Introduction

There is no doubt that the integration of technology into the industrial field increases
production, improves the quality of products and services, reduces manufacturing and delivery
time, reduces costs, contributes to the efficiency of the company and protects the environment
through the application of latest technology in all the processes. Every company and
production area is different. Is it necessary that you design a new technological organization
system for every company? Is it necessary to separate networks in a different way? Is it
necessary to analyze every production process according to existing installations? You are
invited to find the answers and to discover if all these processes are organized in a
standardized way.

Explanation
• 1.1 CIM Pyramid - Computer Integrated Manufacturing

Connecting all the communication systems is a complex process; you may face long
distances, restricted access areas, extreme environmental conditions, equipment from
different manufacturers, different standards and connections, updated and old-fashioned
equipment. Besides, you must cover several areas because it may be applied at a different
levels within the plant in order to integrate them in one system and make communication
faster and more effective. Because of this, there is a large number of implementation
possibilities; you can use different elements and technologies, depending on the needs and
type of automation or intercommunication required. For this reason, it is necessary to know all
the existing elements and possibilities to make decisions at the moment of implementing the
best technologies and systems that fulfill specific requirements.
Every new technology or communication system has the purpose of simplifying the existing
processes, make them faster and more efficient. Therefore, the network designers are always
working together with quality engineers, industrial and administration engineers, in order to
help them improve all the company processes. The design phase requires access to large
amount of information (latest technology, equipment and construction costs, market research,
possibilities of growth and renovation, etc.) in a limited time. It is necessary to connect
databases to administrative staff, clients to sellers, suppliers to warehouses and human
resources to all the workers.
The industrial automation systems and its operation are centered on the global optimization of
a plant for the reasons mentioned below:

• Manufacturing processes improvement.

• Costs reduction.
• Increase in quality.
• Efficiency improvement.
• The largest flexibility of production processes.
• Improvement of those elements that allow the efficient adaptation to the needs of the
market of the product.

Considering all the above-mentioned optimization requirements, it is necessary that the

manufacturing process can be able to add useful information for directors and salespeople
responsible for operations like sales and delivery of the product, in order to adapt the
production in a fast and efficient way according to the market needs. This way, you will have a
dynamic manufacturing process where the production is optimized with global criteria and not
only technical criteria. The aforementioned will be performed fulfilling the currently applied
quality and safety requirements.

• 1.2 Pyramid Levels

The equipment manufacturers want to be one-of-a kind in their field, thus, for commercial
reasons they prefer not to share the technologies and protocols developed by them. For the
same reason, the engineers inside the plant need to look for options to connect equipment of
different groups. First, all the processes of the plant are divided into some groups or levels.
Then, the optimal systems are installed in every level of the automation pyramid of industrial
processes. The companies use some hierarchical levels in their organization.
Every subsystem of a level must have direct communication with the subsystems of the same
level and with the adjacent superior and inferior levels. Thus, the most appropriate shape for
these structures is a pyramid.
Inside every level of the pyramid there are different technologies for direct communication that
may vary according to the level in which they are applied. You will review in detail these types
of technologies in the next topics.

Figure 1. Communications in every level.

Source: Alonso, (2013). Redes de Comunicaciones Industriales. España: UNED.
The communication among levels is done through protocols, you are going to study some of
them in this course. The pyramid works under the principle of top down or bottom up.

Figure 2. Communications among levels.

Source: Alonso, (2013). Redes de Comunicaciones Industriales. España: UNED.

In general, the following levels are included:

• Field level: field devices, sensors, actuators, small control systems; most of them are
simple pneumatic devices or pneumatic devices controlled by computer. Systems like
PROFIBUS are used for long distances.
• Control or cell level: equipment that execute or control the activities of the plant; PLC
(Programmable Logic Controller), CN (Numerical Control), robots and industrial computers.
Devices in this level control electrical, electro pneumatic and electrohydraulic systems.
Besides PROFIBUS, this level includes another communication system called DEVICE NET.
• Supervision or process level: process control, work stations, industrial computers. This
level uses more PLC to control the automation process.
• Plant level: planning, logistics and production control. This level uses programs to integrate
the industrial systems.
• Corporate or management level: administration of the company resources; in this level you
will find the necessary components for finances and sales. These two levels are responsible
for all the communication of the company. They use Ethernet and Internet in order to have
different and complex applications and programs, and to have long distance
communication outside the company.

• 1.3 Application Examples

Communication among different levels is key in every company. In the case of a family
business, you can establish communication through a simple network, but if we talk about a
plant with 3000 workers and a large amount of equipment, a simple network will not be
enough; it should be solved using a complex system, with multiple layers designed with the
purpose of reducing expenses and increasing profits in all aspects.
With this information, the company managers can calculate statistics regarding production
costs, plant performance and sales strategies. In general, they can obtain data that allow the
management levels make appropriate decisions for a better optimization in the plant
operation, in a fast and flexible way.
Communications among the levels of the industrial pyramid no longer need to be strictly
industrial or robust; the data currently transmitted are reports; therefore, less expensive
communication networks are applied, like Ethernet networks. These networks are better
adapted to the type of data to be transmitted and, in addition, they allow efficient
communication among the different devices of the same level. It is also about providing
computer aid, automating, controlling and increasing the level of integration at all the
manufacturing levels.
For example, a textile company uses programmable logic controllers to read signal; these
controllers are distributed through the manufacturing system. They elaborate and send
actions, keeping a dialogue with operators to inform the process status. Many software
systems are used (Nedgrafic & Vision, Fiberwork, Maple Hill Software, Easy Weave) for design
and manufacturing. There are computer-aided engineering processes, computer-aided quality
control and materials management system.

• 1.4 ISO-OSI model

The OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection model) was created in 1984. It was developed
by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in order to connect computers. Its
purpose is to be the reference for the creation of new communication protocols and to allow
communications between different devices connected to a network. Before the OSI model,
many networks were incompatible. As a result, connection was difficult.
The ISO-OSI model is composed of seven layers. It is through these levels that information is
encoded in order to be transmitted to a receiver from an application that the user uses to
introduce it until it is sent through physical wiring.

Layer 7. Application
Layer 6. Presentation
Layer 5. Session
Layer 4. Transport
Layer 3. Network
Layer 2. Data link
Layer 1. Physical

Layer 1. Physical: this layer establishes bit transfer by converting bits into electrical or optical
signals as to send them through a physical connection. It is responsible for data transmission
and reception between devices.
Layer 2. Data link: it administers data transfer through physical connections. Then, it awaits
confirmation from devices for sent and received data.
Layer 3. Network: this layer decides which route data should take through a net. It creates data
packets for outgoing messages and it recovers messages from incoming data packets. In
addition, it manages subnet traffic.
Layer 4. Transport: it provides security to data transfer, error recovery procedures, and data
flow control. Information segmentation for its transportation is done in this layer.
Layer 5. Session: this layer administers and synchronizes communication between
applications. It also creates and closes connections or sessions for connected applications.

Conclusion
In this topic you learned that any automation system on the industrial field is structured in five
levels in a pyramid shape. Every level has its own internal communication means (sometimes
they may be different to the adjacent levels), and they have intercommunication through
different protocols, resulting in a complex integrated system with a good level of
communication. It is important that you remember the focus of the industrial automation
systems, the pyramid levels and their application area.

Introduction
Everything in this world is standardized. Why? The answer is simple: to make consumers life
easier. When we buy any electronic device, we don’t stop to ask ourselves: Is this device
compatible with the electrical network at home and all the connections? We don’t worry about
it because we know that electrical connections are standardized. It is the same in the industrial
networks world. In this topic you will know the standards and who is responsible for their
supervision.

Explanation
• 2.1 IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) is a very important institute in the
standards world. It is the largest professional organization in the world; it has a
standardization group that develops criteria in the electrical engineering and computer areas.
Most of the network standards were established by a committee in the 1980s when the
personal computers started to appear. The Committee 802 or project 802 started the
standards for the local-area networks, which are currently the most common. It started with a
group of engineers at the IEEE with the purpose of standardizing a system of 1 or 2 Mbps,
which some time later was transformed into Ethernet. The project was successful, and another
networks project was assigned to the committee. Every digit after number 802 is a sequence
based on the assigned works of every standard. Its projects have such a success that they are
applied in the whole world of networks. The committee has standardized many types of LAN
networks – Local Area Network and MAN – Metropolitan Area Network.

• Many were successful (802.3, 802.11, 802.15, 802.16).

• Some of them are in hibernation (802.4, 802.10, 802.14).
• Some others expired (802.8).

The most well-known commercial names are shown as follows:

802.3 – Ethernet
802.4 – Token Bus (briefly used in production plants).
802.11 – Wireless network, known as Wi-Fi. It works at a speed of 11 up to hundreds of Mbps.
802.13 – Unlucky number (nobody wanted to use it).
802.15 – Personal area networks (Bluetooth, ZigBee)
802.16 – Wireless broadband (WIMAX)
802.22 – Wireless regional area network.

• 2.2 ANSI - American National Standards Institute

As the voice for the United States standards and the Conformity Assessment System, the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) helps to guarantee security and health of
consumers, as well as the protection of the environment.

Health Security Environment

NGWA (National Ground The HD - Homeland The organization SASB

Water Association). It
establishes standards for the
water disinfection, helping
to prevent diseases.
Security Department works (Sustainability Accountable
based on the ANSI Standards Board) is a
standards. member of the ANSI; it
develops the environmental
standards.

It authorizes certifications It has 34 000 security It establishes standards

of technologies regarding
health information.
professionals all over the regarding energy
world. Among many other efficiency.
events, they worked in the
security of the Beijing
Olympic Games.

