Professional Documents
Culture Documents
and Practice
To cite this article: Shirley C. Sonesh, Chris W. Coultas, Christina N. Lacerenza, Shannon L.
Marlow, Lauren E. Benishek & Eduardo Salas (2015): The power of coaching: a meta-analytic
investigation, Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, DOI:
10.1080/17521882.2015.1071418
Article views: 49
Download by: [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] Date: 16 September 2015, At: 06:26
Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17521882.2015.1071418
University, Houston, TX, USA; dArmstrong Institute for Patient Safety and Quality, Johns
Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
(Received 12 March 2015; accepted 29 June 2015)
Practice points
. The current paper is relevant to a broad spectrum of practice areas as the studies
included in the meta-analysis represent coaching relationships in multiple indus-
tries and contexts (e.g. MBA and executive coaches).
. Our paper departs from the reliance on specific coaching techniques as the expla-
natory mechanism behind coaching effectiveness. It explores the relative effects
of general coaching, characteristics of the coach, the coachee, and the coaching
sessions on both relationship and goal-attainment outcomes, which has never
been meta-analytically investigated. Moreover, it explores the effect of relation-
ship outcomes on goal-attainment outcomes. This serves as a necessary first step
towards determining the role of the coach–coachee relationship as a mechanism
through which coaching works.
. Tangible implications for practitioners include the following: practitioners need
to foster the development of a healthy, social relationship with their coachees; if
attitudinal outcomes are the goal of the coaching relationship, practitioners need
to work harder to achieve these outcomes as they are harder to develop in
understanding of the effects of their language and actions (Sherman & Freas, 2004).
Executive coaching is formally defined as a ‘one-on-one relationship between a pro-
fessional coach and an executive (coachee) for the purpose of enhancing coachee’s be-
havioral change through self-awareness and learning, and thus ultimately for the
success of individual and organization’ (Joo, 2005, p. 468). Executive coaching has
impacted the corporate world in a positive way. The International Coaching Federa-
tion (2009) demonstrated that 70% of coachees report an improvement in job perform-
ance, 72% in communication skills, and 61% in business management. Furthermore,
86% report a positive return on investment (ROI) and 96% indicate that they would
repeat the coaching process. Grant, Curtayne, and Burton (2009) conducted a ran-
domised controlled study and found that coaching resulted in increases in goal attain-
ment, resilience, and workplace well-being, and decreases in depression and stress.
Researchers also argue that executive coaching is an ‘effective method of leadership
development’ (Kombarakaran, Yang, Baker, & Fernandes, 2008, p. 78), and a
recent meta-analysis examining the role of coaching on five individual level coachee
outcomes provides promising evidence that coaching is an effective intervention in
organisations (Theeboom, Beersma, & van Vianen, 2013).
Coaching entails a collaborative process of learning and behavioural change,
making key constructs from the teams, training, learning, and motivational/behav-
ioural change literature bases particularly salient. Similarities between coaching and
training suggest parallel process-based models involving (1) a facilitator (trainer, train-
ing system, or coach), (2) content or techniques, (3) a learner, trainee, or coachee, (4)
an organisational context, and (5) proximal and distal outcomes.
Despite evidence that coaching works (Theeboom et al., 2013) and provides ROI
(De Meuse, Dai, & Lee, 2009), there is much debate about the specific competencies,
qualifications, and conceptualisations of effective coaching (Peterson, 2011). More-
over, academic and practitioner reviews have noted that despite the popularity of
coaching in industry, peer-reviewed empirical work is scarce (Bono, Purvanova,
Towler, & Peterson, 2009; Feldman & Lankau, 2005). Although coaching research
has increased and improved, a significant portion remains uncontrolled, anecdotal,
and lacking theoretical foundation (Dagley, 2006; Grant, 2013).
The coaching relationship is argued to be the primary explanatory mechanism under-
girding the differential effectiveness of different coaching engagements (Hooijberg &
Lane, 2009; Joo, 2005; Kowalski & Casper, 2007; McNally & Lukens, 2006), yet the
specific interpersonal (e.g. trust, rapport, and chemistry) and intrapersonal variables
(e.g. information processing and motivation changes) that precede successful coaching
outcomes have, until recently, been relatively unexplored (Feldman & Lankau, 2005).
Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice 3
Nonetheless, recent works have responded to calls (Boyatzis, Smith, & Van Oosten, 2015;
Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson, 2001) for more research examining the effects of the
coaching relationship on coaching results (Boyce, Jackson, & Neal, 2010; Gessnitzer &
Kauffeld, 2015; Ianiro & Kauffeld, 2014; Ianiro, Lehmann-Willenbrock, & Kauffeld,
2014; Ianiro, Schermuly, & Kauffeld, 2013; Passmore & Fillery-Travis, 2011). The
importance of the coaching relationship raises a fundamental question – why? What is
it about the coaching relationship that facilitates desirable coaching outcomes? Is it
increased motivation or deeper commitment to goal setting? Or might there be a more
complex phenomenon underlying the coaching-outcome connection? Fillery-Travis
and Lane (2006) suggested that it is of paramount importance to address these questions
and determine which mechanisms can foster effective coaching outcomes. To achieve this
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
Relationship outcomes
Coaching shares construct space with mentoring and therapy/counselling (Feldman &
Lankau, 2005) in that the facilitator-recipient relationship is thought to be a key deter-
minant of intervention effectiveness by eliciting changes in the client (Gassmann &
Grawe, 2006; McKenna & Davis, 2009). The relationship between therapist and
patient (or coach and coachee) is evaluated along a number of dimensions such as
respect, openness, and affect (DiGiuseppe, Leaf, & Linscott, 1993; Horvath &
Symonds, 1991; Saltzman, Luetgert, Roth, Creaser, & Howard, 1976). Relationship
forms the medium and context by which specific coaching inputs (e.g. feedback, chal-
lenging questions) are delivered (Baron & Morin, 2009; Horvath & Symonds, 1991).
4 S.C. Sonesh et al.
theory (Kemp, 2008) and empirical research (e.g. de Haan, Duckworth, Birch, &
Jones, 2013; Woerkom, 2010). De Haan et al. (2013) investigated 156 coach–
coachee pairs and found the coaching relationship to be a significant mediator
between inputs (i.e. self-efficacy) and desired outcomes. Similarly, Boyce et al.
(2010) demonstrated that the coaching relationship variables of trust, rapport, and
commitment led to the attainment of targeted coaching outcomes. Moreover, execu-
tives’ perceptions of outcomes were significantly related to perceptions of relationship
factors. Empirical results from a similar dyadic field study conducted by Baron and
Morin (2009) also suggest that the executive coaching relationship mediates the
relationship between the presence of coaching and desired outcomes. In another
study, 84% of coachees identified the quality of their relationship with their coach
as the critical ingredient to their success (McGovern et al., 2001). In addition, multiple
reviews outlining the state of the field (MacKie, 2007; Passmore & Fillery-Travis, 2011;
Passmore & Gibbes, 2007) identify the impact of coaching relationships on goal
attainment. As such, it is critical to examine the ways coaching impacts desired out-
comes and the coaching relationship.
studies using executive coachee samples may show lower effect sizes due to the diffi-
culty associated with collecting results-oriented outcomes over time, whereas the
control afforded by laboratory studies may produce stronger results. In response, we
took an exploratory approach to determine whether study sample moderates the
relationship between coach behaviours and coaching outcomes, and coach–coachee
relationship and coaching outcomes. Study design is another factor that may influence
results (Theeboom et al., 2013). We explored whether primary studies utilising
repeated-measures designs (i.e. single group, pretest vs. posttest), independent
groups designs (i.e. control vs. treatment groups), a combination of both designs
(i.e. treatment vs. control group, pretest vs. posttest), or correlational designs influence
the direction or magnitude of the examined relationships.
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
Methods
Search methodology
We searched the following databases: PsycINFO, Business Source Premier, Human
Resources abstracts, and PsycARTICLES, from January 2000 to December 2014,
using the keywords ‘coaching’, ‘leadership coaching’, and ‘business coaching’ com-
bined with ‘correlation’, ‘survey’, ‘sample’, or ‘experiment’. Additionally, we manually
searched the International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching & Mentoring for rel-
evant primary studies. Our search returned 2123 articles. After removing duplicates
and non-coaching articles, 874 remained.
Inclusion/exclusion criteria
To be included in the meta-analysis, primary studies must have examined leadership,
business, or executive coaching. Studies that explored life, managerial, or peer coach-
ing were excluded. Moreover, studies needed to empirically investigate the
Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice 7
relationships in our model and report data appropriate for conversion to a common
metric, Cohen’s d. Twenty-four studies totalling 26 independent samples met these cri-
teria and were included in the meta-analysis (see Figure 2).
