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International Journal of Pavement Engineering
International Journal of Pavement Engineering
To cite this article: Niki Kringos , Tom Scarpas , Cor Kasbergen & Patrick Selvadurai (2008) Modelling of combined
physical–mechanical moisture-induced damage in asphaltic mixes, Part 1: governing processes and formulations, International
Journal of Pavement Engineering, 9:2, 115-128, DOI: 10.1080/10298430701792185
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International Journal of Pavement Engineering
Vol. 9, No. 2, April 2008, 115–128
Moisture has for a long time been recognised as a serious contributor to premature degradation of asphaltic pavements.
Many studies have been performed to collect, describe and measure the moisture susceptibility of asphaltic mixes. Most of
these are aimed at a comparative measure of moisture damage, either via visual observations from field data or laboratory
tests or via mechanical tests, which give a so called moisture damage index parameter. The research presented in this paper
is part of an ongoing effort at Delft University of Technology, to move away from such comparative or empirical measures
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of moisture-induced damage and start treating moisture-induced damage in a comprehensive energy based framework.
Such a framework would enable realistic predictions and time-assessment of the failure pattern occurring in an asphaltic
pavement under the given environmental and traffic loading which could be rutting, cracking, ravelling or any combination
or manifestation thereof. The modelling of moisture-induced damage is a complex problem, which involves a coupling
between physical and mechanical damage processes. This paper discusses several modes of moisture infiltration into
asphaltic mixes and derives the governing equations for their simulations. Moisture diffusion into the mastic film, towards
the aggregate – mastic interface and mastic erosion, due to high water pressures caused by the pumping action of traffic
loading, are identified as the main moisture-induced damage processes and are implemented in a new finite element
program, named RoAM. The paper discusses the necessary model parameters and gives detailed verification of the
moisture diffusion and advective transport simulations. In the accompanying paper the developed finite element model is
demonstrated via an elaborate parametric study and the fundamental moisture-induced damage parameters are discussed.
Keywords: simulation of water flow; moisture diffusion; moisture-induced damage; asphaltic mixes; finite element
modelling
2. Moisture infiltration into asphaltic mixes more severe forms of moisture-induced damage, like
Moisture-induced damage in asphaltic mixes is pothole forming. The ravelling or stripping of an
obviously only an issue if moisture is able to penetrate asphaltic wearing surface is a failure pattern which is
into the mix. For the identification and simulation of the undoubtedly related to a combined action of mechanical
moisture damage inducing processes in asphaltic mixes, damage and moisture infiltration, where weakening of
it is therefore important to identify the various moisture the mastic film will promote a cohesive failure pattern
infiltration modes. First of all, water may enter the mix and weakening of the aggregate –mastic bond will
due to rainfall, which may cause water flow through the promote a pronounced adhesive failure pattern.
connected macro-pores of the asphalt wearing surface, In the following, the processes which results in the
Figure 1(a). This is especially the case for open graded weakening of the asphalt components are identified.
mixes that are designed to have a high permeability.
Secondly, stationary moisture may reside in the macro-
pores of the mix, either in liquid or vapour form, Figure 2.1 Weakening of the aggregate – mastic bond
1(b). This can, for instance, be caused by residual The properties of the aggregate –mastic bond play a
moisture after rainfall, a wet subgrade under the wearing crucial role in the performance of asphaltic mixes.
surface or a humid environment. Finally, moisture may The reason that asphalt mixes do not qualify as ‘unbound
be present inside the aggregates even before construction granular materials’ is the presence of the mastic
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of the wearing surface, due to inadequate drying component, which serves as the binding ‘glue’ that
procedures of the aggregates, Figure 1(c) (Rice 1958, holds the aggregate matrix together under loading.
