INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACEUTICAL

ENGINEERING
&
FLOW OF FLUIDS

Presented by:
Mrs. S.Dhivya
Assistant Professor
(Pharmaceutics)
SVCP
 Introduction to Pharmaceutical engineering

• Pharmaceutical engineering is a branch of

engineering focused on discovering,
formulating, and manufacturing medication, as
well as analytical and quality control processes.
• It utilizes the fields of chemical engineering,
biomedical engineering, and pharmaceutical
sciences.
 History

Humans have a long history of using derivatives of natural

resources, such as plants, as medication. However, it was not until
the late 19th century when the technological advancements of
chemical companies were combined with medical research that
scientists began to manipulate and engineer new medications, drug
delivery techniques, and methods of mass production
 Synthesizing new medications

• One of the first prominent examples of an engineered, synthetic

medication was made by Paul Erlich.
• Erlich had found that Atoxyl, an arsenic-containing compound
which is harmful to humans, was very effective at killing
Treponema pallidum, the bacteria which causes Syphilis.
• He hypothesized that if the structure of Atoxyl was altered, a
“magic bullet” could potentially be identified which would kill
the parasitic bacteria without having any adverse effects on
human health.
He developed many compounds stemming
from the chemical structure of Atoxyl and
eventually identified one compound which
was the most effective against Syphilis
while being the least harmful to humans,
which became known as Salvarsan.
Salvarsan was widely used to treat Syphilis
within years of its discovery.
 Beginning of mass production

In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered a mold named Penicillium

chrysogenum which prevented many types of bacteria from growing.
Scientists identified the potential of this mold to provide treatment in
humans against bacteria which cause infections. During World War II, the
United Kingdom and the United States worked together to find a method
of mass producing Penicillin,[5] a derivative of the Penicillium mold,
which had the potential to save many lives during the war since it could
treat infections common in injured soldiers.
Although Penicillin could be isolated from the mold in a
laboratory setting, there was no known way to obtain the
amount of medication needed to treat the quantity of
people who needed it.
Scientists with major chemical companies such as
Pfizer were able to develop a deep-fermentation
process which could produce a high yield of penicillin.
In 1944, Pfizer opened the first penicillin factory, and its
products were exported to aid the war efforts overseas
Controlled drug release

Tablets for oral consumption of medication have been utilized

since approximately 1500 B.C.,however for a long time the only
method of drug release was immediate release, meaning all of the
medication is released in the body at once.
In the 1950s, sustained release technology was developed.
Through mechanisms such as osmosis and diffusion, pills were
designed that could release the medication over a 12-hour to 24-
hour period. Smith, Kline & French developed one of the first
major successful sustained release technologies.
Their formulation consisted of a collection of small tablets
taken at the same time, with varying amounts of wax
coating that allowed some tablets to dissolve in the body
faster than others.
The result was a continuous release of the drug as it
travelled through the intestinal tract. Although modern day
research focuses on extending the controlled release
timescale to the order of months, once-a-day and twice-a-
day pills are still the most widely utilized controlled drug
release method.
Formation of the ISPE

In 1980, the International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering

was formed to support and guide professionals in the
pharmaceutical industry through all parts of the process of bringing
new medications to the market.
The ISPE also hosts training sessions and conferences for
professionals to attend, learn, and collaborate with others in the
field.
 Pharmaceutical engineering is designed to impart a
fundamental knowledge on the art and science of
various unit operations used in pharmaceutical
industry.