The Institute supervises the elaboration, issue, use and guidelines of the standards regulations
that directly affects the companies in almost every sector; like the acoustic devices for
construction equipment, dairy products, livestock production for the energy distribution and
much more. ANSI also participates actively in the accreditation programs to evaluate
conformity with the standards, including cross-sectoral programs recognized worldwide, such
as ISO 9000 (quality) and 14000 ISO management systems (environmental).
It is a non-profit organization founded on October 19, 1918. It is located in Washington and
represents the interests of more than 125,000 companies and 3,5 millions of professionals.
ANSI is the official representative of USA before the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) and through the USA National Committee and the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). ANSI is also a member of the International Accreditation
Forum (IAF).
Nowadays, ANSI is adopting the needs of the growing economy of services and the
consumer’s strengthening of confidence on the products and services presented on the
platform through the global supply chain.
The Institute is providing new innovative technologies that lead to the development of complex
machines manufactured at the nanoscale (nanomachines). Also, it looks for the promotion of a
greater sense of consumers, reduction of risks for workers, global competitiveness, more
energy efficiency and an improved environmental consciousness in general.
Since 1918, and in the years to come, ANSI will continue working on the established objectives:
lead and promote the broad-based work of the USA standardization system, to:

• Protect the integrity of the standardization system.

• Promote the global competitiveness of the American companies.
• Improve the consumers’ quality of life.

• 2.3 TIA/EIA – Telecommunication Industry Association/ Electronic

Industries Association

TIA started to develop methods for a cabling system at the same time than IEEE. The other
organization called EIA (Electronic Industries Association) also participated in the development;
therefore, the designed standard was called TIA/EIA. The system based on this standard is
constructed on blocks integrated into a hierarchical structure. At the construction time, the
network uses fiber optics and twisted pair cabling.

Figure 1. Blocks of the cabling system.

TIA/EIA regulations help to standardize the variety of products manufactured by different
companies, making the interchangeability easier and leaving behind the misunderstandings
between manufacturers and buyers. For example, if we want to change an electrical outlet, we
just go to the store to buy a new one without worrying about its compatibility. Every electrical
outlet has a different design outside, but the structure inside is the same because of the
standards. All the standards are adopted according to the patents of the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). The regulations guarantee that the systems working under its
dispositions will work well in all the present and future telecommunication applications, at
least for a ten years period.
TIA/EIA standards were created as an industrial standard in the United States, but they have
been applied as international standards because they were the first standards created.

Conclusion
In this topic, you reviewed the three most important institutions in the industrial networking
field and the work developed by each one of them. You also reviewed why it is necessary to
have the same standards so that the manufacturers fulfill their customer’s requirements. Also,
you understood the importance of standardization, which reduces incompatibility problems.

Introduction
Copper is one of the first metals used by man. The oldest copper objects (like jars, vessels,
jewelry, or farming tools) found in Asia are 9000 years old. Copper was used for decorations
with pearls and stones. For many years, men used pure copper because they did not know the
properties of materials. In the year 3500 BC, the island of Cyprus started to provide
Mediterranean people with copper; it became the most important natural resource in the third
largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and after that, it was called Cyprus Island.
Bronze Age was called like that from the copper-tin alloy. In the Middle Ages, copper was
widely used in jewelry and everyday objects. Copper, in combination with other elements, was
used as disinfectant, fertilizer, to cover churches or to produce bronze.
In Modern Age, since Edison discovered electric current, copper has been used in almost every
field, which makes it an essential material for the contemporary industry.

Explanation
• 3.1 Physical Properties

Copper is a reddish orange, hard material; it is very malleable, brilliant and it is not modified by
dry air. If exposed to humid air, it is slowly covered by a layer that changes from copper color
to green. Do you remember the color of the Statue of Liberty in New York? Most people know
that it is made of copper, but many of them did not see the first pictures of the statue when it
arrived from France, it was reddish orange. This change of color occurred a decade after the
installation. This is a good example of the color change of copper when exposed to humid
air.
The main property of copper, which defines its main use, is the high electrical conductivity or
low resistivity. Impurities like phosphorus, iron, arsenic, antimony or tin, affect significantly its
electrical conductivity, which is also affected by the methods to obtain this metal. The most
common methods are a humid and dry way.
The dry way method consists of the following stages:

• Crushing, ground and screening of the mineral.

• A mixture of material inside a container full of water.
• Deck oven and oxidizing process.
• Casting and addition of silica and lime, obtaining raw copper.
• Final electrolytic process.

The humid way method consists of the following stages:

• Pressurized oxidation.
• Screening.
• Leaching.
• Solvent extraction.

• 3.2 Chemical Properties

Copper is a chemical element with atomic number 29; its symbol is Cu. The oxidation states of
copper are +1, +2. This metal belongs to the non-ferrous metals family, like silver and gold. It
has a metal brightness, is solid, and it is one of the best electrical conductors, after silver. It is
widely used because of its electrical conductivity property, malleability, and ductility, it is used
for electrical cables and many other components.
Copper is part of a large number of alloys, improving the properties of said alloys, especially
the mechanical properties. The most common alloys are brass (copper and zinc), bronze
(copper and tin), nickel silver (copper, nickel and zinc), copper-chromium, copper-silver and
copper-aluminum. Copper is a long-standing metal, it can be recycled as any times as
necessary without affecting its properties, which makes this metal a very interesting and
convenient material for different uses.
• 3.3 Applications

You can find copper in many foods, in drinking water (especially in mineral water) and also in
the air. Our body needs small amounts of copper to boost our health.
Copper is used in piping to carry water, also in refrigerators, microwaves, electromagnets,
networks, switches, and electrical conductors. It is a corrosion resistant material; it is used in
water containers, elaboration of coins (for example, a cent has a copper layer), sculptures,
musical instruments and in naval construction (it is combined with nickel to construct the hulls
of the ships). It is used in sheet metals for roofs and fronts of buildings. It is also used in the
door knobs of public facilities because of its antibacterial properties to reduce epidemics.
Copper is used to produce twisted pair cable, one of the oldest transmission medium. It
consists of two insulated copper wires; they can be used for analog communications,
telephone systems and digital communications.
Twisted pair cable can be shielded (STP, Shielded Twisted Pair), covered by an insulation layer
to reduce interference, or it can be unshielded (UTP, Unshielded Twisted Pair). It is low-cost.
Therefore, it is widely used.

There are six categories (there is another one still to be defined) of UTP cables. (Stallings,
2004)

• Category 1: it is used for telephone wire; the only voice is transmitted, and it is not
appropriate for data transmission.
• Category 2: it transmits data at a low speed up to 4 Mbps; it has only two wires inside the
cable. This category is not currently used.
• Category 3: it is composed of 4 pairs of wires; it is used for telephone communication and
short distance local networks. For example, with this cable you can have an Ethernet
network with a speed up to 16 Mbps and distance from 100 up to 500 meters.
• Category 4: it is composed of 4 pairs of wires and it supports speeds of 20 Mbps. This
category is not currently used.
• Category 5: it is the most common because it supports speeds up to 100 Mbps. It is used
for local and telephone networks. This type of cable has eight wires in 4 colors (green,
orange, blue, brown); that is, four twisted pairs.
• Category 5e: it is an improved category 5. It reduces attenuation and electromagnetic
interferences. The transmission speed is of 1 Gbps and it is used for local networks.
• Category 6: it is not standardized even though it is being used for Internet connections. This
new category adapts to specific components of the manufacturer. In this category, the
cable must be tested at a high speed.
• Category 7: it is not defined nor standardized. It will be defined by a bandwidth of 600 MHz.

Figure 2. The categories of UTP cables currently used.

Crossover Cable
This configuration is commonly used to connect similar devices without the connection of
intermediate means. The crossover cable takes its name because the Tx and Rx cables
exchange their location at one of its ends.

Conclusion
Copper is the most commonly used metal in the world after iron and aluminum. It is clearly the
most important and most used metal in the industrial networking. It is important to know the
properties of copper to use it appropriately because there are different types of cables.
Additionally, it is important to know that the current demand of copper has increased, and its
cost and its theft have also increased as a consequence; for this reason, there are some
current researchers to find alternatives for this material.

Introduction
Did you know that fiber optic has many applications? Some of them are simple like a
decoration in Christmas, and some others are more complex like the components of a subway
or high precision devices in medical surgeries.
Light is an electromagnetic radiation in waves that can be received by the human eye; this way
the colors can be distinguished. These waves are visible, harmless and very fast. Reaching the
speed of light is still the dream of most of the engineers in the world.

Explanation
• 4.1 Properties of Light

The light has the key characteristics for the transmission of data: high speed (the speed of a
light beam —300 km/second— is unreachable by other means), long distance (a laser beam
reaches the Moon and beyond) and ease to produce it (light transmitters have reasonable
costs).
The properties of the light have been under research since a long time ago, and the idea of
communication through light waves is not new. The biggest problem of the first attempts of
fiber optic was that fibers absorbed light and it was not transmitted through the desired
distances.
For a practical communication, it is necessary to transmit light through many kilometers, not
meters. For this reason, pieces of glass with more purity and transparency, compared to
ordinary glass, have been developed. The production of these glasses started at the beginning
of the 60s; they transmitted light beams through very long distances.
 • 4.2 Fiber Optic Characteristics

Fiber optic is a very thin strand of a transparent material covered with a protection layer. The
light pulses that transmit data are sent through fiber optic. Most of the fiber optics are made of
sand or silica, abundant raw material, compared to copper. Some kilograms of glass are
enough to produce 50 kilometers of the fiber optic. Fiber optic circuits are flexible glass
strands, with the thickness of one strand of hair. Information is transmitted in light beams,
which are produced with a laser to generate “coherent” light, that is, not strong nor
concentrated. Fiber optic uses reflection to carry light through a channel. A plastic or crystal
core is covered with a cladding of less thick crystal or plastics. The difference of the thickness
of both materials must be such that the light beam moving through the core can be reflected
by the cover instead of been refracted by it. The light passes through the fiber by reflection;
curves and corners cannot interrupt the transference. The set of core and cladding is also
surrounded by a layer of plastic or other materials to protect it from humidity, crushing, rodents
and other risks from the environment.
Every strand of fiber optic consists of 2 parts:
 Core Cladding

The inside The outside

One or many thin glass strands Covers and protects the core

Diameter of 50 up to 125 microns Certainly that light is inside

Guided light Light insulation

Table 1. Key parts of the fiber optic.

