COMPRESSION OF ROCKFILL ~ Parkin The Compression of Rockfill AK, Parkin, M.LE. Aust.* SuNAKARY rock#i1 ‘The paper gives a review and re-assessnent of published information on the settlement behaviour of Correlations relate to load-deformation, time-settlenent, and saturation behaviour. Load-deforsation behaviour is Fitted against a power relationship, from which the effects of grading and density may be evaluated. often thought, zoned dans. nethods, but should be treated by rate process methods It is suggested that rock hardness may not be as significant in its effect as is Saturation effects are considered, particularly in relation to balanced stiffness design in Finally, it is shown that time effects cannot be analysed by conventional soil mechanics In this case, sensitive methods are available for long term settlement prediction and for the interpretation of performance 1 anmrooucTroN Rockfill, 1ike other structural materials, experi- ences deformation under compressive load.” An under standing of the characteristics of compression in rockfill has, however, been delayed until more recent tines by the problems of constructing testing equip- tment on an adequate scale. At the sane time, there is an alternative, if not superior, source of inform- ation in field observations that are becoming increas- ingly numerous (e.g. Soydenir and Kjaernsli, 1975; Wilson, 1973). Interest in the compression of rockfill arises mainly in relation to rockfill dams, background inforaation being available in papers such as Sowers et al. (1965). In the design of rockfills, the objective may be either to reduce settienent to a minimum, or to arrange for compatible compressibility between a core and rockfill shells, to avoid core cracking (Kjacrnsii, 1965). "In doing this, the major vari- ables have been shown to be the method of placement, and saturation (Soxers et al. 1965) but it is ungort- lunate that placed fills cannot be sampled easily, and that even density control can be difficult, In recent times, decked rockfill construction has found increas~ ing favour, with the result that the deformation performance of the supporting fill has become more critical in so far as it affects the design of facings and joints (Fitepatrick, 1975) 2 THE NATURE OF COMPRESSION IN ROCKFILL Compression in rockfill results from the crushing and rearrangenent of particles under load (Terzaghi 1960). This is demonstrated by changes in grading, during testing (e.g. Sowers ¢ al., 1965; Marsal, 1975), and from these changes, the particle breakage coefficient, B, is defined (Marsal, 1967): Tay where 4, represents the change in sieve fractions (taking positive values only). B= @ Because there is no associated excess pore pressure, even in the saturated condition, the resulting deform Su Parkin is @ Senior Lecturer in Civil Engineering at Monash University. (Paper 51003; submitted 11 an 1977) Australian Geomechanics Joursal, 1977 ation is creep, and differs fundamentally from the more faniliar process of consolidation, as described by Terzagni (1943). Ina laboratory satuation, it is found that 70-90% of the 24 hour compression may occur within minutes of loading, and can be regarded ‘as an immediate compression, although it is not distinct from the overall process, This short term component, being dominant, receives most attention in the Literature, Long term compression is normally plotted against log time, and Linear rela~ tionships often result. A theoretical description of the crushing process hhas been developed by Marsal (1973), based on a Markov statistical treatment of particle displace- ments. ‘The diffusion equation results, and the settlement = log time curve obtained does not differ significantly from Terzaghi. Experimental results appear to fit the theory for 3-5 minutes after load- ing, but thereafter diverge, as in the secondary compression of soil. In soils, the primary and secondary phases arise because of a basic change From a hydrodynamic mechanism to a viscous mechanism, but this cannot be so for rockfill, where one mech- anism, that of particle breakage, operates over the entire defornation process. The theory mist there~ fore be questioned. A better approach to time-dependent behaviour in rockfill is to be found in the theory of rate pro- cesses, as described by Mitchell ed at. (1968), based fon the work of Eyring (Glasstone, Laidier and fyring, 1941), In this, deformation is resisted by a series of