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Theophrastus
Theophrastus (/ˌθiː.əˈfræstəs/; Ancient Greek: Θεόφραστος,
romanized: Theóphrastos, lit. 'godly phrased'; c. 371 –
Theophrastus
c. 287 BC)[3] was a Greek philosopher and the successor to
Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He was a native of Eresos in
Lesbos.[4] His given name was Τύρταμος (Túrtamos); his
nickname Θεόφραστος (Theóphrastos) was given by Aristotle,
his teacher, for his "divine style of expression".
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(from Ancient Greek Θεός 'god' and φράζειν 'to phrase', i.e. Influences [show]
divine expression).[8] Aristotle, Plato
After receiving instruction in philosophy on Lesbos from one Influenced [show]
Alcippus, he moved to Athens, where he may have studied Strato of Lampsacus, Alexander of
under Plato.[a] He became friends with Aristotle, and when Aphrodisias, and the entire
Plato died (348/7 BC) Theophrastus may have joined Aristotle Peripatetic school
in his self-imposed exile from Athens. When Aristotle moved
to Mytilene on Lesbos in 345/4, it is very likely that he did so
at the urging of Theophrastus.[9] It seems that it was on Lesbos that
Aristotle and Theophrastus began their research into natural science,
with Aristotle studying animals and Theophrastus studying plants.[10]
Theophrastus probably accompanied Aristotle to Macedonia when
Aristotle was appointed tutor to Alexander the Great in 343/2.[9]
Around 335 BC, Theophrastus moved with Aristotle to Athens, where
Aristotle began teaching in the Lyceum. When, after the death of
Alexander, anti-Macedonian feeling forced Aristotle to leave Athens,
Theophrastus remained behind as head (scholarch) of the Peripatetic
school,[9] a position he continued to hold after Aristotle's death in
322/1.
Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, including Aristotle, Theophrastus,
Nicomachus, with whom he was close.[b] Aristotle likewise bequeathed and Strato of Lampsacus.
to him his library and the originals of his works,[c] and designated him Part of a fresco in the
as his successor at the Lyceum.[11] Eudemus of Rhodes also had some portico of the University of
claims to this position, and Aristoxenus is said to have resented Athens painted by Carl
Aristotle's choice.[12] Rahl, c. 1888.
Under his guidance the school flourished greatly—there were at one period more than 2000
students, Diogenes affirms[16]—and at his death, according to the terms of his will preserved by
Diogenes, he bequeathed to it his garden with house and colonnades as a permanent seat of
instruction. The comic poet Menander was among his pupils.[16] His popularity was shown in the
regard paid to him by Philip, Cassander, and Ptolemy, and by the complete failure of a charge of
impiety brought against him.[17][18] He was honored with a public funeral, and "the whole
population of Athens, honouring him greatly, followed him to the grave."[12][19] He was succeeded
as head of the Lyceum by Strato of Lampsacus.