1. To know various unit operations used in Pharmaceutical industries.

2. To understand the material handling techniques.
3. To perform various processes involved in pharmaceutical manufacturing
process.
4. To carry out various test to prevent environmental pollution.
5. To appreciate and comprehend significance of plant lay out design for
optimum
use of resources.
6. To appreciate the various preventive methods used for corrosion control in
Pharmaceutical industries.
 UNIT-I
Flow of fluids: Types of manometers, Reynolds number and its significance,
Bernoulli’s theorem and its applications, Energy losses, Orifice meter,
Venturimeter, Pitot tube and Rotometer.
Size reduction: Objectives, Mechanisms & Laws
governing size reduction, factors affecting size reduction, principles,
construction, working, uses, merits and demerits of Hammer mill, ball mill,
fluid energy mill, Edge runner mill & end runner mill.
Size separation: Objectives, applications & mechanism of size
separation, official standards of powders, sieves, size separation Principles,
construction, working, uses, merits and demerits of Sieve shaker, cyclone
separator, Air separator, Bag filter & elutriation tank.
 UNIT-II
Heat Transfer: Objectives, applications & Heat transfer mechanisms.
Fourier’s law, Heat transfer by conduction, convection & radiation. Heat
interchangers & heat exchangers.
Evaporation: Objectives, applications and factors influencing evaporation,
differences between evaporation and other heat process. principles,
construction, working, uses, merits and demerits of Steam jacketed kettle,
horizontal tube evaporator, climbing film evaporator, forced circulation
evaporator, multiple effect evaporator & Economy of multiple effect
evaporator.
Distillation: Basic Principles and methodology of simple distillation, flash
distillation, fractional distillation, distillation under reduced pressure, steam
distillation & molecular distillation
 UNIT- III
Drying: Objectives, applications & mechanism of drying process,
measurements & applications of Equilibrium Moisture content, rate of
drying curve. principles, construction, working, uses, merits and demerits of
Tray dryer, drum dryer spray dryer, fluidized bed dryer, vacuum dryer, freeze
dryer.

Mixing: Objectives, applications & factors affecting mixing, Difference

between solid and liquid mixing, mechanism of solid mixing, liquids mixing
and semisolids mixing. Principles, Construction, Working, uses, Merits and
Demerits of Double cone blender, twin shell blender, ribbon blender, Sigma
blade mixer, planetary mixers, Propellers, Turbines, Paddles & Silverson
Emulsifier.
 UNIT-IV
Filtration:
Objectives, applications, Theories & Factors influencing filtration,
filter aids, filter medias. Principle, Construction, Working, Uses, Merits
and demerits of plate & frame filter, filter leaf, rotary drum filter,
Meta filter & ; Cartridge filter, membrane filters and Seidtz filter.

Centrifugation: Objectives, principle & applications of

Centrifugation, principles, construction, working, uses, merits and
demerits of Perforated basket centrifuge, Non-perforated basket
centrifuge, semi continuous centrifuge & super centrifuge.
 UNIT- V
Materials of pharmaceutical plant construction, Corrosion and its
prevention:
Factors affecting during materials selected for Pharmaceutical plant
construction, Theories of corrosion, types of corrosion and there
prevention. Ferrous and nonferrous metals, inorganic and organic non
metals, basic of material handling systems.
 Fluid flow

 Common terms used:

 Mention fluid properties such as viscosity,
compressibility and surface tension of fluids.
 Hydrostatics (Fluidstatics) influencing fluid flow.
• Fluid dynamics‐ Bernoulli’s theorem, flow of fluids
in pipes, laminar and turbulent flow.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

• Viscosity
• Surface tension
• Compressibility
VISCOSITY :-
 Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's
resistance to flow.
• It describes the internal friction of a moving fluid.

• A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its

molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal friction.

• A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular

makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion.
SURFACE TENSION
"Surface tension is a contractive tendency
of the surface of a fluid that allows it to
resist an external force."
 FLUID FLOW

A fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied

shear stress.

Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases.

Fluid flow may be defined as the flow of substances that do not permanently
resist distortion.

The subject of fluid flow can be divided into fluid static's and fluid dynamics
Shear stress, force tending to cause deformation of a
material by slippage along a plane or planes parallel to the
imposed stress.
 FLUID STATICS
• Fluid static's deals with the fluids at rest in equilibrium
• Behavior of liquid at rest
• Nature of pressure it exerts and the variation of pressure at different
layers
Pressure differences between layers of liquids

h2
Point 2

Point 1 h1
Consider a column of liquid with two openings which are provided at
the wall of the vessel at different height

The rate of flow through these openings are different due to the
pressure exerted at the different heights are different

Consider a stationary column the pressure P is acting on the surface

of the fluid, column is maintained at constant pressure by applying
pressure

The force acting below and above the point 1 are evaluated

Substituting the force with pressure x area of cross section in the

above equation
 Force acting on the liquid = Force excreted by the liquid
Force on thesurface +
At point 1 Above point 1