discrete energy barriers. A constant, and random, energy exchange occurs between particles, and displacenent oceurs when any particle acquires suff- cient energy to overcome an energy barrier. The zate of displacement is thus determined by the probab- ility of any particle acquiring the necessary energy, and for steady creep. © a exp YRT sinh o/c, @ where £ is the exeep rate, Rthe yniversal gas constant, ature (°K), 2. applied stress and. 0, Q_the activation energy, T absolute temper- ‘a threshold In transient creep, only empirical relationships are possible, Here, there is a gradual distribution of 2COMPRESSION OF ROCKFILL ~ Park energy through the system, so that the probability of particles acquiring critical energy is decreasing with displacement (and, therefore, time). The process will, naturally, be rejuvenated by an ext- ernal energy input, or the application of a load increment. Such principles are well developed in the fields of chemistry and the mechanics of solids, land their application to rockfill will be considered later 5 LOAD-COMPRESSION BEHAVIOUR For many purposes, it has been sufficient to compute deformations in rockfill on the assumptions of Tin elasticity and zero lateral strain (K,). A const- rained modulus M can then be taken directly from oedoneter tests, as is done, for example, in the design of crest camber and freeboard in dams, and inthe design of facing slabs (Wilkins, 1968}, How fever, according to Boughton (1970), the Linear model would Seem inadequate for the latter, ‘The modulus Mis usually obtained from scaled down aggregates, tested in the oedoneter, with adjustments for side friction. In this case Ley waa F @) where E is the unconfined Youngs Modulus. The Justification for this approach can be found in data presented by Charles (1976). From field measure- Rents, it was shown that stress ratios are often nearly constant during constructiop, and that they fare in,the range 2 to 4.5 for oj/o3 and 2,2 to 2.4 for oj/ey (although the difficulties in measuring in-situ stress in Tockfill should be noted). In ‘comparison, finite elenont studies indicate values of cl /ot in the range 2 to 3. Subsequently, Charles performed a series of constant stress tatio drained triaxial tests on scaled down aggregates, which showed that K, conditions obtain for O1/o4 = 2.7. For higher stress ratios, up to 4, dilations are fairly modest, from which it can be inferred that oedoneter confinement is not far from reality, with regard to axial stiffness. It is suggested, by Charles, that extrapolation from kK condition: can be mad¢ reasonably by taking Denk / (+ X,) and deriving an E value fron equatfon 3, ‘The first major Laboratory study of the compressib- ility of coarse-grained granular materials was that of Kjaernsli and Sande (1963). For this work, an oedoneter 500 mn dia. by 250 mm deep was used.” They, fand most writers subsequently, present their inforn- ation as graphs of percent compression against pressure, to linear scales. These relationships are non-linear, but if straight lines are fitted, then values of the constrained modulus M can be obtained, fas the slope. This approach has been pursued by Soydemir and Kjaerns1i (1975), in an extensive review of laboratory and field data on the settlement of fill materials. Typical values of M for rock- fill are in the range 20 to 30 MPa, with some values up to 50 MPat. Such values have been achieved with both hard and soft rock, and would appear, in the main, to be controlled by compactive effort. Perhaps Surprisingly, cores are mostly stiffer, in the region of 50 to 80 MPa, particularly for glacial materials, ‘although lover values may apply to more plastic materials. aw exceptional result Is about 100 Wa, obtained” fon Cethana Dan. au Im their oedometer tests on crushed syenite, gravel and other materials, Kjaernsli and Sande showed that compressibility reduces with increasing hardness of the rock (although this does not show out in field data above) and Toundness of the particles. Ranges {in behaviour were defined for variations in density ‘and grading (Fig. 1). Kjaernsli (1965) speculates that further variations might arise as a result of structure, derived from the placement technique, but ore evidence would be required to clarify this. In general, the Linear approximation to load- deformation behaviour in rockfill is not good. If this is to be improved some functional rational- isation is necessary, and this is normally