Writings
From the lists of Diogenes, giving 227 titles, it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended
over the whole field of contemporary knowledge. His writing probably differed little from
Aristotle's treatment of the same themes, though supplementary in details. Like Aristotle, most of
his writings are lost works.[12] Thus Theophrastus, like Aristotle, had composed a first and second
Analytic (Ἀναλυτικῶν προτέρων and Ἀναλυτικῶν ὑστέρων).[20] He had also written books on
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Besides these writings, Theophrastus wrote several collections of problems, out of which some
things at least have passed into the Problems that have come down to us under the name of
Aristotle,[37] and commentaries,[38] partly dialogue,[39] to which probably belonged the Erotikos
(Ἐρωτικός),[40] Megacles (Μεγακλῆς),[29] Callisthenes (Καλλισθένης),[41] and Megarikos
(Μεγαρικός),[24] and letters,[42] partly books on mathematical sciences and their history.[43]
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Many of his surviving works exist only in fragmentary form. "The style of these works, as of the
botanical books, suggests that, as in the case of Aristotle, what we possess consists of notes for
lectures or notes taken of lectures," his translator Arthur F. Hort remarks.[6] "There is no literary
charm; the sentences are mostly compressed and highly elliptical, to the point sometimes of
obscurity".[6] The text of these fragments and extracts is often so corrupt that there is a certain
plausibility to the well-known story that the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus were allowed to
languish in the cellar of Neleus of Scepsis and his descendants.[44]
On plants
The Enquiry into Plants was originally ten books, of which nine survive. The work is arranged into
a system whereby plants are classified according to their modes of generation, their localities, their
sizes, and according to their practical uses such as foods, juices, herbs, etc.[45] The first book deals
with the parts of plants; the second book with the reproduction of plants and the times and manner
of sowing; the third, fourth, and fifth books are devoted to trees, their types, their locations, and
their practical applications; the sixth book deals with shrubs and spiny plants; the seventh book
deals with herbs; the eighth book deals with plants that produce edible seeds; and the ninth book
deals with plants that produce useful juices, gums, resins, etc.[45]
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to the reports of Alexander's followers he owed his accounts of such plants as the
cotton-plant, banyan, pepper, cinnamon, myrrh, and frankincense.[6]
Theophrastus's Enquiry into Plants was first published in a Latin translation by Theodore Gaza, at
Treviso, 1483;[e] in its original Greek it first appeared from the press of Aldus Manutius at Venice,
1495–98, from a third-rate manuscript, which, like the majority of the manuscripts that were sent
to printers' workshops in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, has disappeared.[f] Christian
Wimmer identified two manuscripts of first quality, the Codex Urbinas in the Vatican Library,
which was not made known to J. G. Schneider, who made the first modern critical edition,
1818–21, and the excerpts in the Codex Parisiensis in the Bibliothèque nationale de France.
On moral characters
His book Characters (Ἠθικοὶ χαρακτῆρες) contains thirty brief outlines of moral types. They are
the first recorded attempt at systematic character writing. The book has been regarded by some as
an independent work; others incline to the view that the sketches were written from time to time
by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after his death; others, again, regard the Characters as
part of a larger systematic work, but the style of the book is against this. Theophrastus has found
many imitators in this kind of writing, notably Joseph Hall (1608), Sir Thomas Overbury
(1614–16), Bishop Earle (1628), and Jean de La Bruyère (1688), who also translated the
Characters.[12] George Eliot also took inspiration from Theophrastus's Characters, most notably in
her book of caricatures, Impressions of Theophrastus Such. Writing the "character sketch" as a
scholastic exercise also originated in Theophrastus's typology.
On sensation
A treatise On Sense Perception (Περὶ αἰσθήσεων) and its objects is important for a knowledge of
the doctrines of the more ancient Greek philosophers regarding the subject. A paraphrase and
commentary on this work was written by Priscian of Lydia in the sixth century.[45] With this type of
work we may connect the fragments on Smells, on Fatigue, on Dizziness, on Sweat, on Swooning,
on Palsy, and on Honey.[44]
Physics
Fragments of a History of Physics (Περὶ φυσικῶν ἱστοριῶν) are extant. To this class of work belong
the still extant sections on Fire, on the Winds, and on the signs of Waters, Winds, and Storms.[48]
Various smaller scientific fragments have been collected in the editions of Johann Gottlob
Schneider (1818–21) and Friedrich Wimmer (1842–62) and in Hermann Usener's Analecta
Theophrastea.[12]
Metaphysics
The Metaphysics (anachronistic Greek title: Θεοφράστου τῶν μετὰ τὰ φυσικά),[49] in nine chapters
(also known as On First Principles), was considered a fragment of a larger work by Usener in his
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edition (Theophrastos, Metaphysica, Bonn, 1890), but according to Ross and Fobes in their edition
(Theophrastus, Metaphysica, Oxford, 1929), the treatise is complete (p. X) and this opinion is now
widely accepted. There is no reason for assigning this work to some other author because it is not
noticed in Hermippus and Andronicus, especially as Nicolaus of Damascus had already mentioned
it.[44]
On stones
He knew that pearls came from shellfish, that coral came from India, and speaks of the fossilized
remains of organic life.[51] He also considers the practical uses of various stones, such as the
minerals necessary for the manufacture of glass; for the production of various pigments of paint
such as ochre; and for the manufacture of plaster.[51]
Many of the rarer minerals were found in mines, and Theophrastus mentions the famous copper
mines of Cyprus and the even more famous silver mines, presumably of Laurium near Athens – the
basis of the wealth of the city – as well as referring to gold mines. The Laurium silver mines, which
were the property of the state, were usually leased for a fixed sum and a percentage on the working.