Stuart 1990, Fwa and Ong 1994, Huber 2005). Essential in this is the adhesion of the mastic to the
In addition to rainfall, fast water flow through the surface of the aggregates. An asphaltic mix which
connected macro-pores of the asphalt mix may also result consists of a mastic – aggregate combination which has
locally from a saturated wearing surface, when subjected ‘bad adhesion’ will have bad mechanical performance
to traffic loading. This phenomenon is often referred to as and will undoubtedly show a pronounced adhesive
‘pumping action’ (Taylor and Khosla 1983, Kiggundu failure pattern.
and Roberts 1988, Kandhal 1992, 1994) and shall be It is known that mastic –aggregate adhesion improves
discussed in more detail further on in this paper. with an increased aggregate surface roughness, Figure
From the above possible modes for moisture 3(a). Clearly, more surface area to adhere to will create a
infiltration into an asphaltic mix, some are more relevant better bond, since the transferred loads will be spread
for open graded asphaltic mixes and others are more over a larger area. Since mastic is mixed with the
relevant for densely graded ones. Regardless of the mix aggregates while it is in liquid form, an increased
composition, asphaltic mixes with moisture will suffer in aggregate surface roughness will maximise the mechan-
due time from moisture-induced damage. In practice, this ical interlock between the mastic and the aggregates, due
damage exhibits itself as a dislodging process of the to the ability of mastic to flow into the surface pores of
aggregates, a process, which has become known as the aggregates while in liquid form, thus creating mastic
ravelling or stripping of the asphaltic mix (Lytton 2002). ‘fingers’ inside of the aggregate surface when it solidifies
The dislodging of aggregates from an asphalt wearing (Figure 3(b)). Such mastic fingers greatly improve the
surface may show either a pronounced cohesive (i.e. strength of the mastic – aggregate bond, since it requires
within the mastic) or a pronounced adhesive (i.e. within additional forces to ‘unlock’ them from the aggregate.
the aggregate – mastic bond) failure pattern, or a However, the interlocking phenomenon relies on the
combination thereof, Figure 2. ability of the mastic to come into close contact to the
Once the wearing surface starts to degrade, aggregate surface. An asphalt mix which has a mastic
progressive physical moisture-induced damage, in component that is not able to spread properly on the
combination with traffic loading, may lead to even aggregate surface, will not benefit from the increased
Figure 1. Moisture penetration into the asphalt mix. Available in colour online.
International Journal of Pavement Engineering 117
Figure 2. Cohesive vs. adhesive dislodging of an aggregate from the mix. Available in colour online.
adhesive bond, as described above, since it will not be aggregate –mastic bond. Clearly, for the interface to be
able to fill some of the surface pores, Figure 3(c). weakened, moisture must first be able to reach it.
The ‘spreading capacity’ of mastic on an aggregate Disregarding, for the time being, the possibility of
surface is often referred to as the ‘wetting’ capacity of the moisture being present in the aggregates itself, and
mastic, and can be related to the surface energy assuming a continuous mastic film without any cracks,
properties of the components. moisture can only reach the aggregate– mastic interface
Adhesion is often categorised as thermodynamic, by moving through the mastic film. Since mastic has a
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chemical or mechanical adhesion. Thermodynamic negligible porosity, the only physical process which
adhesion refers to equilibrium of interfacial forces or explains moisture infiltration into the mastic is molecular
energies, work of adhesion and wetting, chemical adhesion diffusion (Thunqvist 2001, Cheng et al. 2002, 2003,
refers to adhesion involving chemical bonding at the Masad et al. 2005).
interface and mechanical adhesion arises from the When a mastic film is exposed to a stationary
mechanical interlocking over substantial portions of moisture field, initially the mastic film and the
the interface. Despite the various definitions for adhesion, aggregate –mastic interface have zero moisture content.
none seem to be completely satisfactory or generally Then, moisture gradually starts infiltrating through the
accepted. However, a satisfactory definition for the mastic film, because of the moisture concentration
adhesion of a mastic film on an aggregate surface should gradient difference inside the mastic. Depending on the
somehow account for the thermodynamical as well as the moisture diffusion coefficients of the mastic and on the
physio-chemical and mechanical aspects of adhesion. thickness of the mastic film, moisture will eventually
Nevertheless, the physio-chemical phenomena which reach the aggregate– mastic interface. Common sense
contribute to the adhesion of two materials will, and should, indicates that one molecule of moisture reaching the
manifest themselves into the mechanical bond properties, interface will not cause an abrupt debonding effect.
which are measurable. The behaviour of the mastic– As moisture diffusion through the mastic film continues
aggregate interface can therefore be modelled, based on and the moisture concentration gradient diminishes,
thermodynamically sound relationships in which the a significant amount of moisture will reach the
physio-chemistry is controlled by internal state variables. aggregate –mastic interface and shall cause progressive
Having moisture in either a stationary or a moving debonding of the mastic from the aggregate, Figure 4.