Coding procedures
Three trained individuals coded a subset of the articles together until 100% inter-rater
reliability was achieved. Two individuals coded each remaining article to ensure
quality and accuracy. Coding discrepancies were resolved via discussion. Each of
the included studies was coded across eight categories: (1) study design (e.g.
repeated-measures [pre-posttest design]; independent groups [treatment vs. control
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
groups]; independent groups and repeated measures; correlational), (2) coach’s back-
ground (e.g. psychology; non-psychology), (3) coach’s level of expertise, which we
dichotomised due to the infrequency of primary studies reporting this information
(e.g. novice, expert), (4) the number of coaching sessions provided to the coachee,
(5) sample type (e.g. undergraduates, MBA students, executive coachees, non-execu-
tive coachees, and coaches), (6) the behaviours/techniques employed in coaching
(e.g. goal setting, 360 feedback, challenging questions, behavioural observation, role
play, etc.), (7) relationship variable outcomes (e.g. trust, credibility, working alliance,
information sharing, rapport, communication, conflict, openness, and psychological
safety), and (8) goal-oriented coaching outcomes and conceptualisations of coaching
effectiveness which we categorised into (a) generic behavioural change (e.g. improved
job performance, technical skills, leadership skills, impact and influence), (b) work-
related attitude change (e.g. motivation, self-efficacy, motivation to transfer coached
skills), (c) personal-related attitude change (e.g. reduced stress, happiness), (d) career
Figure 2. Search strategy used for the inclusion of studies in the meta-analysis.
8 S.C. Sonesh et al.
Analysis
Original article effect sizes were transformed to a repeated-measures Cohen’s d, which
represents the standardised difference between pre- and post-coaching outcomes,
using Hedges and Olkin’s (1985) approach to meta-analysis. This conservative tech-
nique allows for statistical corrections of artifactual sources of variance (Borenstein,
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
Hedges, Higgins, & Rothstein, 2009). To avoid overestimating the population effect
size given our small sample, we calculated Hedges’ g from Cohen’s d. Hedges’ g is
still interpreted as the mean difference expressed in standard deviation units but
applies a simple correction to avoid overestimates (Hedges, 1981). A random effects
model was used to conduct the meta-analysis and all effect sizes were weighted by
the reciprocal of the sampling variances (Hedges & Olkin, 1985). Q tests were con-
ducted in order to test for homogeneity (i.e. evaluated on a chi-square distribution
with k – 1 degrees of freedom; Hedges, 1982).
When relationships between coach–coachee relationships and coachee outcomes
were reported, we focused on the mean corrected correlations and the confidence inter-
vals around the mean. This approach followed Hunter and Schmidt’s (2004) guidelines
so all correlations were corrected for attenuation in the predictor and criterion vari-
ables. The software used for the analysis was comprehensive meta-analysis developed
by Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins, and Rothstein (2005).
Results
Table 1 reports the results of the meta-analyses examining the influence of coaching on
several coaching outcomes and relationship outcomes. The first objective of our meta-
analysis was to determine the impact of coaching interventions on outcomes that
emerge from the coach–coachee relationship. To assess this, we examined the
impact of coaching on overall relationship outcomes, which was significant (g =
0.32, 95% CI [0.27, 0.38]), as indicated by the exclusion of 0 in the 95% confidence
interval. To examine more specific coaching relationship outcomes, we assessed the
influence of coaching on the generic coach–coachee relationship (g = 0.33, 95% CI
[0.17, 0.49]), which was significant. However, the effect of coaching on working alli-
ance was not significant (g = 0.40, 95% CI [−.02, 0.80]), as indicated by the inclusion
of 0 in the 95% confidence interval. In summary, our findings indicate that coaching
positively and significantly influences the coach–coachee relationship.
