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All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced
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any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright
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The Stay Alive Guide®, is an independent publication and has not been authorized,
sponsored, or otherwise approved by the owners of the trademarks or service marks
referenced in this product.
The procedures and protocols in this book are based on the most current recommenda-
tions of responsible medical sources. The authors and the publisher, however, make no
guarantee as to, and assume no responsibility for, the correctness, sufficiency, or com-
pleteness of such information or recommendations. Other or additional safety measures
may be required under particular circumstances.

This book is intended solely as a guide to the appropriate procedures to be employed when
rendering emergency care to the sick and injured. It is not intended as a statement of the
standards of care required in any particular situation, because circumstances and the pa-
tient’s physical condition can vary widely from one emergency to another. Nor is it intended
that this book shall in any way advise emergency personnel concerning legal authority to
perform the activities or procedures discussed. Such local determination should be made

IS BN - 13: 978- 0-5 7 8 - 5 1 8 2 1 -3

Printed in The United States of America
 Acknowledgments

Hunter Education Reviewing Committee

Ron Fritz, ID Hunter Education Coordinator
James R. Hall, Former NH Hunter Education Coordinator
Terrence Moss, Chief Instructor, Hunter Ed., Yellowstone County, MT
Chris Willard, ODFW Education Services Manager
Special Acknowledgments
Magnetic Declination Map of North America (2009 draft) courtesy of World Data
Center for Geophysics & Marine Geology, Ms Susan McLean, Director, Boulder,
CO, in conjunction with the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental
Sciences (CIRES), Univ. of Colorado at NOAA National Geophysical Data Center,
Jesse Varner, Professional Research Assistant.
Adam Woods, CIRES, Univ. of Colorado, DSRC, NOAA/HGDC E/GC1
Cyalume® Safety Lightstick, 96 Windsor St., West Springfield, MA
NRA Gun Safety Rules used with permission of the National Rifle Association
(NRA), Fairfax, VA
Silva System 1–2–3 and Silva® Compass used with permission of the Silva
Division, Johnson Outdoors, Inc., Binghamton, NY
Personal Locator Beacons, ACR ResqLink™, PLB, Pompano Beach, FL
United States Geological Survey, Boise, ID
Ron Hathaway, Former Coordinator/Instructor, AT&T Survival & Disaster Training
Spark-Lite®, used with permission of Oak Norton, Inventor & Developer.
Sparkie™, used with permission of Ultimate Survival Technologies,
Monroe, WA
George J. Regas, U.S. Forest Service, Idaho EMS Instructor
Author & Designer: Ron Dawson, author of numerous outdoor publications
Technical Editors: Roger Munger, Ph.D, Associate Professor of Technical
Communication, Dept. of English, Boise State University, Boise, ID and
Bobbie Munger, M.A., W-EMT, National Registry EMT, Boise, ID
Electronic Format Composition: Mike Rhodes, Prep Department, Boise, ID
Illustrator & Technical Artistic Imaginator: Laurence Knighton, Boise, ID
Color Enhancement: Beverly Dawson, Ontario, OR
Compass and PLB Info: Brian Waddell, Prep Department, Boise, ID
 Acknowledgments

Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR

Richard Harper, M.D., M.S., Associate Professor, Emergency Med.
Robert G. Hendrickson, M.D., Associate Professor, Emergency
Medicine, Medical Toxicologist, Oregon Poison Center.
O. John Ma, M.D., Professor and Chair, Emergency Medicine
Ritu Sahni, M.D., MPH, Associate Professor, Emergency Med.
Kandice Abrahamson, Administrative Assistant, Emergency Med.
University of Hawai’i at Manoa, Honolulu, HI
Jerris R. Hedges, M.D., M.S., MHA, Dean, John A Burns School of
Med.
Emergency Medicine of Idaho, P.A., Boise, ID
Special thanks to Glenn C. Bothwell, M.D., FACEP
Idaho Emergency Physicians, P.A., Boise, ID
Special thanks to David T. Kim, M.D., FACEP
Special Acknowledgement. Z-MEDICA Corp., Wallingford, CT
Consultants - Pre-hospital Emergency Medicine
Special thanks to Rich Gummersall, EMT-B, BLS Instructor, &
ORV Program Director, ID Dept. Parks and Recreation, Boise, ID
Special thanks to Dexter W. Hunt, M.Ed., EMT-P, SP & FTO, &
Poisonous Snake Specialist
JoAnn Hanks, EMT-P, FP-C
Consultant - In Field Emergencies
Ron Hathaway, Former Coord./Instructor, AT&T Survival/Disaster,
& Independent Survival Research & Product Analyst, Denver, CO

Author & Designer: LifeGuard

Technical Editor & Electronic Composition Specialist:
Mike Rhodes, Pre-Press Coordinator, Prep Dept., Boise, ID
Illustrator & Technical Artistic Imaginator: Laurence
Knighton, Boise, ID

S
 Emergency Index Key

911 — Emergency Priority Dispatch

ED — Emergency Department
PCC — E
Poison Control Center
MP — Medical Provider

The first aid “guidelines” contained

herein should be used in conjunction
with specific recom­mendations from
your personal physician.

The information and instruction contained in this publication is not

intended to be a substitute for first aid or survival training conducted
by a certified first aid, CPR, or survival-training entity (e.g., American
Heart Association, American Red Cross); nor is it intended to be an
exhaustive or un­abridged treatment of the subjects covered. It is a brief
and concise presentation suitable for a pocket guide intended for field
use. Further, the data presented in this field guide is current as of the
date of compilation and technical review. Standards and procedures may
subsequently change. Neither we nor those who distribute or sell this item
are responsible for such changes.
 Table Of Contents
AIRWAY 1 Airway
2-3 Choking
4-5 CPR Adult
6-7 CPR Child
8-9 CPR Infant
BLEEDING 10-11 Bleeding
12 Quick Clot
13 Lacerations
BURNS 14 Burns
HYDRATION 15 Diarrhea
16 Heat / Humidity Idex
17-18 Water
MEDICATION 19 Altitude Illness
OUTDOOR 20 Being Prepared
21-24 Compass
25-28 Field Dressing Game
29-30 Fire Building
32 First Aid Gear
33-34 Fishing
35 Frostbite
36 Helpful Hints
37 Hypothermia
Outdoor continue**
Outdoor continued** 38 I’m Lost - Now What?
39 Knots
40 Meteorology
41 NRA Gun Safety Rules
42 Pre-Hunt Coordination
43-47 Shelter Building
48-50 Signaling
51-52 Snakebite
53-55 Survival Gear
56 Travel Markers
58 Wild Plant Food
59 Wind Chill
SPECIALTY 59 Heart Attack
60 Heat / Sun Stroke
61 Hyperthermia
62-63 Poisoning
64 Shock
65 Stroke
SPRAIN & 66 Dislocations
FRACTURE
67 Fractures
68-69 Head & Neck Injuries
70 Sprains & Strains
TOPICAL 71-72 Insect Bites
 Airway, Breathing & Circulation

DEFINITION: The letters ABC are used as an easy way to

remember the order for the three steps in initiating the procedure
called cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), use the order
CAB. The letters ABC stand for Airway, Breathing,
and *Circulation.

OVERVIEW DESCRIPTION OF THE THREE STEPS:

1) Check Airway: Does the patient have an open unobstructed
airway. 2) Check for Breathing: Look, listen, and feel for breathing if
signs of normal breathing are not present. If no breathing, or patient
is not moving or coughing, or breathing is not normal (i.e., absent
or gasping), and IF CPR-CERTIFIED: initiate 30 chest compressions
followed by two (2) breaths. 3) Begin Circulation: Check pulse. Check
for signs of good perfusion (pink, warm, dry), and check for active
bleeds (bleed sweep). IF NOT CPR-CERTIFIED or UNABLE TO GIVE
RESCUE BREATHS—immediately initiate chest compressions only

Airway Breathing & Circulation

(valuable even without having given rescue breaths), until arrival of
EMS or until **AED can be applied.

NOTE: The abbreviations “ABCs” and “(STR)” appear in each

emergency wherein there is probable concern that the injury or condition
is of a life-threatening nature. In these cases, “ABCs” will appear as
the first procedure indicated in “TREATMENT”. When procedures
and techniques for which special training is required or recommended,
“(STR)”—Special Training Recommended—will be indicated.
*CIRCULATION DEFINED: The movement of blood through the
vessels of the body induced by the pumping action of the heart. (Source:
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary)
**DEFIBRILLATOR NOTE: An automated external defibrillator
(AED) is an electronic device that delivers to the chest area an electric shock
to restore the rhythm of a fibrillating heart (very rapid, irregular, unorganized
contractions of the muscle fibers of the heart resulting in absence of heartbeat and
pulse). These
Thesedevices,
devices,when
whenavailable, improve
available, improvepatient survival from sudden
cardiac arrest/death.
patient survival from sudden cardiac arrest/death.

Airway, Breathing & Circulation 1

 Choking

DEFINITION: The inability to breathe, speak, or cough due to an

airway obstruction.
CAUSE: Choking is caused when Ean object lodges in the throat or
windpipe and obstructs the airway passage.
SYMPTOMS: 1) Patient grasps throat. 2) Unable to talk. 3) Breathing
may stop. 4) Panic. 5) Skin color becomes white, pale gray or even blue.
6) Unconsciousness.
TREATMENT: I. If patient is conscious: 1) Ask “Are
you choking?” If patient nods “yes,” immediately implement
Heimlich Maneuver (STR): see instructions and illus-
trations on next page. 2) If the patient becomes unconscious
at any time, begin standard CPR (see 4 thru 9, CPR and
Overview Chart [4 and 6]).
TREATMENT: II. If patient is unconscious: Begin
ABCs (STR), check airway and begin rescue breaths, and
initiate standard CPR if no pulse is present (see Overview
Chart pages [4 and 6]).

CAUTION: Use procedure mannequins, not people, to practice the

Heimlich Maneuver or CPR. Practicing these emergency procedures on
people may cause injury.
Choking

2 Choking Fugiasperum
 Choking (Heimlich Maneuver)

I. Stand behind the patient and wrap your arms around the patient’s waist.
II. Form a fist and place the thumb side of your fist against the patient’s
central abdomen, midway between the navel and the sternum tip
(xiphoid tip). E

III. Clasp fist with your other hand I. & II.

and press the fist into the patient’s
abdomen using quick inward and
upward thrusts.
IV. Continue this maneuver until the
object is expelled or the patient lapses
into unconsciousness.
Fist/thumb location point
III. & IV. midway between navel
and sternum tip.

Choking (Heimlich Maneuver)

➤ sternum tip
fist/thumb location
➤
➤
navel

V. If patient is unconscious or becomes unconscious at any time, initiate

standard CPR, after 30 compressions, check the airway and attempt to
give breaths. Only sweep obstruction if your finger will fit behind the object.
Do not sweep blindly.

Chocking (Heimlich Maneuver) 3

 CPR Adult

DEFINITION: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency

life-support technique combining mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing and chest
compressions (or compressions only CPR if unable to give rescue breaths or are
not CPR-trained). These procedures are used during a cardiac and/or respiratory
arrest to keep oxygenated blood flowing to the brain until the arrival of advanced
life support.
WHEN TO USE CPR: When an individual is unresponsive, no signs of
normal breathing and without pulse. CPR is a proper lifesaving tool in the event of
the following: heart attack, stroke, electric shock (including lightning strikes), near
drowning, drug overdose, severe allergic reactions, suffocation, and trauma.
HOW TO APPLY CPR TO AUDLT:
1) Make sure the scene is safe for both patient and caregiver.
2) Determine unresponsiveness by tapping on collar bones or rub chest
and shout “Are you okay?”
3) Position patient on their back, supporting head and neck during roll over.
4) If no response, check for signs of normal breathing. (Listen/feel for nose
or mouth air exchange.)
5) If unresponsive and absent normal breathing, quickly call 911. If not
alone with patient, request need to locate an AED (Automated External Difi-
brillator) ASAP. If alone or you find the individual, complete five (5) cycles of
CPR before making the 911 call.
6) See Comple CPR instructions on next two pages.
CPR Adult

A) Bare chest and place hand on the center of the sternum

between the nipplies.
B) Begain 30 chest compressions at a depth of 2” and at the rate
of 100 compressions per minute (cpm).
C) Open airway and provide two (2) breaths (breathe slowly-- over
one second -- looking for chest rise.) (Con’t next page)

4 CPR Adult Fugiasperum

 CPR Adult
CPR (adult>puberty>1 year)

Q. What is the compression/breath ratio?

NOTE: If you are not certified in CPR, or unable to give rescue
breaths, chest compressions alone at a rate of 100 per minute
are helpful and should be initiated.
7 ) Continue CPR until arrival of EMS, or an AED is readied.
IMPORTANT NOTE: The quantity and quality paradigm
(systematic pattern) of CPR administration will
significantly improve patient survival.

I. Chest compressions: Bare chest, place I.

heel of one hand in the center of the chest—
over the breast bone—between the nipples
and place the second hand on top of the
first, lacing the fingers so only the palm is in
contact with the breastbone (adult>puberty)
A one or two handed technique may be used
for children (puberty>1 yr.). Depress the
breastbone 2" (adult>puberty) and 1/3 full
chest (anterior/posterior) depth for children
(puberty>1 yr.). The compression rate for all
ages is 100 cpm and ratio is 30:2. Give two (2) II.
slow breaths (one second each) looking for the
chest rise between each set of 30 compressions.
II. If CPR-trained: Begin rescue breaths:Tilt
head and lift chin by placing your palm on
the patient’s forehead and your fingers under

CPR Adult
the chin tip. Pinch nostrils and seal lips over
patient’s mouth and give two (2) rescue
breaths, each over one second, with enough volume to produce visible
chest rise. Do not perform a blind finger sweep. If first breath is
ineffective, reposition the head and attempt a second breath. If
ineffective, return to compressions. After 30 compressions check airway.
If obstruction is visible and can be safely cleared, sweep it out with
smallest finger. Return to compressions.
See F3, ABC+D
Overview Chart

CPR Adult 5
 CPR Child
CPR (adult>puberty & puberty>1 year)

Q. Do rescue breaths require CPR training?

Child with witnessed sudden collapse likely needs Automated

External Defribullator (AED)/911 prior to CPR.