fashion inside of the macro-pores of the asphalt mix, An asphaltic mix with poor moisture diffusion
does not explain directly the weakening of the characteristics of the mastic and an aggregate– mastic
bond which is sensitive to moisture, shall eventually
exhibit a predominantly adhesive failure pattern, when
exposed to moisture for long periods.
mastic. The loss of mastic particles as a consequence of a intense water pressure fields in these pores. These excess
fast water flow may be referred to as ‘washing away’, pore pressures shall even be generated away from the
‘scouring’ or ‘erosion’ of the mastic, Figure 5. In this actual wheel path, since the water has no time to
paper this damage process is also referred to as redistribute itself within the mix, Figure 7. These pore
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‘advective transport’ since this is the approach which is pressures contribute extra stresses within the asphaltic
used in this research for its simulation. mix, which may cause added mechanical damage within
As described in the previous section, moisture can the asphalt components (Taylor and Khosla 1983,
infiltrate into the mastic film via molecular diffusion. Kiggundu 1988, Kandhal 1992, 1994).
The building-up of moisture content inside of the mastic In contrast to the previously described processes,
may locally cause a weakening of the mastic itself and pumping action is categorised in this research as a
can actually assist the washing away effect by increasing mechanical moisture-induced damage process, since it is
the desorption characteristics of the mastic, causing an directly related to the application of loading to the
even greater loss of mastic concentration, Figure 6. asphaltic mix. However, this process does have
In practice, the loss of concentration of mastic means implications for the physical moisture-induced damage
that the asphalt mix is slowly losing the flexibility of its processes. For example, the intense pore pressures will
binding component and as such, is becoming weaker and locally create a fast water flow field which contributes to
more prone to a cohesive failure pattern, Figure 2(b). the washing away of the mastic particles, which in turn
In addition to this, thinner mastic films and/or more porous affects the diffusivity characteristics of the mastic.
mastic films will promote the movement of moisture Obviously, mechanical damage of the material, which
towards the aggregate– mastic interface, and therefore would also occur under dry circumstances, is included in
contribute also to the loss of the aggregate– mastic bond. the model, since the moisture damage is included in an
energy-based constitutive framework which can predict
elasto-visco-plastic deformations for both the dry and the
2.3 Pumping action due to traffic loading wet case (Kringos 2007).
Another process which is identified in this research as a
contributor to moisture-induced damage is the combi-
nation of a wet asphaltic mix, exposed to traffic loading. 2.4 New approach towards moisture-induced damage
When some of the macro-pores in an asphaltic pavement Clearly, all the above described processes are in reality
are saturated, the fast traffic load will locally cause coupled, and it is their combined effect which results
Figure 6. Increased loss of mastic due to weakening of the mastic, caused by moisture diffusion.
in the eventual deformation pattern that the asphalt The above described processes are implemented in a
wearing surface shall exhibit. In summary, in this paper, new finite element tool, named ravelling of asphaltic
moisture-induced damage processes are divided into mixes (RoAM) (Kringos and Scarpas 2005, Kringos
physical and mechanical processes: 2007), which was developed in the Section of Structural
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The physical processes that are included as important Mechanics of Delft University of Technology, as a sub-
contributors to moisture-induced damage are molecular system of the finite element system CAPA-3D (Scarpas
diffusion of moisture, which causes a weakening of the 2000, 2005). The formulations and numerical implemen-
mastic and the aggregate –mastic bond and a ‘washing tation of the physical moisture-induced damage pro-
away’ or erosion process of the mastic due to high water cesses are derived in the following.
pressures or a fast flow field. Figure 8(a). The mechanical
damage process that is identified as a contributor to
moisture damage is the occurrence of intense water 3. Simulation of moisture flow in an asphalt mix
pressure fields inside the mix caused by traffic loads, Consider a volume v of an asphaltic mix. The mass of the
which generates additional plastic deformations and is water m present in this volume is
referred to as ‘pumping action’. Obviously, the physical
ð
and mechanical processes influence each other and are
integrated within a constitutive model for overall m ¼ fSrw dv ð1Þ
v
moisture –mechanical damage in the mix, Figure 8(b).
