Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Urban Greenways Operationalizing Design
Urban Greenways Operationalizing Design
HOSTED BY
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
www.elsevier.com/locate/foar
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Morgan State University School of Architecture and Planning, CBEIS, 1700 E. Cold Spring Lane, Baltimore,
MD 21251, USA
Received 1 April 2014; received in revised form 28 September 2014; accepted 11 November 2014
KEYWORDS Abstract
Design thinking; The ubiquitous sameness of urban greenways prompts questions on generative design grammar
Syntax; and syntax, whether creative, critical rethinking at that level might be lacking. However the
Greenway; design syntax of urban greenways is not explicitly discussed thus leaving a critical gap in
Urban; knowledge. This paper begins tackling the larger question by acting on the fundamental subset
Planning;
of it, by operationalizing the design syntax of urban greenways. This is done through
Landscape;
mathematics-based graph studies to analyze patterns and shapes, photography based thermal,
STEM integrated
design; material and morphology studies, and section analyses to make imagery-derived deductions on
Inter-disciplinary the design syntax. Recommendation on approaches to diversify and enrich the design syntax
includes a more direct reference from ecosystem science theories such for siting and planning
the urban greenways at macro- to meso-scale, a mixed-method approach, combining mathe-
matics, photography and drawings based frames for analyses at meso-, to micro-scale, and a
turtle view scale for designing at meso- to micro-scale, with an emphasis on latter.
& 2015. Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All
rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2014.11.002
2095-2635/& 2015. Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Urban greenways: Operationalizing design syntax 25
greenway emerges: a natural, green way based on pro- the paper investigates the varieties of design approaches
tected linear corridors which will improve environmental and language, currently being generated.
quality and provide for outdoor recreation (Little, 1995: A critique of greenway design projects and proposals
4).” The President’s Commission on Americans Outdoors forms the foundation of this study, which synthesizes the
(1987) envisioned “a Living Network of Greenways… to urban greenway design syntax by using the basic principles
provide people with access to open spaces close to where of design, such as form, shape, material, and texture. A
they live, and to link together the rural and urban spaces in contemporary research method of graph analysis is then
the American landscape… threading through cities and applied to the greenway design at the macro-scale to derive
countrysides like a great circulating system.” Fábos (1995, an understanding of patterns. Photographic appraisal is
2004) emphasized that “greenways are ecologi- undertaken to extricate morphological details at the
cally significant corridors, recreational greenways and, or meso-scale, and analysis of section drawings is conducted
greenways with historical and cultural values” and thus to view the design details of urban greenways at the micro-
advocated for greenway planning as a comprehensive scale. This study presents only one view on design, which is
multipurpose, multi-objective effort. Ndubisi et al. (1995) physical form oriented, but design can be discussed across
observed, that “environmentally sensitive areas when inter- multiple frames, such as sociology, philosophy, and econom-
connected could serve as greenway corridors.” Ahern (1995) ics, to mention a few. This investigation on design syntax
explained, “(that) greenways do not attempt to transform does not present the breadth of discourse in this field
or control the entire landscape—but by focusing on riparian because this is not the purpose of the current study.
corridors and other environmentally sensitive areas, green- Instead, the investigation should be read as a complement
ways are more modest in their ambitions, while exploiting to the broad contemporary discourse on the topic. The
selected linear elements in a strategic and synergistic integration of science, mathematics and design is presented
manner.” My own research concurs with Ahern’s idea and in terms of an experimental method.