CALL 911 FIRST - CALL 911 FAST

CPR Overview123456789012345678901
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child 1-8 years
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chest compressions
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—Dec.2010 AHA updates

Center of the chest
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11 Ron Dawson Includes 2005

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unresponsive – at that time
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obstruction 123456789012345678901 1234567890123456789
CPR Child

start the steps

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2011

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Attach and use AED
DEFIBRILLATION 123456789012345678901
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as soon as available.
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Design © 20

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in chest compressions
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before and after 1234567890123456789
shock; resume CPR beginning
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with compressions immediately after each shock.
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*“Rescue
* “Rescue breaths” breaths”
require require CPR-Training.
CPR-Training.

6 CPR Child Fugiasperum

 CPRCPR
(birth<1 year)
Child
Q. When should there be a delay in making a 911 call?
DEFINITION: Same as adult>puberty adult>puberty.
WHEN TO USE CPR: Same as adult>puberty adult>puberty, but also appropri-
ate for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS SIDS
SIDS).
HOW TO APPLY INFANT (birth<1 year) CPR:
1 ) Make sure the scene is safe for both patient and caregiver.
2 ) Determine if unresponsive. Tap the infant’s foot and shout
shout,, “Are
you okay?” or “Wake up!”
3 ) Position infant on their back, supporting head and neck during
roll over.
4 ) If no response, check for signs of normal breathing (listen/feel
for air exchange from patient’s mouth or nose).
5 ) If no normal breathing and unresponsive, quickly call 911. If
not alone with patient, request need to locate an AED. HoweveHoweverr ,
if alone or you find a unresponsive infant with no vital signs
signs,, com-
firstt 5 cycles (approximately 2 minutes) of CPR before
plete the firs
placing 911 call.
6 ) Begin CPR (see [infant<1 year] detailed instructions, illustrations,
pages..
and overview chart) on next two pages
a. Bare chest and place hand on the center of the sternum between
the nipples.
b. Begin 30 chest compressions at a depth of 1/3 chest depth
and at a rate of 100 compressions per minute (cpm).

CPR Child
c. Open airway and provide breaths (breathe slowly—over one
second—looking for chest rise).
7 ) Continue CPR until arrival of EMS, or an AED is readied.
NOTE: If you are not trained in CPR or are unable to give rescue
breaths, chest compressions alone at a rate of 100 per minute are
helpful and should be initiated. (Cont’d next page)
(Cont’d next page)

7
See G3, ABC+D
Overview Chart

CPR Child
 CPR Infant

CALL 911 FAST and get an AED if available. Take no more than
10 seconds to check for presence or absence of breathing. How-
ever,, if alone with an unresponsive infant complete five (5) cycles
ever
of CPR before placing call.
IMPORTANT NOTE: The quantity and quality paradigm
(systematic pattern) of CPR administration will
significantly improve patient survival.

I. Chest Compressions: Bare chest and

place two fingers slightly below the nipple I.
line on the center of the breastbone. Compress
breastbone 1/3 full chest (anterior/posterior)
depth. The compression rate and ratio for all
ages is 100 cpm and ratio is 30:2. Give two
(2) slow breaths (one second each), looking
for chest rise between each set of 30 com-
pressions. If two rescurers are present,
utilize the 2 thumbs-encircling hands method
for compressions (information for this method II.
can be found on website answers.com.
ll. If CPR-trained—Open airway and
begin rescue breaths: Slightly tilt the
head and lift chin by placing your palm on
the infant’s forehead and your fingers under
the tip of the infant’s chin. Seal your lips over
CPR Infant

the mouth and nose and give two (2) breaths (each over one second)
until you see the chest rise. Do not perform a blind finger sweep. If
your first breath is ineffective, reposition the head and attempt a sec-
ond breath. If the second breath is ineffective, return to compressions.
Check airway each time prior to giving breaths. If an obstruction can be
safely cleared, sweep it out with smallest finger. If choking infant becomes
unresponsive, return to compressions.
NOTE: To review the complete 2011 Amercian Heart Association CPR recommendations visti the web address below:
http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/117/16/2162

8 CPR Infant Fugiasperum

 CPR Infant
CPR (birth<1 year)

Q. Why is it important for new parents to be CPR Certified?

CALL 911 FIRST - CALL 911 FAST

CPR Overview 123456789012345678901
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CIRCULATION Skip pulse check—begin chest compressions
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Slightly below the nipple line
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Use two fingers to compress the chest
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—2010 AHA updates

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100 cpm (compressions per minute)

2005—2010
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11 Ron Dawson Includes 2005

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C 5 Back
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thrusts. If the infant becomes unresponsive
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2011
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DEFIBRILLATION 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789
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CPR Infant
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before and after shock; resume CPR beginning
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*“RescueBreaths”
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require CPR-Training
CPR-Training
IMPORTANTNOT:
IMPORTANT NOTE: Because
Because young children
young children are more
are more likely to havelikely
a to have
a non cardic
event event
noncardic
noncardic requiring
requiring CPR
CPR (e.g., a near (e.g., a nearor drowning,
drowning, other form oforoxygen
other form of
deprivation, or a drug overdose
oxygen deprivation, event),
or a drug it is recommended
overdose event) thatrecommended
event), it is parents and/or that par-
guardians of young
ents and/or children become
guardians of young CPR Certified.become
children In these CPR
situations, rescue In these
Certified.
breathing alone may be life-saving.
situations, rescue breathing alone may be life-saving
life-saving..

CPR Infant 9
 Bleeding

DEFINITION: Major bleeding occurs when an injury is at the site

of a high number of blood vessels (e.g., on face or head) or when a large vein
and/or artery is punctured or severed. I. Venous bleeding—steady flow,
darker red color. II. Arterial bleeding—spurting, bright red, more critical.
TREATMENT: I & II: 1)ABCs (STR). 2) Place sterile
compress or clean substitute (a sock, T-shirt, towel, etc.)
directly on the wound and apply steady, firm hand pressure.
3) If compress soaks through, do not remove. Apply additional
compresses and continue hand pressure and elevate the limb
above the level of the heart (98% effective). 4) When bleed-
ing slows or stops, place pressure bandage over the compress,
wrap around the limb, and tie a knot over the compress. 5) Keep
injured limb elevated and immobilized. OTC clotting powders
and sponges are available to assist with bleeding emergencies.
FIELD TREATMENT: ABSOLUTELY THE LAST
RESORT is a tourniquet. WARNING: Use only when there
is severe, uncontrollable bleeding and the patient is a long way
from medical assistance. There is a high probability that this
procedure will result in loss of limb.
Tourniquet application: A) Apply a band of constriction
approximately 4” wide (belt, tie, cloth strip, etc.) near the end of the
stump (in the case of a partial or complete amputation) above the un-
broken skin. B) Wrap tightly twice around the limb. C)Tie two overhand
knots. D) Tourniquet should only be removed by trained personnel.
The problem with loosening a tourniquet is the wound could reopen
Bleeding

but more serious are clots that return to the blood stream. Note the
time the tourniquet was applied.
NOTE 1: For injuries wherein a tear in the skin exists, see 12,
QuikClot®.

10 Bleeding
 Bleeding (Pressure Point Therapy)

1. Scalp/temple area: Forward To halt uncontrollable loss of blood

of ear, just above cheekbone from a wound by pressing an
—thumb pressure artery against an adjacent bone.
2. Facial area, below eyes: 3. Neck area: Below
Edge of mid jaw bone, chin, next to windpipe
—thumb pressure —thumb pressure
4. Lower area of upper 5. Shoulder/upper arm:
arm and elbow: Inside Behind mid collarbone
mid upper arm—thumb —thumb pressure
pressure 6. Lower arm: Inside of
7. Hand area: Inside arm, opposite elbow
arm, just above wrist —thumb pressure
—thumb pressure 8. Upper Leg/thigh:
When to use: Front, center groin
crease area—hand
By applying pressure

Bleeding (Pressure Point Theropy)

palm pressure
to the blood vessels
above a wound, the blood 9. Lower leg: Leg back,
flow can be reduced. Most opposite knee cap—grasp
blood issue injuries can be leg just below kneecap,
controlled by applyingdirect with fingers pressured
pressure over the wound across artery
using a sterile (preferably)
dressing. In the event blood 10. Foot: Grasp the ankle
loss continues unabated, it —the fingers should be
may become necessary to positioned so as to apply
apply pressure point ther- pressure over the top of
apy (see diagram above). the artery.
Continue direct pressure to ©2007 Ron Dawson
the wound while pressing on a pressure point. Release pressure point
pressure periodically, similar to a tourniquet (see C1, Bleeding).
Requires special training.
Requires training.

Bleeding (Pressure Point Therapy) 11

 QuikClot®

When you are a long way from trained medical

attention, you need a solution that works fast.
QuikClot® Sport is the professional grade answer
to an incident that causes excessive bleeding. It is
a temporary breathable mesh bag/gauze. Intended
for stopping moderate to severe bleeding and
prevents bacterial growth until further medical help
is available.
1) Clean the wound - Flush-out the dirt particles 1
with flowing water. The cleansing solution is
directed from a distance of 1-2”.This can
be accomplished by placing clean water into a
baggie and puncturing two to three pin holes in
one corner. Use no less than 8 oz. of water to
properly irrigate wound.
2) Applying QuikClot® - Wash hands thoroughly
before handling. Follow instructions on the re-
verse side of the packet. 2

- Product contains ionic silver that prevents

growth of bacteria and fungi to ward off infection
until more advanced medical help is available.
QuickClot®

- QuikClot® is a chemically inert material in a

mesh bag that speeds coagulation of blood,
resulting in a stable clot that stops bleeding.
- For external use only. Avoid contact with eyes.

12 QuikClot®
 Lacerations

DEFINITION: A cut or tear in the skin surface. Severity of injury is

determined by location, size, shape, depth, and damage to underlying
structures.
SYMPTOMS: Usually bleeding and pain.
TREATMENT: I. Minor lacerations: Apply direct
pressure using a clean (preferably sterile) dressing. If bleeding
is controlled and wound does not appear to need sutures,
clean wound with antibacterial soap, flush with a clean
water source for a minimum of 5 minutes, apply antibacterial
ointment, and tape dressing in place. II. Major lacerations:
1) ABCs (STR). 2) Control the bleeding by applying direct
pressure using a clean (preferably sterile) dressing (see C,
Bleeding). 3) Elevate injury (do not move limb if a fracture
is suspected [see J, Fractures]).
FIELD TREATMENT: I. Minor lacerations: 1) Control
bleeding by using a pressure bandage. 2) Cleanse the wound area
using mild soap and flush with clean water, if available. 3) Remove
foreign material (dirt, slivers, etc.), lifeless tissue, and fat if it inhibits
wound closure. (NOTE: II. Major lacerations: Remove only
obviously loose, large pieces of foreign material. Do not pick
or pull out embedded material.) 4) Apply a “butterfly” bandage or
tape if available to wound edges. (This is a temporary measure, not
a substitute for sutures.) Avoid rolling or folding the edges under.

Lacerations
Be careful not to trap bits of the fatty tissue between the edges.
5) Hair tied across the wound can be used to close scalp lacerations.
6) Apply an antibacterial ointment and a sterile dressing. II. Major
lacerations: see C1-C3, Bleeding.
NOTE: Current tetanus prophylaxis (tetanus immunization)
is recommended PRIOR to next planned outdoor trip. A small,
contaminated cut acquired in the backcountry is not the place
to deal with tetanus.

Lacerations 13
 Burns

DEFINITION & SYMPTOMS: Burns are classified as either

I. Partial thickness: reddened skin, with possible blisters, or
II. Full thickness: white or charred skin with little or no pain due to the
destruction of underlying tissue and nerve endings,
CAUSE: 1) Fire. 2) Overexposure to sunlight, including corneal burns
caused by ultraviolet B (UV–B) rays on highly reflective snowfields
and sun reflection across water surfaces (both are preventable by
wearing adequate UV–B polarized, side-shielded sunglasses). 3) Certain
chemicals. 4) Hot surfaces and substances. 5) Electrical.
TREATMENT: I. Partial thickness burn (when covering
a small area of unbroken skin): 1) Place burned area under cool
running water or immerse immediately in cool water. 2) Clean with
mild soap. 3) Pat dry with a soft cloth. 4) Ointment should not be
applied. Ointments seal the pores and stop the cooling/healing
process. 5) Cover with sterile bandage (immediate exclusion from
air provides pain relief for most burns).
TREATMENT: II. Full thickness burn: 1) ABCs (STR).
2) Wrap patient carefully with a clean sheet, pillowcase, etc. 3)
Treat for shock (see V, Shock).
FIELD TREATMENT: If more than four hours from medi-
cal assistance and burns are full thickness or extensive partial
thickness, and the patient is not manifesting symptoms of shock,
encourage the drinking of clear liquids to protect the kidneys.
CAUTION: Do not use ice on extensive burns (this may cause
hypothermia).
Bunrs

NOTE: Severe burns are not common with lightning strikes.

Primary concerns are airway difficulties and changes in heart
rhythm, a condition which frequently responds to CPR (see F and
G, CPR). If burns exist, treat as above guidelines indicate.

14 Burns
 Diarrhea

DEFINITION: Abnormally frequent bowel movements with loose to

watery stools.
CAUSE: Usually the result of an infection or irritation (viruses,
bacteria, and food poisoning) of the intestinal tract.
SYMPTOMS: 1) Frequent or watery stools. 2) Abdominal cramping. 3)
Feeling of urgency. 4) Vomiting. 5) Nausea. 6) Possible bloody stools. 7) If
severely dehydrated, weakness, listlessness, decreased mental alertness,
and shock may occur.
TREATMENT: 1) Rest. 2) Avoid dehydration (infants and
children are at highest risk). Rest and plenty of fluids are usually
all that is required within the first 12 to 24 hours (unless the
diarrhea is frequent and a substantial amount of water is lost).
With mild to moderate diarrhea, simple, clear fruit juice, diluted
cola or clear sodas and broths are fine for fluid replacement.
3) If the diarrhea continues beyond 24 hours or is significant
in amount, oral sugar-electrolyte solutions, such as Gatorade®
(Pedialyte® for children) are recommended. Continue fluid
replacement until weakness or mental alertness improves. Avoid
foods which may prolong diarrhea such as foods containing milk,
caffeine, alcohol, high fiber, and fats.
NOTES: 1) Use of medications such as paregoric or Imodium A-D® may
help minimize cramps and reduce diarrhea. These agents should not be
used if blood appears in the stools or fever is present. 2) Backcountry
water sources may contain the organism Giardia lamblia and should be

Diarrhea
purified before drinking. This organism can cause diarrhea, vomiting, and
nausea. Giardia is the most common form of non-bacterial diarrhea in North
America. Although generally associated with ingesting contaminated water,
it may also be found in some urban sites (e.g., child daycare centers).