effected by plotting to mathenatical scales. Mostly, power law relationships are favoured, of the form aa of o A value of n= 0.5 for sands has been favoured by Chaplin (1968) and others, based on the elastic deformation of contacts, and support is claimed based fon the linearity of a square root plot. However, This is not the best way to prove such behaviour, as indicated in Fig. 2, where the function y = x°® is plotted to such scales. (The intercept may explain the source of the "locked-in" compaction pressure effects, referred to by Chaplin.) A better approach is in the use of double logarithmic scales, as, for example in the investigation of sand compressibility by Schultze and Noussa (1961). In this case, gradients were in the vicinity of 0.5, particularly for dense sand, supporting a square root lav, If the data of Kjaernsli and Sande is plotted this way, Fig. 5 results, in which the curves trans- pose into approximately Straight parallel bands. However a gradient of 0.75 would seem more approp~ riate for crushed materials. Additional results by Sowers et al. Marsal (1967) and Tombs (1969) are shown on Fig. 3, and indicate similar trends in other materials. Stress MPa Compression in per cent PA | Figure 1 Compression behaviour of a crushed rock (Gyenite) (from Kjaernsli, 1965, based on Kjacrnsli 4 Sande, 1963) Australian Geomechanics Journal, 1977COMPRESSION OF ROCKFIL 4 —— 106 y2 1 | | ° | ° 1 2 3 45678910 Figure 2. Square root plot, (and errors that may result) Pressure MPa on os. ots 2028 30 Parkin From Fig. 5, it might appear that grading and density* can be treated as independent variables affecting compressibility, in so far as it is possible to quantify then, ” For the range in these variables during these tests, the effects on compressibility are of similar magnitude (although a test on uniform granite by Marsal appears somewhat exceptional) In 8 field situation, Kjaornsli (1965) has suggested ‘that a dumped fill will be similar to a loose narro graded sample and a compacted fill similar to a dense broad-graded sample in the laboratory. However, methods of compaction vary, and, in relation to Fig. 1, it may be noted that compacted rock#ill at EL Infiernillo (Marsal and Arellano, 1972) indicated M = 30 MPa for the dovmstream shell, and at Veneno (iS1estot et al., 1965), M- values were about 30-40 MPa, reducing to 20-30 MPa on flushing (cf Fig. 1) In rounded aggregates, the situation is somevhat different, and less conclusive, as depicted in Fig. 4. This is based on other tests by Kjaernsli and Sande (0963), using coarse gravels. The results do not form into parallel bands, although the trend is for ‘the narrow and broad-grading lines to cross over at higher pressures, correcting otherwise anonalous behaviour. It was suggested that this may arise fron “over-compaction" and residual stresses, but it does not appear to de a feature of sand (e.g. Bishop, 3965 and Schultze and Moussa, 1961). Conceivably, gravels might perfora differently in a field situ- ation, where the degree of confinenent is less. The peculiarity seems to be associated with narrow gradings. Otherwise, an n value of about 0.5 applies, as for sands, inplying that the slope of the compression line is a function of particle shape and angularity. Pressure MPs Dense oreting Loose. narrow grades | "Hom River Sand Dense broad grading Compression % 7 Figure 4 Pressure-compression curves for gravel aol (derived from Kjacrnsli & Sande, 1963) Additional Data : Sowers ot al. (1965) Graded graywacke (< 38 mn) Uniform grayxacke (38 mn) Uniform granite (38 mn) Marsal (1967) == "+ Granite, broad grading ———-= Granite, narrow grading Tonbs (1969) Dense mudstone Filter (loose?) (rg "17-6 BN) Figure 3 Pressure-compression curves for crushed rocks (based on Kjaernsli and Sande, 1965, with additions). Australian Geomechanics Journal, 1977 [A different approach to the interpretation of load- settlement curves has been taken by Penman (1971), Following a theoretical derivation of eq. 4. From his oedoneter tests, quoted n values range from 0.3 for loose rock to 0.8 for dense rock. The approach emphasises curvature rather than magnitude of settloment and is at variance with Figs. 3 and 4, In Fig. 4, n values vary over a similar range, but the variation is with grading rather than density. Yet another approach to the rationalisation of load- settlement behaviour has been developed by Boughton (1970), for use in the prediction