Figure 1. Basic parts of the fiber optic.

• 4.3 Fiber Optic Uses

Fiber optic is used in conventional copper wires, from small independent environments (data
processing systems for planes, trains or spacecraft), up to large geographical networks
(systems of large urban lines used by telephone companies for data transmission).
The main use of fiber optic in new technologies is the application in long-distance
communications. Fibers provide connections that work through long distances. Other uses are
telephones and sensors; also, some fibers have been developed to transmit a high power laser
beam used to cut and drill materials.
An optical transmission system is made up of three parts:
Next, you will know the three types of connectors for fiber optic cables:
The SC (Subscriber channel) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking
system.
The ST (Straight tip) connector is used for connecting the cable to networking devices. It uses
a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC.
MT-RJ has a connector that is the same size as RJ45.
The main advantages of fiber optic over metallic cable (twisted pair or coaxial) are:

Bandwidth
• Fiber optic cable can support higher bandwidths (and hence data rates) than either twisted
pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization are limited by the signal
generation and reception technology available.

Higher signal range

• Fiber optic transmission distance is greater than in other guided media, without requiring
regeneration.

High resistance to electromagnetic interference

• Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber optic cables.

Resistance to corrosive materials

• Glass is more resistant than copper.

Light weight
• Fiber optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.

The main disadvantage of the fiber optic is the cost of the plug connections; they are more
complex than Ethernet connection.

Conclusion
In this topic, you learned about the properties of light and how they are used in the fiber optic.
Also, you reviewed the characteristics and composition of the fiber optic and the way it is used
for human needs in different fields. This material has been applied as a replacement for the
data transmission system due to the availability of the raw material to manufacture fiber optic;
most of the cable and telecommunications companies already have an infrastructure with this
material.

Introduction

Now that you have used wireless Internet in your daily life, can you imagine your life using
again Internet through cable or telephone? We live in the century of remote controls, alarm
activation keys for cars, hands-free, movement sensors and an endless number of devices
using wireless networks. One of the main advantages of wireless networks is
the Any Time Any Place Internet service. A wireless network is like any other network: it offers
 connection among computers without cables. Users can be connected without losing their
mobility.

Explanation
• 5.1 Fields of Application

There are two types of uses for wireless networks:

1. To work in a closed limited area (office, home, etc.).

2. To connect long distance networks.

To create a network in a closed area, we need transmitters with antennas. Standard IEEE
802.11 determines two types of data interchange: Ad-hoc and client-server. Ad-hoc is a simple
network; the connection is established directly among the clients, without a special access
point.
The devices of a user can be interconnected or can be connected to a local information point;
for example at the airport, a user can connect the laptop to the cell phone and at the same
time, this user can check the status of departures, gate changes, general announcements, etc.
Due to security strategies (not having a server with all the information in the same place),
these types of connections are widely used for military applications. The use for civil
applications is limited because of the high cost. It is mainly used where a centralized network
cannot be installed, regardless of the reason; for example, in natural disasters zones, when
most of the installations are destroyed and out of reach. It is also used in constructions where
there is not an established network.

Figure 1. Ad-hoc connection.

The client-server connection consists of at least one access point and some clients connected
via wireless. Clients can be connected to one or many servers, and servers can be
interconnected; however, there is not a direct connection among clients. Any data interchange
must be through a server.
Most of the current connections are client-server. For example, when you watch a YouTube
video, your computer (client) connects to the YouTube server through the browser. The server
keeps all the information required for the client (videos, in this case), usernames, passwords
(in the case of mail servers, like Hotmail) and databases as well.
In the manufacturing companies, all the machines (clients) are connected to a control point
(server). In a hospital, all the information of the patients is in the database, where it is available
for any doctor with access to it to check information and make recommendations. In most of
the cases, clients require a connection to a database (for example, at a factory, managers
checked the products at the warehouse and based on that information, they plan the weekly
production). For this reason, they have the client-server connection. Every data interchange is
made through the server. For example, if the secretary wants to print a report, the file goes
from the laptop to the closest access point, continues to the server, to the closest access
point, and then to the printer.
The main advantage of this type of connection is the centralized control. Everything is at the
same point, which makes access easier. If the server has a high storage capacity and it has
protection applications, the information is secured and easy to find. For this reason, equipment
for servers is expensive.
Clients’ maintenance can be done at any time without affecting the other elements of the
network, but we cannot say the same about the server. The main disadvantage of the client-
server connection is that in the case of any failure of the server, all the network remains out of
service. It means that at the moment of the connection, the server was under maintenance. In
a large company, a day without connection means severe financial losses. Network congestion
has always been a problem. Imagine that all passengers of a bus pay with 200 pesos bills,
what would happen? Perhaps, the first five passengers would not have any problem, the next
passengers would have to wait for the change, but there would not be enough money for the
others. The same happens when many users want to connect to the same page; at the
beginning, the answer is fast, then it takes more than normal, and then the page can close.

Figure 2. Client – Server connection.

• 5.2 Types of Wireless Networks

To transmit information without cables (wireless), you can use InfraRed, radio waves, optical
radiation or laser.
There are many wireless technologies; some are well known by their commercial names: Wi-Fi,
WiMAX, Bluetooth.
If we classify networks by geographical reach, we have four types of wireless networks:
Wireless networks

• Wireless PAN (Personal Area Network): it is the smallest component of the network.
Wireless PAN is to the Internet as a brick is to a house. Example: a personal desktop. When
many PAN are connected, we reach another level called LAN network.
• Wireless LAN (Local Area Network): it is the network of a house, building, a university
campus, a medium-sized company, a school, an Internet cafe. For LAN networks we can use
wired and wireless connections. When we connect many LAN networks, we reach another
level: MAN network.
• Wireless MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): this network is composed of many networks
within a city. For example, the connection among some subway stations, among corporate
offices with branches, banks with travel agencies, etc. MAN networks interconnected give
us a WAN network.
• Wireless WAN (Wide Area Network): large-scale area networks; for example, a province,
state, country, continent that cover long distances. The main communication means is
through satellite. Large companies like Microsoft, IBM or HP, are the ones managing
networks at this level. When we connect WAN networks, we have the Internet.

Figure 3. Types of wireless networks.

• 5.3 Necessary Installations

As in any other network, a wireless network has key components, necessary for a correct
operation. There are different installations to access a wireless communication. Next, you will
find some of them.
Wireless hosts: as in wired networks, hosts are devices acting as terminal systems and
execute applications. The role of a wireless host can be assigned to a laptop, a telephone or a
computer. Hosts can be mobile or fixed like a server.
Wireless communication: a host connects with computers or other hosts through a wireless
communication link. There are different technologies that offer transmission at different
distances and different speeds.

Figure 4. Wireless communication with HOST.

These are some examples of existing technologies.

Technology Speed Distance Example

CDMA, GSM - 2G 56 kbps Exterior up to 20 km Cellular technology
UMTS/ CDMA 2000 Mobile
384 kbps Exterior up to 20 km
- 3G telecommunications
It is the Bluetooth
802.15.1 1 Mbps Interior from 10 up to 30 m
standard
3G third generation
WCDMA-HSDPA –
4 Mbps Exterior up to 50 km mobile access
3G improved
technology
Information is
WiMax 5-11 Mbps Exterior up to 20 km transmitted through
radio waves
Moderate-speed data
802.11 a,g 54 Mbps Interior up to 50 m
transmission
High-speed data
802.11 n 200 Mbps Interior up to 50 m
transmission
Table 1. Examples of existing technologies
Base station is another part of wireless installations. There is not equivalence to a wired
network. The base sends and receives data packets to and from a wireless host related to that
base. The base coordinates the transmission of the multiple wireless hosts within the
maximum distance of communication and of the hosts assigned to the base station. The cell
phone towers and the access points in the wireless LAN networks 802.11 are examples of
base stations.

Figure 5. Communication among cellular phones through a base station.

Conclusion
With this topic you understood that there are many standards for the wireless data
transmission. You learned that wireless networks are not only for homes and offices, but also
for long distances. Different installations are required according to the distance, geographical
reach, desired speed and if it is interior or exterior network.
Introduction

Since Nikola Tesla age, people already had the dream of transmitting different types of energy
without cables. This electrical engineer and inventor, who was born in Croatia and then
emigrated to the United States, became famous thanks to his work on the transmission and
generation of alternating current. Tesla designed a wireless communication system and built
an antenna of more than 30 meters high, the Wardenclyffe Tower, with the purpose of
transmitting wireless electrical power, under the same operating principle than the radio. Due
to political and economic reasons, his work was not completed, and the dream of Nikola Tesla
of wireless transmission of electrical power was in a state of limbo (Seifer, 1996). However,
the dream of one of the first users of wireless connections came true using of many
technologies developed in the last 30 years. The most common are the ones you will see in
this topic: WiFi, Bluetooth, and ZigBee (Alonso, 2013).

Explanation
• 6.1 WiFi

If you have been in an airport, cafeteria, library or hotel, probably you used the wireless
network. Even, if you are reading this on your laptop or mobile device, it is very likely that you
accessed this information through a wireless network. Many people use wireless networks,
also known as WiFi or 802.11 (IEEE standard), to connect their computers at home, and some
cities have been trying to use technology to grant free or low-cost Internet access. In a close
future, wireless networks will be widely spread out, and you will have Internet access in any
place and any moment without cables.
The name of WiFi (Wireless Fidelity) come from the abbreviation Hi-Fi (High Fidelity). The idea
of the creators was to transmit that with the wireless network you have high fidelity and
reliability to transmit data. As in wired networks, there are some versions of wireless networks;
the table below mentions the most used standards.