Diarrhea 15
 Heat / Humidity Index

% RELATIVE HUMIDITY
STILL AIR

TEMP.°F 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
HEAT INDEX TEMPERATURE DANGER LEVEL
120 130 148 Severe
115 120 135 151 130 or above
110 112 123136 150 High
105 105 113 121 133 149 105–129
100 99 104 110 119 129 142 Moderate
95 93 96 98 105 113 122 133 90–104
90 87 90 92 94 99 105 113 121 Mild
85 82 84 85 86 89 92 96 101 80–99
80 77 78 79 80 81 82 84 85 Low
75 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 70–79
©2006 Ron Dawson
Heat / Humidity Index

Potential for Heat Related Disorder:

Heat stroke — Highly likely within short time span.
Sunstroke, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat stroke —
likely with continued exposure.
Sunstroke, heat cramps, heat exhaustion — possible with
extended exposure.
Fatigue — possible with extended exposure and activity.
Little negative effect for most healthy individuals.
For Treatment and Prevention see N, Heat / Sun Stroke.
NOTE: Sweating cools the body through evaporation. However,
high relative humidity slows evaporation, which in turn slows the body’s
ability to cool itself. When heat gain exceeds the level the body can
remove, body temperature begins to rise, and heat related illness and
other disorders may develop.

16 Heat / Humidity Index

 Water

IMPORTANCE: How your body operates largely depends on a balance

between the water coming into the body in relation to the water leaving the
body. About two-thirds of your body weight is water. When there is a water
shortage (called dehydration), the body and the mind do not function well.
YOUR DAILY WATER REQUIREMENT: Two and one-half
to three quarts of water are needed each day for a grown man. All water
should be boiled for at least five minutes or purified using water purification
tablets. Just because water is in the way outback doesn’t mean it is safe.
HOW TO CONSERVE BODY WATER: 1) Stay in the shade
in warm or hot weather. 2) Do not sit or lie on the hot ground—it can be as
much as 45 degrees cooler 12 inches above the ground. 3) Keep your shirt
on in hot weather—it will cut down on sweat leaving the body and increase
body cooling. 4) Eat less (which should be no problem) so that less water
is required for metabolism (the process by which food is broken down to
provide energy). 5) Do not use energy in a careless way.
WATER FROM SOLAR STILLS: Much in the same way that
the sun evaporates moisture from the earth’s surface and subsequently
returns it as rain by means of gravity and condensation, the solar still
replicates this process in miniature. A properly constructed still will provide
from one cup to three pints of water in a 24 hour period (depending on
the moisture content of the soil, and if fresh vegetation has been placed
inside the still.
SOLAR STILL CONSTRUCTION: I. Material required: 1)
An implement with which to dig. 2) A piece of clear plastic sheeting (approxi-
mately six feet square and 2–4 mil in thickness). 3) A water container (can or
a 1–2 quart plastic bottle) 4) A 3–4 foot piece of surgical tubing which will act
as a straw to permit extracting the water from the container without breaking Water
the still’s seal. 5) A piece of adhesive tape. 6) A rounded rock weighing
about one pound. II. Construction method: 1) Locate an unshaded
depression (low area where soil moisture content may be greater) and dig

Water 17
 Water

SOLAR STILL CROSS SECTION

a bowl-shaped hole approximately 4’ in diameter and 3’ in depth, with

the top edge of the bowl slightly mounded (see illustration above).
2) Dig a hole within the hole to hold the water container. 3) Place one end
of the surgical tubing into the container and fasten to its edge with adhe-
sive tape. 4) Place succulent leaves and plants around the still hole walls.
5) Cover the hole with the plastic sheeting, anchoring the four corners
with small mounds of earth or rocks. 6) Place a smooth rock in the
center of the plastic and adjust directly over the container (the rock
should be heavy enough to pull the plastic into a snug cone-shape
of approximately 45°, but should not touch the hole sides or the
container itself). 7) Make the still airtight by covering the perimeter
of the sheeting with earth and/or rocks. 8) Plug or tie off the suction
end of the surgical tubing to insure solar still’s airtightness when
Water

not using tube for water extraction.

NOTE: To purify polluted water, construct a bowl-shaped shelf
in the still wall. Line it with plastic and fill with the contaminated
water. Evaporation and condensation purify it with some excep-
tions (e.g., water containing antifreeze).

18 Water
 Altitude Illness

DEFINITION: Illness that is due to a lack of oxygen and occurs after

rapid ascent to as little as 4,000 feet (1,250 meters) (rare occurrence).
†Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS)—the most common syndrome—has
increased occurrence above 8,000 feet (2,500 meters). Mild altitude illness
may resolve with acclimatization or may progress to a life-threatening
condition if ascent is continued.
SYMPTOMS: I. Mild: 1) Headache. 2) Nausea. 3) Fatigue.
4) Decreased appetite. II. Severe: 1) Vomiting. 2) Difficulty walking.
3) Shortness of breath. 4) Severe cough. 5) Confusion and ataxia (a lack
of coordination) progressing to loss of consciousness. At this stage,
immediate evacuation to a lower elevation is imperative.
TREATMENT: I. Mild altitude illness: 1) Rest.
2) Drink copious (plenty of) fluids. 3) Take aspirin or ibuprofen
as directed for headache. 4) Descend if symptoms are wors-
ening. 5) Do not ascend to higher altitude in the presence of
symptoms. II. Severe altitude illness: Descend immedi-
ately. Delay may be fatal.
NOTE 1) Severe altitude illness is relatively rare below 10,000 feet (3,000
meters). 2) The altitude illness phenomena occurs when the body reacts to
an inadequate supply of oxygen. The body attempts to accommodate this

Altitude Illness
shortage through accelerated and deeper breathing. Normally, with rest
and fluids, this illness will resolve as the body acclimatizes to the elevation.
† AMS can quickly advance in severity to syndromes known as 1) High
Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE)—as oxygen starved cells within the
brain experience fluid leakage—and/or 2) High Altitude Pulmonary
Edema (HAPE)—when fluid leakage occurs within the lungs. Either of these
syndromes can rapidly lead to unconsciousness and death. Recognizing
and treating the early symptoms of AMS is imperative.

Altitude Illness 19
 Being Prepared

DEALING WITH FEAR: The knowledge that nature is neither

for nor against you is primary to coping with the unfamiliar environ-
ment and controlling the emotion of fear. Because an emergency
situation is generally brought about by an initially unrelated event
and compounded by unfamiliar surroundings or even an injury, the
instinctive reaction is to magnify the proportion of the circumstance. The
resulting fear weakens the ability to think and plan. This is a good time to
remember that although we may be unable to control the circumstances,
we can—to a large extent—control how we operate and live within them.
OUTBACK EMERGENCY GEAR: Like car insurance, hopefully
you will never need to use it, but if you do, it’s there. The approximately two
to three pounds of PRIORITY #1 first aid and emergency gear—listed in
the “First Aid Gear” and “Survival Gear” section of this publication—will fit
into a “fanny pack.” Amazingly, when properly used, this lightweight fanny
pack filled with emergency outback gear is adequate to keep you alive and
well for several days, and the equipment cost is minimal.
MORE THAN JUST THE GEAR: The emergency gear listed
in the final two sections of this book are minimum requirements. How,
when, where, duration, personal needs, and method of travel (on foot,
pack animal, vehicle or aircraft) will have a bearing on the equipment you
select (i.e., a rigid saw might replace a flexible saw, and a tent instead
Being Prepared

of a plastic sheet). But remember, more important than just carrying

emergency gear is your knowledge and know-how concerning the
use of these items.
SURVIVAL’S #1 INGREDIENT: Perhaps the most important
ingredient in survival is “willpower” (determination). There are many
recorded survival encounters wherein the will to live, alone, was the
deciding factor. Of course, having adequate emergency equipment and
the “how to” knowledge for its use, along with some wilderness savvy,
will further increase your odds for a safe return to familiar surroundings.

20 Being Prepared
 Compass

SILVA® 1–2–3 System:

1. 1. Before you start on your way, place the
compass on the map with the Baseplate
edge connecting where you are and
where you want to go.

2. 2. Set the compass heading by turning

the compass Dial until “N” aligns with
Magnetic North (MN) on the map.

3. 3. Hold the compass level in front of you

with the Direction of Travel Arrow pointing
straight ahead. Turn your body until the
red end of the needle is directly over the

Compass
Orienting Arrow, pointing to the “N” on
the dial. The Direction of the Travel Arrow
now points precisely to your destination.
Look up, sight on a landmark, and walk to
it. Repeat this procedure until you reach
your destination. See guide to
compass parts next page.

Compass 21
 Compass

Silva® Compass Features

Direction of
Magnetic Needle (north Travel Arrow
end red and luminous)

Graduated
Rotating Dial (360°)

Orienting Lines
and Arrow

Index Line

“N”
(North)
Declination Scale
Baseplate
Compass Housing
NOTE: There are a number of fine compasses available, each
Compass

with variations in features and instructions for use. Due to space

limitations, we have selected one (the Silva® Explorer™) for illustra-
tion purposes.
Image courtesy of Johnson Outdoors Gear © 2013
Silva is a registered trademark of Johnson Outdoors Inc.
Explorer is a trademark of Johnson Outdoors.

22 Compass
 Compass Magnetic Declination

NOTE: To compute your estimated magnetic declination go to:

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov.geomag-web/

Magnetic Declination
About Magnetic Declination (also called the magnetic variation:
These terms refer to the angular (arc) distance formed between magnetic
north—MN—(compass north) and true north—TN—(map north) at any given
latitude/longitude, due in part to a magnetic attraction located approximately
450 miles (in 2005) southwest of the North Pole in Northern Canada. The
further east or west your position from the agonic line—the imaginary line
wherein MN and TN roughly converge—the greater the variation becomes (see
map above). The degree(s) of variation required in order to orient the compass
with the map is added east of the agonic line and subtracted west of that line
(e.g., “5° degrees W” would indicate that MN lies 5° counter-clockwise from
TN—Formula: Magnetic Bearing +/– Variation = True Bearing).
For reasons too complex to herein enumerate, magnetic declination gradu-
ally changes over time, and also changes with location.
There is an average annual 6–25 mile northwest drift of MN.
The map above was updated in 2013.

Compass Magnetic Declination 23

 Compass Map Orientation

PURPOSE: To line
up the features and
directions of your map
with the features and di-
rections seen in the field.
ORIENTING THE
MAP: (using its
*declination dia-
gram):
➤ 1) Place the compass on
the map so the edge of
the Base Plate is parallel
with the Magnetic North
line of the declination
diagram (be sure that
Compass Map Orientation

the Direction Arrow is

heading toward north).
2) Turn the map until the
Magnetic needle points
to the “N” of the Com-
pass Housing. Now both
the map and compass
are in sync—both are ori-
ented to Magnetic North.
ADDING MAGNETIC NORTH LINES: To avoid resetting
the compass each time a direction from the map is made, carefully extend
the Magnetic North line across the map and draw lines parallel to it every
1–2”. Now both map and compass are in sync.
*IMPORTANT NOTE: If you intend to use a USGS map’s
“declination diagram,” make sure to check its date of publica-
tion to determine if the diagram is current.

24 Compass Map Orientation

 Field Dressing Game

PROPER FIELD CARE OF

GAME: How game is dressed
(entrail removal) and handled has
much to do with the quality and taste
of the game once it reaches your
table. Quick and proper dressing,
protecting the game from dirt, water
(moisture), and flies, and the rapid
cooling of the carcass all contribute
to the quality of the taste.
BEFORE YOU BEGIN
FIELD DRESSING BIG
GAME: 1) Approach the downed
animal from the rear with caution,
making sure that the game is dead.
2) Know your state or provincial
regulations with respect to the vali-
dating of your tag and affixing it to the
animal’s carcass. 3) You will need a carefully honed (sharpened) hunting knife
with a stout handle, a strong 4” (or more) blade, and a blade handguard to prevent

Field Dressing Game

your hand from slipping forward from the handle to the blade.
FIELD DRESSING LARGE GAME: 1) Prop the carcass on its
back with the head up­hill. Rocks placed under one or both sides of the carcass
provide support for this position. 2)
Make the initial incision between the
back legs, just forward of the anus,
being careful not to cut deep enough
to reach the intestines. 3) Use a lifting
motion with the knife blade as you cut
through the hide toward the breastbone,
while at the same time pushing away the intestines and stomach with the fingers
of your free hand. (Note illustration for proper holding of knife.)

