 alors, To beat sea ~ to be on a vovage (as passengers crew) Bit t goo or best hea ~ tago oF beat fe seaside. We can saolive y/near the sa work so office ork place of work is used without the: "Wes. his may fo work He sa ork Ie ten back rom work Note tata work can aso mean working”: hard at work = working tard He's hard tw ne pt os afc (= place of workd needs te: He satin the office. ‘Fete in gett tne) means to ola fal aus pole) Doniion Tobe oof ace ~ tobe mo longer pow. {he an be omited when speaking of the subs or speakers own Wego to ten somatimes o buy cathe. eter in tou at Monday. 9 this/these, that/those (demonstrative adjective thie/thes trative adjectives and A Used as adectves, they agree ith ther nouns ‘he ony adjectives to cots renter They Ths beach was que em last year Phas xt ae oon ut tt od of May What does that note nays 00 ere Phat ection cased month ago, He was ‘isised on thé Phat nigh the factory went Do yo se tose bint ate topo th es “kong thislthese/thatthone > nous 6 sometimes, for emphass, used in Ths tof mine det That car of amherst Remarks made with these pic sways, untvourbte bstead of your etc, + noun thawing much effec. {ateass breaking dan ate usally, though not necessa isithese, that/thoxe used 9s pronouns Ths mo umbrella Thats youre Phase are the old elessroms. Phase ar the new ones, nella an our here> — Tas To {ase concen nC minor by Via 48s 0 TOR): This © my rther Hugh, ABN (to HUD: Hugh, ths To Toe, this te i on a we Sl is Phey're dieing up my road. They do this every sunset " Heit Tea od fe Wis thee Bae Ne to sey> {histone havthose sd wih onctones Whe there sees compares Secton, he pron anefones iy oer pcedaer exe demonstra, This chairs too lw Ti stn ha oe J like this (one) best. foe {ike this Bae oetese Bae onesNouns Kinds and function “There ace four kinds of noun in Engh: Common nouns: dog. mam, table Proper nouns: France, Madrid. Mrs Smith, Tom ‘Abutract nouns: Beau chav, courage, fear. 37 Cotective nouns: crow, lock, group, swarm. eam ‘A noun can farction a: ‘The subject of a verbs Tom ante ‘The complement of the verbs be, become, rem: Tom i a actor The objet ofa verb: f aow Tors ‘The object of preposition: P spoke © Tom ‘Arnoun can abo be i Use posuessive case” Tom's books. Gender Masculine: men, boys and male animals (pronoun he/they) Feminine: women, gs and female animals (pronoun she/they) Naitér inanimate things, animale whose sex we dont know and fometines bales whote sex we don't Know (pronoun ithe), Exceptions: ships and sometimes cars and other vehicles when ‘eyarded with afection ot respect are considered leminine- Counties ‘when referred toby name are ako normally considered lemnine "he ship struck a iceore which trea ge hole se her side Scorn lst many of her rarest man ino are ebalions. Masculine/feminine nouns denoting people Ditlerent forms @) boy, get ‘entioman, tady som, daughter bachelor spinster husband, wife wel, aut truseroom, bride mancworman wider, wide father mother epee, sce Main exceptions aly infant selaive oni erent Spouse cousin elation onager () dike, dhess ing, queen prince, princess fart, countess Tord aay 12 2 No ‘The majority of nouns indicating cccupation have the same form: ca ter pute ‘assistant dancer dacor oe Main exceptions ‘actor, actress ost, hostess conductor comducrese managers Ie eres Steward, stewardess Alco saicsmn, salencoman ete, but sometimes person is used insteac ‘of man, oma: salesperson, sbobesperoon Domestic animals and many ofthe lager wild animals have diferent forms ul, cow duc, drake ram, ese’ stallon, are Sick ton nde, goose ae ders Others fave the same form Pras ‘The plural of» noun is wally made by sing t the singular: ay, dave dog, dogs house, houses ‘sis pronounced / ater 9p, Kor f sound. Otherwise iis Bronounced When sis paced after ce, ge, se or e an exten syllable (zi is added tothe spoken word. Other pra forms Nouns ening ino or ch, sh, oF x form their purl by ading 08 Yomato, tomatoes "Brush Brasher "hog, bexer ‘church, churches ee ives But words of foreign origin or abbreviated words ening n oad | “dmmamo, dmemae mono, kimonos Int, oe hots, patos When cod serch sh to the spoken word, iano, pianos Soprano, sopranos OF x an extra sylable Gz faded Noun ening in yftowing» consonant form thet para by roo the y and adding ies: ” me i ae min unin fi ay ae outa isl xm a Sa ide torte aya lot es gy ‘Twelve nouns ending in For fe drop the for fe and add ves. These ous are cal all, ne ea, We, lof, el shee, hel the tei, wah “oat loaves wolf wolves te tf, wives 252 Nowe . “The nouns how, scarf and wharf take eter 8 or ves in the pha: hoofs or hooves sans or scarves whars or whares ther words ending in For fe asin the ordinary way: if lis hander, anders safe, safes | few nouas form their pial by @ vowel change: Yoo Jee wae ee mouse, mice ‘eosin gcse mam mon loth, eth “The purse of child and ne are children, oxo [Names of certain creatures donot change in the paral Jah swocmalyunebanges fiokes exists bute uncommon, ‘Some types of uh do ot normaly change nthe purl an ike samen trot od Place Saud” —trbot ‘nackerst bout fused ina plural sete they would take a plural verb, (Others add ‘habe ‘ervings sardines fis Iobsters sharks eer shesp on" chenges ne shop, tuo she, ‘Sportsman who shoot disk. paride pheawant etc, use the same form fox singuae at plural. Bat other people normally add forthe plurals ducks, porridge, pheasants. "The word gome, eed b} sportsmen to mean ay arimalanmals hunted, in aways in the singular rand takes a singular verb few other words don't change “incr, ovat ostboats) guid (lang for 81) nance! arristers working in court) Some measurements ani unvers do ot change (Gee chapter 90) For uncountable nouns, see 13. Collective nouns, ev, family, eam ete, ca take a sngular of plural Sorby sing if we consider the wordt mean a single group oF un ‘On feo she est or pial fe take to mean » numberof individuals: (Ou team are cern tha et ers When 2 poraenive adjective is necessary, a pra verb with thelr is ‘nore usual than 2 singuse verb wth fa, tough sometimes both ace “he jury is considering te veri. The hut are consis he verdict Certain words are always plural and take a plural verb ‘other flice i bpante pyjamas trowsirs ete and tools an instruments concisting of to parts Tnocilers pers sassors spectacles lass faaler shears ele 2% ‘Also certain other words chiding rms (weapons) ‘otiars Sage ompensaton) rm artes mings oe Sota fats se fens exetbie) pi a srs im ‘nts Seronnings 6003 ‘pains (trouble/effort) Sohuabies ‘A number of words ending ines, acoustics, athletics, ethics, hysterics tomato ct hae a ‘take a plural verb: " rm cormaty His mathematics are wa, But ames af slences can sometimes Mathematics son ect snance, sete sie Words pr inform bet sings n meaning include news: Themen good we contain dete umf ckts shines scat games Sitar dns St mines, Some words which stun hi orginal Greek or Latin for make Plurals according to the rules of Greek and Latin; Ket raion Piast Paral ‘memorshtom