IEEE name Speed Frequency

802.11 a 6 - 54 Mbps 5 GHz

802.11 b 1 - 11 Mbps 2,4 GHz

802.11 g 6 - 54 Mbps 2,4 GHz

802.11 n 30 - 300 Mbps 2,4 GHz and 5 GHz

802.11 ac 450 Mbps 5 GHz

Any standard mentioned in this table can be used in all the installations of industrial networks.
It is important that you consider two restrictions. The first restriction is about speed. For
example, short messages are quickly transmitted at a low speed, but for office files, images or
sound, you need a higher speed. The second restriction is the frequency allowed by law in the
country where the network will be used.
802.11 ac is the most recent standard; it was established in early 2013. It has not been widely
adopted and it is still a project in the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), but
the devices supporting it are already in the market. It is compatible with the other standards.
The term WiFi is the trade name of 802.11b. A wireless network uses radio waves, like cell
phones, televisions, and radios. To have communication, the following items are required:

• A wireless adapter for a computer, it converts data into a radio wave and transmits them
using an antenna.
• A wireless router to receive the signal and decode it. The router sends the information to the
Internet through an Ethernet connection using a cable. The process also works the other
way around, with the router receiving information from the Internet and translating it into a
radio wave to send it to the wireless adapter of the computer.

If the devices have wireless adapters or transmission/reception antennas, they can use a
wireless router to connect to the Internet. This connection is convenient, invisible and reliable.
However, if the router fails or if many people try to use applications that require much
bandwidth, users may experience interferences, lags or even, they may lose their connection.
We hope that faster standards like 802.11ac may fix this problem.

• 6.2 Bluetooth
In 1994, the Ericsson company started to develop the technology to connect devices without
cables. This company along with IBM, Intel, Nokia, and Toshiba made a consortium to develop
a technology through wireless networks at low cost and low energy consumption (Ferroy
Potorti, 2005). The project was called Bluetooth, in honor of a Viking king who joined Denmark
and Norway.
The Bluetooth standard 1.0 was launched in July 1999, and the Ericsson cell phone was the
first public cellular telephone with Bluetooth connection (Ferro and Potorti, 2005). Nowadays, a
lot of devices — headphones, keyboards, printers, mouse, video games, GPS, watches, music
players, cars, etc.— use Bluetooth. The devices are directly connected (there is no need for a
server) and interchange data in a very safe way. Bluetooth versions evolved up to 4.0 and now
can be paired with standard 802.11 (WiFi) for data transmission at a higher speed.

The basic unit of a Bluetooth system reaches a distance up to 10 meters; it consumes low
power, and the cost of the chip is 5 dollars.
Now, the Bluetooth devices can be designed for three classes, which determine the maximum
range in distance:

• Class 1: for industrial environments, up to a maximum of 100 meters in open spaces.

• Class 2: designed for mobile devices (cell phones, tablets, laptop, hands-free, etc.).
• Class 3: for different uses with a maximum range of 1 meter.

Bluetooth technology adapts to every type of application and provides different protocols for
each one; for example, different protocols are applied to read emails, send pictures, browse the
web, etc. Up to now, there are 25 applications or profiles.

Hands-free profile, as the name defines it, allows you to drive without the need for using your
hands to hold the phone. Another type of profile allows a laptop to be connected to a mobile
phone with a modem integrated without using a cable. The radio layer transfers the bits with a
frequency of 2.4GHz, standard 802.11, which allows their combination.
The transmission speed also varies according to the Bluetooth version; for example, version
1.2 supports a maximum of 1Mbps and version 2.0 with EDR (Enhanced Data Rate) reaches
the 3 Mbps.

Version Speed

Bluetooth It supports a maximum of 1 Mbps.

1.2

Bluetooth It reaches 3 Mbps with EDR (Enhanced Data Rate).

2.0

Bluetooth It reaches up to 480 Mbps with a simplified connection system between

2.1 devices.

Bluetooth HS (high speed.) It reaches 24 Mbps.

3.0

Bluetooth Low-energy Bluetooth focused on IoT (Internet of Things.) It allows a

4.0 transference from 25 Mbps up to 32 Mbps.

Bluetooth It offers a range of coverage four times bigger than version 4, allowing
5.0 simultaneous data flow from different devices.

The protocol managing links establishes logical channels. A pairing process is performed to
make sure that the devices can communicate by using the link. The previous method did not
let you enter the same PIN (example: 1234), which was not secure because most of the people
entered only “0000” or “1234”. The new pairing method is simple and secure because the user
does not choose nor establishes the PIN; the user only needs to confirm the code generated by
the device. Once the connection is established, the SCO (Synchronous Connection-Oriented) or
the ACL (Asynchronous Connectionless) link is established.

• 6.3 ZigBee
ZigBee is a wireless technology developed to fulfill the requirements of connection at low cost
and low energy consumption. The low energy consumption includes equipment with a battery
life of minimum 2 years; equipment with less than 2 years of battery life do not fulfill ZigBee
standard.
The standard started in 1999 when some engineers had installation troubles regarding
connection via WiFi and Bluetooth. They looked for an alternative to both technologies, a
combination of ad-hoc networks with digital radio transmission.
It took four years to record the standard with IEEE, finally receiving the accreditation in May
2003. According to the IEEE nomenclature, the new technology received the number 802.15.4.
It was very popular, the next year 22 countries were using it. The organization in charge of
maintenance and renovation of the technology is the ZigBee Alliance. After the certification,
two more standards were launched:

• ZigBee 2006 allows devices to interchange data in the frequency of 2,4 GHz.
• ZigBee PRO version has a simplified communication algorithm, and it is designed to link big
networks.

The radio system of ZigBee transmits signals in analogous and digital ways if possible. Its
radio frequency is 2.4 GHz all over the world, 915 MHz in North America and Australia, and 868
MHz in Europe.
Another advantage of this technology is security. ZigBee is mostly used for business and
industries, in and environment of competence and hostility, where it is very important to keep
privacy and security while sending and receiving information.
Most common specifications (Zigbee, 2007):

ZigBee Building Automation:

Control of buildings with commercial use. To be part of the sustainable buildings movement,
we can monitor and control access, power consumption, water, heating, air conditioning, etc.
ZigBee Building Automation proposes wireless installations are avoiding the use of kilometers
of cables. It is environmentally friendly.

ZigBee Health Care:

It offers a wide range of equipment for health care; sensors to measure blood pressure and
glucose, monitors for electrocardiograms, oxygen, carbon dioxide, smoke, etc. it also offers
devices for fitness, elderly people and patients in rehabilitation.

ZigBee Home Automation:

It is mainly used to control some devices at home; for example, turn on and off the lights in
different areas of the house, open or close curtains or control the air conditioner, heating, and
mechanical ventilation.

ZigBee Input Device:

It is an innovative technology for computer equipment (like a mouse, keyboards,

and touchpads), HDTV televisions, DVD players, set-top box, among others. Its energy efficient
design helps to increase batteries life using infrared technology (IR).

ZigBee Light Link:

 It allows users to have control over LED installations, light bulbs, timers, remote controls and
switches.

ZigBee Network Devices:

Devices that can operate in any ZigBee PRO network and they work with most of the ZigBee
standards.

ZigBee Remote Control:

It is the new technology that has been replacing IR controls making battery life longer and
offering more comfort. It is no longer necessary to directly point to the devices: the signal
reaches its target even though it is not visible.

ZigBee Retail Service:

For sellers, it increases the consumer service efficiency and helps to analyze their behavior.
For customers, it saves money and time, it improves the purchase experience and allows you
to have an advanced control for the decision making. Among the most used devices, we can
mention personal shopping assistants, intelligent shopping carts, electronic shelf labels, asset
tracking tags, etc.

ZigBee Smart Energy:

This is the standard lead to monitor, control, report and automates the supply and use of water
and energy in any place.

ZigBee Telecom Services:

It offers the global standard to send information, mobile games, secure payments from your
cell phone, electronic bank statements from a mobile device, access to the mobile office,
different payments and point-to-point data transfer service. Any person can use it with a cell
phone or any mobile electronic device. Users have the possibility to pay products and services,
create social and games networks, receive discounts and advertising from sellers and obtain
information of their location using GPS modules (Global Positioning System).

• 6.4 Network Classes

In order to assign an IP address to a device connected to a net, it is important to know the

different types of network classes.
Class A
The IP address in this class is defined by the first octet of the device IP address. It starts in 0
and ends in 127. For example, the address of one device could be 126.100.2.1. The subnet
mask in this class is 255.0.0.0.
Class B
The IP address in this class is defined by the first and second octet of the device IP address. It
starts in 128 and ends in 191. For example, the address of one device could be 140.100.2.1.
The subnet mask in this class is 255.255.0.0.
Class C
The IP address in this class is defined by the first, second, and third octet of the device IP
address. It starts in 192 and ends in 254. For example, the address of one device could be
192.168.1.1. The subnet mask in this class is 255.255.255.0.
The first step in planning for IPv4 addressing on your network is to determine which network
class is appropriate for your network. After you have done this, you can take the crucial second
step: obtain the network number from the InterNIC addressing authority.

Conclusion
In this topic, you learned about the three most common and important technologies in the
wireless world: WiFi, Bluetooth, and ZigBee. This network field has a very promissory future,
and it has been drastically growing. The growth of these technologies has been so fast that it
is possible that at this moment you have a device using any of the three technologies
mentioned in the topic.
We invite you to continue your research to find more about these three technologies.