Field Dressing Game 25

 Field Dressing Game

4) Cut through the breastbone all the way up to the jaw (unless the head
is to be mounted). If the head is to be mounted, cut to just below the top
of breastbone (brisket). 5) Make a circular cut around the anus and tie it
off. 6) Cut the windpipe in two as far up the neck as possible. Remove
the windpipe quickly to avoid meat tainting. By jerking toward the tail,
intestines will come free to the middle section. 7) Now remove the rocks
from under the carcass and roll the carcass on its side. Cut the thin layer
of meat that is holding the entrails
to the ribs, all the way down to
the backbone. Then turn the
carcass over and do the same
on the other side. 8) Using both
hands, get a firm grip on the
entrails and pull down forcefully.
All the entrails will come out. 9)
Lifting the animal’s carcass by
the hind legs, place a large rock
under the rump. This will spread
the back legs open. Place your
knife against the middle of
Field Dressing Game

the pelvis to locate the seam

where the bones grow together,
and press down hard. It will take
some effort to get the blade tip through the seam. As a last resort, you may
have to strike the back of your knife blade with a stone to make this cut.
10) Clean out, drain, and prop open the body cavity to begin the cooling
process. 11) If a tree is handy and you have a rope, hang the carcass up
by the head or antlers for about 20 minutes. If a tree is unavailable, turn
the carcass upside down and let it drain. 12) You can begin skinning the
carcass when it is still draining. The skin comes off more easily while the
carcass is still warm (within two hours).13) To remove the skin, cut
down the inside of each leg to the middle of the carcass,

26 Field Dressing Game

 Field Dressing Game

being careful to cut the skin only. Now cut the skin all the way around the neck, as
close to the head as possible. Grasp the skin with both hands at the back of the
head and pull down hard. Usually the skin will come off down to the front legs.
Use your knife to work the skin off the legs and where the skin sticks tightly to
the meat. Then pull down to free. 14) Hang it up by the hind legs for four or
five hours to allow all the tiny blood vessels to drain. Keep the carcass in
the shade and as cool as possible, and make certain it is free of flies by
wrapping it in a game bag or cheesecloth. It is very important to cool the
carcass within ten to twelve hours. Once it has properly cooled overnight,
warm days in the mountains should be no problem if the carcass is kept in
cool shade. Without quick and proper cooling, the meat will spoil.
FIELD DRESSING SMALL GAME: 1) Beginning at the anus, cut
through the skin and pelvic bone up to the breastbone, being careful
to avoid cutting the stomach or intes-
tines. 2) Holding the body firmly at the
head end with one hand, and reaching
into the body cavity with the other hand,
remove (by pulling) the esophagus and

Field Dressing Game

windpipe and the balance of the internal
organs along with the lower intestines and
the anus with a downward pulling motion.
3) Thoroughly wipe body cavity. Then skin
and cool the carcass.
NOTE: The rabbit—particularly the cot-
tontail—can be a carrier of tularemia (Francisella
tularensis), an acute infectious disease. The wear-
ing of protective hand gear (i.e., non-latex gloves)
when field dressing this mammal is recommended.

Field Dressing Game 27

 Field Dressing Game

FIELD DRESSING GAME BIRDS:

Game birds should be dressed

promptly. 1) Grasp the bird by the
neck and pluck feathers from the
bird’s underside (from just below
the breastbone down to the anus.
2) Circle the anus with the knife
point and cut up to the breast-bone
being careful not to cut into the in-
ternal organs (especially the gall
bladder sac, as its contents can taint
the meat). 3) Using first two fingers,
insert them into body cavity and
remove the entrails, beginning
with the windpipe and gullet
(throat), and the other internal
organs, including the intestines
and anus, by pulling them down
and away from the bird. 4) Drain
Field Dressing Game

the cavity and wipe it dry with a

paper towel, cloth, or dry leaves.
5) Place bird—with its cavity
propped open with a branchlet or
stick—in a cool place with good
air circulation. 6) If the weather is
warm and flies are a problem, fill
the cavity with dry grass to prevent
its exposure to flying insects.

28 Field Dressing Game

 Fire Building

IMPORTANT: Building, starting and keeping a fire going is, in most

outback emergencies, crucial. Goal: A well-built fire will give you a lot
more than heat. It will give light, allow you to cook, purify water, dry wet
clothing, signal for help, and even make you feel good.

WHAT YOU WILL NEED TO BUILD A FIRE: Matches

(or a metal match), candle, fire start tablets, dry tinder, kindling, fuel,
patience, and some skill, especially when the weather is bad.

HOW TO BUILD A FIRE: 1) Find a protected spot if possible

(i.e., under a tree if it is raining, against a downed tree if it is windy).
2) If the ground is covered with several inches or more of snow, you
will first need to build a fire platform (see C1.3) using green logs.
3) Gather tinder (e.g., dry paper, pitch, small brittle dead limbs, etc.) that
will very quickly and easily burn. 4) Using your knife, cut dry slivers and
wood chips after cutting away wet bark and damp wood. 5) Collect tiny,
brittle, pencil lead diameter branchlets from dead limbs (the ones which
snap when broken). 6) Protect the tinder and kindling from moisture until
you are ready to build the fire (put it in your pocket or pack, or bag it).
7) Gather a good supply of tinder, kindling, and fuel before attempting
to start the fire. 8) Build a small, mini-stick teepee over the paper, chips,
pitch, etc. (see C2.4). 9a) Protect the match while lighting the candle (a
match ignites the candle wick, which in turn ignites the tinder), or 9b)
If you have a Spark-Lite® or Sparkie™ (see C2.1–3)—it is important

Fire Building
to read the instruction pamphlets before using. 10) Keep the flame
end of the candle at the least downward angle to slow candle wax melt.
11) Give the candle flame enough time to fully ignite the tinder (or to
light the fire start tablet set in the tinder). 12) Blow fire lightly to increase
the flame and heat. 13) Have extra tinder handy to carefully add to
the flame until the teepee begins to burn. 14) Fire climbs, so add new
kindling from above. 15) Don’t add too much or too large fuel too fast
(smaller diameter woods [2”–5”] make the best fuel).

Fire Building 29
 Fire Building

NOTES: 1) Split wood burns faster than whole, but split wood causes
more sparks and popping embers. 2) A small fire with a heat reflector (see
C2.4-7) is better than a larger fire and uses less fuel. 3) A survival flex-
saw, folding saw, and/or hatchet are good tools for cutting through green
(freshly cut) wood for use in constructing the fire platform and heat reflector.

C2.1—3 Metal Match (two types) C2.4 Mini-Stick Teepee

C2.1—2 Spark-Lite® Fire Starter

Friction Rotator

Spin Direction


Flint Contained Shaft

C2.2 Waterproof Tinder

(part of Spark-Lite Kit)
Fire Dressing Game

C2.5 Heat Reflector

C2.3 Sparkie™ Fire Starter

C2.6 Fire Platform

C2.7 Kindling Bar

30 Fire Building
Field Dressing Game
 Fire Building

C3.1 C3.1. Setting up for a fire re-

quires a variety of considerations
C3.1.a (e.g., placement and arrangement,
weather conditions, availability of
fuel, and if used in conjunction with a
shelter). In a snow environment a fire
platform (see C3.1.b) and kindling
bar (see C3.1.c) are essential. (Note
the proximity of the kindling bar and
the variety of tinder.)
C3.1.b C3.2. A stout, lighted candle is a
good way to ignite the tinder or a
fire start tablet set inside the mini-
tinder tepee. (Note the flat holding
C3.1.c angle of the candle. This prevents
unnecessary wax melt and/or the
C3.2 extinguishing of the candle’s flame.)

Fire Building

Fire Building 31
 First Aid Gear

MINIMUM FIRST AID GEAR:

Items (Quantity)/Description
1) Gauze pads (4) 4”x4”
2) Adhesive strips (4) 1”
3) Adhesive tape roll (1) 1”, medium
4) Butterfly bandages (2) medium
5) Antiseptic swabs (4) medium
6) Antibacterial ointment (1) small
7) Aspirin (or ibuprofen) (12) 5 grain tablets
8) Triangle bandage (4)
9) QuikClot® Sport (see C3, pg. 10) (2) 25g packet
10) Non-Latex gloves (2 pr.)
11) Needle (1) medium, sewing
12) Tweezers (1 pr) small
13) Wire cutter (1 pr) 5” Kline tool flush
cut ltwt. #D275-5
14) Zipper bags (2) plastic, clear, 1qt.
15) Prescription Medicine (1) ten day supply
+bee sting kit (if allergic)
16) First Aid Procedures (1) this field guide
Handbook
WEIGHT & COST: There is little weight, even when it includes a ten day
supply of most prescription medicines. We are talking ounces, not pounds.
First Aid Gear

The cost is minimal, apart from prescription medicine. There should be

adequate room in the recommended fanny pack (see T2, Emergency
Gear, Item #19) to accommodate these first aid items.
A d d i t i o n a l F i r s t A i d G e a r I n f o r m a t i o n : For those
requiring a more comprehensive first-aid equipment list for wilderness
applications, we recommend SIRIUS Wilderness Medicine. This is a Canadian organization
which was founded in response to the increasing demand for comprehensive and realistic wilder-
ness first aid. SIRIUS supplies wilderness first aid kits and show complete
detailed listings of first aid items within these kits. Visit their web site at:
www.siriusmed.com

32 First Aid Gear

 Fishing - Improvised

Page 78 (T2) “Survival Gear” contains a list of essential items to facilitate

primitive fishing. One important item, a willow or other slender green
branch, needs to be found to create the fishing pole.
1. 2. 4.

3.

Using bent safety pins as shown above, securely wrap with snare wire to affix
three pins to the pole (one at the pole tip [1] and two spaced between pole
tip and pole’s base [2] as illustrated). Feed the fishing line through the guides
and tie securely to the base of the pole [3]).

The fishing hook should be fastened to the leader using the clinch knot (4).
This procedure is also used when fastening a fishing fly.

Fishing Improvised
Natural bait, such as grasshoppers, worms, and grubs, when available are
suitable bait.

In fresh water the best place to fish is in the deeper water. In shallow streams
fish the pools below falls, foot of rapids, or behind rocks.

When fishing from a river bar cast your line to the side where the current
flows away from the bar. The most ideal time to fish is in the early morning
or early to late evening.

Fishing Improvised 33
 Fishing Hook Injury

DESCRIPTION: I. Simple, skin, non-invasive: Hook barb has not fully

penetrated the skin. II. Hook barb fully penetrates skin: Hook barb is not vis-
ible, yet not deeply embedded in flesh. III. Hook barb deeply embedded or in
critical location (in or near an eye or an artery): This is a medical emergency
that requires professional medical attention.
CAUSE: Frequently the result of improper or careless casting techniques.
TREATMENT: For “I.” above ~ 1) Using the thumb and first finger (or a
tweezer or needle-nose pliers if available) to grasp the loop of the hook. 2)
Remove hook by pulling it in the reverse direction that it made its entry. 3) Apply
a small amount of Neosporin® over the point of hook’s entry. For “II.” above (when
using fishing line or cordage) 1) Cleanse caregiver’s hands and the site of the
injury using soap and water or antiseptic swabs. 2) Place a loop of fishing line or
light nylon cordage through the hook’s bend, then loop the cord around the wrist (see
dwg. A) 3) Align the fishing line (or cordage) so that it is in line with hook’s shaft.
4) Grasp the shaft while pressing the hook gently downward (toward the inside)
in order to detach/disengage the barb. 5) Using steady pressure, grasp the line
(or cordage) and jerk with a single, quick motion. The hook will release and be
expelled. 6) Cleanse wound area with soap and water.
Apply a breathable, sterile dressing. Monitor injury
for possible infection. For “II.” above (when using
wire cutting technique) 1) Cleanse caregiver’s hands
and the site of the injury. 2) While gently pulling on A
Fishing Hook Injury

the hook, carefully apply pressure along the radius

of the hook. 3) In the event the fishhook is located B B
just below the skin, press the tip of the hook
through the skin (see dwg. B).3) Using a flush cut
wire cutter, remove the exposed barbed tip portion of
the hook as close to the shank of the hook as possible
(see dwg. C).4) Remove what is left of the hook by
pulling it back through the entry point (see dwg. D). C D
5) Cleanse the wound area with soap and water. 6)
Apply a breathable, sterile dressing. 7) Monitor injury
for possible infection. For “III.” above:

34 Fishing Hook Injury

 Frostbite

DEFINITION: The freezing or partial freezing of some part of the body.

CAUSE: Exposure, not necessarily prolonged, to subfreezing
temperatures (usually below 10° F).
SYMPTOMS: 1) Discoloration of the skin (chalky white, yellow-gray,
or gray). 2) Body part becomes numb. 3) Prickling and itching. 4) Blisters,
if thawing has occurred. (The ears, face, and extremities are the most
susceptible to frostbite.)

TREATMENT: I. Mild to moderate frostbite: 1) Immerse

frostbitten part in water (104°–108° F, such as would be run
for a hot bath). Patient will experience some degree of pain
associated with this treatment. 2) Continue treatment until area
has softened. 3) If warm water is not available and the hand or
fingers are frostbitten, gently place under armpits or between
thighs without squeezing or rubbing the frostbitten part.
TREATMENT: II. Severe (deep) frostbite: (little or no flesh
softness): The patient requires immediate care by medical
professionals.

CAUTIONS: 1) Do not rub affected area with oils, snow, ice, or

hands. 2) Do not force off frozen shoes or mittens. 3) Do not thaw
if there is any chance of refreezing (especially if the toes or feet are
involved). 4) Do not use artificial heat sources (heat lamps, heating
pads, etc.) for thawing, due to the risk of burns. 5) Do not break blisters.

Frostbite
NOTE about Wind Chill: Ambient (air) temperature combined
with wind increases the potential for frostbite to exposed body parts (e.g.,
face, ears, hands). The dramatic effect of this factor—called wind chill—on
exposed flesh can be illustrated in the following example: air temperature
of -30° F + a wind speed of 30 mph = WIND CHILL of -67° F. In this
example, exposed flesh can freeze in a matter of minutes! See the
Wind Chill Graphic on page 71.