Pressure at point 2 x Area= (Pressure on the surface area x surfacearea)

(Pressure on the surface area x surface area)

Pressure at point 1 x Area =
+ (mass x g)

P1S = P2S + height xvolume x density x g

P1s = P2s + volume x density x g
= P2s + height x area x density xg
P1s = P2s + h1 S ρ g Since surface area is same

P1 = Ps + h1 ρg
Pressure acting on point 2 may be written as

P2 = Ps + h2 ρg

Difference in the pressure is --

P2 -P1 = g (Ps + h2 ρ ) – ( Ps + h1 ρ) g

∆P = (Ps + h2 ρ – Ps - h1 ρ ) g
∆P = ∆ h ρ g [F=Volume.ρ g]
FLUID DYNAMICS
Ø Fluid dynamics deals with the study of fluids in
motion
Ø This knowledge is important for liquids, gels, ointments
which will change their flow behaviour when exposed to
different stress conditions

MIXING

FLOW THROUGH PIPES

FILLED IN CONTAINER
 Importance

Identification of type of flow is important in

• Manufacturing of the dosage forms
• Handling of drugs for administration
 The flow of fluid through a pipe can be viscous
or turbulent and it can be determined by
Reynolds number.

 Reynolds number have no unit

 Reynolds Experiment
Glass tube is connected to reservoir of water, rate of flow
of water is adjusted by a valve,
A reservoir of colored solution is connected to one end of
the glass tube with help of nozzle.
Colored solution is introduced into the nozzle as fine
stream through jet tube.
 water

valve
Colored liquid
LAMINAR OR VISCOUS FLOW

TURBULENT FLOW
 TYPES OF FLOW
• Laminar flow is one in which
the fluid particles move in layers
or laminar with one layer sliding
with other
• There is no exchange of fluid
particles from one layer to other
• Avg velocity= 0.5 Vmax
• Re < 2000
• Turbulent flow: When velocity of the
water is increased the thread of the
colored water disappears and mass of
the water gets uniformly colored
• There is complete mixing of the
solution and the flow of the fluid is
called as turbulent flow
• Avg velocity = 0.8 Vmax
• Re >4000

The velocity at which the fluid changes from laminar flow to turbulent
flow that velocity is called as critical velocity
 REYNOLDS NUMBER

In Reynolds experiment the flow conditions are affected by

 Diameter of pipe
 Average velocity
 Density of liquid
 Viscosity of the fluid
This four factors are combined in one way as Reynolds number

Duρ INERTIAL FORCES

= --------------------------
Re= η
VISCOUS FORCES

Inertial forces are due to mass and the velocity of the fluid particles trying to
diffuse the fluid particles.
viscous force if the frictional force due to the viscosity of the fluid which
make the motion of the fluid in parallel.
At low velocities the inertial forces are less when
compared to the frictional forces
Resulting flow will be viscous innature
Other hand when inertial forces are predominant the fluid
layers break up due to the increase in velocity hence
turbulent flow takes place.
If Re < 2000 the flow is said to belaminar
If Re > 4000 the flow is said to beturbulent
If Re lies between 2000 to 4000 theflow change between
laminar to turbulent
 APPLICATIONS
 Reynolds number is used to predict the nature of the flow
 Stocks law equation is modified to include Reynolds number
to study the rate of sedimentation in suspension

 When velocity is plotted against the distance from the wall

following conclusions can be drawn
 The flow of fluid in the middle of the pipe is faster then the fluid
near to the wall
 At the actual surface of the pipe – wall the velocity of the fluid is
zero
 Pipe wall

Turbulent flow
Relative distance from
the center of the pipe
Viscous flow

U / U max
 BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
When the principle of the law of energy is applied to the flow of the fluids the
resulting equation is a Bernoulli's theorem
Consider a pump working under isothermal conditions between points A and B
Bernoulli's theorem statement, "In a steady state the total energy per unit mass
consists of pressure, kinetic and potential energies are constant"