defines greenways as “synergistic landscapes that create
harmony amongst the urban system with broader biophysi-
cal system” (Sharma, 2010). 2. Inquiry into design syntax of urban
Many offshoots of the greenway concept have simulta- greenways
neously emerged and thus led to confusion about the
identity of greenways. In addressing this identity crisis, Syntax is mostly used in linguistics, but Hillier and Leaman
the comprehensive greenway nomenclature by Hellmund (1974) reintroduced the concept to architecture and urban
and Smith (2006: 2) is reviewed and reinterpreted here to design through space syntax. Conceptualization of space
highlight the following definitive and distinctive features: syntax originated from questioning of critical thinking in
design and most prevalently used to map and understand
physical connectivity (Hillier and Leaman, 1974; Baran
Greenways are multipurpose connections that are mostly et al., 2008). Lynch (1960) offers a matrix for reading and
paved and allow for bike transportation. assessing form. The matrix alludes to clarity in terms of
Complete streets and living streets are multipurpose figure background, contrast, and dominance; visible form or
transportation corridors; however, complete streets have geometry, visual scope, and joints or nodes; and continuity,
vegetated shoulders and allow for automobile, bike, and directionality, and motion awareness. This matrix serves as
pedestrian traffic, whereas living streets encourage a structure for organizing forms, patterns and spaces to
pedestrian and bike traffic only. design a city (1960) and Alexander’s (1977) too for designing
Green streets allow for multipurpose transportation, and retrofitting places, however, not a direct framework for
with emphasis on biking and a combination of private design and planning of an urban greenway. The inquiry into
and public automotive transportation. design syntax, presented in this paper, considers previous
Green trails are unpaved and mostly pedestrian studies on connectivity and syntactic investigations of
connections. Alexander (1977) and Lynch (1960), but focuses exclusively
Green corridors and green infrastructure may or may not on understanding the design syntax of urban greenways. The
be paved and may or may not allow any form of paper uses the term “design syntax” to imply the compo-
transportation. The green infrastructure concept is said sites of urban greenway with reference to the resultant
to be rooted in greenways (Benedict and McMahon, 2006) spatial form. The intention is not to compare the design
and has been considered a component of multiuse trails syntax with linguistics syntax as in this paper since that
by some scholars (Flink et al., 2001: 15). should follow this investigation in collaboration with a
linguistic syntax expert, but to derive an operational under-
standing of design syntax first. Urban greenways, would be
referred to as those designed primarily for humans;
The current perception of or design attitude toward approaches that aim to reconcile the design for humans
greenways, especially urban greenways, is that they are and other biodiversity are beyond the scope of this paper
physical connectors between places with green cover. but are discussed in forthcoming text by Sharma (in press).
Lindsey et al. (2008) described greenways as linear open This section presents a review of urban greenway proposals
spaces or parks along rivers, streams, ridgelines, or histor- and projects along the Appalachia to examine the current
ical infrastructure corridors, such as canals or railroads, design syntax. Knoxville City in Tennessee claims to have 65.53
with the potential to shape the urban form and connect miles of paved and unpaved greenways in aggregation (City of
people to places (53). Within this view of urban greenways, Knoxville, 2012). The current plan is said to have coevolved
26 A. Sharma
with the Knoxville bike plan proposed in 1975 (Knoxville The greenway master plan for Anne Arundel County, Mary-
Regional Transportation Planning Organization, 2012) and has land is an offshoot of the Maryland Department of Natural
emerged in the Knoxville Greenways and Community Trails Resources’ plan “to identify large, contiguous blocks of
Commission Report, 1992; the Knox County Greenways Plan, ecologically significant natural areas (hubs) and to link them
1994; the Knox County Park and Recreation Facility Plan, 1998; with natural corridors to create an interconnected network of
and the Knoxville Parks, Greenways, and Open Space Resource natural resource lands across the state” (Anne Arundel County,
Inventory, 1999. The Knoxville–Knox County Greenways Plan 2002). As a result, the Maryland Atlas of Greenways, Water
aims to embrace the ethos of sustainability and green infra- Trails, and Green Infrastructure was published in 2000, and it
structure through the integration of energy-saving and water- served as a precursor to Anne Arundel County’s Greenway
conserving technologies, open space systems, riparian green- Master Plan (Maryland Greenways Commission, 2012). The
ways, forest preserves and natural areas, and natural drainage plan emphasized on biodiversity conservation and used the
systems, such as bioswales and pervious paving. The main habitat suitability index to maintain or provide biodiversity
intent of this plan is to develop the park and open space corridor connections.