of facing stresses ‘* Density Is understood here as velative density. Tf compressibility is correlated against absolute density or void ratio, grading becomes merely one input affecting density.COMPRESSION OF ROCKFILL ~ Parkin at Wilmot Dan (Tasmania). Values of the tangent Clastic constants, E and v, have been related to ‘the principal stress ratio R. For a diverse selection of tests it was found that there is a unique - R relationship whereas E depends on 1, Rand @,, as well as rock hardness, From this, three regin’s of elastic behaviour (for ranges of R) were defined, for use in non-linear elastic analysis, with E and) being linear functions of R within each region. 4 EPPECTS OF WETTING There have deen some dramatic demonstrations of the effects of wetting of rockfill. Terzaghi (1960) refers to Cogswell Dam, where Some 8 to 10 percent Settleaent occurred, ah order similar to the loss of compressive strength in many rocks on wetting. Similar orders of magnitude were observed for crushed syenite by Kjaernsli and Sande, implying that water contributes to the compaction of rockfill directly by its action in weakening the rock. However, Sowers e¢ al., while noting that such compression always occurred, could not adequately relate it to the effect of water on rock core strength. On the basis of compression-load results fron oedo- eter tests, Kjaernsli (1965) relates behaviour to intrinsic compression curves for short-term loading, Jong-term loading and saturation. The two latter conditions give rise to a pre-loading effect, if the rockfill is subsequently allowed to dry. Jn zoned dams, it is important to note that the rate of saturation of the core and rockfill zones will differ significantly. Because of this, a mechanism exists for the generation of low stresses that may cause cracking in a core, regardless of the initial relative stiffnesses of the shell and core. The elimination of such low stresses by designing for a stiffness ratio of 1 between shell and core (e.g- Kjaornsli, 1965) does not seem feasible, and the avoidance of these problems depends on the control Of total settlement by adequate compaction of all elements of the dam 5 TIME-DEPENDENT SETTLEMENT Time-dependence in the compression of granular mater- ials has been widely observed, and has generally been shown to be of logarithmic form, Such effects have been variously noted for sand, Since 1920 onwards (e.g. Terzaghi 1960, Lee and Seed 1967). Tests on specially prepared rockfills in a 190 mn diameter oedoneter, by Sowers ef al.(1965), also show Logar- ithaic decay’ A survey of crest settlements of rockfill dans (Sowers et al.) showed settlement rates falling within a surprisingly narrow range ( to 1 percent of Hl in ten years), and evidently not @ function of dam height or type, or rock type. It would seom that construction method is the principal variable involved (Fig. S*). These results were taken as confirmation of Logarithmic behaviour**, and the equation AH = a Logyg (ty ~ ty) © + Hig Sas @ selection of results for dans that are essentially rockfill. Note that curve 12 is the only dan involving Limestone, which could, con- ceivably, lead to differences in behaviour. + Penman (1971) notes a trend for a to increase with tine, which implies that the logarithmic inter- pretation is inadequate. 26 was fitted, assuming an origin of time at the mid- point of construction (Taylor, 1948, p. 290). Values of a were found to Lie within the range 0.2 to 0.7 (Sowers et al.) although there is a tendency for most results to lic at the extremes of this range. High values appar to be associated with duped fi11 construction. In laboratory tests, a values were generally about half the field values, but no reason Could be given for this (Sowers et al.). For many purposes, the logarithmic approximation may bbe adequate, but, as has been demonstrated previously, plotting on’ semilogarithmic paper is not the best ay to prove such @ relationship. Thus plotted results are frequently indefinite, and capable of alternative interpretations, so that long term pre- dictions, if required, are subject to uncertainty. It would also seem that settlenent v. log. time graphs, for different loads (e.g. Sowers 6¢ al., Fig. 2}, which show differing values of a, are not yet capable of interpretation. It will be shown, however, that such interpretation is possible by eans of rate analysis, whereas the interpretation Of total settlements is extremely difficult. 