The second objective of this meta-analysis was to assess the impact of coaching on
goal-oriented coaching outcomes as well as to examine which outcomes are most
strongly affected. In the aim of addressing this goal, we assessed the impact of coach-
ing on overall coachee outcomes. The effect size was significant (g = 0.10, 95% CI
[0.10, 0.11]); however, coaching had a significantly larger effect on relationship out-
comes in comparison to coachee outcomes, as evidenced by the non-overlapping
95% confidence intervals (Ng, Eby, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2005). Examining more
granular outcomes within this category, coaching had a significant impact on
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
95% CI
Relationship outcomes 6 580 0.324 0.321 0.000 0.000 0.267 0.376 2286.04*
Generic coach–coachee relationship 3 385 0.332 0.330 0.081 0.007 0.171 0.489 342.774*
Working alliance 3 195 0.399 0.391 0.208 0.043 −0.017 0.799 287.675*
Coachee outcomes 40 3756 0.108 0.100 0.002 0.000 0.100 0.107 172,709.93*
Goal attainment 6 216 0.218 0.206 0.055 0.003 0.099 0.314 1869.635*
Behavioural change 10 2350 0.192 0.188 0.020 0.000 0.149 0.227 48,430.793*
Work-related attitude change 11 524 0.186 0.175 0.016 0.000 0.145 0.206 10,541.589*
Personal attitude change 5 149 0.077 0.072 0.003 0.000 0.066 0.078 23,563.984*
Improved relations with others 3 84 0.124 0.115 0.062 0.004 −0.006 0.237 3069.875*
Overall satisfaction with coaching 2 173 0.399 0.391 0.124 0.015 0.149 0.634 48.063*
Cognitive change 2 153 0.220 0.217 0.175 0.031 −0.125 0.560 299.384*
Task performance 1 107 0.368 0.365 0.017 0.000 0.332 0.399 0.000
Organisation outcomes 1 52 0.284 0.280 0.009 0.000 0.262 0.298 0.000
Notes: k, number of samples; N, sample size; d, Cohen’s d in a repeated-measures metric; SE, standard error; %Var, per cent of variance accounted for by sampling error; CI,
confidence interval; LL, lower limit; UL, upper limit; Q, chi-square test for the homogeneity of true correlations across studies.
*p < .001.
9
10 S.C. Sonesh et al.
general goal attainment (g = 0.21, 95% CI [0.10, 0.31]), behavioural change (g = 0.19,
95% CI [0.15, 0.23]), work-related attitude change (g = 0.18, 95% CI [0.15, 0.21]), and
personal attitude change (g = 0.07, 95% CI [0.07, 0.08]). Interestingly, coaching had a
significantly stronger impact on the majority of coachee outcomes as compared to per-
sonal attitude change, indicated by the non-overlapping 95% confidence intervals (Ng
et al., 2005). Findings also indicated a significant effect of coaching on overall satis-
faction with coaching (g = 0.39, 95% CI [0.15, 0.63]), although this result must be
interpreted with caution, given the associated low number of primary studies (indi-
cated by k) included in the analysis. The effect of coaching on improved relations
with others, most often the coachees’ subordinates, was not significant (g = 0.12,
95% CI [−0.01, 0.24]). Additionally, coaching did not significantly improve cognitive
change outcomes (g = 0.22, 95% CI [−0.13, 0.56]), but this finding must also be inter-
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
preted with caution, given the small number of primary studies included in the analy-
sis. In summary, these findings demonstrate that coaching significantly impacts goal-
oriented coaching outcomes, fostering positive change.
In exploration of the third objective, the effect of the coach–coachee relationship on
coachee outcomes, mean corrected correlations were examined. While based on only two
studies, and therefore should be interpreted with caution, results suggest that the coach–
coachee relationship, working alliance in particular, does significantly correlate with
overall goal-attainment coachee outcomes (r = 0.463, CI [0.418, 0.445]) (see Table 3).
Sample type
To assess the moderating effect of sample type, additional analyses were conducted.
Table 2 summarises these analyses. The findings indicate that sample type was a sig-
nificant moderator of the effectiveness of coaching on goal-oriented coaching out-
comes. Specifically, overall goal-oriented coaching outcomes were more significantly
improved in undergraduate students (g = 1.00, 95% CI [0.38, 1.61]) than in either
executive coachees (g = 0.10, 95% CI [0.09, 0.11]) or non-academic, non-executive
coachees (g = 0.10, 95% CI [.10, .11]). There were not a sufficient number of
primary studies to warrant comparison across sample type for relationship outcomes.
Design type
Results of the design type moderator analysis suggest that the study design does mod-
erate the effect of coaching on coaching outcomes. However, the repeated-measures
confidence interval overlaps with the independent groups’ confidence interval,
suggesting that there is not a significant difference between repeated measures or inde-
pendent groups designs. The number of primary studies was too low (k < 3) to examine
the moderating effect of design type on relationship and organisational outcomes.