menorande Buc itme ion he Ea aes dogma, digas" oto, gynasis Jorma, formulas hug odes sae by cenit) Sometimes tere ae wo ur fore nitrate “appendis, appendises ce appendices medal terms) {eni,ependcs (denis oo ‘ter indens foo) nds thera) Musca tony prefer tao para for or Ran mia em ‘et tbe ent tong Buca to aso posable: nts eps Compound nouns [Normals the lst word is ade plural: ‘hosiends“tyeakins travel agents ‘Bu whore mam and omar i refited bt arts are made pa ‘men drivers women drivers aoe craushes ‘henomenon, phenomena rian rad13. ‘The ist word is made plural with compounds formed of verb + er “héngerson lokere-on runners and with compounds composed of nem + preposition + noun Tadessinswaiingvistrs-inlaw wanda fcour! Initia ea be made puta “MPS (Members of Pasament) VIPs (wary important persons) OAPs old age pensioners) ‘UFOs tanidentiied tying obect) Uncountable nouns (also known as non-count nouns or mass nouns) Names of substances considered generally lead’ tram gold paper” tea eer dust” te and ater loth in jam Soap ‘fee lass ail” sone tod Absteact nouns ‘adice experince horror pi eau fear information eb courage “help Fenotedge” Suspicion lath hope movey work ‘A soniered wneunatie in Engh ‘aguas damage agage shopping comping furniture parking eather “These, with hair, information, knowledge, us, rubbish are sometimes ‘countable in other languages, Uncountable nouns are always singular and ate not used with aa: T don't want fan) advice or hls. Iwan some) information, “He has had no experince tn this sort of work ‘These nowns are often preceded by some, anno, m ite ete of by nouns sch ab it pice she etc. of ‘bit of news a grain sand a poof jam ‘coke a/soap a pane of glass Shek of afer Gadvopafot apace of advice ‘Many ofthe nouns inthe above groups can be used ina particular sense fd are then countable. They can take alam inthe singular and ean be “sed in the plural. Some examples are given below. ‘hair (all he air on one's head) i considered uncountable, but i we ‘consider each hit ceparaely we say one har to has te “er hairs lack Whenever she finds grey hai hepa owt We drink ee, coffe, gin, bust we ean al fora ep a coe, asm, 0 sins et We drink wine, but enjoy a gond wine. We drink from alas from alice We can walkin woodhovade 2 Nowe ‘perience meaning ‘something which happened ta someone" is countab “He had an exciting experienclume exci experiences (= adventures last soeh seer meaning ‘occupationemploymenta jobs” is uncountable: ON He's boking forveorkifor ab ‘works (paral only ean mean Taetory’ or ‘moving pats ofa machine’ "mors (usaly plural) canbe used of iterary ar tusical compositions ‘Shakespeare's complete woke Some abstract nouns can be wed in particular sence with aan: help: My chitdrem area great help to me relict Twas a rei oot doen a knowledge + of “He had good hoe dge of mathematics. 4 dislike'dread/hatred/horror/love + of also possible: “love of musica hatred of valence ‘4 mercy pity/shame/wonder can be sed with that-lauses Introduced by ie 1s pity sou weren't here. 1a shame he was pai it « be + apitylshame + intnitve x aise owsbte t8sould be pt to cl down thee tees A good map would bea help rifears, a hope/hopes, a ss ‘These can be used with that-claesintadaced by there: There ts a far/There ar fears that he hasbeen murdre We can leo have a suspcion that Something can arouse fearears, 2 hope/hobes, a suspicion/suspicions ‘The form of the possessive/genitive case "as used with single nouns and plural nouns not ending in ‘mans job Ihe people's choice ‘non war ‘he ee’ quarters {Pssoman's intuition the horse's™manth ‘he butcher's hop) the balls horns (hls sree ‘women's lathes the childven's vom ‘Russia's expos {A simple apostrophe (is used with poral nouns ending in ‘aris school the student hostel the eagles" mest the Smith car Classical names ending in s usualy add ony the apostrophe Prthagoras’ Theorem" Archonades" Lave Sopots” plays Other names ening in scan take = oF the apostrophe lone: ‘Mr Jones's fr Mr Jones" house) Yeates (or Yeats) poems15, ‘With compounds, the lst word takes thes ng brothertrlaw’s guitar Nemes consisting of several words ae treated simiaty “oy the Bighth's wives the Princ of Wales's helicoler 4 ‘scam azo be used ate ins: the PA's secretary the MP's briefcase the VIP's escort Note that when the posessive cate ir uted, the artic before the person oF thing possessed" disappear he danger fh icin = tpi danger ‘he interenton of aerca ~ Amores intervention the play of Shabesjave = Shabespeare's plays Use of the possessive/genitive case and of + noun, “The possessive casei helly used of people, countries or animals a¢ show above. [ean alo be eds (OF ships and boats: the ship's bel the act's mast ‘OF panes, tain, cars and other vehicles, though here the of| construction i fer alder wings orth wings of tide ‘ha rains heating tor the ating sat ofthe train In time expressions: ‘Giveh's holiday todays paper tomorrow's weather {nino ears tine ten minutes break to hows” delay «ten-minuie breah, a 00-hour delay ae aso possible We have to minus break/a ten-minute break, In expressions of money + worth "E's worth of stamps” tom dollars’ worth of ie-rcam With for + noun + sake: for heaven's sake for goodness sake Ina few expressions stch a Stone's throw Journey's end the water's edge We can say either a winter's day oF a winter day and summer's day oF «summer day, but wecannot make Spring ox autumn ponseasive, fSxcept when they are personified Auton return Sometimes certain nouns can be used in the possessive case without ‘he second noun. ae Baker sbutcher's/chemis lors’ ta etn mean ‘a/the baker aftteher's et. show Simaly athe howseagen/tavel agents etc. (fice) and the (ente sdoctor'she'e erger) You can buy it athe chess. Hes going to the dents [Names ofthe owners of some businesses can be used! smart ‘Sotheby's. Clans Some very well knows shops et. cll themselves by the possessive focm and some drop Be apostrophe: Feyes, Harrods 16 a Names of people can somatines be used smaty to mean We had unch at B's, We met at Ann's ‘9f + noun is used for possession ‘When the possessor noun s followed by ¢ phrase or cause: ‘The bays ran about, cing the direc of man ah whistle, 1 ook the adsie of a coup Teton the tain and red ca With inanimate ‘possessor', except those listed in A above, the walls ofthe toon the rn ofthe church" the hs of the car However, is often possite to Feplace noun X + of + noun Yor oun V+ noun Xia that onder ‘he lowe alls the earch oof the ear hes ‘The frst noun becomes a sort of aiective and not made pra {he roof ofthe churcher ~ the church roofs (see 10) Unfortunately noun + of + noun combinations cannot always be replaced inthis way andthe stadent advised to use of hen doubt Compound nouns Examples ofthese "London Transport ‘Bact Street Toney ‘Bridge “al or re warn ia an tehenabe Neto thes "Ba ‘Noun + gerund ‘al in Morey driving oat mining inci iti "id swaching ur ning Gerund + noun Maing at \icing-board rising cence Madina \tinna-roome——Seamauing pst