system as the foundation for community development while The design decisions of most greenway proposals for
facilitating the preservation of important natural resources naturalistic setting are more in the spirit of form following
(Knoxville Metropolitan Planning Commission, 2009: 7, 10, 20). topography and thus result in very delicate looking and
Economic revitalization is a concurrent goal of the Knoxville– natural low-impact greenway designs with compacted earth
Knox County Greenways Plan. Therefore, planning for sports or gravel paths, well-composed tree canopy, and beautifully
fields is well emphasized. Green trails are to be designed for framed views of nature (Sharma, 2010: 351–352). However,
multipurpose use, with a conscious effort to enhance the in urbanized setting, greenway proposals and executed
natural beauty and property value of the area. The recom- designs have a sturdy looking, multi-traffic oriented design
mendation is to establish parks or greenways within a quarter- with the integration of concrete or asphalt pavements,
mile walk for residents in urban areas and within half a mile in street fixtures, and a tree canopy that bear the look of a
lower-density suburban areas. controlled mechanical assembly.
The greenway vision for Charlotte City in Mecklenburg
County, North Carolina aims to address the goals of floodplain
3. Reading design syntax
protection, stormwater management, and recreational
opportunities (Haden and Stanziale, 1999: 31). A provision
Most reading and perceiving of ambient surroundings occur
for physically walkable or bikeable connections for close-to-
at the visual scale of far, near or in-between. For the
home and close-to-work recreation opportunities is thus
purpose of this paper, I will use macro-scale to refer to far
central to the greenway planning vision. The city of Raleigh,
view or a few hundred feet of bird’s-eye view; micro-scale,
North Carolina followed suit by instituting and executing the
for near view or view up to 20 feet and meso-scale, as a
plan for the Capital Area Greenway System for the twofold
reference to in-between view of up to100 feet. This also
purpose of avoiding flooding and providing an avenue for
establishes the visual scale as basis of reading design syntax.
people to connect with nature (City of Raleigh, 2012).The
For reading design syntax of urban greenways, I begin
retirement town of Morgantown, spread over five square
with graph studies for pattern recognition since it is one of
miles, is hoping to re-attract its customer base by further
the basic tools available for morphological understanding of
enhancing the beauty and walkability of the town through
the design syntax at the macro-scale, even in contexts
greenways (City of Morganton, 2012). Resource preservation
where Geographic Information Systems technology may not
is integral to retaining the attraction value of the town.
be readily available. The methods of section drawings and
The “Louisville Loop is an estimated 100-mile trail
photograph-analysis, have been popularly used to explain
system that will encircle the city and link existing and
greenway design in seminal texts such as by Flink et al.
new parks and neighborhoods to civic attractions, trans-
(2001) and Hellmund and Smith (2006), besides contempor-
portation alternative and recreation opportunities (Fischer
ary research by Nordh (2012, 2010). I will use the section
and Louisville Metro Council, 2013). The 26-mile love
analyses of drawings for abstracting design details at the
system was built from the early 1890s through the 1930s,
micro-scale, and Picasa-treated photographic analyses for
Creating large community parks on disparate sites that
an insight into material and morphology at meso-scale.
each displayed unique qualities of Louisville’s varied land-
Ranging from a macro/regional/bird's-eye view scale to a
scapes, and connecting them to the neighborhoods of
micro/local/pedestrian/turtle view scale, the methods of
Louisville with the ‘ribbons of green’ that became the
graph analysis, morphological as well as thermal studies
parkways (‘ways to the park’), was the fascinating, vision-
through photographs and section analyses presented in this
ary, and enduring concept brought about by the wisdom
article offers a mixed-method approach for the objective
and will of Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.” (Fischer and
reading, assessing, and designing of urban greenways.