Kinetic energy = u2 / 2g
Pump

Pressure energy = Pa / ρAg

Friction energy = F
BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
At point a one kilogram of liquid is assumed to be entering at point a,

Pressure energy = PA VA
Where PA= Pressure at point A
V A = Specific volume of the liquid
Potential energy of a body is defined as the energy possessed by the body by the virtue
of its position
Potential energy = XA
Kinetic energy of a body is defined as the energy possessed by the body by virtue of
its motion,
kinetic energy = U2A/ 2gc

Total energy at point A = Pressure energy + Potential energy+K.E

Total energy at point A = PAVA +XA+U2A / 2gc

 According to the Bernoulli's theorem the total energy at point A is
constant
Total energy at point A = PAVA+XA+ (U2A / 2gc) = Constant
After the system reaches the steady state, whenever one pound of liquid enters at
point A, another one pound of liquid leaves at point B

Total energy at point B = PBVB +XB + U2B/ 2g

PAVA +XA + (U2A / 2g) + Energy added by the pump

= PBVB +XB + (U2B/ 2g)

V is specic volume and it is reciprocal of density. V=1/ρ

Theoretically all kinds of the energies involved in fluid flow should be accounted,
pump has added certain amount of energy.
 During the transport some energy is converted to heat due to frictional Forces

Energy loss due to friction in the line = F

Energy added by pump = W

P A/ρ A +XA + U2A / 2g – F + W = PB /ρ B +XB +U2B / 2g 2

This equation is called as Bernoulli's equation

 ENERGY LOSS
According to the law of conversation of energy, energy
balance have to be properly calculated fluids experiences
energy losses in several ways while flowing through pipes,
they are
• Frictional losses
• Losses in the fitting
• Enlargement losses
• Contraction losses
 Frictional losses

Hagen poiseuille equation

Fanning equation
Losses in the fitting
Enlargement losses
Contraction losses
 Application of

BERNOULLI'S THEOREM

Used in the measurement of rate of fluid flow

using flow meters
It applied in the working of the centrifugal pump,
in this kinetic energy is converted in to
pressure.
Fluid Flow and Pressure measurements
 Measurement of flow‐
 Classification of flow meters,
 venturimeter,
 orificemeter,
 pitot tube,
 rotameter
 current flow meters
 Pressure measurement‐
 Classification of manometers,
 simple manometer/
 U tube manometer and modifications
(Differential/inclined),
 Bourdon gauge
 MANOMETERS
Manometers are the devices used for measuring the
pressure difference
Different type of manometers are there they are

1)Simple manometer

2)Differential manometer

3)Inclined manometer
 SIMPLE MANOMETER
• This manometer is the most commonly used
one.
• It consists of a glass U shaped tube filled with
a liquid A- of density ρA kg /meter cube and
above A the arms are filled with liquid B of
density ρB.
• The liquid A and B are immiscible and the
interference can be seen clearly.
• If two different pressures are applied on the two
arms the meniscus of the one liquid will be
higher than the other.
 Lets consider five different points 1,2,3,4,5 in the U
tube.
Lets take the pressure at point 1 will be P1 Pascal's and
point 5 will be P2 Pascal's
Pressure at point 1 = P1 ………. Eq (1)

Pressure at point 2 =P2=P1+ (m + R )ρB g ……. Eq (2)

Pressure at point 3 =P3=P2+ R ρA g + m ρB g.. …..Eq(3)

Pressure at point 4 =P4=P2+ m ρB g …..Eq (4)

Pressure at point 5 =P5 …..Eq (5)

 Since the points 2 and 3 are at same LEVEL, we
consider
P2 = P3

Therefore we equating eq 2= eq 3
This can be summarise as

P1 + (m + R ) ρ B g = P2+ R ρA g + mρ B g

P1 + m ρ B g + R ρ B g = P2+ R ρA g + mρ B g

P1-P2=R ρA g + mρ B g- m ρ B g - R ρ B g

P1-P2=R ρA g - R ρ B g

∆P =P1-P2 = (ρ A- ρB)Rg
 Application
 Pressure difference can be determined by
measuring R
 Manometers are used in measuring flow
of fluid.
 INCLINED TUBE
MANOMETERS
• Many applications require accurate
measurement of low pressure such as drafts
and very low differentials, primarily in air
and gas installations.
• In these applications the manometer is
arranged with the indicating tube inclined.