Eventually, moisture-induced damage will follow where rw is the water density, f is the effective porosity
from the combined effect of the physical and mechanical of the component under consideration and S is the degree
moisture damage inducing processes, which result in a of saturation in the component under consideration.
weakening of the mastic and a weakening of the The change of water mass that can take place as a
aggregate mastic bond, Figure 8(c). result of net fluid flow out of the volume v across the
Figure 8. Schematic of the new approach towards moisture-induced damage. Available in colour online.
dh where C max
m is the maximum moisture concentration
L þ divðvÞ ¼ 0 ð6Þ uptake of the material. The mass of moisture, present in
dt ~
the mastic at time t, is therefore controlled by both the
diffusivity D and the maximum moisture concentration
3.1 Moisture diffusion through the mastic film C max ~
m uptake in the mastic, Figure 9.
The movement of moisture through the mastic film is From Figure 9 it can be seen that a material which has
considered to be a process that occurs at a molecular a high moisture diffusion coefficient (material b) does
International Journal of Pavement Engineering 121
vi vj
¼ am tudij þ at jvjdij þ ðal 2 at Þ ð17Þ
~ jvj
~
where am is the molecular diffusion coefficient, t is the
Figure 9. Schematic of moisture diffusion in two different tortuosity, at is the transverse dispersivity and al is the
materials. longitudinal dispersivity.
122 N. Kringos et al.
›ð uC d þ rm aC d
0 Ca Þ Ca ¼ ð24Þ
þ divðC d vÞ 2 divðD m ·7Cd Þ 1 þ bC d
›t ~ ~
›p
¼ 2ðuC d þ rm
0 C a Þa ð18Þ where a and b are coefficients of the Langmuir isotherm.
›t
where a is the compressibility coefficient of the material.
The first term of Equation (18) on the LHS represents 3.3 Numerical approximation of the flow equation
the change of mass accumulation, the second term The flow equation was derived in Equation (6) and must
represents the net change of mass flux due to advection, be reformulated into a more suitable form to be used in
the third term is the net mass flux due to dispersion and the finite element method (Kringos 2007):
diffusion and the term on the RHS is the change of mass
‘production’ due to consolidation of the medium.
n ð
X
The change of mass accumulation term of Equation dhj
(18) can be expanded into N i LðhÞN j dV
j¼1 V dt
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›ðuC d þ rm
0 Ca Þ ›ðuC d Þ ›ðrm
0 Ca Þ n ð
X
¼ þ ð25Þ
›t ›t ›t þ 7N i K7N j dV hj
j¼1 V ~~
›C d ›u ›C a
¼u þ C d þ rm
0 ð19Þ ð ð
›t ›t ›t
¼ N i Kð7h þ 7zÞdS 2 7N i K7zdV
S ~ V ~
The advective flux term of Equation (18) can be written
as
whereby Ni are the shape functions of the isoparametric
divðC d vÞ ¼ Cd div v þ v7Cd ð20Þ finite elements. Equation (25) can be written in matrix
~ ~ ~
form as
From the balance of the fluid mass in Equation (6) the
divergence of the velocity field is known
dh
›h ½m þ ½S{h} ¼ {B} þ {G} ð26Þ
div v ¼ 2L ð21Þ dt
~ ›t
Substituting Equation (21) into the advective flux term Reformulation of the flow equation into a summation of
Equation (20) yields matrices allows for the implementation of the numerical
approximation of this non-linear equation. These
›h
divðvCd Þ ¼ 2C d L þ v7C d ð22Þ governing equations are implemented in the finite
~ ›t ~ element method.