Some ways in which these cominations can be used When the second noun beloag to of part ofthe frst: ‘shop window’ pices frase allege iby ax mht” Borengctepatleer at words denoting quanti any, fart, ese et. camat be se 1 pice of ake a slic of bread ‘The frst noun can incate the pace ofthe second ‘eg tet corner bop county Nae vet market ‘The frst noun can indicate te time ofthe second ‘summer htitay”‘Senday paper INowenber ‘sprngowers aun chore we‘The ist noun can state the mater of which the second is made: ‘tel door Wopeliadder gold medal, ‘tone alll shart not and wood are not used here as they have adjective forms woolen nd wooden: gold hasan aijecive form golden, bat this eset ony faurasvety olden handshoke a golden opportunity golden hair ‘The fst noun can also state the power/fuel used to operate the second Wher ire trol engine ‘oil tone “The frst word can indicate the purpose ofthe second copes cup Teseape hatch ohess board Vreading lamp Iekatng rink — tn opener ‘tr cae ‘notice Beard Yootall ground Work areas, such a factory, farm, mine ce, can be preceded by the ‘ame ofthe article proses “fchsfarm—oldmine lie for the type of work done: "inspection pl ascombly Nant Uacompresion chamber “Thete combinations are often used of occupations, sports, hobbies and ‘the people who practise them "Cnt farming Isher farmer pop singer tind sarin eater heyy nd for competitions: Mootall match Yennis tournament bean contest ear raliy “The frst noun can show what the second is about or concerned with, [work of fiction may be a detective murder teryshesthoror sy Story. We buy tusriainiplane tickets We pay tel any? Imilcephome Bills ay fs income las, ear trance, wal ra, Sorkin ne Simlany sith committees, departments, talks, conferences ete "housing commits, wucton departnent, oa ta ‘These categories all overap to some extent. They ate not meant to be rutuaty exchsive, but aim to give the student some general idea 0 he thes of these combinations and help with the sess [As willbe seen from the stress marks above “The ist word is stressed in noun + gerund and gerund oan combinations, when theres a dea of purpose a= in BS above, and in combinations of type B? an BS above, Both words are usualy stressed in combinations of types Al, B13 hove, but mevitably there are exceptions. In place-name combinations both words wsualy have equal stress: "King's Road Waterloo'Bridge 'Laceter Sguare But there is one important exception. In combinations where the ast sword is Strsh the word Stet = unseessed "Bond Steet Oxford Steet 5 Adjectives Kinds of adjectives “The main kinds are (@) Demonstrative hi, that, these, thove (ace 9) (by Distbtive: each, every (46); either, meter 49) (© Quantitative: some. an, no (80); leew (5: mans, much (25); one, twenty 249) (a) Imerrogative hick, what, whose (54) (@) Possessve: my, our iz ert. our, wr, ther (62) (© Of quality: ele, dry. fa, poder, good, eaey, square (19) Partsiles used a adectives Both present participles (ng) and past participles (ed) can be used ae aijectives, Cae must be taken not to confuse them. Present partie ‘jectves, amusing, boring, tring ete are active and sea “having this effect! Past parce adjective, amucad, arrted, fred ete are passive and meat lfected inthis way ‘The play was bring. (The sade wos bored.) ‘The work wasting. (The wotkers were soon tired.) The scene wos horribing. (Che spectators were hore.) «an interiating woman (She made us fia) {an infuriated woman (Something tad mae et frou.) “Ajectves in English have the stme form for singular and plural nasclin and lemsnine oun "2 good boy. good bore a goad grt, good gts “The only exceptions are the demonstrative actives this and that, ‘which change to these and those before plural nouns ‘tis cah, these cats thal man, those men Many adjectvesiparcpis canbe followed by prepositions: good a, fad of (2 98), Position of adjectives: attributive and predicative use Adjectives in groups a) -(e above com before their nouns: ‘is Book sehich boy my dag Adjectives inthis poston are called atributive adjectives Adjectives of quality, However, can come ether before their nouns: “arich mana happy rh2 Adios or ater verb sich 36 (Be, Become, sem "Fam became rch, Avin ses apy cor ©) appear, fst, stig (= become), Ae, look (= appeat), mae, mal, son, taste. ‘Fame cold. He gtfgew impatin. Herade her hat. The dea sounds teresting Adjectives inthis position are caled predictive adjectives, Verbs used inthis way ace aed nk verbs of opus. [Note on link verbs (se alto 163) [A problem mith vesbs in 3) sbove ie that when they are not used as lnk verbs they can be modied by adverbs nthe usual way. This ‘Conftses the student win ofen tes to use adverb instead of ‘Setives after ln verbs Some examples with adjectives apd adverbs tay hep to show the dlerent sea Helooked aim (asec) ~ He had calm expression [He looked catty (adverb) atthe angry crowd. ooked here isa tetberte ton ‘She turned pale adjective) = She became pate “He turned ari (ven) f the man okind him, (harmed ere sa deuberate acuon ) ‘Tae soup tasted horde (adjective). (It hada horble taste) Hetasted the soup snopiciousy (adver). aed here is 4 deliberate ction) Some adjectives canbe wed only tebutivey ont preety Su some change thet meaning when moved from one postion to the omer ‘Bad ood, bix/small, Mea ight sold sed in such expressions bt olin: versal form an Ser at Sep ald bontrendsbc etc be tea peteatvey abot ‘fang the eating small fooner an wh has asm but efor ssa mans a esta man pyc. Used otheree, the shove adjective cn bem eer psion {Gor tte, old, young se to 195) ets mai inca ser, ter com bos he ou frightened foes be i the psi, but afraid nd upset must fet tne verb Sadao ust aie oat alle re 21'G), alive, lone, ashamed, aneep. Theseanng fey eine may epedon tie potions Sy Reiein eis ane tat te beeetater te proper ne ‘poor meaning witout chong money” can precede the noun flow Sever oor meaning ‘unfortunate’ mist precede te noun oor meaning west/ndeyute” precedes nouns sick 8 student Torker ete: bt when and with mina noua canbe er onto Teka poor ight His sight i poor M Use of and With struiveadectives andi used ciety when tere ae two or wore aectnes fom hs then ed Here he these 1 gen and brown crt hs Beg Wat peated an is el tetcen he ea wo “Fe doy sa ae = Order of adjectives of quality Several vatistion are posible But ary usual onder i adjectives GG) ste ence lee at sce Cheon {© general description (cxcaing aectves of personality, fmocon ee) " (©) age an the adjocive Hite (ee {2 soe . {8 colour {© mater (@ ona {0 patpoe (hese are realy gerund Used to form compound ou wathing Sc, dng Bt) ing sharp bre ama ound bath tw heagona coins bl att cutee Sorel pss aches an cngant Beh cock Adjectives of personhtyemetion com ater aes of physea desertion icing dare. fair, pe, bat bere coins ‘oma apts offal” ion po gate {pale anai t ‘tend back doctor ‘ornate bron og tte, oda young ae oft 5 oun ae of se, 01 sve norman, bt a8 Fert fan aden conbain Tey e ane e ‘their nouns: " ae Four phew