GEOTECHNICAL

MANUAL
FOR
SLOPES

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE

Civil Engineering Department
The Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region
GEOTECHNICAL
MANUAL
FOR
SLOPES

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE

Civil Engineering Department
The Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region
 2

© The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

First published, November 1979
Reprinted with minor corrections, November 1981
Second Edition, May 1984
First reprint, June 1991
Second reprint, March 1994
Third reprint, June 1997
Fourth reprint, February 2000

Prepared by:

Geotechnical Engineering Office,

Civil Engineering Department,
Civil Engineering Building,
101 Princess Margaret Road,
Homantin, Kowloon,
Hong Kong.

This publication is available from:

Government Publications Centre,

Ground Floor, Low Block,
Queensway Government Offices,
66 Queensway,
Hong Kong.

Overseas orders should be placed with:

Publications Sales Section,

Information Services Department,
Room 402, 4th Floor, Murray Building,
Garden Road, Central,
Hong Kong.

Price in Hong Kong: HK$70

Price overseas: US$14.5 (including surface postage)

An additional bank charge of HK$50 or US$6.50 is required per cheque made in currencies
other than Hong Kong dollars.

Cheques, bank drafts or money orders must be made payable to

The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
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Page
No.

TABLES 171
LIST OF TABLES 173
TABLES 175

FIGURES 201
LIST OF FIGURES 203
FIGURES 207

PLATES 273
LIST OF PLATES 275
PLATES 279

ADDENDUM 297
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excessive.

Filter paper side drains should not be used in triaxial tests, because
they can lead to errors in strength measurement and are generally unnecessary
for the soils of Hong Kong. Membrane corrections must be made in the usual
way.

Saturation by back pressure can only be obtained by applying a small

effective stress to the specimen. Specimens that start with a very low degree
of saturation can be difficult to saturate. In these cases, saturation can
be carried out by first percolating deaired water under a small hydraulic
gradient through the specimen until air stops bubbling from it. A back
pressure can then be applied to complete the saturation.

The strain rate for drained tests with pore pressure monitoring should
be such that the pore water pressure fluctuation is negligible, and in any case
the fluctuation should be no greater than 5% of the effective confining pressure.
For undrained tests, the rate should be selected so as to allow complete
equalisation of pore water pressure throughout the specimen. It is desirable
that the strain rate does not exceed 2% per hour.

For undrained tests, failure can be defined either as the maximum deviator
stress or as the maximum obliquity (σ1'/σ3'). For fully-drained tests, these
two criteria coincide.

3.8.2 Interpretation of Results

For ease of interpretation, it is recommended that the results of CU
triaxial tests are plotted as p'-q stress paths (Figure 3.1), where
p' = (σ1' + σ3')/2 and q = (σ1 - σ3)/2 (Lambe & Whitman, 1969). The shape of
a stress path indicates the tendency for a specimen to compress or dilate during
shear. The p'-q plots also enable the most sensible strength envelope to be
drawn as the boundary to a family of stress paths.

For CD tests, the p'-q stress paths are of no significance. Actual volume
changes during drained tests should be measured throughout the shear process.

Strength envelopes determined from triaxial tests will often not be

linear, and they will sometimes exhibit an apparent break-point in the region
of a definite ‘critical’ pressure. This is because the stress-strain
behaviour of the material is dependent upon the confining pressure under which
it is sheared. Specimens that are tested at low confining pressures in the
triaxial test tend to dilate during shearing. At high confining pressures,
specimens tend to compress. These different stress-strain behaviours are
indicated clearly by the different shapes of the respective stress paths
(Figure 3.1). In Hong Kong soils, the critical pressure can be considered to
be analogous to the maximum past pressure for a sediment.

It is important to remember that, where a strength envelope is not linear,

the portion of the envelope used for design purposes must be that for the correct
design stress range.

In the interpretation of triaxial test data, especially in the low stress

range, the following sources of error should be borne in mind :
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A = wetted cross-sectional area (m2),

P = wetted perimeter (m), and

S = gradient of channel

Stepped channels are not particularly effective as energy dissipators.

However, there would seem to be no practicable alternative. The flow in
stepped channels is turbulent, and sufficient freeboard must be allowed for
splashing and aeration. The stepped channel details shown in Figure 8.8 make
some allowance for splashing and are the most effective used in Hong Kong to
date for reducing the velocity of flow. In the absence of any experimental
data, the size of the stepped channel and gradient of the invert may be
determined using Figure 8.7 by assuming a velocity of 5 m/sec through the
minimum section (at the top of each step). At the top of slopes, the velocity
is lower and the cross-sectional area of flow greater, but splashing and
aeration is less. Therefore, the section adopted for the stepped channel may
also be used to cross narrow berms.

8.3.5 Changes in Direction

At any change in direction, the pattern of flow in the channels is affected.
Channels in which the velocity is approximately 2 m/sec should change direction
through bends of radius not less than three times the width of the channel.
This radius should be increased where the velocity is greater than 2 m/sec or,
alternatively, sufficient freeboard should be provided to contain the
superelevation of the water surface (Chow, 1959).

Where a stepped channel crosses a berm, a hydraulic jump may form which
must be contained within the channel. The splash allowance provided for the
stepped channel may therefore be extended across the berm.

8.3.6 Junctions of Channels

Junctions of channels pose the greatest problem when designing slope
drainage. They inevitably cause turbulence and splashing, and any chamber
constructed to contain this is vulnerable to blockage by debris. Avoidance
of such chambers is recommended, except possibly at the base of the slope, where
the deep channels required to contain the splashing would cause a hazard if
left uncovered.

At junctions, the smaller channel or channels should be brought in at

half the width of the main channel above the invert of the main channel. The
channels should be deepened with an added freeboard allowance to contain the
turbulence, splashing and backwater effects.