Frostbite 35
 Helpful Hints

About Insect Repellent: The best insect repellents contain an active in-
gredient called DEET (a colorless oily liquid insect repellent). For outback use the
foil enclosed towelette is excellent. Select a brand containing 40% or more DEET.
About Footwear: Regardless of the outback activity upon which you intend
to embark, make sure that the footwear is equal for the task. Tennis shoes may be
suitable for the court, but make lousy hunting footwear. Make sure that new foot-
wear is amply comfortable and use tested before your outback adventure begins.
About Clothing: When the wind and rain or the cold and snow invade
your outback space, what you brought is what your got. Plan for the worst
even though you hope for the best. There is a panoply of lightweight “wearwithal” for
nearly every situation. Check with a respected outfitter (e.g., Cabela’s, L.L. Bean).
About Liquid Refreshment: Water is the best all-around hydra-
tion, however water weighs in at about eight pounds a gallon. If your outback
trek will take you the better part of a day away from camp, carry two half-liter
water-filled bottles in the holders that are part of the recommended fanny pack
(see T2, Emergency Gear). Remember, water acquired in the outback
should be purified before drinking, so always carry a small bottle of water
purification tablets. Getting Giardia in the outback invites the “runs” without any
outhouses within running distance.
About Trail Snacks: Gorp is a high-energy food source that is gener-
ally made up of raisins and nuts, and can include candied chocolate, dried
cranberries, cereals, sunflower seeds, etc. Although this mix is nourishing and
high-energy, sooner or later, it will require downing some water.
Helpful Hints

About Tending to Business: That little one or two ounce pack of

nose tissue is worth its weight in gold when all that Mother Nature has available
as “southern tissue” is a large leaf of the nettle or the smaller leaf of poison oak.
Need we say more!
About Outback Etiquette: There is much to mention and too little
space to cover it all. Suffice to say, remember the Golden Rule—you know
the one—”Treat others like you want to be treated.” Lastly, leave nothing but
your footprints in the outback, and hopefully, the next rain will erase
those too!

36 Helpful Hints
 Hypothermia

HYPOTHERMIC INDICATOR CHART

°F °C
37
STAGE SYMPTOMS
98
Mild Shivering to fatigue and numbness
95 35 Moderate Lack of coordination, slurring and
slowing of speech, poor judgment,
93 34 impaired memory and loss
of awareness
90 32 Severe Unconsciousness, slow pulse and
respiration, dilated pupils
82 28 Extreme Changes in heart rhythm can
occur, heart functions may cease
*Wind ©1998 Ron Dawson
Elev. Per ©2000 Ron Dawson
Chill
HYPOTHERMIA DEFINITION: When core-body temperature
(98.6° F) drops below 95° F (35°C).
IMPORTANT NOTE: Only at Stage 1 (Mild, see chart above)
can the effected individual take meaningful action to self-correct hypo-
thermic involvement. The ability to reason—including poor judgment,
impairment of memory, and loss of awareness—is diminished and are
symptoms of Stage 2 (Moderate).
PREVENTION: 1) Keep warm and dry. 2) Avoid overexertion.

Hypothermia
3) Carry wind protection gear. 4) Protect your head, face, and
ears from wet and cold. 5) Avoid drinking cold water if hypothermic
conditions exist. 6) Take frequent rest breaks. 7) Carry a supply
of high energy, simple-sugar food and drink warm liquids (e.g., hot
chocolate and candy bars). It is important to have adequate food/liquid
before potential exposure to hypothermic conditions.
TREATMENT: For the treatment of a hypothermic patient, see P,
Hypothermia in the First-Aid section.

Hypothermia 37
 I’m Lost - Now What?

DOING THE RIGHT THINGS FIRST—AND FIRST

THINGS RIGHT: There are three things that you can do which will
greatly improve your odds for a safe return home. 1) When you suspect
that you are lost, admit it. 2) Activate S.T.O.P.P.E.D. (Sit down to Think,
Observe the surroundings, Plan a course of action, Prepare to spend the
night, Execute the plan with Determination [hence the acronym STOPPED]).
3) Follow the instructions in this field guide.
THE TRUTH ABOUT BEING LOST: Although few are willing
to admit it, everyone gets lost sometime and this time it just happens to be
you. Stay calm and follow the instructions. Remember, in most cases of
being lost, it is a short duration event (12–24 hours or less). So, STAY PUT
and get busy making this brief outback stay as comfortable as possible.
THE TWO MOST IMPORTANT GOALS: Keeping warm
and dry are the first priorities. To accomplish this you will need to do the
following: Goal #1: build a fire. Goal #2: build a shelter. First, take a few
minutes to look over this part of the outback to see what resources it has
to offer. See if it has 1) A natural shelter (e.g., cave, rock, overhang, etc.),
or if a shelter helper (e.g., large downed tree, large boulder, cliff base or
I’m Lost - Now What?

rock wall) is available to support a lean-to, 2) Adequate fire and shelter

building materials and fuel supply close by, and 3) A water source near by.
HOW MUCH TIME IT WILL TAKE: Estimate the remaining
amount of daylight available. Allow yourself at least one hour to build and
start a fire and one to three hours to build a shelter, depending on the
shelter type or the materials available (see chart on page 49).
NOTE: Give special attention to the location of the fire in relationship to
where you construct the shelter. Smoke and/or sparks blown into your shelter
can be avoided with a little planning.

38 I’m Lost - Now What?

 Knots

• Bowline: Used when a nonslipping loop is

required, yet affords an easy and quick release.
The loop formed by this knot allows it to be
placed over a large rock or strong branch so as
to lower oneself.
• Clinch knot: Primarily used to secure
a fishing hook to monofilament line.

• Double half hitch: Basic initial • Square knot: Primarily

knot used in tying a number of used to join two ends of a
other knots. Two consecutive cord or rope.
half hitches will secure a rope
to a tree, branch, or other object.

• Timber hitch: Normally

used when a rope is to be
quickly, but temporarily, tied
to a log or piece of timber.
This knot does not hold
secure unless taut (has
pressure on it).

• Sheet bend: Used to join two ropes of different thick- Knots

nesses together. The larger rope is referred to as the
“bend.” The smaller rope is pushed up through the loop
and around the larger rope.

NOTE: Rope is weakened by up to 50% at the point of a knot.

Knots 39
 Meteorology

ELEVATION/TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS
Blue line represents 6,000’
-46° 12,000’ on 11,239’ Mt. Hood
-41° 11,000’ located in Oregon.
-35° 10,000’
-29° 9,000’
-17° 8,000’
-15° 7,000’
-7° 6,000’
-3° 5,000’
0° 4,000’
8° 3,000’
14° 2,000’
19° 1,000’
23° SEA
LEVEL
*Wind
Elev. Per 1M’**
©2000 Ron Dawson
Chill
NOTE: The temperature and weather conditions above 6,000’ in the
northern U.S. and southern Canada can be as extreme as those which occur
in the Arctic! (Roughly speaking, each 1,000’ in elevation equals conditions
found 600 miles further north [e.g., 6,000’ on Mt. Hood can be similar to
conditions found 3,600 miles to the north (the Arctic)].)
ELEVATION’S EFFECT ON TEMPERATURE: In general, as
elevation goes UP, the temperature goes DOWN (about 3.5° F per 1,000’).
CANYON WINDS: Blow up slope in the day and down slope in the
Meteorology

evening and night.

IMPORTANT CLOUD TYPES: 1) Cumulus—broken, yet massy
clouds having a flat base and rounded, stacked outlines, mostly under 5,000’
—fair weather. 2) Nimbostratus—solid, low, dark gray cloud layer between
4,000’-7,000’—rain or snow. 3) Altostratus—moderately high, gray to dark
gray, sheet-like clouds, 15,000’—rain, snow or wind.
*Based on 40 mph wind **Based on sea level temperature of 50°

40 Meteorology
 NRA Gun Safety Rules

1. ALWAYS keep the gun pointed in a safe direction. This is the primary
rule of gun safety. A safe direction means that the gun is pointed so that
even if it were to go off it would not cause injury or damage. The key to
this rule is to control where the muzzle or front end of the barrel is pointed
at all times. Common sense dictates the safest direction, depending on
different circumstances.
2. ALWAYS keep your finger off the trigger until ready to shoot. When
holding a gun, rest your finger on the trigger guard or along the side of the
gun. Until you are actually ready to fire, do not touch the trigger.
3. ALWAYS keep the gun unloaded until ready to use. Whenever you
pick up a gun, immediately engage the safety device if possible, and, if the
gun has a magazine, remove it before opening the action and looking into
the chamber(s) which should be clear of ammunition. If you do not know
how to open the action or inspect the chamber(s), leave the gun alone
and get help from someone who does.
When using or storing a gun, always follow these
NRA rules:
• Know your target and what is beyond.

NRA Gun Safety Rules

• Know how to use the gun safely.
• Be sure the gun is safe to operate.
• Use only the correct ammunition for your gun.
• Wear eye and ear protection as appropriate.
• Never use alcohol or over-the-counter, prescription or other drugs
before or while shooting.
• Store guns so they are not accessible to unauthorized persons.
• Be aware that certain types of guns and many shooting activities
require additional safety precautions.
• Regular cleaning is important in order for your gun to operate
correctly and safely. Your gun should be cleaned every time that
it is used.

NRA Gun Safety Rules 41

 Pre-Hunt Coordination

PURPOSE: To designate an easily accessible point or feature on the

map where one should go in the event the person becomes separated
from the hunting partner(s) or other outback group.
METHOD: Agree with your partner(s) or group on a feature—such as a
road, power line, railroad, etc.—which can be easily reached by following #3
of the Silva® System 1–2–3 instructions (see K1-2, Compass). This
method does not require specific map skills—only the use of the compass.
MAP MARKING: In the example below, the hunt area is outlined
in blue and the designated feature or point (an unimproved road in this
case) is indicated by parallel black dashes. Be sure the map symbol
is understood by all. In this example, you would say, “If we become
separated, go north to the unimproved road and wait.”

Light Duty Road Unimproved

Pre-Hunt Coordination

Road

Railroad Power
Track Lines

NOTE: To obtain U.S.G.S.

map(s) for the area(s) in which
you plan to hike or hunt, visit
the U.S. Geological Survey
website at:
http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/symbols/

42 Pre-Hunt Coordination
 Shelter Building

After making sure that your fire is burning well, it is now time to construct
a good shelter for the night. Continue to Stay Calm.
Of the five essentials required for human survival (fire [heat], shelter,
water, food and spiritual [or some would say psychological needs]), only
fire is more important than shelter. Subtract any two of these five essentials
and the result is ultimately non-survival. The survival data below, although
highly generalized, makes an important point:
Without food, you can live approximately......................30 days
Without water, you can live approximately.......................6 days
Without fire (heat) (in some environments) ..... several hours
Because an adequate shelter contributes to the need for warmth in that it
protects you from the elements (wind, rain, etc.), the shelter teams up with
the heat generated by a fire to provide adequate warmth.
WHERE TO LOCATE THE SHELTER: 1) It should be safe
from natural hazards (e.g., wind, flash floods, avalanche, poison ivy, etc.)
and critter pests (e.g., mosquitoes, ant runways, etc.), and 2) Should have
nearby: A) building material, B) fuel for your fire, and C) water.
WHAT TYPE OF SHELTER: The type will depend upon:

Shelter Building
1) Weather conditions, 2) The time of day (how much daylight is left),
3) What nature can supply for the shelter, 4) What tools you have (knife,
flex saw, folding saw, ax, etc.), 5) Your physical condition, and 6) Your
ingenuity (how creative you are).
OTHER NEEDS OF THE SHELTER: 1) Will it provide
adequate protection from the elements? 2) Will it be used near a fire?
3) Is it large enough for sleeping, accommodating your gear, along with
some space for fuel storage?

Shelter Building 43
 Shelter Building

SHELTER TYPE SELECTION

(Choose one based upon weather and available building materials.)

These basic shelters can be modified to meet various needs and

will accommodate 1 or 2 persons.

Drawings D2.1 D2.2 D2.3 D2.4

Weather Good, hot, Fair, little Light snow, Deep/drifted

or clear. wind, drizzle wind, rain snow

Type Rope/tarp Simple “A” frame Snow cave

“A” lean-to lean-to

Tools Knife, wire Knife, wire Knife, wire Anything

Required saw, 550 saw saw or ax shovel-like
cord, rock
(hammer)

Gives shade, Easy to build, Good pro- Best

Advantages free air Wide variety tection and insulated, best
Shelter Building

circulation security protection from

wind and
wind chill

Build time 1 hour 1 hour 2 hours 3 hours

© 2000, Ron Dawson

44 Shelter Building
 Shelter Building

D2 .1 (see page 49)

Rope/tarp “A”

NOTE: Plastic or poncho tarp will also work. If tarp has no grommets,
rounded stones 1”–2” in diameter can be placed in the tarp corners and
secured with a double half hitch or slipknot to make the tie-downs (see
inset drawing).

D2.2 (see page 49)

Simple Lean-to

Shelter Building

NOTE: Boughs and/or bark should be placed in shingle fashion, beginning

at the bottom and working up. This will direct rain droplets away
from the shelter interior.

Shelter Building 45
 Shelter Building

12’ D2.3 (see page 49)

A-frame lean-to

5–6’

NOTE: If plastic or tarp is used, place boughs over the material used
to provide additional insulation. This also applies to C2, Simple lean-to.
D2.4 (see page 49)
Snow Cave Note: Best shelter when wind chill is below -20° F.
Shelter Building

• Minimum wall
thickness–20”.
• Work slowly and take frequent rests.
• Keep vent hole open and some free air space at doorway

46 Shelter Building
 Shelter Floor-Bed

IMPORTANCE: You will need protection from the cold and damp
ground as well as something comfortable on which to rest. Also, because
activity after dark will be limited, and the need to conserve energy an
important issue, more time will be spent resting. The time, care, and effort
expended in the construction of the floor-bed will be rewarded all night long.
WHAT YOU NEED TO BUILD A FLOOR-BED: Several
things that nature supplies will work as an outback mattress. Leaves, grass,
leafy plants (e.g., ferns, cattail leaves, prairie smoke, etc.), and—best of
all—boughs from some of the evergreens, including spruce, cedar, and fir.
HOW TO BUILD A FLOOR-BED: The most popular floor-bed
is made using boughs from trees. This type of floor-bed is called a “bough
bed,” and we will use this type as our example. 1) Select a young tree with
boughs that are easy to reach. 2) Gather them by working from the ground
up and around the tree. 3) Cut boughs apart so the branchlets (the very
small branches) are little more than pencil lead thick. 4) Gather enough to
make a bed that is 8–10 inches deep. 5) Place and stake small diameter
(4”–6”) logs or limbs in the shape and length of the floor-bed (illustrated
in D2.1, page 50). 6) Arrange the boughs in rows against the log frame,
placing the cut ends toward the ground. Evergreen boughs have a natural
curve to them. This curve should be up to give cushion or spring. 7) Con-

Shelter Floor - Bed

tinue the rows, placing boughs in shingle-fashion (overlapping). 8) Comfort
test. 9) Add additional boughs as is necessary for comfort.
NOTE 1: Lots of bough layers mean better insulation from the ground and more comfort
too. NOTE 2: When retiring for the night, wrap the space blanket around your body for
additional warmth and protection from dampness. Give special attention to protecting your head,
neck, and shoulders while sleeping (wear a cap, or use a scarf, or best of all, wear a hooded
sweatshirt). Body heat loss is the greatest in these areas. Covered (clothed) body parts allow warm
moist air to be in contact with the skin, hence minimizing the loss of body heat. Approximately
30% of body heat loss (largely dependent on the ambient [air] temperature and the relative
humidity) occurs via the respiratory tract.