Introduction

Have you ever wondered how many meters of cables are you saving at home using a wireless
modem? Perhaps 30 or 50 meters depending on the size of the house. Now, imagine that you
install a wireless modem in a manufacturing plant, and you remove all the cables. It would be
hundreds of meters or maybe kilometers of cables what you could save. Also, the processes of
replacement or maintenance are easier with wireless equipment.
In the previous topic, you learned about the main standards for wireless networks. Are you
going to see new industry standards? No. Are they different installations? Neither. We invite
you to know the difference of these standards applied to the industrial network.
Explanation
• 7.1 Standards Applied

Nowadays, there is a large number of industrial networks that can be organized according to
the type of devices and the control method. There are three main categories (Alonso, 2013):

• Sensor (Sensor bus: CAN, Seriplex, Asi, LonWorks, etc.). A sensor network consists of a
group of nodal devices interchanging information through a communication protocol; they
jointly monitor the measurements of particular physical parameters and their control. Each
one of these nodes contains sensors and actuators, a processor that controls the operation,
a memory unit to store sensor readings, a battery and a transceiver for the communication.
• Field network with simple equipment (Device bus: Modbus, CAN, DeviceNet, Profibus,
Interbus S, etc.). Most of the devices in this type of network use the master/slave
communication; master requests the information from the slaves and sends the orders in
return.
• Field networks with complex devices (Fieldbus: Foundation Fieldbus, Profibus PA, Hart,
etc.). They are larger than the other ones and with a larger number of components.

The number of cable networks for the industrial automation is constantly growing. This
process is accompanied by the introduction of wireless technologies and their network
architecture. To avoid a global chaos, all industrial networks are under international
standardization.
The main international organizations for standardization are:
Click on each item to see the description.

IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission

Founded in 1906, IEC is a leading global organization in charge of elaborating and publishing
International Standards for all the electrical, electronic and related technologies. These
activities are known as electrotechnology.

ITU – International Telecommunication Union

It is an organization based on a public-private partnership; with the membership of 193

countries. It gets agreements regarding technologies, services and attribution of global
resources, like the radio frequency spectrum and orbital positions of satellites, to create a
permanent system of global communication that can be strong, reliable and in a continuous
evolution.
There is a strong cooperation among them within the WSC (World Standard Cooperation). The
ISO activity field covers almost every area, except for electricity and electronics, which are
assigned to the IEC.
Many countries of the world have representatives within ISO and IEC, for example:
• ANSI (American National Standards Institute, USA).
• DIN (Deutsche Institute für Normung - German Institute for Standardization, Germany).
• GOST R (Gosudarstvenny Standart, Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology,
Russia).

The global practice shows that international committees are preparing projects for the future
of the ISO and IEC international standards. For example, the governments of some countries
allow different frequencies for the wireless operation of industrial networks. Committees must
come to an agreement; that is, they need to establish how the configuration of the same
equipment will change according to the installation country.
IEC is in charge of the approval of international standards for the industrial networks, as it is
established in section SC65C, subsection TC65 Industrial Process Measurement, Control and
Automation.
The UIT -R department is responsible for the control of frequencies and assignation of
frequencies for industrial wireless networks. The UIT –R division is also based on national
ministries and departments:

• FCC (Federal Communications Commission) and the CFR47 of the United States of
America.
• ETSI in Europe (European Telecommunications Standards Institute).
• ECC (Electronic Communications Committee).
• Cofetel (Federal Telecommunications Commission in Mexico).

According to the standards, the unlicensed ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) radio
frequency band is from 6765 kHz up to 246 GHz. However, in the distribution of frequencies of
the national committees, there may be some differences that need to be considered in the
design or application of wireless networks in the industrial automation according to the
regions.
The ISM ITU-R frequency table, used for the industry, science, and medicine, is (Cuadro
Nacional, 2014):

Frequency, Countries Institution Document

MHz

1.74 Europe, Russia ETSI ETS

300/220

0.6 Europe ETSI ETS 300

26 United States FCC CFR 47

83.5 Europe, Canada, United States, Russia, FCC ETS

Japan 300/228
 GL – 36
CFR 47

1.91 - 1.93 Mexico Cofetel MEX 118

The problem arises with the industrial radio equipment, which must be reliable in the range of
2400 to 2483.5 MHz, when it works simultaneously with personal wireless networks
(Bluetooth, ZigBee, Wibree), wireless local area network WLAN (IEEE802.11b, g), and the
objects system location RTLS (Real Time System Location) or RFID (Radio Frequency
Identification).
The WCT (Wireless Cooperation Team) established in September 2007, is a new alliance to
create a wireless infrastructure of industrial automation. The first important step of this
organization was the creation of the EDDL (Electronic Device Description Language). This
project solved the problem of compatibility of sensors, actuators, and valves of different
manufacturers. The information about the field devices passes through an EDDL-interpreter at
the level of application or any host. It is important to know that later the EDDL language was
established as the international standard IEC 61804, and it was adopted in the United States as
the standard ANSI/ISA-61804-3.
Example
The production management system of different companies (ABB, Emerson, Invensys y
Siemens) was presented at the International ISA EXPO 2008 in Houston (USA). Each system
was connected with FF Fieldbus of different manufacturers; Emerson, Endress Hauser,
Foxboro Eckardt, Metso, MTL and Siemens (The Read-Out, 2008).
Now, you will see the network diagram presented at the EXPO Houston 2008:

The figure shows how, in a network, the processing control center is connected to a SIMATIC
station, and wired meters; which are connected to a wireless hub, then through Industrial
Ethernet to a wireless IEEE 802.11 and ProfiNet to the other control center. These field devices
are integrated into an automated processing control system using EDDLfile (a text file like
HTML). The main advantage of this network is that it can successfully communicate devices
of different manufacturers in only one network.
• 7.2 IWLAN Network Components

An industrial wireless network is different from a home or office wireless network located in an
industrial environment. The air of the industry is different because it may contain a large
number of flammable gasses, toxic material, low oxygen levels, dust, high humidity,
extraordinary temperatures, etc. these conditions create a hostile environment for the signal
reception and transmission equipment.

Industrial Ethernet
The network components are supporting the wireless data transmission using radio
communication, based on international standards like WLAN (IEEE 802.11b), can be used to
build wireless radio networks or to connect mobile stations to the stationary industrial Ethernet
network.

PROFIBUS
The PROFIBUS network components for mobile data offer the opportunity to build wireless
connections. The communication with mobile participants is implemented the same way that
to others.
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable allows a secure radio connection in areas where the installation of traditional
antennas implies high costs. This cable is durable and easy mounting, even for staff without
special training. It can be used, for example, in tunnels and canals. It complements IWLAN and
fulfills the requirements of the standards IEEE 802.11b/g and IEEE 802.11i. It works at a
frequency of 2,4 GHz and 5.3 GHz.

Access points
The modules guarantee reliable radio communications and provide fast switching for mobile
stations from one access point to another one. This makes possible the use of radio in the
industrial production and the monitoring through radio channels for the supervision of
equipment and the reduction of slack time. IWLAN communication channels can be integrated
into the PROFINET industrial networks. The mobile control center provides reliable access to
data through the IWAN production process with different mobile devices; it allows the wireless
connection to segments of Ethernet network in places where cabling is not economically
viable. For example, at a highway with a lot of traffic, rivers, lakes, etc.
Antennas
A mechanical device used to receive and send radio signals of different frequencies.

Lightning protection
If the network is installed outdoors, it includes a system to protect the electrical components
of the installation in case of lightning during a thunderstorm.
Power supply
It is a device that receives electric current from the electrical grid and provides the voltage
required for installations or equipment.
Conclusion
As you learned on this topic, the industrial wireless network is more complex than the common
network we use every day. It is based on the same standards and devices, but it is enlarged by
additional installations because the industrial environment presents very different conditions
from the ones we have at home or the office. Consider that i the industry you will find
contaminants and chemicals that may affect the signal or reduce the service life of the
equipment.

Introduction
Have you ever wondered the way a machine can see without eyes, hear without ears, know the
quality of air without a nose, and feel without touch? In a manufacturing process, all that a
machine “feels” is through different types of sensors. After “touching”, the machine reacts
through actuators. It is the same when we react after touching something hot: our hand
(sensor) receives a heat sensation, sends a signal to the brain and receives the answer to act,
that is, to move the hand.
In this topic, you will learn the information about sensors and actuators and their application in
a centralized and distributed control system.

Explanation
• 8.1 DeviceNET y AS-interface

It is a centralized control process; all the processes of inputs, analyses and outputs are
performed in the same place. To connect every system control point with the central controller,
it is necessary to have a large number of cables. In general, they are very expensive and heavy
because they are prepared for industrial processes under extreme conditions. To connect all
the sensors and actuators, it is necessary to build a very complex and hard-to-maintain
network. Fortunately, it is not the only one solution.
The opposite of centralized control is a distributed control system. In this case, we have a
network of nodes physically distributed in all the plant. The nodes are connected to the closest
sensors and actuators, avoiding the use of a lot of cables. Every node receives signals from
the sensors; data are transmitted by the communication bus to be analyzed, and the signal
goes back to the node to generate an actuator output.
The communication networks oriented to the connection of nodes are called communication
buses or multiplex networks. Nodes interchange information and prepare it to access any node
of the system. Actuators take the messages from the network in an organized way and
transmit the object under their control (Alonso, 2013). Now, you are going to see the two
components of the network: DeviceNET and AS-interface.
DeviceNET
DeviceNet is a low-level network that allows the communication between simple industrial
devices (such as sensors and actuators) and higher-level devices (for example, controllers and
computers).
The DeviceNet network provides a profitable network solution for simple devices: it has
access to the data of smart sensors and actuators. It provides opportunities for master/slave
and point to point.
In addition to the reading of the on/off control status of sensors and actuators of the
DeviceNet network, it can report the temperature and intensity of the load of the boot device,
change the unit speed, adjust the sensibility of sensors, and so on and so forth.
Every DeviceNet node has a configuration file associated, which is called EDS (Electronic Data
Sheet). This file contains important information regarding the device operation, and it must be
registered in the network configuration software. Devices can be removed and replaced
without shutting down other devices and without interruptions to the network. You do not need
special programming tools to install/remove devices, which helps lower operation costs. The
network is protected against reverse connection and short circuits, operating with the energy
from the same power supply.
AS-Interface (Actuator Sensor Interface)
AS-Interface is a profitable and convenient system at the field level, connecting controls and
sensors; for example, temperature sensors for motor starters with a high-level control system.
AS-Interface is simple, secure and consistent.
AS-interface function is the use of a two-wire cable for data connections and sensors and
actuators intake. The current conventional adapters can be used only for devices of the AS -
Interface auxiliary circuit network. The cover of the network cable has a special profile that
avoids installation errors of the network components. AS-interface application provides a high-
degree automation system. Thanks to the new technological component (perforated
insulation), AS-interface elements can be connected in any point of the connection cable. This
technology provides more flexibility in the interface application and a high economical effect.
The main AS-Interface is presented in the following modules:
 Retrieved from: http://www.hms.se/images/asi.png
For educational purposes only.