emits. That young man dries fa see oun ike Bi We yout When use to sve frmiton, old and young oecupy pon (0 above: " ° youn sled mon ano Web harp geist cn pect bw young Younifin the fst example cartes 9 stronger stress than you int Second, so the ft ordet is beter i we wish to emphasize the sae ite can ened saan postin had te cuatro pene He ht ‘Fitton ech” Tint Bus small ustally better han ede we want 19 emphasize the (or btthe meaning ‘sem amount’, see 6) 620 3 Adjecives| fine, lovely, nice. and sometimes beautiful, + ajectives of sce (except Hite), shape and temperature usualy express approval ofthe Size etc. Irwe sy a bez! big room, aloe warm howe, mcefine thik steaks we imply tate ie bg wens, warm houses and tek steaks fine, lovely and nice can be used sir with «numberof other aibectves: fine stroma coffe lovey quit beach a nice dy day When used predatively. such pis re separted by and The cof was fone and stro, The dey was mice a dy beauties not much sed in this sense as a predicative adiectve pretty followed by another adjective with no comma between them i Inadverb of dogeee mesning very/quite’ She pei al il means Shes quierer tac. But 2 prot tll gil or, more usualy tal rey [it means ge whos both tll an petty. Comparison ‘There are three degrees of comparison Postve — Compartive Supine ical move wet aa One-sylableaijctves frm their comparative and supelative by fling er snd ext to the postive form nght Brighter brghtet ‘Adjectives ending ive add and st ‘rave braver bravest Adjectives of three or more syllables form ther comparative aad Superttive by potting more and most before the postive Imevestad more sntereted ml interested Frightening ore rightwing ost phoning Aajctves of two sylabes follow one or othe of the above rules, ‘Those ending in fal or re usually tke more sd most ‘doubt more doubial mort.deubthad obscure mare obscure ost abscure ‘Those ending in er, or ly wnually aad ery oo ‘lever clever leerest, betty protier priest (note tat they becomes Silly) ter” —ilet Tneegular comparisons for farther farthest of stance only) ‘ether ‘erthest (sed more widely; see F. G) good beter” est, fe Jess deat ‘manvinuch — ore ant oid flier ies (of people only) ‘older Gldest Co people nd things) {artherifarthest and further/farthest Borh forms can be used of distances York is farther /urher than Lincoln or Selby. York isthe forhesturthet fan ot York iste farthest furthest of the tre. (nthe lst sentence farthest furthest are pronouns. See 2B.) farther can also be used, mainly with abate! nouns to mea ‘adiionaextrs arther supplies wil som be aoaiable Frurthr discussion debate woud be points. Sill: further enquirisdelaye/demanderinformation/istrctons ete farthest can be used simary. with abstract nouns This was the furthest pont ey reached in tet discussion. ‘This tas the furthest ences he old make, or advert use, soe 12) {iar (used for distance and near Im the comparative and superlative both can be used quite freely the ferthestfurtiest mowstain the nearest riser But inthe positive form they have a imied woe, far and near are used chiedy with bak ond side, wall ete ‘he far band (ye bank onthe oer side) ‘he near bank (the bak on tis side of the river) ‘ear can also be used with east, and far with mov, south, cast tnd wet With other nouns far is usualy replaced by distant/emote and near by nearty/neightouring: a remote island, the neighbouring lag, For far caivert). see 32 for near (advers or preposition) wee 30 C. Mer, eldest; older, oldest elder, eldest inply seniority rather than age. They ae chef used for comparisons within amy my elder rather, her eldest Boys but elder is ot used with than, 40 older ie necesaaty hore “Hes older than Tay. (elder woud ot be possible) ns colloquial Engish eldest, oldest and youngest are oten used of only two boys/glschlren ste 1s dst boy's a choos the other ssl at home. ‘This particularly cornmon when eldest, oldest are used as Tom ithe eldest. (0 he two) Gee 248)S Adjecuves Constructions with comparisons (see also 341) ‘With the positive form ofthe adjective, we use ax alfimative apd not asinct so.» ain the negative: 1 boy of stent often ail as sft. “He was as white ae chet ‘Manslaughter is nat ele bod a murder Your cife i mot aso poo as the cafe my mother makes, ‘With the comparative we ute than: The mew tower blocks ave much higher tha the ol buildings Hemates fewer estes than you {do “He festronger than especed = Tid’ expect hon tobe so strong ‘eas mare expensiz ean I ight = Tidn' hint oul be a expose When than . "is omtaa tis very common in cologuil English 0 use tsuperitve instead afs comparative: This the bes wa could be $id hen there are only two ways (See comparatives,superatives aed as pronouns, 24 8.) ‘sin the Comparison of three or nore peoplethings is expressed by the Superltive withthe» shot This i he aes hate London The surges ofthe amily was the sot sues Acelative clase is useful specs with s periect tense: This the Best bee (ha) T have ever dn, Ths asthe teorst fim ath he had soe ecm “He isthe hindest mar that) {have ove mt. 1 sas te most worrying day hal) he ad ese spent Note thit ever is used Here, not never. We-can, however, express the same ties with never aid «comparative: “Thane never drank biter Bey. T hve ner at hinder man Head newer spent amare worning das Note that most + aukectr, wiht the, means very You ave most kind nan Vu ae ery kind ‘most meaning very is used many with adjectives of two of mare Syablers annoying, aplatie disobedint, encouraging, sting, hei, inportont sleet Parallel increase is expressed by the + comparative... the + HOUSE AGENT: Do you manta big house? INN! Yes, the bape he Bete. TOM: Bu the smalls the esi wil cot to hot, Gradual increase or decrease is expressed by two comparative joined by ana "The seater is geting colder and colder: He became less and les terested. 8 5 Aajccre F Comparison of actions with gerunds of infntves: ‘Riding hors snot as eay as riding a motor ele Iris mcer’more feta wit someone than to go stone, Gee 341} © Comparisons with ike (preposition) an alike: Tom ivory like Bil Bland Tom are vey alike. ‘Hetheaps the contrat hing fal om. I tke Hing the topics. Comparisons with like and as (oth adverb and adjective expressions fre shown here) In theory Ike (preposition is used only with noun, pronoun or gerund: ‘He swims tie fish. You ook hike ghost Be like Pete hi: go zing he awindous tere al bored. I as lke being in prison and aw (conti) fs urea when these is fe ver Dos Petr doce" 0 sing Wy don't you tet work as we do? But incallouil English like soften used here instead of. (Cyto to work tke de 1 like + noun and ae + noun ‘Te worked lke 2 shave (vesy bard indeed) “He worked asa slave (He wats slave) ‘She used her umbreta asa wen. (She truck im with it) 22, than/as + pronoun + ansiliary ‘A. When the stme verb is requ before and ater than/as we ean use an ably fr the second ves ‘Tear tess thse he does les than he earns) ‘The sime tense need not he sed in both causes: ‘He ows more thon id ats