Shelter Floor -Bed 47

 Signaling

SIGNAL’S PURPOSE: To say “HELP, here I am”, “I’m okay”, or “I’m

hurt”. Signals can also indicate your direction of travel, if travel is necessary.
SIGNAL TYPES AND METHODS: 1) Battery-powered:
Radios, strobe lights, locator beacons, and flashlights are all helpful, but
are limited by battery size, age, and hot and cold temperatures. Always,
A) Use fresh batteries, B) Protect equipment and batteries from heat and
cold, C) Carry replacement batteries, D) Use only when necessary. 2)
Fire and smoke: At night the fire’s flame is a good signal; by day the fire’s
smoke is most visible. To make the fire smoke add green or damp plants
and leaves. 3) Mound and trench: (See F1.1 and F1.2) These can be
constructed of brush, rocks and branches, or by stomping out a giant letter
or an arrow trench in the snow. Make the signal on a west/east line (see
F1.2). In the northern hemisphere (which includes U.S. and Canada) the
sun will cast a shadow to the north of a signal pile (or below the southern
shoulder(s) of a signal snow trench). 4) Signal mirror: Used to attract
aircraft. 5) Whistle: Effective for short distances. 6) Glow sticks (e.g.,
Cyalume®): A chemical light signaling device. The “industrial” green is the
brightest. 7) Personal Locator Beacon (PLB): (see following page).
The sun casts a shadow over the
Signal Letters used in North America southern shoulders of a snow trench in
the Northern Hemisphere.

X V
F1.1 F1.2 Trench shadows

Require Require
Medical Assistance
Assistance

Y N
➤
Signaling

Going in this
direction W E
➤

Yes No
Affirmative Negative
S
NOTE: The emergency signal for “HELP” is three of anything—
three fires, three shots, three flares, etc.—but save the ‘ammo’
and flares until you are sure that there are rescuers in the area.

48 Signaling
 Signaling (PLBs)

PERSONAL LOCATOR BEACON (PLB)

When your backcountry trip takes you into a very remote location, where
cell phones are of little value, a PLB is a valuable tool for locating you in a
real emergency. These devices, although small and lightweight, transmit
a signal to low orbiting satellites that will identify who you are and precisely
where you are located.
In July 2003 an FCC waiver ruling was approved to permit PLB sale for
land use in the contiguous U.S. PLBs perform the same function as the
Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB) but are smaller
and lighter. Most weigh less than a pound and will fit in a jacket pocket.
PLBs and EPIRBs transmit signals on internationally recognized distress
frequencies. The 406 MHz signal is monitored by NOAA (National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) and the Search and Rescue
Satellite-Aided Tracking System detects and locates distress signals.
NOAA satellites played a key role in the rescue of 283 people in the United
States during 2008.
For additional information about these devices, visit the web sites below:
www.acrelectronics.com ~ www.sarsat.noaa.gov
NOTE: These devices are intended for use in bona fide life-and-death
emergencies. Lives, equipment, and money are at risk when Search and

Signaling (PLBs)
Rescue respond to your PLB activation.
GLOW STICKS
“Glow stick” is the name given to a slender, lightweight, transparent/
translucent sealed tube that encapsulates certain chemicals which, when
activated, create a glowing light. This light, under appropriate conditions,
can be visible for a mile or more.
By attaching a 3–4 foot piece of cord (e.g., 550 cord) to one end of a “high
intensity” glow stick and rotating it above the head enhances the field of
visibility to searchers attempting after-dark aerial searches.

Signaling (PLBs) 49
 Signaling (PLB&Glow Sticks)

THE COST OF A PLB RESCUE: There is much

to be considered apart from the initial purchase
price and features of the PLB. Depending on the
scope and location of the rescue, the cost could
be enormous. The purchaser will be well served
to contact local rescue services (both private
and public), the National Park Service, and
the U.S. Coast Guard to obtain North American
rescue parameters and costs.
Those who manufacture PLBs are also an ex-
cellent source for a number of subjects concern-
ing the use and maintenance of these devices.
USE OF THE GLOW STICK: In the picture
below the glow stick (A) (particularly after
dark) is used to attract the attention of a search
aircraft by tying a 3 to 4 foot cord
to the end of the glow stick and
rotating it overhead expands the
glow visibility range.
Signaling (PLBs & Glow )

The glow stick is lightweight, inex-

pensive, and safe to use.

50 Signaling (PLBs & Glow Sticks)

 Snakebite

POISONOUS SNAKES IN THE U.S.: All belong to either

the Crotalid (pit viper) family (rattlesnakes, copperheads, cottonmouths)
or to the Elapid family (coral snakes).
NOTE: At least 25% of snake bites do not result in envenomation.
SYMPTOMS: 1) Crotalid: bite-site scratches or puncture mark(s)
with pain, swelling and blistering developing over time. 2) Elapid: bite-
site scratches or puncture mark(s) with numbness, tingling, weakness,
and shortness of breath. 3) General: either type of envenomation may
produce nausea, vomiting, and other signs of shock (see V, Shock).
TREATMENT: 1) Keep affected part as immobile as
possible. 2) Remove watches, rings, etc. from affected limb
due to the potential for swelling. 3) Keep patient as inactive
(preferably lying flat) and as calm as possible. 4) Splint
the injured limb (normally the bite-site is on an extremity)
and position the affected limb at the same level as the heart.
5) Seek medical help immediately.
NOTE: For Elapid (coral) snake bites, if arm or leg part is bitten, rapidly
apply compressive bandage (e.g., elastic bandage, etc.) to extremity,
beginning at the bite-site and covering the entire extremity. The wrap
should be snug, but not so snug as to inhibit circulation. Splint, if possible.
CAUTIONS: 1) No ice packs or ice water immersion. 2) No
tourniquets. 3) No incision and suction. 4) There is no role for electrical

Snakebite
current in the treatment of snakebite envenomation.
NOTES: 1) The onset of symptoms may be delayed for up to six hours.
Do not wait until symptoms develop before seeking medical help. 2) Of
the approximately 8,000 bites annually by poisonous snakes, no more
than 6 people have died in recent years (in the U.S.) due to snakebite.

Snakebite 51
 U.S. Venomous Snakes
Crotalid family (pit viper),
rattlesnakes, copperheads, water
moccasin (cottonmouth)
rattlesnake
copperhead
U.S. Venomous Snakes
water moccasin
Pit viper snakes have retractable
twin upper jaw fangs that contain
a deadly venom. The length of a
mature pit viper varies from 1.5 to 3
ft. for copperheads, up to 4.5 ft. for
rattlesnakes), and up to
6.0 ft. for
52 U.S. Venomous Snakes
water moccasins (cottonmouths).
Check with your local fish and
game department to determine if
your locale has venomous snakes.
A telltale heat-sensing pit organ
located between both eyes and the
nostril identifies these snakes as pit
vipers. This organ senses the pres-
ence and size of a potential victim.
coral snake
Elapid family (coral snakes)
The coral snake is primarily found
in the southern United States. Coral
snakes have a unique color pattern
that is comprised of shiny scales of
yellow, red, black or white bands.
The length of a mature coral snake
ranges from 20” to 30”. Due to the
snakes very reclusive nature and its
very small jaw size, the coral snake
is responsible for very few human
fatalities. This snake does possess
a deadly neurotoxin venom that can
cause cardiac arrest.
 Survival Gear

EMERGENCY FIRST-PRIORITY GEAR: In addition to

wearing and carrying adequate clothing for the season and elevation,
you should carry the following:

Items Quantity/Description

1) Knife (hunting type) (1) quality, 4”+ blade

length, contoured
grip, blade guard
2) Sharpening stone (1) medium
3) Compass (1) 360º marked, easily
read, durable
4) USGS map (1) current map(s)
5) Matches (15-20) stick, varnished,
strike anywhere
6) Match container (1) screw top, plastic
waterproof
7) Metal Match (e.g., (1) single-hand operation
Spark-Lite® or Sparkie™) 1–3 oz., durable
8) Candle (plumber’s type) (1) 6”x3/4” minimum
9) Fire start tablets (1) tube of tablets
10) Water container (1) 1–2 quart bottle,
(Optional if item #19 below) plastic, folding

Survival Gear
11) Water purification tblts. (1) small bottle
12) 550 parachute cord (50’) MIL-C-5040H, bright
orange or yellow
13) DEET (1 pkg.) at least 40% DEET
14) Signal mirror (1) metal, USAF type
15) Whistle (1) plastic, police type
16) Plastic sheeting (1) 2–4 mil, 8’ square
17) *Flexible survival saw (1) durable, 5–6oz. max.
*go to website www.ultimatesurvival.com

Survival Gear 53
 Survival Gear

EMERGENCY SECOND-PRIORITY GEAR: This list of

items largely involves emergency gear intended to provide for the
construction of tools for fishing and snaring small game. Except
for the flashlight or headlamp, the added weight of these items is
minimal. If your outdoor experience is to be limited to back roads
and clearly marked trails, the following can be considered optional.

Items Quantity/Description
18) Surgical tubing (1) 6’–10’
19) Space blanket (1) 56”x84”
20) Fanny pack gear car- (1) approx. 300 cu. in.
rier w/two .5 L water (Suggest Cabela’s
bottle carrier #GIS-517026)
21) Non-latex gloves (1 or 2 pr) Some people are
allergic to latex
22) Aluminum foil (30”) heavy duty
23) Fly line (30’) tapered
24) Monofilament line (20’) 4–6 pound test
25) Fishing flies (2 ea.) Royal Coachmen,
Brown Hackle, Gray
Hackle Black Gnat,
and Mosquito
26) Safety pins (3) 11/2”–2” long
Survival Gear

27) Copper wire (8’) light weight, annealed

28) Tissue (2 or 3) small package(s)
29) Pencil (1) wood, #2 or #3
30) Flashlight/headlamp (1) durable, lightweight

54 Survival Gear
 Survival Gear

EMERGENCY THIRD-PRIORITY GEAR: These items

are especially important when venturing into remote or snow (or
potential snow)
country.
31) Snowshoes (1 pr.) your weight compatible
32) Aerial Flares, or (6) 45 cal.
33) Glow sticks (2) Military Grade, 6”, one 12 hr.,
Suggest Cyalume® one high intensity 30 minute,
green or yellow
34) Telescopic antenna (1) w/orange, neoprene flag
35) Locator Beacon (PLB) (1) w/GPS

Survival Gear

Survival Gear 55
 Travel

Your chances of trading “unlost” for “lost” is excellent if your emergency

packet contains the recommended items in T1-3 in the survival gear
section of this survival guide. (e.g., including a current U.S.G.S. map(s)
covering the area in which you wished to venture and a quality 360˚ marked
compass). The more familiar you are with the map(s) and the compass, the
probability of getting back on track is substantially improved.

NOTE: Before heading for the outback did you: 1) Obtain a map of the
travel area, 2) Study the map carefully, 3) Learn how to use a compass
and orient a map, 4) File a hunting or travel plan with someone, and
5) Tell someone when you are planning to return?
As was mentioned earlier and there are few (very few) reasons for
attempting to travel. If you are imminent danger (e.g., you are in a canyon
and there is danger of a flash flood) it might be wise to move to higher
ground. Thoughtfully analyze your situation.
Ifitisgettinglateintheday,preparetospendthenight.SeepagesC1-C3,
Fire Building, and D1-D4, Shelter Building, and E, Shelter Floor Bed.
Theseactivitieswillproducepositiveresultswhereastocontinuehoofing
it, it may make matters worse.
Shouldyoubeofamindtotakeahikeratherthantosecureyourselfforthe
night, leave a note in a clear press zipper bag and place it in an obvious
and secure spot. (e.g., tie the zipper bag to a tree about waist to head
highusingcordageorbyplacingastoneoveracornerofthebag.)Include
thefollowinginformationinthenote:1)Yourname,2)thetimeofday,3)
yourcondition,4)thedirectionorthegoalofyourtrek,5)howyouintend
Travel

tomarkyourtrailandtheapproximatedistancebetweenthemarkers(50
ft-100ft[dependsontheterrainanddensityofthefoliage]).Besureyou
are within sight of the previously marked tree, bush, etc.

56 Travel
 Travel Markers

When & How to Trailblaze

The three important items for this form of trailblazing are: 1) hunting knife, 2)
a sharpening stone, and 3) 50’ of 550 parachute cord (MIL-C-5040H, type
II [should be bright orange or yellow in color]). This military nylon cordage
is small in diameter, will not rot or mildew, and the
cordage sheath contains seven interior nylon cords
that can be stripped from the sheath. This provides
seven durable inner cords for a total of 350’ of trail
marking cordage. If you use 12” for each trail marker,
this will provide enough markers for approximately
3.3 miles (if marker is used between marked objects
1 50’ apart) or 6.6 miles if used between marked
objects (trees, bushes, etc.).
Drawing #1 shows a trail marker tucked into an eye level knife cut in the
bark of a tree. Trailblazing in this manner precludes the need to use an ax,
minimizing long term damage to the tree.
Also note that by pressing the center of the 12” trail marker into the slit
in the bark allows the dangling ends of the marker to move with a slight
breeze, improving the marker’s visibility. Be sure to replace the hunting
knife into the safety of its scabbard before proceeding to the next trail
marker placement.