Substituting Equations (22) and (19) into (18) yields the
governing equation of the mastic:
›C d ›C a
u þ rm
0 þ v7C d 2 div D m ·7C d
›t ›t ~ ~
¼ 2ðuCd þ rm C Þ a * ›h þ L ›h 2 ›u C ð23Þ
0 a d
›t ›t ›t
j¼1 V ›t
where Kd is the desorption coefficient, or a nonlinear n ð
X
(Freundlich) isotherm ›h ›u
2 Ni L 2 N j dV C dj
j¼1 V ›t ›t
C a ¼ gC nd ð28Þ ð
¼ nN i Dm ·7Cd dS
S ~ ~~
where g is the Freundlich coefficient and n is a power index
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›C d ›h u ›S ›h u ›h ›u
uþ rm
0 Kd þ v7C d ¼ div Dm ·7Cd L ¼ a * þf ¼ a* þ ð31Þ
›t ~ ~~ ›t f ›h ›t f ›t ›t
ð29Þ
›h › h ›u
2a * u þ rm K
0 d C d þ L 2 Cd
›t ›t ›t Substituting Equation (31) into (30), gives
n ð
X
DC dj
Equation (29) describes the transport of mastic from an
N i ðu þ rm
0 K d ÞN j dV
Eulerian (or fixed) framework for a linear constitutive V Dt
j¼1
relation. The combination of advective and dispersive/
diffusive terms in the mastic transport equation could n ð
X
cause numerical difficulties. These difficulties have been þ ð7N i Dm ·7N j ÞdV C dj
j¼1 V ~
well documented in the literature and various attempts to
handle them have been summarised by many authors n ð
X
›h ð32Þ
(e.g. Neuman 1981, Kinzelbach 1987, Lobo Ferreira þ Ni a* ðu þ r0 K d ÞN j dV C dj
m
4. Comparison to closed form solutions In the outset, this example could be related to an
In the previous sections the governing equations of the aggregate coated in a bituminous mastic film, which is
physical moisture-induced damage processes and their exposed to a wet environment. The hollow sphere under
finite element formulation are given. In the following a consideration has a thickness of t ¼ r2 2 r1, with the
few benchmarks are performed to verify the correctness outside surface r2 and the inner surface r1, Figure 12.
of the implemented equations. In the following, diffusion If the inside and the outside surfaces are maintained
and advective transport simulations with RoAM are at a constant concentration of C1 and C2, respectively and
compared to closed form solutions. the region r1 # r # r2 is initially at C0, the concentration
approaches the steady-state distribution according to the
expression (Carslaw and Jaeger 1959)
4.1 Diffusion equation
r 1 C 1 ðr 2 C 2 2 r 1 C 1 Þðr 2 r 1 Þ
General solutions of the diffusion equation can be C¼ þ
r rðr 2 2 r 1 Þ
obtained for a variety of initial and boundary conditions
provided the diffusion coefficient is constant. Such a
2 X 1
r 2 ðC2 2 C0 Þ cosnp 2 r 1 ðC 1 2 C0 Þ
solution usually has one of two standard forms. Either it þ ð36Þ
comprises a series of error functions or related integrals r p n¼1 n
or it is in the form of a trigonometric series. In the
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4.1.2 Validation 2
For the second validation of the diffusion algorithm, Figure 11. Comparison of analytical solution with RoAM
the problem of diffusion into a hollow sphere is chosen. simulation. Available in colour online.
International Journal of Pavement Engineering 125
of the domain discretisation element to be small enough, transport problem is therefore a necessary pre-requisite
such that the elemental Péclet number should not be to gaining confidence in the application of the
greater than unity. computational scheme to the study of the advection–
When the elemental Péclet number is greater than unity diffusion problem. The real test for a computational
the methods give rise to unrealistic numerical phenomena scheme developed for modelling the advection domi-
such as oscillations, negative concentrations and artificial nated transport problem is to establish how accurately the
diffusion at regions close to a leading edge with a computational scheme can converge to the purely
discontinuous front. For this reason, in conventional advective transport problem at zero physical diffusion
higher-order methods for advection dominated problems, The validation of the presented numerical approach
a finer mesh is invariably used throughout the region, since in RoAM is made by comparing the computational
the velocity field is usually not known a priori. This places results with two 1D exact closed form solutions
a great demand on computational resources, particularly involving the advective transport problem.
Figure 13. Comparison analytical solution and RoAM simulation. Available in colour online.
126 N. Kringos et al.
Figure 14. Simulation of the advection front, Cr ¼ 1.0 at Figure 15. Simulation of the advection front, with Cr
x ¼ 10 mm. Available in colour online. ¼ exp(2 0.02t). Available in colour online.
International Journal of Pavement Engineering 127
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