6 COMPRESSION RATE ANALYSIS Attempts in literature to rationalise the analysis of creep have been singularly inconclusive, and two reasons are mainly responsible. First is'the difficulty of establishing functional relationships conclusively, and second is the fact that the form of these relationships is often dependent on scale origins, which cannot be determined adequately, or aybe disguised by various effects. It is not difficutt to obtain a reasonable fit of data aguinst a variety of mathenatical, functions Hlonevef, there is no criterion to establish the acceptability of any fit, nor even to test the cont- inuity of the data,” Fig’ S cannot, therefore, of eset, be taken as pros? of logarithmle behaviour, This uncertainty is increased by the difcicalty of tstablishing an origin of timey tr) There is usually ot a clear point of initistion of creep, and diff- Groot assumptions in this matter will alter the anter- pretation given to the datay such as valves If the rate process character of creep in rockfill is accepted, according to the description given earlier, then the creep rate ¢ can be expected to follow an exponential decay function, such as esac o Double logarithmic plotting is then appropriate, enabling values of "a and. m to be determined, provided the initial time t, is known*. In nost cases, it is found that m is close to 1, with sone fluctuations. In the special case of m= 1, €q. 6 integrates to the logarithaic relation- ship of Soers et al. (eq. 5), but in all other cases, a power relationship will be obtained, giving rise to the conflicting forms of creep laws in liter- ature, This distinction, then, is not real, and does not arise from any change in the basic sechanies of creep, Because of m being close to 1, the existence of a final equilibrium is vague and uncertain, as compared iy stiations where t, 1s not now (which Ts Likely to be the rule? rather than the exception) , ‘the index of decay, m, will be dependent on the assuned value of &,. In this case, an approximate method for its estmation has been suggested by Parkin (1971). Australian Geomechanics Journal, 1977COMPRESSION OF ROCKFILL Parkin /Scammonden Lewis Smith o« El ofierito 08}— Bear Ck Sources 08 SS Gedar Cutt Salt Sowers et al. (1965) Penman (1971) | Schober (1967) 19] Gepatsch -} Nantahala Crest Settlement % Springs —] Dic \ \ Time in months from middle of construction Figure 5 Crest settlements of some rockfill dams with a clear position of final equilibrium in consol- dation, upon final dissipation of excess pore pressure, Thus, in consolidation, a paraneter U can be defined, and the settlesent rate can be speci- fied as U = £W) uniquely fo) In creep, the paraneter U cannot be defined, and the strain rate cannot be related simply to past strain history, as in eq. 7. Thus, absolute strain values have no’ physical meaning, beyond being the cumulative effect of the creep rates. A compression rate analysis is presented for one of the rockfill dans considered by Sowers et al., toget- her with @ construction for ty (Fig. 6). The diagran illustrates the method of analysis and the charac- teristics noraally observed, but the accuracy of the points for the dan in question cannot be assured Without reference to original data. As in this case, good linear correlations are usually obtained, with’ m close to 1 (cf Mitchell et al., 1968 for clays; and Bishop 1974), indicating the applicab- ility’of eq. 6. In practice, it is found that the linear behaviour predicted by eq. 6 is often subject to erratic devi tions or "events", These have been observed in various materials, including clays, rockfills and soft rocks (the "limited instabilities” reported by Bishop, 1974, based on the work of Bishop and Loven- bury, 1969 and Pigeon 1969). Because of the funda mental nature of rate analysis for creep, such erratic features can be clearly identified, and, mostly, related to some basic physical cause. ‘The value of rate analysis, then, is in its ability to demonstrate the fundanental components of creep deformation, and to enable their origins to be identi- fied. This makes possible nore accurate predictions of settlement, by allowing the effects of these comp- fonents to be considered in isolation, and it also provides @ powerful tool for evaluation of perform ance. Such interpretation is not possible when the data is viewed in integrated form as 2 settlesent- time graph. Australien Geomechanics Jounal, 1977 