ae When the second clause corsists only of than/ag + Uweiyou + verb, and there is no change of tense it usally posse to ont the ver Tn not as old as sxe (are). He has move time than Ue Chav) 1a formal Engish we keep Twe, asthe pronoun isl considered tobe be subject ofthe verb even though the werd ts been onted. In informal English, however. elu is more usual “He has mor fie tha Thay ave cher thar © When than/as is folowed by he/she « verb, we normally Keep the woth: Vow are stron than he But we can drop the verb and te helshe/they in very formal English (oF hinvher/thenn is very elu! Eglo These rules app also to eemparisons tae with adverbs “enim beter thax be distor than ha iy work harder tha we da/uonder han us, You can't tye as fas as Tcanias fast at me23 3 Ajecsves the + adjective with plural meaning. lind, deaf, disabled, healthyisick, living/dead, rich/poor, ‘unemployed and certuin other adjertives deserbing the fan Character or condition can be preceded by the and used to represent & ‘lass of pereons. Those expressions have a plural meaning, Ory ake Dural verb and the pronoun is they "The poor set poorer: the ih gt rch. the can be used in the same way wth national adjoctives ending ia eh 25 ‘he Dutch the Spanish the Welsh A and can be used simary with national adjectives ending in ge oF the Burmese the Chinese the Japanese th Suse ‘ough tis st possible for these to have singular meaning Note thatthe + adjective here refers toa group of people considered ina general sense ony. If we wish to defer to partiear group. We rst ad a noun “These seats are for the disabled The disabled members of our arty ere bt in free The French tourts complained about the food Some colours can be used inthe plural a represent people bu these take ke nouns! the back, the ites the» adjective can occsionally havea singular meaning Ine acted fperen) the wnetperted hing) Adjectives + one/ones and adjectives used as pronouns Most adjectives can be used with the pronouns one/ones, when foneiones represents «previously mensoned natn ‘Don't buy the expensioe apes get the cheaey ons Hard beds ave heater than cot oes ont mad camera histo a nse ne Simiary wih a auinbee » jective 1 ou haven't pt a big at, to mall ones wl do, Adjecves ned a pronouns freinecond toned who wit onetomes eth can Srna atetns of roms Takin dd you Cae ough he fit oe the epic ted sink Tomi te best ne Th et ws ony tn sd ori the © compare We hss) stone? uc tim tcp cece ater erry, ain ‘loa Epa aspeltine ws ofen wed here hated hae fs) a esa Adjectives of colour can sometimes be used a pronouns: Tike he bie fone) bet Colours of horses, especialy bay, chestnut, grey ae often used as Dronoune an take sin te pura ‘Bovryone expected the chestnut f0 win The coach was dra: our reve ‘many and much (adjectives and pronouns) ‘many’ ad much ‘any (active) is used before countable nouns ‘much Gectve) steed before neountable nouns: He didn't make many misiahes. "We havent much coffe ‘They have the same comparative nd supertative forme more and most ‘more misokescffe mast men/damage ‘many, much, more, most can be used Prono He wits alo of kere but she docs tgel man You havea ot of fcc tne but f heven' much more aid most can be used gute frely, att can many’ and much, with negative verbs (see above examples). But many and much eae ‘Micmative or iterrogaive vesbe havea testrcted ae many and much wth armative verbs many is possible when preceded (he. modified) by a good/a great. Both sre posable when modiied by so/aa/too. ‘made a good many jrends there Bie hes had 0 may job that ‘She read as much athe con Thay drink oo much (end When not modied, many. as obect ot part ofthe object, is usually replaced by a lovTots of (= noun) or bya lot of lots ronoesa) much, a= object or part of the objet, i usally feplneed by sureat/good deal of (« noun) or a wreat/good deat (pronouns) 1s ltt of seabird I expect yn set foe He sends alto off great dea! of money om his house As subject or pst ofthe subject, ether many ora tot (0 etc. can be ‘sed, but much here is normally replaced by one of the other rane, ‘uch however s possble normal English "Much wt depent on what the minister spa Compare negative and afrmative sentences He hasn't won many races, You've son alot of races oF You've om a lot oF You've scon a great many faces) He didn’t at much frit She ate alas of fruit grat dea of frit ot She ata aloe great dea,26 2 Adjectives ‘many and much with inerrogative verbs Bott can be used with how: Flow man fnes? Hw much? In questions where how isnot ured, many is possible, et a tot (of) tes beter when annfrmtive angwer fs earectns Did you take a ot fos? Vex ow imuich without how is possible but the other forms area litle more ‘Did son havea lt of snomuch snow as ear? (or mueh 3s an saver, vee 38) Adjectives + infnitives Some of the most useful ofthese adestives are given below, grouped ‘oughly eccording to meauing or pe, Some asjrtves wih coast ‘meanings may appear in ore thane group. for sdeceees Drepostions see 96) Starred adjectives can as» be used with that causes. Sometimes that. “should s more uo (See 250) In sections B-E, with the excepion of B2, the constructions are Introduced by it. (For inuoductory it, see 67) s Bee Droceded by find/thinkibelleve ete that is somctines posibe to mic that and the verb be ‘He found thai wa possible to study at home efor impossbl study at home. {ts be * adjective + Of + object) + infinitive is used ciel with (@) churacer: brave, careless, cowardly, eruel, generous, good! nice (~ kind, mean, rude, selfish, wicked, wrong occ te, and fair* just right with negative or iterropaive verb, ot © sense: clever, fooisa, idiotic" intelligent. sensible, sli, stupid, absurd", Indierous*, idiculous* and unreasonable* are Sometimes also possible 1 was hind of on bap hi. Vou helps him. This was kin) 1 was stupid of them) to laws Bir bees ouside sheesh ome er) ae Sn sonatines ater group @ athectves,sxcept good and mice’ Wisacion nt re ‘object would change the meaning Of sarod sind nice. Ser By Pronoun + be + adjective + noun + infinitive i so possible with the shove aiectives and with s aumber of others, isdn astonishing", curious”, extraordinary”, finns ~ strange oda queer”, surprising’ etc. ahd pointless, useful, useless ‘eas a sensible preceation fo be That was a wicked thin say, ‘Comments of this type can sometimes be expressed a exclamations What a funny wy to pork acer! What an add tine tha . Ads ‘The adjective is sometimes omitted in expressions of disapproval What sly) way to bring up cha! What @ tine to choce Example with that-clase: TE sranecoddisurpricn that he hast anion. +e 1 adective + innitve fs posse with advisable®, inadvisable", better”, best, desirable", eanentints, food (= asibe), important* necessary unnecessary, seats so ‘wih only ate" just igus Wouldn't be tert walt? ~ No, is esential to book in advance for ~ object canbe alded exept ater good (ene weet tna the meaning: see teow and ater hus Hewat be necessary fort torpor te splice. 