Louisville Metro Council, 2013). The Floyds Fork Greenway
is a two-mile segment of the Louisville Loop. The Floyds
Fork Greenway Master Plan established the design direc- 3.1. Graph analysis at bird’s eye view scale:
tion for more than 4000 acres of new parkland at the pattern recognition and spatial layout
edge of the metro region of Louisville, Kentucky (City of
Louisville, 2010; Wallace et al., 2010). The plan was Graph theory is at the heart of space syntax theory (Hillier
developed to conserve land and bring in tourism from the and Leaman, 1974; Baran et al., 2008), with a focus on
Louisville metro region into the town to support retail movement patterns of the users. The abstraction of green-
development and the local economy. way pattern through graph drawing in this paper is focused
Urban greenways: Operationalizing design syntax 27
on understanding the pattern of greenway design as a Graph-based extrapolations are also intended as means to
component of design syntax and starts with mapping of trigger design thinking from mathematical frames of equations
the most proximate, possible patterns that facilitate essen- and relevant postulates. For example, mathematicians can
tial functions of connection and conduit. This experimental start answering questions, such as, if a greenway design is a
approach of integrating mathematical perspective, through function of sum/product of variables of landscape systems and
graph-based drawings in design of urban greenways, was location of greenway routes, than what is the correlation or
shared by Sharma in 2013 (528–532), in anticipation of covariance amongst each unit of investigation. To enunciate,
engaging mathematicians in greenway design and planning landscape systems – subsurface geology and hydrology are the
issues, thus, creating conditions for transdisciplinary design common contexts in which greenways occur, are constants – a
thinking. This adapted language blending maths and design, steady factor, given their relative static nature and surface
resulted in engaging attention of transportation engineers transportation routes or locations of greenways and design
and planners at Morgan State University, and a collaborative elements of greenways – dimension, shape, form, material, and
research on “Impacts of Urban Street Patterns and con- texture, are variables – changing factors, than a calculation of
textual Land Uses on Environmental Sustainability and covariance between both the variables would make an infor-
Safety in the Mid-Atlantic Cities” is underway (Shin et al., mative study for greenway designers.
2014).
The factors that influence decisions on locating urban
greenways (Figure 1), which in turn affect the spatial layout 3.2. Picasa analyses at human view scale: formal
pattern of greenways, are as follows: (1) conservation, composition and material thinking
protection, or preservation needs of natural resources;
(2) proximity of natural resources and residential or publicly The semiotics of landscape based on the types of design
accessible areas; (3) distance between residential areas and elements, compositions, locations, and morphologies involved
natural resources or other civic amenities; (4) view sheds; were extensively discussed by Lynch (1960) and Jorgensen
and (5) economic valuation of land that should be acquired (1998), amongst others, and were supported by analyses of
for urban greenways and is adjacent to the proposed photographic views of landscape. An established practice in the
greenways. spatial design and geography disciplines, photographic analysis
• Serve as an alternative
transportation mode
• Protect floodplains
• Provide avenues for
people to connect with
nature
helps gain insights into the qualitative aspects of design, spatial that is, blue is the hottest, and red is the coolest. The colors
distribution, and trends (McCullagh and Davis, 1972; Nordh, were not further digitally altered to avoid any error or loss of
2012; Nordh et al., 2010). Inspired by photographic appraisal information that may occur because of the author’s lack of
approaches (Nordh, 2012), this study adapts and applies such understanding of the actual software code. This simple two-
method to further understand the design of urban greenways at step process shows the materials that generate high heat
the micro-scale. Please see Table 1 for a reading of the (indicated by the color blue in Picasa’s “heat diagrams”)
morphology of urban greenways through digital photography without having to crunch the albedo indexes of the materials;
modifications. these materials could then be replaced with other material
A review of the built and proposed greenways, drawn as choices that do not generate high heat (as indicated by the
representative sample from a region, in Figures 1 and 2 shows red color and shades of yellow and green in Picasa’s “heat
that the design and morphology of greenways have not diagrams”). The morphology of the design elements is
changed much. Table 1 presents the photographic study of experienced at the level of “personal” view or perspective
morphology. With Google’s Picasa software, the “invert and is represented through sections, as discussed below.