Coach background
While there were not a sufficient number of primary studies to run comparative sub-
group analyses of coach background (i.e. psychology or non-psychology background)
on relationship outcomes, the results suggest that non-psychology coaches are effective
in eliciting positive relational outcomes (g = 0.284, 95% CI [0.082,0.504]). Results
suggest that coach background is a significant moderator of coachee outcomes,
such that a mix of psychology and non-psychology coaches are more effective
Table 2. Moderator analyses.
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
95% CI
11
(Continued)
Table 2. Continued.
12
95% CI
13–15 0 – – – – – – – –
15+ 0 – – – – – – – –
Notes: k, number of samples; N, sample size; d, Cohen’s d in a repeated-measures metric; SE, standard error; %Var, per cent of variance accounted for by sampling error; CI,
13
confidence interval; LL, lower limit; UL, upper limit; Q, chi-square test for the homogeneity of true correlations across studies.
14 S.C. Sonesh et al.
Table 3. Meta-analytic effect size between coach–coachee relationship and coachee outcomes.
Notes: k, number of samples; N, sample size; r, correlation; Corr r, corrected correlation; %Var, per cent of
variance accounted for by sampling error; 95% CI, confidence interval.
(g = 0.087, 95% CI [0.009, 0.169]), than coaches solely with a psychology (g = 1.393
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
Coach expertise
Sub-group analyses indicate that coach expertise is not a moderator of the relationship
between coaching and coachee outcomes. Novices (g = 0.136, 95% CI [.093, .628]) are
as effective as experts (g = 0.308, 95% CI [0.093, 0.202]) in achieving coachee goal-
attainment outcomes, as evidenced by overlapping confidence intervals that do not
cross zero. There was not a sufficient amount of primary studies to examine the mod-
erating effect of coach expertise on relationship outcomes or organisational outcomes.
Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to investigate the relative effects of coaching on
variables highly salient to how coaching effectiveness is conceptualised. We found
that coaching is an effective tool contributing to positive coach–coachee relationships
and that coaching is effective in improving coachee behaviours and attitudes.
Coaching had a significant positive effect on coachee behavioural change,
suggesting that coaching is effective in improving coachee leadership skills, job
performance, and skills development. Moreover, coaching significantly improved coa-
chee’s personal and work-related attitudes. These include improvement in coachee self-
efficacy, motivation to transfer coached skills to the job, stress reduction, and commit-
ment to the organisation. These attitudes are critical to goal-attainment and coachee
behavioural change, as research has shown that work-related attitudes such as self-
Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice 15
coaching programmes at the academic and executive levels. However, because the
sample type was a significant moderator of coaching effectiveness, coaches should be
mindful of how and when they measure coaching effectiveness. Specifically, coachee
outcome effect sizes were significantly larger for undergraduate student samples than
executive coachee samples. This suggests that executive coaches might take longer to
behaviourally or attitudinally manifest their coaching outcomes than students who
often have more immediate opportunities to prove performance (e.g. exams). Moreover,
field samples are often operating in more dynamic environments riddled with potential
confounds (Luthans, Luthans, Hodgetts, & Luthans, 2001) which likely attenuated the
meta-analytic results for executive coachee samples. Executive coaches, as opposed to
academic coaches, may need to collect longer term goal attainment data to accurately
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
Acknowledgements
The views expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the
organisations with which they are affiliated or their sponsoring institutions or agencies.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This work was supported by funding from the Society for Human Resource Management
(SHRM) Foundation [Contract number 162] to the University of Central Florida.
18 S.C. Sonesh et al.
Supplemental data
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed here.
Notes on contributors
Shirley Sonesh is an organisational psychologist and postdoctoral
research scientist at the Institute for Simulation and Training, at the Uni-
versity of Central Florida. Dr Sonesh obtained her doctorate in organis-
ational behaviour at the A.B. Freeman School of Business at Tulane
University. While at Tulane, Dr Sonesh’s research focused on expatriate
knowledge transfer in multi-national organisations. Currently, she con-
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
ment with the Armstrong Institute for Patient Safety and Quality. Dr
Benishek’s stream of research focuses on workplace behaviour and inter-
ventions for improving patient safety and quality healthcare. Her special-
ties include teamwork culture, processes, and performance, individual and
team training development and evaluation, and enhancing training effec-
tiveness. At the time of publication, she has co-authored 10 peer reviewed
articles, 1 book chapter, 1 book, and 30 invited talks and conference pre-
sentations in these areas.