1.8 ents ar for thane hones Inessential and unimportant sw net normally used, bot not esventla posi, it + he + aijectve (+ for + abject) + initve is possible with Sonvenient”, dangerous, dificult, easy. hards, poate impossible, cafe, unsafe. For possible that, soe oy Eee Would i be convenient er soto see Me Nes ‘was dangerous {or wer) to go oud atone dark We found it aimostimposrbiet bay pel (See A seve.) ‘The above adjectives, with te exception of possible, ean ice be used in the noun = be + adjective» intintive canterree ‘Ths cabo te eas to mabe The instructions were hand follow: Ths car ton sate die Xe she + adictive/participe + infsitive is alo possible with adjectives nd participles which show the lelings or reactions at she nev ‘areeable ——drsadfd® ———toeey*———teniblet aul” ‘tood"/nies——maraclous* wonder ‘liga Heasend) Splendid” ‘isagecatie —hormbles range ‘and withthe present parties of alarm benilder discourage* excite surprise” ‘amaze Bove stisgst™—rghten teva amuse” depress eotbarrase —hornpe. (ri annoy. apo” — encourage” —tnornr= fun (~ an exciting experience’ and a relief can be used sma Safad tobe alone in such a place CS boring to do the same thing every day He sas depressing to find tie hse opty 4H would be funlecina/niesting fo coe dot the iver Wasa rele to take fou et bots,27 for + object is quite common after lovely, interesting, marvellous, ‘nice, Wonderful and posable ster the other sdjectves i's intresting Gor chile) tose a house beng bul 1 sos marelons Gor the bys) have garden to play i Note that for + object placed after good resticts the meaning of good to healthy/benetiial: 1° good fo you fo take regular exert (good + nine cam ave tvs mening bu can sro mean Dlensantikind/advisable, See B.C shove) BeS"he « adjective » on + infnitive i so possible withthe sbove ‘ejectives/partiiles twas a exciting ceremony to watch 1 was horrible place fo ive (i). Somewhat simar meanings canbe expressed by subject + adjective + Inntive with anges" delighted, dismayed, glad". Bappy” 8 Dleased*, relieved", ands, sorry* andthe past participles of he Werbe in E above: Pm delighed fo se you ‘The most useful nitives hare are fo find/learw/hearse, bat ladinappy'aad/sorry steals often followed by #0 sayelinorm an fometimes by other ifintives: He was fad oleae schol. ‘She'wasdismased 0 find the door locked Subject + be + adjective/partciple + infiative with: able/unable; apt, inclined, liable, prone; prepared, not prepared (~ eady/illing/amwilling) reluctant; prompt, quick, Weare al apt to muskets schon we ty 29 hy ayn inclined to bic him. Taye pread/read to hl hi Hleoas most retctan olen ws the money. “He tans to to reac that tines hed changed = “He realized only slowly that times had changed. Adjectives + infinitive/that-clause/preposition constructions due, due to, owing to, certain, sure, bound, confident © due, used of me, can ake an infniive: The yae ss defo star tom mes, Bat i em alka be sed alone The plane was de (9) a si. Iisa hour overdue due to (preposition) means "ares of The acedent was due carlernese. lowing to means "bocnise of > (ning to as corlesensss we had an accident ‘ue to shoul be preceded by subject + verb, but English people are fareless about this and often begin 3 tentence with due to instead of ‘with owing to, ‘certain and sure take infinitive to express the speaker's opinion, ‘bound is also possible here: “Tam is crtain/sureownd 0 win. The speaker is confident ortis) But subject» certain/sure + chat-clause exprestes the subject's Fm eur that he wil win, Tom confident of victory.) confident that coud replace vertain/sure that above, but confident catot be fosed by an inntive. Sure, certain, confident cin be followed by of + noun/pronoun oF sera: Unless so’ eary sow can't be sure of geting @ set bound con tale an ngntve, ae shown above, but fot a that-clause ound * infinitive can aso mean "ander an obligation’ herding to the contract we are boxed lo supply the materia. afraid (of, ashamed (of, sorry (for or about) Afraid of, ashamed of, sorry for/about + nounlpronoun or gerund ‘She afraid of heightso aling “He seas ashamed of incl? (or behaving so badly)ashamed of lehaving so badly. I'm sony for breaking your window. @polors) Ii sory shout your window. apology ogre) Tm sory for Peer. (G9) afraid, ashamed, sorry can be followed by an infinitive: ‘She eas afraid to speak. (She didn't speak.) Ti be ashamed to tate hs one. don Uwon't take it) "Vi aohamed that I've nothing beter afer you ‘She's afaid (ha) he won't Btow her. eat) Tim afraid (hat) we hase no news. egret) I'm sony that) you ca come (For the difeence in meaning between these three constructions, see 271. For 'm afraid nots, see 347) anxious (about), anxious + infstive, anxious that anxious (« about + noun/pronoun) means worried Tne amour (about To). Hs plame ts overdue bbe anion (+ for» notnipronoun) + iniative = "to desielto wish ney avon (rh) 0 see the Carnival anxious s that + should is posable in very formal English “Phe commitice i anions that as mater shoud be hp secret fortunate and tacky can take either at there i usually a diference of meaning Its fortunate!tucky that usualy means “I's 2 good thing that’ 1 Tuck that Tom has cay. 1 lucy that he pacoed ha test. (Now he ean drive biselt wo the ftaton/take the chideen to the seaside ete) 1s lucky for us Dat he has cay (He can give us ait etc.) {-slase ofan infritve, but3 Adjecives ‘Subject + be + fortunatellucky + infiitive, however, emphasizes the subjet’s good fortune e's lucky to hase a car any people haven't got one) “He was lucy to pass hs test. He wasnt really upto the standard) isiare + fortunate/Iueky + present infitive se sued muy with ‘atic verbe. With was! were or the continuous or perfect ifiative there isa wider choice You were ortonae to scape unharmed. You ae lucky fo Be g0n8 9a Hess hucky 0 hase sold hs ene before they decided to Build the ew airport Ik is icky unlucky can, however, be followed bythe infitive of | ny ver Ts enlucky to Break 2 minor (lt brings misfortene) fortunate and unfortunate are not sed here but can be Used in the ter oonsinucaons, They are chiefly found in more formal Enghah Tae rk e's fortunate ‘Dhirtcen's ms tacky mumber, He's fortunate mon. possible, probable and skely can take a that-clause introduced by ely can also be used with subject + infiative Ia) 1's pssbie that Le'l come foday — (©) Perhaps he'll come/Be may come ioday. {@) It's prohable tha kl come today {) Heil probaiy come today In each case the forms more wal than the (a) but the ehat-lause is Sonventent when we want to molly the adjectives Ts Jusfquite possible tha Tes not vr provable tha ‘With tkety both forme ae equaly use: ‘i's at ely that i'l ome today = Beste ikl 0 come today fnlare + subject + ikely + sniiove is very usefl abit supplies an Itarrogative form for may (= be possible: Ts he kl og day? possible, probable, likely can be used without sthat-clause when it "Do yo think hel sol his hese? ~ 1 quite poesibleProableinly (hat he'll) aware and