colors” effect was applied to the original greenway photo-
graphs, as shown in column 2 of Table 1, followed by the
“heat diagrams” and “pixelate” effects, the results of which 3.3. Section drawings analyses at human view
are shown in column 3 of Table 1; any technology similar to scale: design assembly and form
Picasa could be used. The application of the “invert colors”
effect results in lost morphological details, such as material, Views, perspectives, and sections are integral means of
texture, and form. The application of the “heat diagrams” understanding space and analyzing design (Lynch, 1960;
effect reveals the corresponding heat patterns of the mate- Alexander, 1977). Forsyth and Krizek (2011) again shed light
rials, whereas that of the “pixelate” effect enables a quick on the issue of scale and speed at which we experience
reading of the percentage distribution of the materials. urban spaces. This section of the article focuses on viewing
Picasa’s “heat diagrams” effect shows the colors in inverse, landscape at walking speed by working through section
Table 1 Urban greenways: reading morphology through digital photo modifications. (Source websites for the pictures in
column 1 are as indicated; the images in columns 2 and 3 are digitally treated by the author for purpose of research.)
Knoxville, TN
drawings because sections highlight the form, material, and essentially (need to) bring out not only the surface but also
textural design qualities that are lost in large-scale draw- the subsurface view of the greenways because land design
ings and top-view plans. The contemporary design of urban involves a holistic understanding of the total land. The
greenways formed at the human experiential scale in amphibious vision of super- and sub-landscape, is therefore
sections is inventoried in Figure 2a and b essential. It is also acceptable to digress from the transporta-
The study of urban greenways is synthesized, and the tion planning based idea of taking people from point A to point
generic diagrams of plans and sections are abstracted from B in the fastest time possible in designing urban greenways. A
urban greenways illustrations and photographs, similar to designer should influence people to shift from hare like speedy
those presented in Figures 1, 2a, b and Table 1, are walk to a turtle like walk by slowing them down when they
presented in Figure 3. view esthetically pleasing, psychologically calming, and stress-
The representation of greenways through sections is empha- relieving landscape designs. The unique qualities of section
sized but not celebrated for its unique contribution to critical drawings, which are very critical to a designer of land and
design thinking in relation to greenways. Compared with ecosystems, need to be identified and celebrated with their
Forman’s diagrams, which show a bird’s-eye view of greenway own unique signifier at the “turtle view” scale. This means
corridors, and Flink’s greenway guidelines, which discuss that the designer should consider the land both from the top
greenway planning from the perspective of the human view of the ground line and under. This turtle view scale is
cone and human experience (Forman, 1995; Flink et al., poetically reflected in the 2002 photomontage by Weller and
2001), the greenway section drawings by landscape architects Griffiths (Weller, 2001: 11), referring to art Masterpieces,
T+ PW
PW + [SW]+T
T+BW+[SW]+PW+T
T+BW/ PW
T+PW+[SW]+CW
T+PW/BW+T
Figure 2 (a) Section analysis for design syntax based on seminal drawings. (b) Section analysis for design syntax based on built and
proposed examples. Key used: T: tree +other plant material, PW: Pedestrian pathway, BW: Bikway, CW: automobile or carway, SW:
predominant stormwater management interventions requiring grading.
30 A. Sharma
T+ BW/PW+T
PW/BW+[SW]
T+PW+ CW(parking)
+BW+CW+BW+
CW(parking)+PW+T
T+PW/BW+ CW+
PW/BW+T
Figure 2 (continued)
Abstracting the design syntax: plan study for design assembly Abstracting the design syntax:
section study for form: open,
semi-open
T+CW+PW+T
T+ PW+CW+BW+T
T+ PW/BW+CW+T
Key:
Figure 3 Urban greenways: design: typical plan and section studies for design syntax and form
[plant material
+
transportation infrastructure]
= + +
[ +Trail/ Street
infrastructure:
benches + bus shelters +
Design syntax
= + +
the greenway, the material for greenway surfacing may be useful tool to understand the design language used to
compacted earth, gravel, brick, timber, concrete, and construct urban greenways. However, more clarity is ren-
asphalt. An educated inference can be made even without dered by further synthesis and refinement of the design
complex computation. The green patches that favor syn- syntax corresponding to the idea of composite alphabets,
thetic materials requiring many levels of industrial proces- conjunctions and meanings as presented in Figure 4.
