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In foodstuffs with low pH, low water activity, or high carbohydrate content spoilage bacteria are, with some exception,
usually not present because this environment is unfavourable for their growth. Food-spoilage yeasts and moulds, however,
can grow under these circumstances and cause deterioration of various products, such as fruit and vegetable juices and
purees, soft drinks, pickled vegetables, dairy products, bread, dried fruits, sausages. Heat treatment and antiseptic
packaging exclude yeast and mould spoilage as long as the packaging is intact. Products that cannot be pasteurized are
usually treated with weak acid preservatives: sorbic, propionic or benzoic acid or their salts. However, there is a strong
consumers’ demand to avoid or diminish the use of artificial substances in their food. Chemical preservatives also present
some problems: it was recently reported that benzene can be formed from benzoic acid in foods by decarboxylating action
of some spoilage microorganisms. The use of plant-derived essential oils (EOs) or their components as natural
preservatives can overcome these problems. Most EOs are regarded as safe (GRAS) and are accepted by consumers. EOs
can be added directly to the food or can be applied in active packaging in vapour phase. Both our experiments and data
from the literature showed that EOs and their components increase the lag phases and diminish the maximum cell count in
the stationary phase of yeast growth. The colony forming ability of moulds was also reduced or stopped by the EOs. The
strong aroma of the EOs can affect the organoleptic properties of the foods but the synergistic combinations of EOs with
each other or with other hurdle techniques can reduce this effect. Essential oils represent a natural, effective, and
consumer-accepted tool against food spoilage caused by yeast and moulds.
3. Essential oils
Essential oils (EOs) are plant-derived volatiles with a hydrophobic character. They are extracted from various plant
organs; leaves, fruits, flowers, bulbs, seeds, roots, wood and bark of aromatic plants. EOs are known to possess
antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and insecticide properties [7]. They can have more than 50 components, of which 1-3
are the main components representing 85-95% of the whole volume, while the others are minor components, sometimes
below 1%. The chemical character of the compounds influences their antimicrobial efficacy and the mechanism of
action on the target organism. The two main groups of EOs are terpenes and terpenoids, and aromatic and aliphatic
constituents [8]. EOs have several targets in the cell. Degradation of the cell wall, and weakening the membrane causing
enhanced permeability, lead to the loss of intracellular components. In Candia albicans yeast cells, tea tree oil increased
the plasma membrane permeability that led to the loss of chemiosmotic control [9]. Lesion formation in the membrane
and considerable reduction of ergosterol content (the major sterol component in fungal cell membrane) was reported for
Thymus pulegoides (thyme) EO in Candida albicans [10]. Genes involved in ergosterol biosynthesis and sterol uptake
were affected by α-terpinene, a cyclic monoterpene in S. cerevisiae [11]. EOs can also react with important cell
membrane proteins depleting their function [7]. The hydroxyl groups of phenolic and alcoholic EO components can
form hydrogen bonds with amino acid residues in the active site of enzymes [12, 13]. Enzymes in the energy regulation
can be involved: the monoterpenes -pinene and limonene inhibited the respiratory activity in intact yeast cells and also
in isolated mitochondria [14]. Spore formation of Aspergillus species was reduced by lemongrass [15] and cassia,
cinnamon or clove EO [16]. Spore germination of Aspergillus species, as well as B. cinerea, Cladosporium herbarum
and Rhizopus stolonifer, was also inhibited by lemongrass and oregano EO [17, 18]. Hyphal morphology of
Phytophtora infestans causing late blight disease of tomato was affected by thyme, lavender and rosemary oil leading to
cytoplasmic coagulation, vacuolization, hyphal shrivelling and protoplast leakage [19]. It seems that the disruption of
ergosterol biosynthesis in fungi, similarly to the action of azole fungicides, contributes to the antifungal activity of EOs.
Table 1 Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of various essential oils against moulds
Mould Essential oil MIC (ppm) References
Alternaria alternate thyme 700 [35]
Alternaria solani clary sage 3200 [36]
Aspergillus flavus anise 500 [37]
basil 800; 3000 [37, 38]
cinnamon 1000 [37]
lemongrass 1200 [38]
oregano 20 000 – 40 000a [17]b
thyme 250; 700; 1000 [35, 37, 38]
A. fumigatus basil 600 [38]
lemongrass 1200 [38]
oregano 80 000 [17]
thyme 600/700 [35, 38]
A. niger oregano 40 000 [17]
A. ochraceus anise 500 [37]
basil 3000 [37]
cinnamon 1000 [37]
lemongrass 500 [18]
oregano 40 000 [17]
thyme 500 [37]
A. parasiticus anise 500 [37]
basil 3000 [37]
cinnamon 1000 [37]
oregano 40 000 – 80 000a [17]b
thyme 500 [37]
A. terreus oregano 40 000 [17]
thyme 700 [37]
Botrytis cinerea clary sage 1600 [36]
lemongrass 500 [18]
Cladosporium herbarum lemongrass 500 [18]
Fusarium moniliforme anise 500 [37]
basil 500/3000 [37, 38]
cinnamon 1000 [37]
lemongrass 500 [38]
thyme 250/500 [37, 38]
Fusarium oxysporum clary sage 3200 [36]
thyme 700 [35]
Rhizoctonia solani clary sage 800 [36]
a
Different strains were used
b
MIC was converted from μl/ml to ppm
8. Conclusions
Essential oils represent an alternative to synthetic preservatives in the food industry against spoilage yeasts and moulds.
Most investigated fungi showed some (higher or lower) sensitivity to EOs or EO components. It is difficult to compare
the results of antifungal tests because of the diversity of methods and units used. It seems that the main target of EOs is
the cell membrane also in fungi, causing increased permeability and disruption of membrane integrity. Both
monoterpenes and phenolics are involved in the action against the cell membrane and key enzymes important for energy
regulation or synthetic pathways; and mycotoxin production of moulds is also affected by the EOs. Spore formation and
germination is sometimes accelerated by EOS, especially in case of fungi that can attack aromatic plants or fruits. The
choice of EO and its concentration in a particular food is important because a small amount can cause sensory
alterations. Combinations of EOs with each other or with other preservation techniques can solve this problem.
Although the literature data about the antimicrobial effect of EOs are ample there are new areas of application to be
discovered.
Acknowledgment This work was supported in part by the grant NKTH TéT MN-1/2009.
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