conscious tke 4 that-clause o of + nounvpronoun oF gerund. Tbe dangerous. ~ Fon aware that i'l be dangerous/l'm anare ofthat. Tas conscious of bing watched = el that somone ee wohing me. consclous used by ise as a physi! meaning: “hed oniy a local anaestete was conscious the whole tne. Adverbs Kinds of adverbs Meno: rch ft, hap, had gy, ml Fic! by do hen une emo tt, Saunas nay en, tie ‘Sentence: certainly, definitly, luckily, surely (40) > Begin rary ae. wey inerrant ose ase os! hem she nyt) Form and use ‘The formation of ad orbs with ly Many adverbs of manner a some adverbs of degre are ding yt the correspontng aajectver ET Pe Formed by final finaly, Smads immeditly slag, sow Spelling tes uy (2) final y changes to: happy. happily (©) Atal ee retained thr clove, exteely Exceptions me duel become bah ah (©) Aalectives nding t'a sonconan ste aoog the ee a eget Simple spl, * Note that the adverb of foo ell ‘Sei monty nda seis cn adjectives or adverbs, but most other adjectives ending in| = tne oncy “sche aed seh ae no reir Hai itary newsman Soph “eb atete) potas adver Frond icive, ape adver pene) Some adverbs have a narrower meaning than thei correspond adits or ier om then, Nn ovresponting coldly, cooly, hotly, warmly are vse mainly of fecings: We reco them coy nah uenly way) dened the accustom hot nigra) ‘She welcomed us warms (intends way30 But warmly dressed = wearing warm clothes coolly = calmly/courageously or ealmlyimpudently’ “He Bhased tery cool thse dangers situation presently = soon! He'll be here present {See also 30 B For barely, seareely, sce 4d. For surely, seed A) c Adverbs and adjectives withthe same form 1 ack hard” te ight deep ugh? tone Shar tect tour sar forty st chy moretmost* Straight fonowph nly ar oa fie late pratiy® ‘rome fast ten set 8 below. Used as adverbs Used as adjectives: Come act soo Phe back door Yu eam dit Rome diet, fhe most det roe A Tie trai sot fst jas trie Dey worded hard (energetcaly) ‘The work i had al made rod You lat sleet Term right here re vight answer ‘She eon tight home {stig ine Hie ted ws rons ‘This he wrong say, Starred words above also have ty forms. Note the meanings. deeply i used chiey of feings: te was deeply offended. directly can be uoed of Sime or connection “He'u te hore dives. wor Soon) > ‘The ne rguiations wal of us directigvindively (For hardly, see 44) Inighly To used only in an abstract sense: et “le was a highly paid ofeal. They spoke very hight of him, Juustly corresponds fo the adjective just (fai, righ, lw, bat fuse A {an leo be am adverb of degree. (See 41.) “ase ou se bin lately? © almost: Im sary rod, prettily corresponds fo the abective pretty (attractive) Her ite iis are alse prety dese ‘But pretty can also be an aver of degree meaning very "The sxam was prety dificult. rightly canbe aoe! wiehs past poticiple to mean justly or correctly "He was rightly pursed. Teas rightycoretiy informed: Bat in each cate the second adverb would be more wal shortly = soon, briefly or curtly. ‘wrongly can be used with a past parte You were wrongly ncorecty) informed. But He acted wvonaly could mean tat tis action ws either incorrect ot morally ron Tong and near (adverbs) have a restricted use Toner, longest can be used without resection it took longer tha | eect. But long is used mainly in the negative or interrogtive: “ow Tong wil take get here? ~ In take lon, In the lftrmative to0/s0 + long or long + enough is possible. Alternatively a long time cin be used “onl take to lone 1 would take a Tong time In conversation fr) a tong time soften reptce by (on) ages: tok a aes fo gt ther hearer, nearest can be used without restriction ‘Don't come any nearer ‘But near inthe positive fom is usualy quaifed by very/quite/sovtoc or enough They ive gute near You're near enough ‘The preposition near with noun, pronoun or adverb is more generally vet ‘Don't go near the ed. The sh sak near here far and much also have a eestricted uss. See 32 and 98, Don't come to near, ‘Comparative and superlative adverb forms ‘With adverbs of two or more syllables we form the comparative and superlative by puting more and moat belore the postive Torn Siperiave Positive Comparative ‘ty forty ‘more guy ore frnately mst uh rst fortuna Single-sylable adverbs, however, and early, add er, est: hard harder handest arly earlier ave! (ote the y becomes i)a3 Irregular comparisons Seal hater best ody tore worst tae” Jar” Ferher Fates stance ony Jha ‘artes (sed moee widely: see 32.8) far, farther/farthest and further/furthest ‘Those ke faieifarthent, canbe wie a8 adverbs of eee eal ogo any fartherfather inthis fo PG Ai tt stl Shoal tole Mi Gen rth al nd ssd tht gu of td shoul won far nthe comparstive and superlative can be used quite fee a camara . Re aca one em arr aaa peer ae et os ee eae ieee eer a Phe sts fay better than I do. Thy wathe to far He drs for too much much, more, most sare and moat cin be wed fly eh sho de mage ite rom ma Buc much nthe pots fora, eater ee such meaning 9 ot cin ody negative vert: “He deo ne ch nonade nthe iterrogative much is ciel used with how. In questions Without Row, much i posible bt alot mete su How ma has he niddin? Has he ridden a ouch? |n the affirmative asisoiton + much is possible, Otherwise a Lots {good deala great deals prefers "He shouts <0 rch the! Talk too much. But He ella great seat Very much meaning greatly can be used more widely in the affirmative. We can use with Blame, raise, tae and with a outnber fof verbs concerned with feces: adr, amuse, approver dike, ‘ites, eniey, pres, like, ject shack, surprise ‘Dank ow ner much." They adi hm wey ach, She objets sy ch bth pose they mae much (= greatly), with ce sihout very, can be used withthe Dartcples Sdmired, amused, dcined,ditressed, impressed, ed, Shocked struc, et “He was (ory) much adr. ‘She eas (xn) much pressed by her good mane ot can modity comparative or superlaive adjectives much too canbe used with possve forms much he beet much more quickly “He spoke much to fa ‘most placed before an ajestve or adverb cam mean very. I is tsinty ‘sed Mere with adectives/tverbe of two or mare aylatiey “He scas most oologete She behaved mor protons. Gee C} Constructions with comarisons (see also 341) When the same verb is restr in both aunllary forthe second ver’ ore 22, With the postive frm we vse 08 Aso as mith a negate verb: ‘We worked a south ae dared 1 din’ take asi long asf expoted ‘Causes we normally use an 8 with an affemative ver, and With the comparative form ne use than He eats more quick the I Sorthan me. He played beter than hha eer pled ‘They arrived earlier tha fexoced ‘the + comparative. the + comparative i also possible: The eater you sir ds sooner yt Be back \bd ‘With the superiative itis possible to use of = noun: "Te went (he) furthes ofthe explores ‘But this constriction is not very common and such a sentence would ‘normaly be exprested by 3 eomparstive, as shown above, ‘A superlative (thot the) + ofall ss quite common, but all hece ‘tte refers to other acins bythe same