Travel Markers
Drawing #2 illustrates cutting back the nylon sheath
in order to gain access to the seven interior cords
that become the trail markers. Placing an additional
trail marker on the opposite side of the tree will
make is possible to return to your trailblazing start
if it becomes necessary to return to your starting
point. Suffice to say, having this option may look 2
pretty good after traveling a mile or two!

Travel Markers 57
 Wild Plant Food

WARNING: Although you probably won’t be lost long enough to

enjoy eating from “Mother Nature’s Pantry,” it would be advisable to know
some important points and rules about wild-plant food. Although plants can
supply nearly every nutritional need known, some plants are so poisonous
that they should never enter the mouth. So, RULE #1: If you are unable
to identify the plant, or have knowledge of the edible parts of the
plant, do not attempt to eat it.
SOME WILD PLANT FOOD GUIDELINES: 1) Roots
and tubers possess more food value than leaves. 2) Cattail root and
the young shoots are good eating. 3) Most blue and black berries are
edible, red berries sometimes, and white berries are rarely edible.
4) All grass seeds are edible, unless they have turned black. 5) A wide
variety of nuts are edible. 6) The inner bark of some trees is edible (e.g.,
cottonwood, aspen, willow, birch, and the conifers [cone bearing trees]).
7) Rose hips, wild strawberry leaves, and violet leaves are edible and
an excellent source of vitamin C. 8) Chopped needles from fir, hemlock,
spruce, and pine trees can be simmered in water to create a tea which is
also a source of vitamin C.
POISONOUS PLANT WARNINGS: 1) Avoid mushrooms
unless knowledgeable—some are ­agonizingly deadly. 2) Avoid all
plants having milky sap unless familiar with the edible exceptions (e.g.,
Wild Plant Food

dandelions, wild figs, etc.). 3) Avoid plants resembling beans, cucumbers,

melons, or parsnips and those with carrot-like foliage. 4) Avoid plants with
orange, yellow, red, dark, or soapy-tasting sap, or which readily turn dark
when exposed to the air. 5) Avoid any plant resembling dill or parsley.
6) Avoid grasses or grass seeds which have turned black. 7) Avoid
eating seeds and nuts of fruits—some contain strychnine.
NOTE: Some plants eaten by animals are poisonous to humans. Bears
eat baneberry; horses eat poison ivy; squirrels eat all mushrooms; and
birds eat seeds which contain strychnine.

58 Wild Plant Food

 Wind Chill

WIND CHILL GRAPHIC

WIND SPEED (mph)
STILL AIR

TEMP.°F 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 *Winds +40
WIND CHILL TEMPERATURE DANGER LEVEL
40 36 34 32 30 29 28 28 27 Moderate
30 25 21 19 17 16 15 14 13 (30 minutes)
20 13 9 6 4 3 1 0 -1
10 1 -4 -7 -9 -11 -12 -14 -15
0 -11 -16 -19 -22 -24 -26 -27 -29 Great
-10 -22 -28 -32 -35 -37 -39 -41 -43 (10 minutes)
-20 -34 -41 -45 -48 -51 -53 -55 -57
-30 -46 -53 -58 -61 -64 -67 -69 -71
-40 -57 -66 -71 -74 -78 -80 -82 -84 Severe
-45 -63 -72 -77 -81 -84 -87 -89 -91 (5 minutes)
©2006 Ron Dawson
*Winds above 40 mph average 2° F less
per each 5 mph increase in wind speed.
NOTE: The potentially deadly effects of wind chill can be greatly reduced,
even eliminated, by protection from the wind. For instance, using the snow
cave as the shelter of choice in an example wherein the outside still air
temperature is -20° F with a 40 mph wind (see graphic above):

Wind Chill
Outside snow cave: wind chill -57° F
Temperature inside snow cave: -20° F
Snow cave + body heat: 0° F
Snow cave + body heat + candle +15° F
In this example the wind chill has been eliminated. The gain in ambient
temperature is approximately 35° F.

Wind Chill 59
 Heart Attack

DEFINITION: Usually referring to a blood clot causing complete

blockage of a diseased coronary artery, which results in the death of
either a part of or all the heart muscle.
CAUSE: Risk factors include high blood pressure, high blood
cholesterol, cigarette smoking, diabetes, physical inactivity, and heredity.
SYMPTOMS: 1) Chest discomfort is the most common indicator. This
discomfort can be in the form of pressure, squeezing, fullness, tightness,
or pain located in the center of the chest behind the breastbone. It may
spread to either shoulder, the neck, the lower jaw, or either arm. This
normally lasts more than two minutes and may come and go. 2) Other
signs may include sweating, nausea, shortness of breath, or weakness. 3)
Pain may not be severe. 4) In diabetics, women, and people over the age
of 75 years, shortness of breath may be the major symptom.
TREATMENT: 1) ABC (STR) if unconscious. 2) Have
patient stop activity and sit or lie down. 3) Be prepared to
administer CPR if necessary (see F1 thru F3, CPR). 4)
Have patient take one adult aspirin tablet or four children’s
aspirin (unless allergic). If patient has a history of heart attack(s)
and is in possession of nitro-glycerin, assist patient with its
administration. 5) The patient should rest until help arrives.
Activity may worsen heart damage.
Heart Attack

PREVENTION: Attending to the following will promote a

healthy heart. 1) Diet and Nutrition: A balanced diet low in fat
and sodium, high in fiber, and appropriate for your caloric needs.
2) Exercise and Fitness: Regular exercise as recommended by
your physician or the American Heart Association. 3) Lifestyle: Avoid
cigarettes (smoking doubles your risk of a heart attack). Maintain a healthy
weight, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels.

60 Heart Attack
 Heat / Sun Stroke

DEFINITION: A life-threatening condition resulting from high body

temperature (above 105° F).
CAUSE: Prolonged exposure to high temperatures, especially with high
humidity. Individuals at high risk are the elderly, infants, physically or mentally
ill, or intoxicated. Can occur at normal air temperature due to drug use or
vigorous exercise. May be caused by medications or violent agitation.
SYMPTOMS: 1) Hot and dry skin. 2) Absence of perspiration, though
not always. 3) Body temperature is above 105° F. 4) Rapid breathing.
5) Dizziness, weakness, nausea. 6) Confusion, seizures,
unconsciousness.
TREATMENT: 1) Place patient in shaded area. 2) Cool
rapidly by whatever means are available. Disrobe and immerse
the patient in cool water (if available) being careful to protect
breathing. If immersion is not possible, repeatedly wet entire
skin with cool to tepid water and fan continuously. 3) Con-
tinue procedures until temperature drops to 102° F or below.

WARNING: Irreversible brain damage might occur within minutes if patient

is not cooled rapidly.

Heat / Sun Stroke

NOTE: In lesser forms of heat illness (e.g., heat cramps, heat exhaustion),
mental function is normal and body temperature is generally normal. These
conditions should be treated with cooling, copious water or diluted fluids by
mouth, and rest.
PREVENTION: Avoid overexposure to the sun, excessive heat, high
humidity, and strenuous work in the sun. Wear a wide brimmed hat and ap-
propriate clothing. As with diarrhea, dehydration is usually a significant issue.
Maintaining adequate hydration is necessary to reduce the risk of heat stroke.
Mild dehydration is treated with copious (plenty of) liquids or electrolyte sports
drinks (e.g., Gatorade® [Pedialyte® for children]) to restore the body’s liquids,
electrolytes, and salt balance.

Heat / Sun Stroke 61

 Hyperthermia

DEFINITION: When core body temperature drops below 95° F (35° C).
CAUSE: Loss of body heat often caused by exposure to cool or
cold, but not necessarily freezing air temperatures (can occur in the sum-
mer months with a combination of perspiration and wind), improper or
inadequate clothing, nourishment deprivation, and alcohol are the most
common contributing causes.
SYMPTOMS: 1) Shivering or rigid muscles initially (shivering generally
stops at 86–90° F (30–32° C). Fatigue and numbness set in as temperature
drops below 98° F (37° C). 2) Lack of coordination, slurring and slowing
of speech, poor judgment, impairment of memory and loss of awareness
may occur at 93° F (34° C). 3) Unconsciousness, slow pulse and respiration,
dilated pupils below 90° F (32° C). 4) Changes in heart rhythm may occur below
88° F (31° C). (See Q, Hypothermic Indicator Chart, page 70.)
TREATMENT: 1) Rescuer must prevent further heat loss.
Move patient into a warm environment. Handle patient
gently. 2) Remove wet and cold clothing when possible. 3)
Cover exposed body surfaces with dry/warm clothing, and
blankets, and/or surround patient with body heat (effectively
transferred through direct skin-to-skin contact). 4) Insulate
the patient from the ground. 5) If patient is lucid (mentally
responsive), offer warm drinks of sweetened liquid or soup, but
no alcohol or caffeine. Provide nourishment containing simple
sugars (e.g., Starburst® fruit chews, hot chocolate [although it
Hyperthermia

does contain a trace amount of caffeine] etc.). 6) If the rescuer is

certain that the patient is not breathing and no pulse is felt
for at least one minute, CPR should be performed (see F1 thru
G3, CPR). It can be difficult to feel a pulse in a hypother-
mic patient. (In field, misdiagnosis of cardiac arrest can be
harmful to patient.) 7) Never leave a hypothermic patient
NOTES: 1) CPR should only be performed if it does
not place the rescuer(s) in danger. 2) CPR should be
continued until patient reaches the hospital.

62 Hyperthermia
 Poisoning (External)

NOTE: Brush dry chemical poisons off skin. Regardless of the

type of toxic agent, immediate, copious flushing of the exposed
area with water is always the appropriate first step. Then follow the
“Emergency Index” indicated below.
DEFINITION: The exposure of skin or eye(s) to toxic materials.
CAUSE: Acids, alkalis, solvents, pesticides.
SYMPTOMS: 1) Pain, burning of exposed areas. 2) Discoloration and/
or blistering of skin. 3) Eye redness, blurred vision. 4) Some poisons (e.g.,
pesticides) are absorbed through the skin, resulting in severe poison-
ing. Rescuers or first-aid personnel must wear protective clothing to
avoid becoming poisoned.
T R E A T M E N T : I. Non-plant toxic agents:
1) Brush dry chemical poisons off skin, immediately fol-
lowed by: 2) At least 15–20 minutes of continuous water
irrigation using shower, sink, or handheld container. The
bare minimum for any eye flushing is 15 minutes (acids)
and 20 minutes (alkalines/corrosives). Just to be safe, do all
eye irrigations for 20 CONTINUOUS minutes (by the watch)
regardless of patient complaint.
TREATMENT: II. Contact plant poisoning (poison

Bleeding (External)
oak, poison ivy, poison sumac): If known contact,
1) Wash off exposed area with a strong soap (e.g., Fels Naph-
tha, Borax, Lava, and cool water. 2) Treat rash with calamine
or hydrocortisone cream and give oral antihistamine if available.
3) If serious reaction occurs or mucus membranes (eyes,
nose, lungs, et al) are involved, prednisone—a prescription
medication—may be required.
CAUTION: Poison oak, poison ivy, and poison sumac
when burned and can result in irritation of exposed skin and
mucus membranes.

Poisoning (External) 63
 Poisoning (internal)

NOTE: In the event of a suspected poisoning immediately

contact your Poison Control Center (PCC) (1.800.222.1222)
or call 911. If life-threatening symptoms are present call
911 first.
CAUSE: Ingestion of medications, household products, plants, or
inhalation of toxic gases.
SYMPTOMS: A wide variation of symptoms can occur depending on
the agent, the route of exposure, and the dose. These symptoms include
pain or burning in mouth or throat, nausea, vomiting, cough, shortness of breath,
chest pain, agitation, confusion, and unconsciousness.
TREATMENT: 1)ABCs (STR). 2) For life-threatening
symptoms call 911; for other information, call PCC or ED.
3) Do not drink anything (including water or milk) or induce
vomiting unless directed to do so by a physician or Poison Con-
trol Center. Caustic (e.g., drain cleaners, etc.) and hydrocarbons
(e.g., petroleum products, etc.) should not be vomited.) 4) If
respiratory failure occurs, begin CPR unless there is danger to
the rescuer (see below), (see F and G, CPR).
FIELD TREATMENT: (See above first): For caustic or
hydrocarbon, avoid emesis (vomiting) and seek emergency care.
Poisoning (internal)

For medication exposure, do not use activated charcoal or syrup

of ipecac unless directed to do so by PCC. For inhalation exposure,
remove victim from the exposure, call 911 for respiratory distress or
contact PCC for less severe exposure.
DANGER TO RESCUER: There is specific danger to the rescuer
with cyanide, organophosphate pesticides, and poisonous gases. If these
agents are suspected, call 911 for a HAZMAT TEAM or, in instances of
less severe exposure, call the PCC.