sing or even naturalistic material resources from remote The structure of design syntax as presented in Figure 4
locations – thus involving long transportation, high fuel is simply to arrive at a basic operational structure with a
consumption, and associated pollution emissions – will have scope of creativity, innovation and experimentation in
a larger eco-footprint than green segments using locally generating different forms/meanings though play with
resourced and minimally processed surfacing materials. design assemblies. Each composite of the operational design
Therefore, the latter green network will have a lower syntax can be further investigated in detail for various
eco-footprint than the former. descriptors of each design composite/alphabet. For exam-
The proposed framework aims to bring specificity in terms ple, the form for T when it is deciduous tree would be
of applying the concept to greenway planning. The frame- different than form for T where it is three storied canopy of
work supports the idea of consciously designing urban vegetation. However, the currently articulated design syn-
landscape and greenways as a green switch or work gates tax provides a parent operational syntax for further studies
(as explained in Odum’s well-known energy flow diagrams) and critiques. Basic design components/ alphabets, design
to control and direct contextual energy flows (Sharma, assemblies/conjunctions and spatial forms/meaning are co-
2006; Ahern, 1995). related and change in one affects the other.
serves as the locational criteria. This is in sync with the undertaken at two scales of bird’s eye view and the human
concept of “promenade catch basin” presented by Alexander view scale, as seen in seminal greenway guidebooks such as
(1977: 171, 173), and should be integrated and sustained as those by Flink et al. (2001) and Hellmund and Smith (2006).
one of the urban greenway siting principles. Additionally, This study extends the scalar approach to greenway design
science offers knowledgebase to draw from. Hellmund and by adding the third scale of “turtle view”.
Smith (2006: 65, 191) mention Island biogeography and Additionally, this article reinforces interdisciplinary
network theories as a potential reference in process of design frameworks through an experiment in integration
greenway planning. The ecological hierarchy proposed by of science, mathematics and design. The integration is
Odum and Barrett (1971), explains the composition of achieved through the combination of mathematics-based
ecosystem, in incremental scale and complexity, at the levels graph analysis, photography, and pattern- and section
of: organism, population, community, ecosystem, landscape, reading-based morphological analyses, in addition to eco-
biome, and biosphere. Hargens et al. (2009: 95) simplified system science theories of hierarchy and network and island
the hierarchy as follows: atom, cells, organism, ecosystem, biogeography, in design analyses, which are eventually used
biosphere, and universe. These levels of ecosystem can be in decision making on design. Next question to ask, along
used as a guide for spatial layout of greenways; see Table 2 this line, would be on technology; the level and role of it in
for a beginning interpretation corresponding to urban enriching the design syntax of an urban greenway.
greenways. Lastly, the study articulates the design syntax for urban
Such an ecosystem science informed organizational greenways which despite in nascent stage, offers a funda-
approach directs us to view visible and invisible associations mental design grammar or framework to greenway profes-
with the broader biophysical systems to be viewed at a sionals, for conceptualization of urban greenway designs
nested scale of hierarchy from organism to community. and section drawings that push the frontiers of design
Doing so enables a conscious designing of urban greenways thinking, through addition, subtraction, modification or
as a metacommunity or a metasystem with composite complete alteration to the proposed design syntax, and
subcommunities or subsystems; such a design grants a address the wicked design problem of ubiquitous sameness.
chance to urban greenways to function as a dynamic,
resilient system similar to natural ecosystems.
References
5. Conclusion
Ahern, J., 1995. Greenways as a planning strategy. Landsc. Urban
Urban greenways have been incorporated in cities for the Plan. 33, 131–155.
purposes of stormwater management, recreation, tourism Alexander, C., 1977. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings and
and alternative transportation. Even with emphasis on Construction. Oxford University Press, New York.
one of these objectives, most greenways automatically Anne Arundel County, 2002. Greenways. 〈http://www.aacounty.
serve other goals in varying degrees. Simply put, they are org/PlanZone/LongRange/Greenways.cfm〉 (accessed March
designed for multi-functionality. While some cities, such as 2012).