subject “eles swrmming best of al. better than he Bikes anything else) of all eam then be ome For comparisons with like and a, see 20 1. Position Adverbs of manner Adverbs of manner come after the verb “She danced beauty oralter the object when there i one: ‘He wave her the money reluctantly. They speak English ll. Do not put an adverb betueen verb sind objec When me have verb + preposition = object the adverb can be either before the preposition or after the obec. Te looked at me suspiciously o He lode suspiciously at me ‘But the object ontaine a numberof words see put the advers before the preposition “He looked suspiciously at everyone who go of the lane Sealy with verb object sentences the length ofthe object fects the postion ofthe adverb. Ifthe object is short, we have vero + object ‘saver, a2 shown in B above, Buti the object is long we tse Put the adverb before the ver She cays picked pal the bits of broken as. “He angrily dened tha hs had stolen the documents. ‘Dey secrty decide ta etn te foun, [Note that if an aver is placed ater a cause ofa phrase, its normally considered to mofy the verb ia that cause phase, I therefore, we ‘move seertly to the end ofthe last example shove, we change the ‘Diy secretly decided. (The decision was secret.) ‘hey decided to ease the toon see. (The departure Was tobe tecret) ‘Adverbs concerned with character and inteligence, foolishly, generously, Kindly, stupidly et, hen planed before a ser, Indicate thatthe action was fooiskind generous ete “olishly jorgt my passport. He generonsl paid for ws al He indly wasted for me.” Would yu kindy sat? 4 Aaver® Note that we could ako express such ideas by: 1 as olih of fo forget 1 cas Rind of hi to ah Would you te kind enough to wait? (See 252.) ‘The adverb can come ater the verb or after verb + object, but the meaning then changes ‘He spoke kindly = His woe and wands were kind ‘snot the same as 1 was hin of hm fo speak fo us “He pod us generously = He pod mae than the usual rate fot the same as 1 war goniro of him to ay us Note the diference between ‘He onsered the questions folshty (His answers were fooish) and He folshy answered the questions. (Answering was folsh twas foolsh af him to answer atl.) ‘badly and well canbe used a adverbs of manner or degree. As verbs of manner they come ater an active very after the object oF before the past partple n'a passive ver ‘He behaved body. He read wel, He paid her badly. ‘Ske spas French wel, ‘Ske uns badly pod. The tp mas wel organic badly as ot adverb of depree usually comes after the objector before the verb or pat partie The door nec coat of aint badly/The door badly needs a coat of pint 1 as badly injured i the lat math ‘ell (degree) and well (manner) have the same position res: 1d lieth sea wll done “He knows the on wel ‘Shake the Boe wel. The chilven were well eahped wp. ‘he meaning of well may depend on is poston. Note the diference Yow hoe well that I cat drive (There can be no dou a your ‘mind aboot this) and You know that can’t dive welt. Um nota good diver) Well canbe pce after may/mighé snd Could to cinpaze the ‘robebilty of an ction “He ay well refuse = IL quite likely that he wi efi or may/night ws well, see 288} somehow, anyhow ‘ somehow (= in some way or other) canbe placed inthe front postion or tera ver without objector after the object ‘Somehow they managed.” They managed somehow. ‘They raised the many somehow. anyhow as an adverb of manner is nt common, Buti is often used to sean in any easelanyway" (See 327)36 Adverbs of place away, everywhere, here, nowhere, somewhere, there ee, there is no object, thess adverbs are usually placed after the ver ‘She went aio. Be lees abroad. Bill is upstairs But they come after verb» objector verb + preposton + object ‘She cnt him ey Tloked foreshore, (@ut See chapter 38 Tor verb + adverb combinations such ae fk up pt down ate) ‘Aulverb pirates, formed of preposition + nounipronoun/adverb, follow the above poston rules “Phe parr sat on a rch, He hoes near me But see aloo E below. ‘He stood inthe door. somewhere, anywhere follow the same basic rules os some and any: Tse cen hat man sonesohore, Can yo see ey hey argent ~ No, 1 can’t see i anvwhoe ‘Ares goind anche? (oriary question bt ‘Ave jose gotng somesee®( saaue that yo te.) nowhere, however, ot normaly used in thie positon except i the expression to et nowhere (~ to achieve aatiaglo make ne progress) “Dircaening people wll et you noseeve.CYou'ltgsn no advantage by threatening people Butitean be used in show anowers Where are you going? ~ Nowhere. (Vm not going anywhere) Itean akon formal Bnglsh, be placed at the bepnning of sentence and in then alowed by as inverted verbs ‘Nowhere wel ou id Bote roses thaw these See 45.) hhere, there can be followed by belcome/so + nodn subject, “Here's Tom. Thewe's Ann Herecumes the ra There goes uy bus hhere an there used as above carry more steess than here/there placed after the verb. There is also usualy aference in meaning, TTom is here means hein ths eoum/bading!town ete Bt Fee Tom implies that he as jst sopeared or that we have jst found ln, Tom comes here man tats abt to come to this place, bat ere mes Toe iis that bei jure arsine jst ative the subject sa persomi pronoun, i precedes the Verb inthe ‘Theye hes. Hee Lam. Here st comes. But someone and something flow the ver "Tier’s somone eho ca help sxe [Note thatthe same sentence, spoken without stress on Thre, would ‘ean that a potential heber exist. (See 117) 37 4 aay Someone phoning a ene may intrude himseWihersl by AN (on phone): Zs ta ou, Tom? Ann here oF This is Aon ‘She must ot say vais tere or Here ne The adverbs away (~ of, down, in, can be foowed y a vss motos a “acy wet tenn Down fae dose aps, Ont Sra te Suc own! nd nun es he plone Buri the sub pron ace before the ver ‘is thy went ound and ed fee Thera is more drama ints order than subject « verb adverbs bu off, out, over, round, up ‘oun subject Jn written English adverb phrases introduced by prepositions (oun, ‘fog non arr. oo, tan ps) can be aired ves Inciting postion (row, hang, le, stand ete) by neon ‘motion, by be born die lean sonichines other verte ‘Prom theres hung srng of one ‘nthe dora sd man th bo 4 perch beside Fist be oro er the wall ame a shower of sont The fst three ofthese examples Could alco be expressed by a Dattcipe and the verb br ‘on ram te rats wore sig of oon ‘Siting om a perch Bese hn teas blue paar ‘Buca participle could ot br sed withthe las cxsmple unless the shower of stones iste for some tne Adverbs of time lately, now, recently, soon, then, foday, tomorrow ete. an adverb phrases uf tine’ at once, wince then, Gil 00 sc) ‘These are usually paced atthe very tegianng or atthe very end of th intse, in font position or end positon. End postion is anes eae Inperstives and places eh sl. ‘Eventually he camertie came coentualy Tren ent home/Ve went home them Wnt today Tt wart ti tomer (or lately, recently, see sh 165) \Wih compound terse, Sferwards, eventually, ly son ccm ater the sani