• This enables the measurement of small

pressure changes with increased accuracy.
sin α=R/Ri
R=Risin α
∆P =P1-P2 = (ρ A- ρB)Rg (from simple manometer we take this eq.)

Because of inclined, the value of R changes in case

of inclined manometer.

Inclined arm creates an angle of inclination ‘α’

We consider it as sin α.

sin α = op/hyp
 sin α = R/R1
R=R1 sin α
∆P =P1-P2 = (ρ A- ρ B ) R g
If we substituting the R value to the above eq.

∆P = P1 –P2 = (ρ A - ρ B) R1 sin α
 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS

• These manometers are suitable

for measurement of small
pressure differences
• It contains two immiscible liquids
A and C having nearly same
densities & a fluid B
• The U tube contains of enlarged
chambers on both limbs.
∆P =P1-P2 = (ρ A- ρB)Rg
• Using the principle of simple manometer
the pressure differences can be written as

∆P =P1 –P2 = (ρc – ρA) R g

Differential Manometer
 Pressure at different points
Pressure at point 1 = P1
Pressure at point 2 =P2 =P1+ a ρB g
Pressure at point 3 =P3 =P1+ a ρB g +b ρA g
Pressure at point 4 =P4 =P2+ a ρB g + d ρA g +R ρC g
Pressure at point 5 =P5 =P2+ a ρB g + d ρA g
Pressure at point 6 =P6 =P2+ a ρB g
Pressure at point 6 =P7
Since the points 3 and 4 are EQUAL , we consider
P3 = P4
Pressure at point 3 =P3 =P1+ a ρB g +b ρA g
Pressure at point 4 =P4 =P2+ a ρB g + d ρA g +R ρC g
P1+ a ρB g +b ρA g = P2+ a ρB g + d ρA g +R ρC g
P1+ a ρB g +b ρA g = P2+ a ρB g + d ρA g +R ρC g

P1 - P2 = a ρB g + d ρA g +R ρC g - a ρB g -b ρA g

∆P = P1 –P2 = d ρA g +R ρC g -b ρA g

∆P = d –b (ρA g) +R ρC g

But b-d = R , So d-b = -R

∆P = R ρC g – R ρA g

∆P = R g(ρc – ρA)
 Differential Manometer

∆P =P1 –P2 =R (ρc– ρA) g

Hence smaller the difference between ρc

and ρA larger will be R
 MEASUREMENT OF
RATE OF FLOW OF FLUIDS
Methods of measurement are
Direct weighing ormeasuring
Hydrodynamicmethods
• Orifice meter
• Venturi meter
• Pitot meter
• Rotameter
Direct displacementmeter
• Disc meter
• Current meter
 DIRECT WEIGHING OR
MEASURING
The liquid flowing through a pipe is collected for
specific period at any point and weighed or
measured, and the rate of flow can be determined.

Gases can not be determined by this method

ORIFICE METER
 Principle
Ø Orifice meter is a thin plate containing a narrow and sharp
aperture.
Ø When a fluid stream is allowed to pass through a narrow
constriction the velocity of the fluid increase compared to up
stream
Ø This results in decrease in pressure head and the difference in
the pressure may be read from a manometer
A B
CONSTRUCTION
 It is consider to be a thin plate containing a sharp aperture through which
fluid flows
 Normally it is placed between long straight pipes
 For present discussion plate is introduced into pipe and manometer is
connected at points A and B
Working
• When fluid is allowed to pass through the orifice the velocity of the fluid at
point B increase, as a result at point A pressure will be increased.
• Difference in the pressure is measured by manometer.
• Bernoulli's equation is applied to point A and point B for
experimental conditions.
Contd...