Knoxville, approach greenways as an environment-friendly Baran, P.K., Rodriguez, D.A., Khattak, A.J., 2008. Space syntax
and walking in a new urbanist and suburban neighbourhoods.
alternative transportation mode because they help reduce
J. Urban Des. 13 (1), 5–28.
fuel consumption and pollution generation, others, such as Benedict, Mark A., McMahon, Edward T., 2006. Green Infrastruc-
Raleigh and Charlotte in North Carolina, plan greenways to ture: Linking Landscapes and Communities. Island Press:
address urban environmental issues, such as stormwater Washington.
management, seasonal flooding, and heat island effect. City of Knoxville, 2012. Greenways and Trails. 〈http://www.cityof
Only a few areas, such as the city of Louisville and the knoxville.org/greenways/〉 (accessed March 2012).
county of Anne Arundel, push the boundaries further and City of Louisville, 2010. Floyds Fork Area Study: Draft 10 08 2010.
consider environmental succession patterns in designing 〈http://www.louisvilleky.gov/PlanningDesign/floydsforkstudy〉
greenways. The greenway design sections, material tem- (accessed April 2012).
plate, and thus syntax do not vary remarkably. The proce- City of Morganton, 2012. Morganton Greenway System. 〈http://
www.ci.morganton.nc.us/index.php/residents-menu/catawba-r
dural method to plan most urban greenways is very real-
iver-greenway〉 (accessed April 2012).
world based, depending on land availability, open space
City of Raleigh, 2012. Capital Area Greenway Trail System. 〈http://
networks, conservation easements and zoning codes, closely www.raleighnc.gov/arts/content/PRecDesignDevelop/Articles/
followed by site conditions and contextual needs. CapitalAreaGreenwayTrailSystem.html〉 (accessed March 2012).
As an observation on critical design thinking on urban Fábos, J.G., 1995. Introduction and overview: the greenway move-
greenways, it is important to note following points. Firstly, ment, uses and potentials of greenways. Landsc. Urban Plan. 33,
currently, morphological studies are predominantly 1–13.
34 A. Sharma
Fábos, J.G., 2004. Greenway planning in the United States: its Maryland Greenways Commission, 2012. Maryland Atlas of Green-
origins and recent case studies. Landsc. Urban Plan. 68, ways, Water Trails, and Green Infrastructure, 2000 edition.
321–342. 〈http://www.dnr.state.md.us/greenways/counties/baltimore
Fábos, J.G., Ahern, J., 1996. Greenways: The Beginning of an city.html〉 (accessed April 2012).
International Movement. Elsevier, Amsterdam. McCullagh, M.J., Davis, J.C., 1972. Optical analysis of two-
Fischer, G., Louisville Metro Council, 2013. Louisville Loop Master dimensional patterns. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 62 (4), 561–577.
Plan: Connecting People to a Greener Healthier Community. Ndubisi, F., DeMeo, T., Ditto, N.D., 1995. Environmentally sensitive
Louisville Loop. 〈http://www.louisvilleky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/ areas: a template for developing greenway corridors. Landsc.
DB69F11E-AD46-46EB-9FCE-E0632D59F547/0/LoopMasterPlan_ Urban Plan. 33, 159–177.
draft_041813sm.pdf〉 (accessed 08.10.13). Nordh, H., 2012. Quantitative methods of measuring restorative
Flink, Charles, Olka, Kristine, Searns, Robert M., 2001. Trails for the components in urban public parks. J. Landsc. Archit. 7 (1),
Twenty-First Century, 2nd edition Island Press. 46–53.
Forman, R.T.T., 1995. Landscape Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscape Nordh, H., Hagerhall, C.M., Holmqvist, K., 2010. Exploring view
and Regions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pattern and analyzing pupil size as a measure of restorative
Forsyth, Ann, Krizek, K., 2011. Urban Design: Is There a Distinctive qualities in park photos. ActaHorticulturae 881, 767–772.
View from the Bicycle? J. Urban Des. 16 (4), 531–549. Odum, Eugene P., Barrett, Gary W., 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology.
Haden, J., Stanziale, G., 1999. Mecklenburg County Greenway Thomson Brooks/Cole, Belmont, CA.