• 8.2 Sensors

Wireless sensors networks have proved to have great potential for applications in the industry,
trade, and common consumers. Specifically, in the process of monitoring, process and control;
for example, pressure, humidity, temperature, flow, level, viscosity, density and vibration. Data
can be collected by the sensors network and sent to the control systems to be analyzed.
Sensors networks are composed of nodes that constantly collect and transfer via wireless the
information detected from different devices or the information about the status of the physical
work around us. Nodes can be found in our cellular phones (counting daily steps and
kilometers). Also, they can be found in our cars, collecting information about location, outdoor
and indoor temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, speed, gas consumption, etc.; all
these data can be sent to a database. These sensors are used in commercial transportation:
trucks, passenger busses, trailers, etc.
The wireless sensors system has many advantages compared to the traditional wired system;
however, as it is a relatively new system, it is not yet applied to all the industrial processes.

Wireless sensors system Traditional wired system

Faster and easier installation. Need for many meters of cables.

Quick maintenance. If it fails, all the cabling needs replacement.

Migration of users between Connections of fixed users.

networks.

Cable saving. Expensive cables and connections.

More viable for hostile Need for additional protection.

environments.

More users. A limited number of users depending on the number

of cables.

Less security. More connection security.

Less stability. More stability.

Now, you are going to see an example to compare the architecture of a wired network and a
wireless network in an industrial process.
Example
The reactor of a nuclear plant requires a highly sophisticated control system because an
operation failure may result in a tragedy that would cost the lives of many people.
The part of the reactor where the nuclear reaction occurs needs the graphite moderator to
control a nuclear chain reaction. On the inside, some sensors are installed to receive signals
regarding the evolution of the reaction. Data is sent to the control room computer in a
continuous way. When an acceleration of a reaction is detected, it turns on the alarm and the
signal automatically is sent to from the computer to the graphite moderator, which is
introduced to reduce the reaction speed.

Wired Control Controller Speed sensor of the Graphite

room reaction moderator

Wireless Control By Ethernet Wireless sensor Wireless actuator

room cable
 Comparison of some sensor products by manufacturer.

Manufacturer Accutech Honeywell Emerson

Application Pressure, Pressure, Pressure, temperature,

temperature, level temperature, level, level, location, vibration
location

Transmission 900 MHz 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz

Distance Up to 1500 m From 600 m up to 10 200 m

km

Update time 1s 1s 4s

Protocol Modbus 802.11 WiFi Ethernet, Modbus

• 8.3 Actuators
Actuators receive the activation signal from a controller or regulator; after the activation, they
generate power by pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical and electromechanical means, and they act
in the process changing their conditions (Alonso, 2013).
There are three types of actuators for mechatronic devices:
Hydraulic
Pneumatic
Electrical

Hydraulic actuators: they are the oldest actuators; they are used when the process requires
more strength. They require a big supply of energy and continuous maintenance. They work
based on fluids under pressure. There are three big groups:

1. Hydraulic cylinder: single effect; which uses hydraulic strength to push and a different
external strength to contract; and double action, which applies hydraulic strength to
perform both actions). They are used to provide strength through a linear path.
2. Hydraulic rotary motor: it is used in places where an angular movement is required, for
example, rotation or turn.
3. Hydraulic oscillating motor: the rotary movement is generated by the oscillating action
of a piston or striker.

Pneumatic actuators: they convert the energy of compressed air into mechanical work. In
comparison with the hydraulic actuators, the compression ratio is higher; the air has low
viscosity. Some of the most common pneumatic actuators are:

• Pneumatic motor (with the piston, gear, vane): they are preferred when the use of the
electrical motor is not appropriate.
• A pneumatic cylinder (single and double effect): they can perform linear works.
• Rotary motor (with a vane, multilane, piston, vertical opening, plunger): it is used when
rotation or turns are required.
• Bellows: they can be used, for example, in the coupling of two pipes or the functional
sealing of ball joints; the pieces are protected against dirt, water, and dust.
• Diaphragm: it is designed to operate security valve. It is ideal for wells, flow lines, head
of valves and gathering lines.
• Artificial muscles: contractile and extensional devices, air-operated and grouped in
pairs: an agonist and an antagonist. They are very light and are mainly used in robotics;
they emulate the human muscles operations. That is why they are called like that.
Electrical actuators: its structure is simpler than the other two aforementioned because it only
requires electrical energy and therefore, it is not limited by distance. There are many models,
and it is easy to use electrical actuators standardized according to the application. Nowadays,
the most used are the continuous current motors because they are the easiest to control. An
excitation field is generated by the permanent magnets with a rotation from 1000 up to 3000
rpm and power up to 10 KW. In most cases, it is necessary to use reducers because of the
continuous operation motors.

Conclusion
In this topic, you studied the two most important components of the industrial network:
actuators and sensors. All the automated processes are performed using sensors and
actuators. Without them, the automation process would be impossible because they are the
eyes, ears, and hands of every industrial robot. There is a wide number of devices offered in
the market, therefore, as an engineer, you have a wide variety of equipment to choose. Besides,
you reviewed the topic of connections, like DeviceNET and AS-Interface, which allow the
information flow in a fast, secure and reliable way.

Introduction
Did you know that the environment indicates the type of network to implement within an
industrial plant?
The environment where the network is installed, industrial plant, office, university, is an
important factor to select, among the different types of networks, the most appropriate type
according to the characteristics.
Besides, even though we are within an industrial plant, it is necessary to select among many
types of networks according to the plant level.
In this topic, you will see the characteristics, advantages, and limitations of different networks,
like:

• Factory network
• Plant network
• Cell network
• Fieldbus

In this topic, you will study the first three types of networks.

Explanation
• 9.1 Process Management

All organizations are divided into two big parts: production of goods and supply of services. All
organizations perform three functions, which are the necessary ingredients not only for the
production but also for the survival of an organization.

1. Marketing: it is the stage to position a product in the market and to locate customers.
2. Production/operations: this is when the product or service is created.
3. Finances/accounting: it monitors the progress of the organization, it pays the bills and
collects the money.

The administrative process consists of:

Planning

Organizing

Advising

Leading

Controlling
The decisions made by managers need to pass through an understanding of the process and
the impact on the efficiency of the operation and the strategy of the company; if a manager
does not know the production process, a wrong decision made by him may have negative
consequences in the production process.
The engineers must be sure that there is good communication between the departments
involved in the fulfillment of the three functions of the enterprise. Most of the devices operated
by the engineers are located in the production and operations process, but in addition to these
devices, the industrial networks are also involved.
Industrial network management means the administration of all the policies and procedures
required for the planning, configuration, control and monitoring of the elements of a network,
to have an efficient and effective communication means to provide information for the correct
operation of the plant.
For the network management, it is necessary to consider three aspects: functional, temporary
and scenario. These parts establish our duties as network managers.

The elements involved in the network management process are:

Objects: low-level elements. It is the hardware to be managed.
Agents: tool or software to configure some important indicators of a network, which must be
considered to know the network status. They provide this information: problem notification,
diagnostic data, node identifier, node characteristics, object status, etc.
System administrator: a set of tools programs located in a central point that receives the
messages requiring action or containing the information requested by the administrator to the
agent.
Administrator: individual responsible for the management and configuration of a network. The
administrator, using the agents and system administrator, monitors the performance of the
objects within a network.

• 9.2 Factory and Plant Network

Factory Network
This network is designed for the office, accounting and administration, sales, orders
management, warehouse, etc. the volume of information to be interchanged is high and the
response time is not critical. This network receives information like reports, orders information,
payroll, control of expenses and payments, mails, messages, databases for warehouse
inventory and purchases. It is applied at management and control offices, human resources,
quality control, and marketing.
As it is designed for office environments, it does not require special devices, only a secure
server to hold all the vital information to work. Besides, this network requires a very high-
security level because all the information sent through this network is exclusive and important.
The information of this network must be transmitted in such a way that they cannot be
intercepted by external users, like the competition.
For example, the warehouse staff needs access to the databases to do the inventory; they
require access to the server that holds information regarding products and there may be the
possibility to modify data, if necessary.
Plant Network
It is used to interconnect manufacturing modules and cells and some departments like design
or planning. It is used to link the functions of engineering and planning to the functions of the
plant production control and operations sequence.
This network holds information directly related to production. Information regarding how, when
and how much, is sent to the plant by the design and planning departments. In the plant
network, some elements are involved: fieldbuses, sensor, and actuators. They are located in
the production part and control computers, which send the orders of volume and design of
products.
This network requires a higher protection against weather conditions because it is inside the
plant, exposed to the elements of the process; however, the security level can be lower than
the level of the factory network. Some special protocols are required to access from the office
computers and field devices.
Example
One example is the transmission to a numerical control system of the machining process,
developed in the CAD/CAM design department. These networks are able to transfer messages
of any size, effectively manage transfer errors (detect and correct), cover wide areas (they can
cover many kilometers), administrate messages according to priorities (emergency
management in CAD/CAM files transfer, and have enough bandwidth to receive data from
other sub-networks like voice, video, etc.

• 9.3 Cellular Network

Also known as the mobile network, it interconnects the production devices that work in a
sequential mode like Robots, Computer Numerical Control (CNC), Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC) and Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) (Stallings, 2004).
The information sent in this type of network is a data interchange between sensors and
actuators connected through fieldbuses and communication protocols. For example, in
automotive assembly plants, the CAN protocol is used. The number of nodes in this network is
high; therefore, one of the most important requirements is the possibility to replace devices
without interrupting the network. The delivery speed is key; however, as it transfers short
messages, this network does not require a wide band.
The desirable characteristics of these networks are:

• Efficient administration of short messages.