Where channels are to discharge into a stepped channel crossing a berm,

they should be curved into the stepped channel.

If excessive splashing and turbulence is expected at a particular

junction or change in direction, consideration should be given to providing
a baffle wall, as shown on Figure 8.9, or a catchpit, as shown on Figure 8.10.

The tops of all channels should be flush with the slope surface
(Figure 8.11). Where possible, an apron that drains towards the channel
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10.5 LOADS AND STRESSES

10.5.1 Load Cells for Rockbolts and Anchors

Only load cells suitable for long-term monitoring of rockbolt and anchor
loads are considered in this Section.

The anchor load can either be determined at intervals, by measuring the

force required to jack the anchor head away from its seating, or it may be
monitored continuously with a compression load cell between the anchor head
and bearing plate. The types of load cell available and their advantages and
disadvantages are given in Table 10.3.

10.5.2 Earth Pressure Cells

Measurement of earth pressure is unlikely to be required in soil slopes
in Hong Kong. In large excavations, cells may be specified to measure the
contact pressure between the soil and a retaining structure. Effective stress
can be computed by installing pressure cells with piezometers. The type and
position of a cell should be chosen with great care, because the introduction
of the cell into the soil causes a redistribution of the stresses around it,
and the errors depend on the geometry of the instrument. Details of the types
of cell available and the problems that may be encountered when using them are
given by Hanna (1973).
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ADDENDUM
 298

[BLANK PAGE]
 299

Readers should note that the following Chapters/Sections of this Manual are no longer
applicable, having been superseded by later publications:

(a) Chapter 1 and Section 2.3.3 are superseded by the Geological Survey Maps and
Memoirs and Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988).

(b) Chapter 2 (except Section 2.3.3), Section 3.5 and 10.2 are superseded by
Geoguide 2 (GCO, 1987).

(c) Section 4.6 is superseded by GEO Publication No. 1/93 (GEO, 1993a).

(d) Sections 5.5.2, 5.3.6, 5.5.1, 5.5.2 and 9.5.1 are supplemented by the Works
Bureau Technical Circular No. 13/99 (Works Bureau, 1999). Section 5.2.4 is
superseded by this Technical Circular, and Tables 5.1 to 5.4 are superseded by
Tables 1 to 4 of the same Technical Circular.

(e) Chapter 7 (except the parts relevant to the design of remedial or preventive
works to existing gravity retaining walls as given in Section 7.3.3) is superseded
by Geoguide 1 (GEO, 1993b), GCO Publication No. 1/90 (GCO, 1990) and GEO
Circular No. 6/96 (GEO, 1996a).

(f) Chapter 11 is superseded by Geoguide 5 (GEO, 1998).

(g) References to BS 1377:1975 concerning Phase 1 tests described in Works

Branch Technical Circular 6/94 are replaced by GEO Report No. 36 (GEO,
1996b).

(h) “The Hong Kong Bibliography” referred to in the Manual is the Bibliography on
Geology and Geotechnical Engineering of Hong Kong (Brand, 1984). This has
been superseded by GEO Report No. 50 (GEO, 1996c).

Readers should also note that some changes have been made to Figures 8.6 and 8.8.

REFERENCES

(a) Geotechnical Control Office (1987). Guide to Site Investigation (Geoguide 2).
Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 359 p.

(b) Geotechnical Control Office (1988). Guide to Rock and Soil Descriptions
(Geoguide 3). Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 186 p.

(c) Geotechnical Control Office (1990). Review of Design Methods for

Excavations (GCO Publication No. 1/90). Geotechnical Control Office, Hong
Kong, 192 p.

(d) Geotechnical Engineering Office (1993a). Review of Granular and Geotextile

Filters (GEO Publication No. 1/93). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong
Kong, 131 p.
 300

(e) Geotechnical Engineering Office (1993b). Guide to Retaining Wall Design

(Geoguide 1), (Second Edition). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong,
258 p.

(f) Geotechnical Engineering Office (1996a). Guidelines for Assessment of Old

Masonry Retaining Walls in Detailed Studies and for Action to be Taken on
Private Walls. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, GEO Circular
No. 6/96.

(g) Geotechnical Engineering Office (1996b). Methods of Test for Soils in Hong
Kong for Civil Engineering Purposes (Phase 1 Tests) (GEO Report No. 36).
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 90 p.

(h) Geotechnical Engineering Office (1996c). Bibliography on the Geology and

Geotechnical Engineering of Hong Kong to March 1996 (GEO Report No. 50).
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 111 p.

(i) Geotechnical Engineering Office (1996d). Pile Design and Construction (GEO
Publication No. 1/96). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 348 p.

(j) Geotechnical Engineering Office (1998). Guide to Slope Maintenance

(Geoguide 5). (Second Edition). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong
Kong, 91 p.

(k) Works Bureau (1999). Geotechnical Manual for Slopes – Guidance on

Interpretation (Works Bureau Technical Circular No. 13/99). Works Bureau,
Government Secretariat, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region, 12 p.

The Works Bureau Technical Circular as referred to in (k) above and latest
information on the list of GEO publications including the complete list of the series of Hong
Kong Geological Survey Maps and Memoirs, can be found at the websites
http://www.wb.wpelb.gov.hk and http://info.gov.hk/ced/pub.html respectively on the Internet.
Copies of the GEO Circular No. 6/96 as referred to in (f) above can be obtained from the
Technical Secretary at the Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering Department,
Civil Engineering Building, 101 Princess Margaret Road, Homantin, Kowloon, Hong Kong,
(Tel: (852) 2762 5087, Fax: (852) 2715 0501, E-mail: tsgeo@netvigator.com).