7 00 At ton 178 months / percent 3 oo 5 2 002 Settlement Rate $ (percent / month) 001 0 cy Cty) months 0 Figure 6 Coapression rate analysis, Cedar Cliff Dam 3”COMPRESSION OF ROCKFILL~ farkix Hence also it is important that original settlement data should never be smoothed before evaluating creep rates, since this cannot be done without pre- Judice to the subsequent value of the rate diagram Sone of the ost Likely sources of creep events have been considered analytically by Parkin (1971). This work eaphasises the fact that continuity in any set of creep observations cannot, in practical situations, be assured, and that any extrapolation of settlenent, based on a’single continuous curve, of any mathen- atical form, will result in an over-estimate of long-term settlenent. 7 coxcLustons In this paper, reference has been made to three aspects of the compression behaviour of rockfill load-deformation behaviour, time-sottlenent behay- jour, and saturation behaviour. Data has be correlated from various published sources, and math- ematical correlations have been explored, both as a means of identify fundamental mechanics, and in order to make generalisation and application of the ata more convenient: Load-deformation behaviour has been correlated in two charts, indicating exponential relationships, significantly different for crushed and rounded aggregates. Some ananalous effects for narrow- graded gravels are thought to be peculiar to the oedoneter situation. A basis exists for estimation of the effects (on compressibility) of variations in prading and density, although there are considerable Gifferences in stiffness in what, in Literature, are regarded as compacted rockfills.’ It is considered that rock hardness is not as significant in deter- fining compressibility as is often thought. Much Of this data does not, however, make reference to Poisson's ratio, and Soughton's observations, relating this to stress ratio are likely to be a useful basis for analytical work. Brief mention is made of the effect of water on deformation. While most are voll aware of this, the importance of the different tine rates of satur- ation on cores and shells is not normally appreciated, So that a balanced stiffness design is not feasible, Time-settlesent behaviour, though often considered ‘to be logarithmic, is shown to be better understood in ters of rate process theory. Whilst creep settlenents may not normally be critical in rockfil1 dan design, it is shown that creep rate monitoring can be particularly useful in settlement prediction, and in the analysis of performance or the detection, of irregularities. It is emphasised that creep cannot be understood as an extension of a consolid~ ation process. 8 REFERENCES BISHOP, A.W. (1966). ‘The strength of soils as engin- ering materials, 6th Rankine Lecture, Geotechnique, 16:2 pp 89 - 130, BISHOP, A.W. (1974). The strength of crustal materials, Engineering Geology (Special Tssue), v. 8 pp 139 - 153. BISHOP, A.W. and LOVENDURY H.T, (1969). cteristics of two undisturbed Clays. 7th Int. Conf. SMFE, v. T pp 29 ~ 37. creep chara: Proceedings, BOUGHTON, N.0. (1970). jour of Fockfill. Proceedings, ASCE, 96 pp 1715 - 1785. Elastic analysis for behav- SHS 2 CUAPLIN, T.K. (1965). Discussion, Proceedings, 6th Int. Conf. “SFE, Montreal, v. TIT’ p. 385. CHARLES, J.A. (1976). 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Factors affect- ing the compressibility of sand, Proceedings, Sth Int. Conf. SMFE, Paris, v. I, pp 385 - 340. SOWERS, G.F., WILLIAMS, R.C. and KALLACE, T.S.(1965) Conpressibility of broken rock and the settlement of rockfills. Proceedings, 6th Int. Conf. SMFE, Montreal, ve ITP S13. SOYDENIR, C. and KJAERNSLI, B. (1975). A treatise fon the performance of rock#ill dans ...., Norwegian Geotech. Inst., Internal Report No. 53203, TAYLOR, D.W. (1948) Wiley, N.Y. Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, Australian Geomechanics Journal 1977COMPRESSION OF ROCK FIL TERZAGHI, K, (1943). Theoretical soil mechanics, Wiley, NY. TERZAGHI, K. (1960). Discussion on Steele and Cooke, Proceedings, ASCE, 86 POL pp 6S - 75: ‘TOMBS, S.G. (1969). Strength and deformation characteristics. of rockfilt- — Ph.D- Thesis. Univ oF London. Australian Geomechanice Journal, 1977 = Porkin WILKINS, J.K. (1968). Decked rockfi11 dams, Inst. of Engrs. Aust Civil Engg. Trans., Vol. CEIO Sone pps ae WILSON, $.D. (1973). 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