References
Ajzen, E. (1996). The directive influence of attitude on behavior. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A.
Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior
(pp. 385–403). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Anderson, D. W., Krajewski, H. T., Goffin, R. D., & Jackson, D. N. (2008). A leadership self-effi-
cacy taxonomy and its relation to effective leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 19, 595–608.
Axsmith, M. (2004). Executive coaching: A catalyst for personal growth and corporate change.
Ivey Business Journal, 68(5), 1–5.
20 S.C. Sonesh et al.
Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future
research. Personnel Psychology, 41, 63–105.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Baron, L., & Morin, L. (2009). The coach-coachee relationship in executive coaching: A field
study. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 20(1), 85–106.
Barrett-Lennard, G. T. (1998). Carl Rogers’ helping system: Journey and substance. London:
Sage.
Bennett, J. L. (2006). An agenda for coaching-related research: A challenge for researchers.
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 58, 240–249.
Bluckert, P. (2005). Critical factors in executive coaching – The coaching relationship. Industrial
and Commercial Training, 37(7), 336–340.
Bolch, M. (2001). Proactive coaching. Training, 38, 58–63.
Bono, J. E., Purvanova, R. K., Towler, A. J., & Peterson, D. B. (2009). A survey of executive
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
Gassmann, D., & Grawe, K. (2006). General change mechanisms: The relation between
problem activation and resource activation in successful and unsuccessful therapeutic inter-
actions. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 13(1), 1–11.
Gessnitzer, S., & Kauffeld, S. (2015). The working alliance in coaching why behavior is the
key to success. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 51(2), 177–197. doi:10.1177/
0021886315576407.
Goleman, D. (2001). An EI-based theory of performance. In D. Goleman & C. Cherniss (Eds.),
The emotionally intelligent workplace: How to select for, measure, and improve emotional
intelligence in individuals, groups, and organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Grant, A. M. (2006). An integrative goal-focused approach to executive coaching. In D. R.
Stober & A. M. Grant (Eds.), Evidence based coaching handbook: Putting best practices to
work for you (pp. 153–192). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Grant, A. M. (2007). Enhancing coaching skills and emotional intelligence through training.
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
International Coaching Federation (2009). Benefits of using a coach. Retrieved from http://www.
coachfederation.org/need/landing.cfm?ItemNumber=747&navItemNumber=565
Joo, B. (2005). Executive coaching: A conceptual framework from an integrative review of prac-
tice and research. Human Resource Development Review, 4(4), 462–488.
Kampa-Kokesch, S., & Anderson, M. Z. (2001). Executive coaching: A comprehensive review
of the literature. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 53(4), 205–228.
Kemp, T. (2008). Self-management and the coaching relationship: Exploring coaching impact
beyond models and methods. International Coaching Psychology Review, 3(1), 32–42.
Kombarakaran, F. A., Yang, J. A., Baker, M. N., & Fernandes, P. B. (2008). Executive coaching:
It works! Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 60(1), 78–90.
Kowalski, K., & Casper, C. (2007). The coaching process: An effective tool for professional
development. Nursing Administration Quarterly, 31(2), 171–179.
Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. N., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal setting and task perform-
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015
Sherman, S., & Freas, A. (2004). The wild west of executive coaching. Harvard Business Review,
82(11), 82–90.
Solomon, G. B., DiMarco, A. M., Ohlson, C. J., & Reece, S. D. (1998). Expectations and coach-
ing experience: Is more better? Journal of Sport Behavior, 21(4), 444–455.
Spence, G. B. (2007). GAS powered coaching: Goal attainment scaling and its use in coaching
research and practice. International Coaching Psychology Review, 2(2), 155–167.
Sun, B. J., Deane, F. P., Crow, T. P., Andresen, R., Oades, L., & Ciarrochi, J. (2013). A prelimi-
nary exploration of the working alliance and the “real relationship” in two coaching
approaches with mental health workers. International Coaching Psychology Review, 8(2),
6–17.
Sy, T., Tram, S., & O’Hara, L. A. (2006). Relation of employee and manager emotional intelli-
gence to job satisfaction and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(3), 461–473.
Theeboom, T., Beersma, B., & van Vianen, A. E. M. (2013). Does coaching work? A meta-
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 06:26 16 September 2015