Master Plan: 1999–2009, Adopted by the Board of County Sharma, A., 2006. Green-switch: reducing the conflict between the
Commissioners on May 18, 1999, Retrieved from Mecklenburg industrial and residential interface. In: Mander, U., Tiezzi, Enzo,
County Park and Recreation Department website: /http:// Brebbia, C.A. (Eds.), The Sustainable City IV—Urban Regenera-
char-meck.org/mecklenburg/county/ParkandRec/Greenways/ tion and Sustainability. WIT Press, Southampton, Boston,
Docu-ments/FinalReport.pdfS (last accessed on 7th January pp. 147–154.
2015). Sharma, A. 2010. Rethinking Greenways Design in Context of
Hargens, Sean E., Zimmerman, Michael E., Bekoff, Marc, 2009. Sustainable Development: Towards Landscape Synergism. In:
Integral Ecology: Uniting Multiple Perspectives on the Natural Fábos, J. Gy., Ryan, R.L., Lindhult, M.S., Kumble, P., Kollányi,
World. Integral Books. L., Ahern, J., Jombach, S. (Eds.), Proceedings of Fábos Con-
Hellmund, P.C., Smith, D.S., 2006. Designing Greenways. Island ference on Landscape and Greenway Planning 2010, Budapest
Press, London. July 8–11, Hungary, pp. 347–364.
Hillier, Bill, Leaman, A., 1974. How is design possible? J. Archit. Sharma, A. 2013. Greenway Patterns and City Planning. In: Fábos, J.G.,
Plan. Res. 3 (1), 4–11. Lindhult, M., Ryan, R.L., Jacknin, M. (Eds.), Proceedings of Fábos
Jongman, R.H.G., Pungetti, G., 2004. Ecological Networks and Conference on Landscape and Greenway Planning 2013: Pathways to
Greenways: Concept, Design, Implementation. Cambridge Uni- Sustainability. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, April 12–13,
versity Press, Cambridge. 2013. Full papers. Amherst, MA: Department of Landscape Archi-
Jorgensen, K., 1998. Semiotics in Landscape Design. Landsc. Rev. 4 tecture and Regional Planning, University of Massachusetts,
(I), 9–47. Amherst, pp. 527–534.
KMPC (Knoxville Metropolitan Planning Commission), 2009. The Sharma A., Decoding the genotype of greenway design and plan-
Knoxville-Knox County Park Recreation and Greenways Plan ning: Stedmanian frame as a tool for understanding, explaining
Draft. Knoxville and Knox County Parks and Recreation Depart- and progressing design thinking, J. Des. Res. 2015, (provisionally
ment. Adopted by The Knoxville-Knox County Metropolitan scheduled to appear in JDR 2015 Vol 13 No 2, to appear).
Planning Commission on December 10, 2009, The Knox County Shin, H., Sharma, A. Lee, Y.J., A., Park, B.B. 2014. Impacts of Urban
Commission on January 25, 2010, The Knoxville City Council on Street Patterns and contextual Land Uses on Environmental
January 26, 2010, and amended on January 25, 2011. Sustainability and Safety in the Mid-Atlantic Cities. Morgan State
KRTPO (Knoxville Regional Transportation Planning Organization), University, Maryland and University of Virginia, Virginia, USA
2012. 2002 Knoxville Regional Bicycle Plan. 〈http://www.knox (Unpublished manuscript).
trans.org/plans/bikeplan/backgrnd.htm〉 (accessed 09.03.12). Wallace, Roberts, Todd, LLC, 2010. The Floyds Fork Area Study: A
Lindsey, Greg, Wilson, Jeff, Yang, Jihui Anne, Alexa, Christopher, Framework for Growth.
2008. Urban greenways, trail characteristics and trail use: Weller, R., 2001. Between hermeneutics and datascapes: a critical
implications for design. J. Urban Des. 13 (1), 53–79. appreciation of emergent landscape design theory and praxis
Little, C.E., 1990, 1995. Greenways for America. The Johns Hopkins through the writings of James Corner 1990–2000 (Part One).
University Press, Baltimore, MD. Landsc. Rev. 7 (1), 3–24.
Lynch, K., 1960. The Image of the City. The MIT Press, Cambridge,
MA.