Towards the end of the fifth century BCE the output fell, partly owing to the Spartan occupation of
Decelea from c. 413 BCE. But the mines continued to be worked, though Strabo (c. 64 BCE to c. 24
CE) records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and Pausanias (c. 110 to c. 180)
speaks of the mines as a thing of the past. The ancient workings, consisting of shafts and galleries
for excavating the ore, and washing tables for extracting the metal, may still be seen. Theophrastus
wrote a separate work On Mining,[24] which – like most of his writings – is a lost work.
Pliny the Elder makes clear references to his use of On Stones in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD,
while updating and making much new information available on minerals himself. Although Pliny's
treatment of the subject is more extensive, Theophrastus is more systematic and his work is
comparatively free from fable and magic,[54] although he did describe lyngurium, a gemstone
supposedly formed of the solidified urine of the lynx (the best ones coming from wild males),
which featured in many lapidaries until it gradually disappeared from view in the 17th century.[55]
It is mistakenly attributed to Theophrastus the first record of pyroelectricity. The misconception
arose soon after the discovery of the pyroelectric properties of tourmaline, which made
mineralogists of the time associate the lyngurium with it.[56] Lyngurium is described in the work of
Theophrastus as being similar to amber, capable of attracting "straws and bits of wood", but
without specifying any pyroelectric properties.[57]
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Philosophy
The extent to which Theophrastus followed Aristotle's doctrines, or
defined them more accurately, or conceived them in a different form,
and what additional structures of thought he placed upon them, can
only be partially determined because of the loss of so many of his
writings.[44] Many of his opinions have to be reconstructed from the
works of later writers such as Alexander of Aphrodisias and
Simplicius.[58]
Logic
He wrote at length on the unity of judgment,[61] on the different kinds of negation,[62] and on the
difference between unconditional and conditional necessity.[63] In his doctrine of syllogisms he
brought forward the proof for the conversion of universal affirmative judgments, differed from
Aristotle here and there in the laying down and arranging the modi of the syllogisms,[64] partly in
the proof of them,[65] partly in the doctrine of mixture, i.e. of the influence of the modality of the
premises upon the modality of the conclusion.[66] Then, in two separate works, he dealt with the
reduction of arguments to the syllogistic form and on the resolution of them;[67] and further, with
hypothetical conclusions.[68] For the doctrine of proof, Galen quotes the second Analytic of
Theophrastus, in conjunction with that of Aristotle, as the best treatises on that doctrine.[69] In
different monographs he seems to have tried to expand it into a general theory of science. To this,
too, may have belonged the proposition quoted from his Topics, that the principles of opposites are
themselves opposed, and cannot be deduced from one and the same higher genus.[70] For the rest,
some minor deviations from the Aristotelian definitions are quoted from the Topica of
Theophrastus.[71] Closely connected with this treatise was that upon ambiguous words or ideas,[72]
which, without doubt, corresponded to book Ε of Aristotle's Metaphysics.[44]
Theophrastus introduced his Physics with the proof that all natural existence, being corporeal and
composite, requires principles,[73] and first and foremost, motion, as the basis of all change.[74]
Denying the substance of space, he seems to have regarded it, in opposition to Aristotle, as the
mere arrangement and position (taxis and thesis) of bodies.[75] Time he called an accident of
motion, without, it seems, viewing it, with Aristotle, as the numerical determinant of motion.[76]
He attacked the doctrine of the four classical elements and challenged whether fire could be called
a primary element when it appears to be compound, requiring, as it does, another material for its
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own nutriment.[77]
He recognised no activity without motion,[81] and so referred all activities of the soul to motion: the
desires and emotions to corporeal motion, judgment (kriseis) and contemplation to spiritual
motion.[82] The idea of a spirit entirely independent of organic activity, must therefore have
appeared to him very doubtful; yet he appears to have contented himself with developing his
doubts and difficulties on the point, without positively rejecting it.[83] Other Peripatetics, like
Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and especially Strato, developed further this naturalism in Aristotelian
doctrine.