Total energy at point A = Pressure energy + Potential energy + K. E

Total energy at point A = PAVA + XA+ U2A/ 2g

Bernaulis eqn...
Pa /ρ A +XA + U2A/ 2g – F + W = PB /ρ B +XB +U2B / 2g
 Assumptions
 Pipeline is horizontal, the point A and B are at
same position
Therefore XA=XB
 Suppose friction losses are negligible F=0
 As liquid is incompressible so density remain
same, Therefore ρ A=ρ B=ρ
 No work is done on liquid therefore w=0
After applying assumptions Bernoullis eqn...
PA /ρ A +XA + U2A/ 2g – F + W = PB /ρ B +XB + U2B/ 2g

Change to---
PA /ρ + U2A / 2g = PB /ρ + U2B / 2g
U2A/ 2g - U2B/ 2g = PB /ρ - PA /ρ

Multiply both sides by -2g

U2B - U2A = 2g.PA /ρ - 2g.PB/ρ

√UB2 - UA 2
= √2g/ρ . (PA - PB)
√UB 2 -2 UA = √2g∆H ........ as
(PA - PB)/ρ=∆H
√UB 2 -2 UA = √2g∆H

diameter of vena contracta is not known practically

There are friction losses.
Therefore above equation is modified to--

√U0 2 – UA
2
=C0 √2g. ∆H
If the diameter of orifice is 1/5th of the diameter of pipe then UA is
negligible
The velocity of the fluid at thin constriction may be written as

U0 = C 0 √ 2g ∆H
∆H = Difference in pressure head, can be measured by manometer C0 = constant coeff
of orifice (friction losses)

U0 = velocity of fluid at the point of orifice meter

 Applications

Velocity at either of the point A and B can be

measured
Volume of liquid flowing perhour can be
determined by knowing area of cross section
VENTURI METER
 Principle
 When fluid is allowed to pass through narrow
venturi throat then velocity of fluid increases
and pressure decreases
 Difference in upstream and downstream
pressure head can be measured by using
Manometer
• U v = C v √ 2g . ∆H
VENTURI METER

Ventury effect
 Why Venturi meter if Orifice meter
is available?
 Main disadvantage of orifice meter is power
loss due to sudden contraction with
consequent eddies on other side of orifice plate
 We can minimize power loss by gradual
contraction of pipe
 Venturi meter consist of two tapered (conical
section) inserted in pipeline
 Friction losses and eddies can be minimized by
this arrangement.
DISADVANTAGES
• Expensive
• Need technical export
• Not flexible it is permanent
Advantages
• For permanent installations
• Power loss is less
• Head loss is negligible
 Pitot tube
(Insertion meter)
 Principle of Pitot tube
 According to Bernoulli's theorem

Total energy at any point =

Pressure energy + Potential energy + K. E

U0 = C 0 √ 2g∆H ........∆H= Difference in pressure head

∆H = U2 /2g ........U= Velocity at point of insertion

Construction
 It is also known as insertion
meter.
 The size of the sensing element
is small compared to the flow
channel.
 One tube is perpendicular to
the flow direction and the other
is parallel to the flow
 The tube is connected to the
manometer
2g∆Hp = U2
 Working
 Pitot tube is used to measure the
velocity head of flow.
• Parallel tube (to Upstream)
measure velocity head +
pressure head
• Perpendicular tube
(downstream) measure only
pressure head
• Difference of head between two
tubes gives velocity head ∆H.
 Difference between venturi- orifice
and Pitot tube
 Orifice and venturi  Pitot tube measure
meter measure average relative fluid velocity
velocity of whole at single point only
stream of fluid

• More pressure drop  Less pressure dropt

ROTAMETER
Variable area meter
 PRINCIPLE
Ø In this device a stream of water enters
Transparent tapered tube and strikes
the moving plummet
Ø During fluid flow plummet rise or fall
Ø As a result, annular space(area)
between plummet and tapperd tube
may increase or decrease, depending on
variation of flow rate.
 Construction

Ø It consists of vertically tapered and

transparent tube generally made of
glass in which a plummet is centrally
placed with guiding wire.
Ø Linear scale is etched on glass.
Ø During the flow the plummet rise due to
variation in flow
Ø The upper edge of the plummet is used
as an index to note the reading
 Working
Ø As the flow is
upward through the
tapered tube the
plummet rises and
falls depend on the
flow rate
Ø Greater the flow
rate higher the rise
of plummet.
 Use
 To measure flow rate of gas as well as
liquid
 Easy to use and allow direct visual
inspection
Thank You