• Efficacy to process traffic of discrete events.
• Error control mechanisms (detect and correct).
• Possibility to transfer urgent messages.
• Low cost of installation and node connection.
• Fast recovery in unusual events in the network and high reliability.
 In this level, continuing at the plant level, we can locate the MAP networks (Manufacturing
Automation Protocol) as a representative example (Forester, 1992).
The diagram shown below presents an example of a cellular network.

Retrieved from http://www.anybus.com/technologies/profibus_tech.shtml

For educational purposes only.

Conclusion
In this topic, you reviewed the division of networks within a production plant. It is important to
consider the place where the network will be installed, the purpose, the type of data to be
transmitted, the importance of the information transmitted (urgency, sensibility), etc. Based on
that information, you can make the best decision about the design of the industrial network.
The designs can vary drastically and sometimes there is no proportion between them; that is,
we can have a plant network considerably big and a factory network relatively small.

Introduction
Have you ever wondered how a computer “understands” that it is connected to the network?
How does it know its place? How is it identified among many computers connected, for
example, to an airport network?
In this topic, you will learn how the computers are identified within the network, the protocols
that were standardized, and the ones used in these days; you will also learn some foundations
that will let you solve simple connection problems without asking for technical support. Also,
you will study the application of Ethernet in the industrial field, which is growing fast because
of the advantages and possibilities provided by Ethernet for the industrial applications.

Explanation
• 10.1 TCP/IP Protocol – Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol

While different types of networks were developed (mainly satellite radio), some
communication problems among them started to arise. The new architecture was approved by
the United States Department of Defense, and it was released as the TCP/IP reference model
because of its two primary protocols. The greatest concern of the Department of Defense
during the first years of the Cold War (1960 – 1970) was the possibility of attacks from the
enemy, mainly from the Soviet Union. The purpose of the new technology was to keep a
functional network if some machines or transmission lines stopped working due to any attack.
All these requirements led to the selection of a network based on a layer without connection,
working through different networks, with the transport layer and the application layer.
The TCP/IP model does not have a physical layer; it starts with the Internet layer; its function is
to allow hosts to send packets in any network and have them arrive independently at the target
point even though it is on a different network.
The original file is divided into packets when it is sent; packets arrive at the target point without
following the order in which they were sent.
The IP (Internet Protocol) part of the model ensures that all the packets required to complete
the file arrived and organizes them.
The first part of the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) model is a reliable protocol focused
on the connection; it allows that an information flow from a machine reaches, without errors,
any machine of the internetwork; after that, the TCP process receiver connects again the
messages to form the output flow.
These processes take place in the transport layer (Stallings, 2004).
The application layer is located above the transport layer, the application layer contains all the
high-level protocols; for example, direct mail (SMTP), mail recovered from server (POP3), files
transfer (FTP), logical links texts (HTTP), protocol to transfer media in real time – like voice,
music, and movies (RTP)—, etc.
As any other object in the world, TCP/IP protocol is not perfect. Its advantages are its
weaknesses as well. For example, the software engineering requires a distinction between
specification and implementation, but it does not exist in the TCP/IP model. It is not
appropriate for other protocols (for example, it cannot be used for a Bluetooth transmission).
Since the beginning, this protocol was distributed for free; it was very popular, and it is
currently used in many parts. Thus, replacing this protocol with another one is a hard task,
almost impossible. For this reason, engineers are working to improve the protocol releasing
new versions of TCP/IP 4 or 6.
TCP/IP 4 is the version used since 1981, 32 bits, and format of the address assigned to the
user type 192.168.0.1. This protocol allows the connection of up to 256 computers in a sub-
network.
TCP/IP 6 is an improved version of 128 bits. IP addresses could be automatically obtained,
which will make easier the creation of networks, at a local and external levels. It makes
possible the VoIP communications or quality video conferences, without noise and
interruptions.

• 10.2 Ethernet Advantages and Disadvantages

From a physical point of view, Industrial Ethernet is an electrical network based on a shielded
coaxial line, a twisted pair cabling or an optical network based on a fiber optic conductor.
Industrial Ethernet is defined by the international standard IEEE 802.3.
Next, you will find the chronology of the industrial implementation of Ethernet:

1985 The Ethernet standard at 10 Mbps is published by IEEE (802.3), and it was
immediately accepted by the local area communication field.

1993 The first Full Duplex and Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps) switches appeared. It was
standardized in 1995.

1999 The open ModBus/TCP specification is published. This protocol is supported by

TCP at the transport level, IP at the network level and Ethernet for the lower
layers.

2000 The Ethernet/IP standard was adopted by the organization of devices

manufacturers DeviceNet (ODVA). Ethernet/IP is supported by Ethernet and also
by TCP-UDP/IP for the layers of network and transport, using the advantages of
UDP for short, repetitive and fast transmissions, and TCP for long and occasional
transmissions that require higher security.

The implementation of Ethernet as a support for high-level protocols was clear at a business
level (ERP level in the production structure), and it was quickly applied at the Data Room level
(MES and SCADA levels). The change to a Control level (communication between DCSs,
automata, and local HMI systems) was possible when the electronic network was
implemented in the process control units.
Click on every button to see the description.

Advantages

1. It is simple: Ethernet is just a serial connection, with a coaxial cable and "T"
adapters. There are no centers, transceivers or other used devices.

2. Relatively inexpensive: the simple design of Ethernet is a non-expensive

technology to be implemented.

3. Resistance to interferences: coaxial cable used in Ethernet networks, it is

shielded and provides a high resistance to the electrical noise caused by
external sources.

Disadvantages

1. Hard to replace: the reconfiguration of Ethernet is a hard process. Any change in the
network will lead to “idle time.” Besides, the coaxial cable cannot be used for any other
purpose; if the network is changed, the cables become waste.

2. Low resistance to errors and failures: If any section of the device or cable connected to
the network fails, it may be possible that the whole network loses communication.

3. Complicated solutions to problems: In Ethernet networks, it is hard to identify the

section of the node or cable that is not working. The process to eliminate the possible
failures may take a long time.

• 10.3 PROFINET and ProfiENERGY uses

PROFINET is an open standard for industrial use. The network has been developed by
SIEMENS and Profibus International (PI) (Alonso, 2013). The aim was to create an automation
standard, where Industrial Ethernet and Standard Ethernet can be used together in the
industrial field, and to have manufacturing automation processes in real time and the direct
integration with Fieldbus.
PROFINET specifies the functions for the total automation, for example, the installation of the
network, its security, the web-based diagnosis, update and maintenance of the network.
PROFINET can be enlarged in future, if necessary, thanks to the module structure.
A PROFINET device always has, at least, an Industrial Ethernet connection; it is composed
of slots to install modules or sub-modules, if necessary. Inside them, there are channels to
read or send process signals.
The network allows the use of connectors RJ45, M12 or fiber optics, with a transmission speed
of 100 Mbit/s. The maximum number of stations is unlimited, with a correct operation of the
diagnosis and alarms in real time.
PROFINET provides a scalable performance with three levels:
TCP / IP: for non-real time applications.
Real time (RT): for a transfer of critical process data in real time.
TCP / IP: for non-real time applications.
Besides, there are two perspectives of engineering in PROFINET: PROFINET I/O (distributed
peripherally) and PROFINET CBA (distributed automation).
PROFINET is used worldwide, but it is especially strong in the center of Europe.
PROFIENERGY - green movements and campaigns are currently very common around the
world, sometimes fines are applied if these campaigns are not applied. In some countries, the
government is forcing the population to save resources like water, energy, and gas. This is
happening in the industrial sector as well. High costs per energy consumption are making that
many companies apply energy saving method. Some of them are simple and traditional, for
example, turn off equipment if they are not used; and there are more advanced methods, like
auto-shutdowns.
What companies need is the installation of an energy-saving module in the existing equipment.
A possible solution is the PROFIenergy profile, which allows that control devices (PLC, for
example) send signals to the energy consumption units (ECU). These signals establish pauses
for lunch time, holidays, randomized shutdown in lines or load conditions. When the signal is
received from PROFIenergy, the ECUs “agents” start the energy saving mode predefined for the
pause.

Conclusion
In this topic, you learned about TCP/IP protocol, why it is popular and its importance in the
networks field. You also reviewed advantages and areas of opportunity of industrial Ethernet
and the way it is implemented in the industrial networks. Finally, you learned the uses of
PROFINET and PROFIENERGY which are currently being used as a solution to the compatibility
problems between conventional and industrial Ethernet, and the reasons to reduce energy
consumption.
Introduction
Did you know that you always use a bus in your student life? No, it is not about people
transportation, but data transfer like the Universal Serial Bus (USB), which is an essential
device for everyone since some time ago.
The use of buses is also essential in the industrial networks. This topic will focus on the lowest
part of the automation pyramid, where you can find the field devices that have immediate
contact with the production process. The characteristics of this level are specific to fulfill the
need for intercommunication in real-time, accurate, exact, and fast in a hostile environment
with high electromagnetic interference and hard weather conditions.

Explanation
• 11.1 Field Networks Characteristics

Combine multiple devices in a digital network is only the first step towards the organization of
an efficient and reliable interaction. When the communication systems are homogeneous
(uniform), for example, when you have devices built by the same manufacturer, there are no
problems with hardware or software. But, when it is about the construction of systems that use
devices of different manufacturers, there would be an inevitable compatibility trouble.
The single systems work with unique communication protocols, produced and maintained by
the same company; they are known as closed systems. Most of these systems were created
when the integration problems of different manufacturers were not relevant.
However, there is a growing integration trend for the products of the different manufacturer in
only one unified system. In these cases, the manufacturers of devices and equipment allow
the use of protocols in an open and free way to build them, which is known as open systems.
The use of a structure with all the devices unified makes integration, installation, and
maintenance easier.
A network can be open if it fulfills the following criteria:

• Complete specifications published with the option to purchase at a reasonable cost.