Theophrastus seems, generally speaking, where the investigation overstepped the limits of
experience, to have preferred to develop the difficulties rather than solve them, as is especially
apparent in his Metaphysics.[44] He was doubtful of Aristotle's teleology and recommended that
such ideas be used with caution:
With regard to the view that all things are for the sake of an end and nothing is in vain,
the assignation of ends is in general not easy, as it is usually stated to be ... we must set
certain limits to purposiveness and to the effort after the best, and not assert it to exist
in all cases without qualification.
He did not follow the incessant attempts by Aristotle to refer phenomena to their ultimate
foundations, or his attempts to unfold the internal connections between the latter, and between
them and phenomena.[44] In antiquity, it was a subject of complaint that Theophrastus had not
expressed himself with precision and consistency respecting God, and had understood it at one
time as Heaven, at another an (enlivening) breath (pneuma).[85]
Ethics
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The marble herm figure with the bearded head of philosopher type,
bearing the explicit inscription, must be taken as purely conventional. Unidentified portrait heads
did not find a ready market in post-Renaissance Rome.[g] This bust was formerly in the collection
of marchese Pietro Massimi at Palazzo Massimi and belonged to marchese L. Massimi at the time
the engraving was made. It is now in the Villa Albani, Rome (inv. 1034). The inscribed bust has
often been illustrated in engravings[93] and photographs: a photograph of it forms the frontispiece
to the Loeb Classical Library Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants vol. I, 1916. André Thevet
illustrated[94] in his iconographic compendium, Les vraies Pourtrats et vies des Hommes Illustres
(Paris, 1584), an alleged portrait plagiarized from the bust, supporting his fraud with the invented
tale that he had obtained it from the library of a Greek in Cyprus and that he had seen a confirming
bust in the ruins of Antioch.[95]
In popular culture
A world is named Theophrastus in the 2014 Firefly graphic novel Serenity: Leaves on the Wind.
Theodor Geisel used the name "Theophrastus" as the given name of his pen-name alter ego, Dr.
Seuss.[96]
A board game named Theophrastus was released in 2001. Players compete through a series of
Alchemy experiments in order to become Theophrastus's apprentice.[97]
Works
▪ Historia plantarum (https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=3034262) (in
Italian). Venezia. 1549.
▪ [Opere] (https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8836731) (in Latin). Leiden:
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Modern editions
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Brill
▪ 1. Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources for His Life, Writings, Thought and Influence (two
volumes), edited by William Fortenbaugh et al., Leiden: Brill, 1992.
▪ 1.1. Life, Writings, Various Reports, Logic, Physics, Metaphysics, Theology, Mathematics
[Texts 1–264].
▪ 1.2. Psychology, Human Physiology, Living Creatures, Botany, Ethics, Religion, Politics,
Rhetoric and Poetics, Music, Miscellanea [Texts 265–741].
Explanatory notes
a. "Theophrastus is said to have studied first at Eresus under Alcippus, then at Athens under
Plato. The latter report is problematic; but if true, it would explain an early association with
Aristotle."(Encyclopedia of classical philosophy 1997, p. 552).
b. "Aristippus in the fourth book of his treatise On Ancient Luxury asserts that he was enamored
of Aristotle's son Nicomachus" (Laërtius 1925, § 38).
c. "It may we be that we owe to Theophrastus the publication of some at least of his master's
voluminous works" (Hort).
d. "He is made indeed to say in the probably spurious Preface to the Characters that he is writing
in his ninety-ninth year; while St. Jerome's Chronicle asserts that he lived to the age of 107"
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(Hort).