64 Poisoning (internal)
 Shock

DEFINITION: A life-threatening secondary condition wherein the

body’s vital physical (e.g., breathing, heartbeat) and mental functions
are seriously impaired due to an inadequate supply of oxygenated blood
reaching the lungs, heart, and brain.
CAUSE: A bodily reaction to a serious injury, illness, or traumatic event.
SYMPTOMS: 1) Anxiety (usually the earliest sign), weakness, pale-
ness, sweating, thirst. 2) Confusion. 3) Pulse may become rapid and weak.
4) Patient may become dizzy and faint. 5) The more severe the injury or
illness, the more likely shock will occur. Unless treated rapidly, shock
can, and often does, result in death.
TREATMENT: 1) ABCs (STR). 2) Call 911.
3) Handle the patient gently and only when necessary.
4) If it is necessary to immediately control bleeding, see,
Bleeding. 5) Give oxygen, if it is available. 6) If conscious,
place patient on back. If unconscious, roll on left side if no
neck injury is suspected. 7) Except in the case of a head injury
or suspected neck fracture, elevate feet approximately 15” to
increase the flow of blood to the brain. 8) Make sure that there
are no broken bones before straightening the patient out.
9) Protect the patient from becoming cold (especially from the
ground below). 10) Continue to reassure the patient.
NOTE: Do not give fluids or food to the patient.
PREVENTION: Because several conditions which may lead to shock
vary widely in their origin, there is no panacea for shock’s prevention.
There are, however, some underlying causatives (e.g., smoking, high
blood pressure, etc.) and preventatives (e.g., healthy diet, exercise regi- Shock
men, etc.) which may be beneficial in preventing a condition that might
lead to shock

Shock 65
 Stroke

DEFINITION: Also called cerebrovascular accident—an event which

usually results in some loss of function (loss of speech, a weak arm or
leg, and may or may not result in loss of consciousness) caused by a
disturbance in the blood circulation in the brain.
CAUSE: Stroke is caused by damage to the brain’s arteries. It may
be due to either plugging (usually due to a blood clot) or rupture of the
artery. Risk factors include high blood pressure, heart disease, high
cholesterol, high red blood cell count, prior stroke, heredity, and diabetes
mellitus (type 2 diabetes).
SYMPTOMS: 1) Sudden weakness or numbness of the face, arm
and leg on one side of the body. 2) Loss of speech, or trouble speaking
or understanding speech. 3) Unexplained dizziness, unsteadiness, or
sudden falls. 4) Dimness or loss of vision, particularly in one eye. 5) Loss
of consciousness. These effects may be permanent, or temporary. They
often last less than 24 hours, or sometimes just a few minutes.
TREATMENT: 1) ABCs (STR). 2) When any of the
symptoms are present or have occurred, medical assistance
should be sought immediately. Patient should be trans-
ported to a health care provider as soon as possible. If the
patient reaches the hospital in less than 3 hours, additional
treatment may be available.
NOTE: A stroke may bring about conditions that require rescue
breathing or CPR, (see F, CPR).
PREVENTION: Stroke and heart disease share several of the
same controllable risk factors ( see M, Heart Attack), with high
Stroke

blood pressure likely being the leading risk factor. The stroke rate is
greatest for men (especially African-American men). Medications, diet
modification, and the curtailing of certain lifestyle issues (e.g., smoking)
may all contribute to reducing the risk of stroke.

66 Stroke
 Dislocations

DEFINITION: Displacement of a bone from its joint.

CAUSE: Usually the result of a fall or blow to the bone. Common
dislocations include that of the shoulder, hip, thumb, fingers, elbow,
kneecap, and jaw.
SYMPTOMS: 1) Severe pain at the joint. 2) Inability to move the joint
normally. 3) Swelling and deformity of the joint.
TREATMENT: 1) Place the patient in a comfortable
position. 2) Immobilize the affected part using a splint or a
sling (even a pillow if available). Do not change the position
from which the injured part was found. 3) If available, apply
cold or indirect ice pack (not directly on the skin) to swelling
(e.g., 20 minutes per hour). 4) Transport patient to hospital
emergency department.
WARNING: Do not attempt to correct a dislocation. To do so could
cause substantial damage to nerves and blood vessels and even tissue
damage if there is a break, crack, or chip in the bone.
NOTES: 1) Immediate medical attention should be sought to restore a
displaced bone to its proper location. 2) Once a joint has been dislocated,
there is greater susceptibility to recurrence. This is especially true with
knee and shoulder dislocations.
PREVENTION: Many dislocations occur as the result of falls

Dislocations
and contact sports. Proper footwear and awareness of risk factors in
certain environments (i.e., stairs, icy conditions, wilderness, etc.) will
help prevent such injuries, but preventing all falls and injuries is unrealistic.
Dislocations while participating in contact sports are best minimized by
wearing appropriate protective gear for the particular sport involved.

Dislocations 67
 Fractures

DEFINITION: I. Closed fractures: A break or a crack in the bone

which does not puncture or penetrate the skin. II. Open fractures:
A break in the bone whereby the skin is broken by the protruding bone, or
there is an open wound in the area of a fracture. Open fractures are more
serious. III. Stress fracture: See NOTE below.
CAUSE: A direct blow or twisting motion to the bone.
TREATMENT: 1) ABC (STR). 2) If neck fracture is
suspected, see L, Neck & Head. 3) If a wound accompa-
nies the fracture, cut away the clothing, wash the wound with
large amounts of water to remove loose dirt, and cover with
clean gauze before splinting (see C1-C2, Bleeding, and
C3, QuikClot®). 4) Splint fracture before moving patient.
Improvise pieces of equipment. Pad the splint and place so
that it supports the joints above and below the fracture.
Immobilize a fractured leg by tying it to the unbroken leg if no
other materials are available. 5) Elevate. 6) Use indirect ice
packs (not directly on the skin but wrapped in a towel, T-shirt,
etc.) applied 20 minutes per hour. 7) If the extremity is cold
and blue, attempt to reestablish circulation by straightening
and lengthening the site of injury—pull gently on the limb. It
is important that the traction be in the direction of the bone,
not at an angle. The traction should be firm and continuous.
Once traction is applied it should not be released.
CAUTION: Do not move a patient with a suspected neck or back injury
unless necessary for safety.
Fractures

NOTE: III. Stress fracture: This type of fracture usually occurs when a
bone that has been repeatedly stressed through impact and/or overuse incurs
(develops) a hairline fracture (e.g., frequently a sports-related or athletic
performance-related injury where an athlete is exposed to high-impact
exercise [e.g., basketball, long-distance running, competitive ice-skat-
ing or ballet dancing, etc.]). Gradual conditioning for those who participate
in repetitive high-impact activities will lessen the potential for this
type of injury.

68 Fractures
 Head & Neck Injuries

DEFINITION: A head injury may include any of the following: 1)

A cut or a bruise of the scalp. 2) A skull fracture. 3) An injury to the brain
or its blood vessels.
CAUSE: Most head and neck injuries result from falls, direct blows,
or vehicular accidents.
SYMPTOMS: I. Suspect neck injury if: 1) head injured,
2) stiff or painful neck, 3) inability to move arms or legs, or to move at all,
4) numbness, tingling, or a sensation of electricity moving up or down the
arms/legs. II. Suspect brain injury if: 1) unconscious or recently
unconscious, 2) blood or fluid from nose or ears, 3) headache, 4) vomiting,
5) convulsions, 6) different-sized eye pupils.
TREATMENT: 1) ABCs (STR). 2) Immobilize head and
neck avoiding sudden movement of head (see illustration on
next page). This is especially important after a motor-vehicle
crash. 3) Keep the patient comfortably warm and dry and
handle gently. 4) Give nothing by mouth (including any medi-
cation). 5) Watch patient closely until medical help arrives.
6) Keep the patient lying down and treat for shock (see V,

Head & Neck Injuries

Shock). 7) To control bleeding from the head, place a gauze
compress lightly over the injury.
NOTE: If an injury to the spine is suspected, avoid moving the patient
unless required for safety. If you must leave the patient’s side to seek help,
(1) carefully extend one of the patient’s arms above the head, (2) roll the
body so that the head rests on the outstretched arm, and (3) ease the
patient’s legs into a bent position so as to maintain stability in this position.
WARNING: Head injuries can result in brain and/or spinal cord
damage, so extreme care must be exercised in handling this type of injury.
Also, a neck injury may accompany a head injury.

Head & Neck Injuries 69

 Head & Neck Injuries
(Immobilization & transport)

I. Avoid any further head movement: Hold the I.

head in position while placing a rolled towel or
similar cushioned support item on each side of
the neck. Older patients (e.g., senior citizens)
may benefit from 1/2”–1” of support (i.e., towel,
newspaper, etc.) behind the head when placed
on a flat surface.

II. Secure Support: Tape or tie the supporting II.

item in place over the chin, allowing for free
breathing. The support tape (or tie) should
extend around the edge of the backboard to
insure stability of the head.

III.
Head & Neck Injuries

III. Field Treatment: If it is necessary to transport the patient, a long board

(transport board) (i.e., door, table leaf, etc.) should be used. Carefully slide
it under the patient. The board should extend from above the head
to below the buttocks. First, secure the body (chest) to the board, then
secure patient’s forehead to the board.
NOTE: Prolonged use of a transport board may create
additional collateral problems or ancillary pain issues such
as pressure sores and the development of misleading head/
neck or back pain.

70 Head & Neck Injuries

 Sprains & Strains

DEFINITION/CAUSE: I. Sprain: An injury caused by the sudden

or violent twisting, wrenching or overextension of a joint in which the liga-
ments holding together the bones are stretched or torn. II. Strain: An injury
caused by the stretching or tearing of a muscle due to overuse, misuse, or
excessive muscle tension.
SYMPTOMS: I. Sprain: 1) Pain or tenderness in joint (also above and
below). 2) Generally rapid swelling of the area. 3) Frequently black and
blue skin discoloration occurs several hours later. 4) Because the
symptoms are similar to a fracture, it may be difficult to determine which the
patient has. Treat as a fracture if there is doubt (see J, Fractures).
II. Strain: The seriousness of the strain has much to do with the level and
duration of the pain. 1) A mild strain will result in some pain, tenderness and
discomfort for a few days. 2) A moderate strain involving a partial muscle
tear will cause more pain and frequently leads to local swelling and bruising.
This level of strain will require 1–3 weeks to heal. 3) A serious strain (i.e.,
muscle detachment or rupture) may require surgery. Symptoms include
acute pain, possible bleeding, swelling, and bruising.

TREATMENT: RICE - Rest: stop activity and immobilize,

Ice - apply indirect ice packs, Compress - Apply compression
wrap to manage swelling, Elevate - If no secondary pain/injury.

Sprains & Strains

OTC medication may be helpful.

PREVENTION: I. Sprain: The most common sprain–that of the ankle–

can be effectively minimized by wearing proper foot gear. Many sprains
occur as a result of using poor judgment (sliding down hills or embankments,
jumping rather than climbing over obstacles, running downhill, etc.). A sprain
can be a debilitating and painful injury and can even be life-threatening
if it strands you in the backcountry. II. Strain: Adequate conditioning and
warm-up (especially stretching and limbering exercises) are helpful in
minimizing the risk of both strains and sprains.

Sprains & Strains 71

 Insect Bites (ticks)

I. ABOUT TICKS: A small, frequently brown, insect usually no larger

than the head of a match, causes disease by burrowing into the flesh and
transmitting infectious agents or shedding poisons which are serious and
are potentially fatal. Ticks are potential carriers of at least nine diseases.
Each disease varies with the tick species and geographic location. Due to
space limitations, we will deal with the two most frequently mentioned: Lyme
disease and Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF). Early diagnosis and
treatment can cure these diseases.. Keeping the tick for identification after
removal can assist in defining risk of disease. Prophylactic (preventive) treat-
ment after an asymptomatic (without symptoms) tick bite is rarely indicated.
SYMPTOMS: I. Lyme disease: 1) An expanding circular rash
usually (but not always) at bite site. 2) Fever. 3) Chills. 4) Headache.
5) Stiffness in neck. 6) Fatigue. 7) Pain in joints and muscles. 8) Dizziness.
Symptoms may appear after 3–4 days or not for several weeks. Preventive
vaccine is now available, but difficult to locate. II. Rocky Moun-
tain Spotted Fever: 1) Headache. 2) Fever. 3) Loss of appetite. 4)
Rash which begins on wrists and ankles and spreads over entire body. 5)
Muscle aches. 6) Confusion. 7) Sensitivity to light. Symptoms normally
appear within 2–14 days.
TREATMENT: (Tick removal): 1) Using narrow tipped
tweezers or forceps, grasp the tick as close to its head and the
Insect Bites (ticks)

patient’s skin as possible. 2) Apply a gentle, yet firm and steady,

lifting action. The tick (including the mouthparts) should release.
If tweezers are unavailable, use a needle to gently pry the tick
away from the skin. 3) Clean the bite site with antiseptic and
apply antibacterial ointment. Save tick for possible DNA test-
ing. Place in a sealable (e.g., press-zipper) bag or plastic vial.
Record the date and site of bite. 4) Thoroughly wash hands
and tweezers following tick removal.
PREVENTION: Protective clothing such as long pants can pre-
vent tick bites. DEET or permethrin used on clothing and tents is also an
effective deterrent.

72 Insect Bites (ticks)

 Insect Stings (bees & wasps)

II. ABOUT BEE STINGS: For most people, a bee sting (the most
common sting) is not life-threatening. Care of the sting site and pain relief
are the two main concerns. However, those who are allergic to bee stings
should carry a bee sting kit.
SYMPTOMS: One or more of the following may occur at the sting
site and may last from 48 to 72 hours: 1) Pain. 2) Redness. 3) Swelling.
4) Itching and/or burning.
TREATMENT: 1) When a bee or wasp sting causes throat
swelling, shortness of breath, difficulty breathing, or signs of
shock, patient should receive epinephrine as soon as possible.
If one or more of these symptoms is present and a bee sting
kit is not available, be prepared to apply ABCs of CPR (see
A, ABCs and F or G, CPR). 2) Remove the stinger with
an outward scraping motion of a fingernail, credit card, knife
blade, or a needle. Do not pinch the stinger between nails
or tweezers. This action will squeeze the attached venom
sac and may worsen the injury. 3) Remove jewelry from the

Insect Stings (bees & wasps)

affected area. 4) Wash the area if possible. 5) Ice applied to the
sting site might be helpful. 6) Oral (most effective) or topical
antihistamines might be helpful.
NOTES:1) If epinephrine is unavailable, an OTC (over the counter)
inhaler like Primatene® can be lifesaving. 2) There is a higher incidence
of bee sting related death than that attributed to snakebite. 3) Bees are the
only stinging insect that can leave the stinger imbedded in the flesh (due to
stinger’s barb size). 4) Wasps and yellow jackets, on the other hand, can
sting repeatedly. Yellow jackets cause the majority of allergic reactions.
HYPERSENSITIVITY ALERT: If potentially allergic to insect
stings, it is prudent to have this information on your person. A Medic Alert
Bracelet can be purchased by calling Medic Alert at 1.800.922.3320.

Insect Stings (bees & wasps) 73

The Stay Alive Guide™
This booklet is dedicated to the men and
women who serve as volunteer recreational
safety instructors in Michigan. These
hard-working men and women have given
freely of their time and their talent. The
department, along with these volunteers, is
committed to the conservation, protection,
management, use and enjoyment of the
state's natural and cultural resources for
current and future generations. To all of our

owe a continuing debt of gratitude.

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Law Enforcement Division

Michigan Recreational Safety Programs

TM
www.michigan.gov/recreationalsafety