e. Theodore Gaza, a refugee from Thessalonica, was working from a lost Greek manuscript that
was different from any others (Hort).
f. It was carefully copied in a printing at Basel, 1541.
g. "Since 'unknown portraits' were not valued highly, identifying inscriptions were often added to
classical portraits by antiquaries and collectors before modern scholarship condemned the
practice", notes Eugene Dwyer.[92]
Citations
1. "History of Logic: Theophrastus of Eresus" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346217
/history-of-logic/65923/Theophrastus-of-Eresus) in Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2. "Ancient Logic: Forerunners of Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens" (http://plato.stanford.edu/en
tries/logic-ancient/#StoSyl). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
3. Dorandi 1999, pp. 52–53.
4. Hardy, Gavin; Totelin, Laurence (2015). Ancient Botany. Routledge. p. 8.
5. Matthew Hall, Plants as Persons: A Philosophical Botany, p. 28.
6. Hort 1916, Book I–V
7. Strabo, xiii.; Laërtius 1925, § 36, etc.
8. Strabo, xiii.; Laërtius 1925, § 38
9. Encyclopedia of classical philosophy 1997, p. 552.
10. Grene & Depew 2004, p. 11.
11. Laërtius 1925, § 36; comp. Aulus Gellius, xiii. 5.
12. Wheeler 1911.
13. Laërtius 1925, § 36, 58.
14. Laërtius 1925, § 40.
15. Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iii. 28; Jerome, Letter to Nepotian; Laërtius 1925, § 41.
16. Laërtius 1925, § 36, 37.
17. Laërtius 1925, § 37; comp. Aelian, Varia Historia, iv. 19.
18. Filonik 2013, pp. 73–74.
19. Laërtius 1925, § 41.
20. Laërtius 1925, § 42.
21. Laërtius 1925, § 42, 45, 50.
22. Laërtius 1925, § 42, 45.
23. Laërtius 1925, § 46, 50, 43, 44.
24. Laërtius 1925, § 44.
25. Laërtius 1925, § 45.
26. Laërtius 1925, § 42, 46.
27. Laërtius 1925, § 42, 43.
28. Laërtius 1925, § 43.
29. Laërtius 1925, § 47.
30. Laërtius 1925, § 49.
31. Laërtius 1925, § 42, 50.
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61. Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. f. 128, 124; Schol. in Arist. 184. 24. 183, b. 2; Boethius,
de Interpr.
62. Ammonius, in Arist. de Interpr. 128; Schol. in Arist. 121. 18.
63. Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. f. 12. 6; Schol. in Arist. 149. 44.
64. Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. 14, 72, 73, 82. 22, b, 35; Boethius, de Syll. categ. ii. 594.
5, f. 603, 615.
65. Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. 39, b
66. Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. 39, b. etc. 40, 42, 56, b. 82, 64, b. 51; John Phil. xxxii, b.
etc.
67. Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. 115.
68. Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Arist. Anal. Pr. 109, b. etc. 131, b.; John Phil. lx. etc. lxxv.;
Boethius, de Syll. hypoth.
69. Galen, de Hippocr. et Plat. Dogm. ii. 2.
70. Simplicius, in Categ. f. 5; Schol. p. 89. 15; comp. Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Metaph. 342. 30.
71. Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Top. 5, 68, 72, 25, 31.
72. Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Top. 83, 189.
73. Simplicius, in Phys. f. 1, 6.
74. Simplicius, in Phys. f. 5, 6.
75. Simplicius, in Phys. 149, b. 141.
76. Simplicius, in Phys. f. 87, b; John Phil. 213. 4.
77. Theophrastus, On Fire, 1.
78. Simplicius, in Categ.; comp. Simplicius, in Phys. 94, 201, 202, 1.
79. Simplicius, l. c. and f. 94, 1.
80. Gould 1970, p. 24.
81. Simplicius, in Categ.
82. Simplicius, in Phys. 225.
83. Themistius, in Arist. de An. 89, b. 91, b.
84. Gould 1970b, p. 25.
85. Clement of Alexandria, Protrept.; Cicero, de Natura Deorum, i. 13.
86. Cicero, Academica, i. 10, Tusculanae Quaestiones, v. 9.
87. Aulus Gellius, i. 3. § 23.
88. Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iii. 10; comp. Alexander of Aphrodisias, de Anima, ii.
89. Cicero, ad Atticus, ii. 16.
90. Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, i, 189.
91. Taylor, Angus. Animals and Ethics. Broadview Press, p. 35.
92. Dwyer 1993, p. 478 note 65...
93. Dwyer 1993, p. notes Statius pl. xiii; Galle pl. 143; Bellori pl. 38; Gronovius, vol. II p. 92;
Visconti, 180–3 pl. xxi, 1–2.
94. Thevet, ch. 31; Dwyer 1993, p. 476 notes that it had been illustrated by Orsini 1569 in "the first
critical collection of ancient portraiture" (Dwyer 1993, p. 468).
95. Noted by Dwyer 1993, p. 478, figs 15 and 16.
96. "8 things you didn't know about Dr. Seuss" (https://www.pbs.org/newshour/arts/8-things-didnt-k
now-dr-seuss). PBS NewsHour. July 22, 2015. Retrieved October 1, 2021.
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▪ Witztum, A.; Negbi, M. (1991). "Primary Xylem of Scilla hyacinthoides (Liliaceae): The Wool-
Bearing Bulb of Theophrastus" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4255312). Economic Botany. 45
(1): 97–102. doi:10.1007/BF02860053 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02860053).
JSTOR 4255312 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4255312). S2CID 35267741 (https://api.semantic
scholar.org/CorpusID:35267741).
▪ Negbi, Moshe (May 1989). "Theophrastus on geophytes". Botanical Journal of the Linnean
Society. 100 (1): 15–43. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1989.tb01708.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1
095-8339.1989.tb01708.x).
Attribution:
▪ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Wheeler, Emmanuel
(1911). "Theophrastus". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press. p. 787.
▪ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed.
(1870). "Theophrastus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. 3.
Further reading
▪ Baltussen, H. 2016. The Peripatetics: Aristotle's Heirs 322 BCE–200 CE. London: Routledge.
▪ Fortenbaugh, W. W., and D. Gutas, eds. 1992. Theophrastus: His Psychological,
Doxographical and Scientific Writings. Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities 5.
New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Transaction Books.
▪ Mejer, J. 1998. "A Life in Fragments: The Vita Theophrasti." In Theophrastus: Reappraising the
Sources. Edited by J. van Ophuijsen and M. van Raalte, 1–28. Rutgers University Studies in
Classical Humanities 8. New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Transaction Books.
▪ Pertsinidis, S. 2018. Theophrastus' Characters: A new introduction. London: Routledge.
▪ Van Raalte, M. 1993. Theophrastus' Metaphysics. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill.
External links
▪ Works by Theophrastus at Perseus Digital Library (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searc
hresults?q=+at+Theophrastus)
▪ Theophrastus (1956) [315 BC]. Theophrastus On Stones: Introduction, Greek text, English
translation, and Commentary (https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1811/32541/THEOP
HRASTUS_CALEY.pdf?sequence=1) (PDF). Translated by Richards, John F.; Caley, Earle
Radcliffe. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University. p. 238. hdl:1811/32541 (https://hdl.handle.net
/1811%2F32541).
▪ Theophrastus (January 1956). Theophrastus on stones (https://books.google.com/books?id=C
5AGAQAAIAAJ). Translated by Caley, Earle Radcliffe. Ohio State University.
ISBN 978-0-8142-0033-9.
▪ Theophrastus (1916). Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants. Vol. 1. Translated by Hort, A. F. New
York: Loeb Classical Library/G.P. Putnam's Sons. Book I–V.
▪ "Theophrastus" (http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Theophrastus.aspx#1). HighBeam
Research. Retrieved October 1, 2016.
▪ Stratton, George Malcolm (1917). Theophrastus and the Greek physiological psychology
before Aristotle (https://archive.org/details/theophrastusgree00stra).—Contains a translation of
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Theophrastus - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastus
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