• Availability of a minimum number of spare parts of some independent suppliers..
• Organization of a well-defined process for the ratification of possible additions to the
standards and specifications.
The open FieldBus technology must have the following basic characteristics:

• Interconnectivity: the possibility for the physical inclusion of devices of different

manufacturers in a network.
• Have the required elements: active – passive nodes and repeaters.
• Interoperability: the possibility to build a viable network based on the inclusion of
components from different suppliers.
• Reduction of costs and cables.
• Integrity with a network of other levels, for example, with TCP/IP.
• Fast response time and reliable communication.
• Inter-changeability – the possibility to interchange similar devices of other manufacturers.
• Open interfaces.
• Ease of installation and less maintenance time.

Obviously, the final objective of the installation of an open industrial network is to reach
interchangeability of the individual components. This is possible if the protocols specifications
are complete, and there is an organized system of test and certification of new products.
The industry is implementing open systems like Fieldbus, due to the versatility and ease of
connection; however, there is still an important part of the market using closed systems,
mainly in the governmental organizations and some companies with outdated processes.

• 11.2 Field Networks Standards

If you are using a cable, you can only communicate two devices in a point-to-point connection.
If you install a bus you can involve more devices and transfer data in a serial mode (except for
some protocols like SCSI o IEEE-488).

Master/slave The easiest way of

communication through
Fieldbus is
the master/slavelink. Some
slaves are assigned to a
master; before the data
 transfer, they ensure that the
channel is available.

Token/bus Another way of

communication is the token
bus. It is a linear bus
transferring information to
other parts of the system; it
is efficient and fast, but
more expensive than
the master/slave
configuration.

Token/passing Another option that you can

use is the combination of the
two communication methods
above-mentioned.
With token passing every
intelligent slave can become
the master at any time (in
the case of ProfiBus) and if
the bus closes forming a
ring, we get a token
ring (IEEE 802.5). In the
token ring network, if one
device fails or the cable gets
broken, then the entire net
does not work.

Most of the buses work with interface RS 485. Some others are:

• ASI (Actuator Sensor Interface) – born in 1990 to get rid of cabling between binary
actuators and sensors (1 or 0 transmission signals). After that, the bus evolved to
communicate with intelligent elements to transfer data and parameters in addition to the
binary signals. The ASI bus is an easier communication system; therefore, it is used in the
lowest part of the automation pyramid. It is an open system defied by the European
standard.
• BITBUS – it is composed of basic elements called nodes. A node is any device containing
at least one interface with the bus. The possible nodes are master, slave, repeater and
expansion E/S. BITBUS allows a master to communicate up to 249 slaves. It is a registered
trademark of Intel, but they gave the public access to the standard, so it is considered an
open standard. It is applied industrial environment to transfer information.

• FMS (Fieldbus Message Specification) – Profibus FMS protocols are designed specifically
for the management of automated systems in the industrial companies. They are mainly
designed for communication between operator stations and programmable logic
controllers. The protocols are used in areas where speed, high reliability, and functionality
are very important. The client-server communication is established when the Profibus FMS
protocols are used. In this case, the client is an application process regarding a specific
service for automated installations. The server is responsible for the execution services.

• DP standard DIN E 19245 T3 – this is the European ProfiBus standard. This version is
designed especially for the communication between I/O and control automated systems
distributed at a field level (distributed periphery). It is mainly used in low-cost applications
to transfer short messages at a high speed. In spite of the high-performance quality, this
technology has not been widely accepted in the market of United States, Canada, and
Mexico because of its European origin.

• PA standard DIN E 19245 T4 – this standard uses the transmission technology specified in
IEC 1158-2. This is a synchronous transmission at 31.2 kbit/sec fulfilling important
requirements of the chemical and petrochemical industries: intrinsic security and power
supply to devices through the bus using a two-wired copper cable. This way, we can use
Profibus in risky areas for the control of chemical processes.

• 11.3 Buses Applications

The first and most important reason to apply fieldbuses is the simplification of cabling. Before
the industrial fieldbuses technology, analog information was transferred with the analog
standard of 4-20 mA current, and the digital (two levels 1 and 0, false - true) through 0-24V
signals. The design, installation, and maintenance were hard and expensive because it was
necessary to connect a cable to every device.
The inclusion of the bus allows a cable (bus) to connect many devices. This helps to reduce
cable and lower the costs. On average, the estimated cable reduction is 20%.
Next, you will find a diagram of the wired conventional process (on the left) and with buses (on
the right):

As you can see in the figure, the number of cables is drastically reduced with a Bus system.
The maintenance is easier with the reduction of cables; instead of installing kilometers of
cables in all the plant, you only need a wired connection between the device and the closest
bus. The costs for maintenance and installation are also drastically reduced. A single network
with all the elements unified allows the monitoring, software update and the diagnostic, if
necessary.
Another positive characteristic of the fieldbuses is the ease to install new devices. Now, you
only install a new element in the evolving system (the inevitable situation in the industrial field)
and connect it to the bus.
The design and understanding of electrical layouts are easier in the case of fieldbuses, you do
not need the description of every cable installed between controller and device, you only need
the description of the cable between the bus and the device. Besides, the components are low
cost with open, standardized interfaces in case of open systems.

Conclusion
Industrial networks must be reliable in hostile environments, with vibrations, high
temperatures, humidity, electromagnetic radiations, etc. the number of orders is not
continuous, but the speed of transmission must be the same to deliver messages in a fast way
and without communication errors.

Introduction
Computers and microprocessors are used in many ways in our daily life. The concept
“intelligent devices” mean that there is a microprocessor in these units. In the modern
automation systems, some valves, which were completely passive, now can communicate,
receive orders and send information about their work conditions. To receive communication
signals, it is necessary to have a means that fulfills the requirements of functionality, reliability,
and transparency. The Fieldbus is, first, a method to combine physical devices; and second, the
software and protocol logic of its interaction.

Explanation
• 12.1 FieldBus (Field Network) and ProfiBus (Process Field Bus)

Even though the Fieldbus technology appeared more than 15 years ago, it is not the principal.
This is mainly due to the lack of an international standard of industrial network protocol that
could guarantee the compatibility between products of different manufacturers (Alonso, 2013).
Throughout its development path, the Fieldbus technology passed through some key stages.
Click on each button to read the information.

The first stage

In 1984, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) began the development process
of a unique universal standard for industrial networks. The objective was to provide a universal
network able to establish communication in an automation system of multiple levels.
Everything started so well. After 14 years, a draft of the specification IEC IEC61158 was
released – a candidate for a universal network. The experts immediately said that this decision
has been obsolete, and there is no reason to continue working on it.

The second stage

In 1987, the German Federal Ministry of Research and Technology started a project called
“Fieldbus.” A group of specialists from 13 companies and 5 institutes started to work on the
specification of an open industrial network, called PROFIBUS (Process Field Bus), based on the
ISO / OSI interworking descriptive model. A considerable success regarding this work occurred
in April 1991, when the PROFIBUS specification received the “registration” in Germany –
national standard DIN19245. In that year, the first PROFIBUS product was launched to the
market.

The third stage

In 1992, two groups: WorldFip and ISP – North America Foundation started to work
independently towards a unified standard. In 1994, these groups worked together to form
the Fieldbus Foundation (FF), whose result was the introduction to the market of an industrial
network called Foundation Fieldbus (1996). FF uses a modification to the standard IEC1158 - 2
for the physical layer and the concept of the project ISP / PROFIBUS for the application layer.
Thus, FF - Protocol was very similar to the PROFIBUS -PA.

Fourth stage
At this moment, IEC has been working since 1984 in the field of standard solutions for
industrial networks. The European community of consumers and producers of fieldbuses
decided to define a unique European standard. Based on some criteria, they identified some
options and on March 15, 1996, in Brussels, they voted to approve the project EN50170. The
project of the European standard EN50170 incorporated entirely three national standards in the
field of industrial networks: PROFIBUS (Germany), FIP (France) and P- NET (Denmark). All
these solutions are supported by the national standards.
There are also some others like CAN, LON, PROFIBUS, Interbus-S, FIP, FF, DeviceNet, SDS, ASI,
HART, ControlNet protocols and much more in the industrial networks market. Each one has
its characteristics and applications. In this context, there is not a unique and uniform
international industrial network, which allows that every independent technology would
inevitable face competition. It is clear that soon or later there may remain only a few
technologies focused on the main target of business users and independent manufacturers.

• 12.2 Technology

The origin of the term FieldBus is the word field, which means region, sphere. In the industrial
networks, the fieldbuses are applied to the level of devices connected directly to the
production process and materials processing. The notification data output to the system is
organized through a standard office network like Ethernet by a TCP/IP protocol.
Fieldbus is an essential term to define a digital network designed to replace analog technology
4-20mA, which was used before. This network is digital, bidirectional (full duplex), with some
access points, designed to connect different-operation devices, for example, controllers,
sensors, actuators, among others. The writing and reading of data in the bus is managed by
using protocols.
Every device can perform a self-monitoring, control, and maintenance of the bidirectional
communication. It is accessible, not only from the engineering control point but also by the
similar devices. Therefore, the Fieldbus technology is more than a simple replacement of the 4-
20mA technology. Fieldbus is a network for industrial applications, logically, similar to LAN
networks used in the office applications.
After years of attempts to develop a universal network without results, the Fieldbus
Foundation came up with a solution combining the development of different association
sources. The result is shown below:

Current FF

• FF H1 physical layer (slow) provides an operation speed of 31.25 Kbit/s. This

implementation of the physical layer is based on a modified version of the IEC
1158-2 standard, and it is designed to join two devices operating in potentially
explosive atmospheres.

• FF H2 physical layer (fast) provides an operation speed of 1 Mbit/s, and it is also

based on the IEC 1158-2 standard.

• The network layer uses elements of the project IEC / ISA SP50 of the industrial
network.
 • The application layer includes elements of the ISP / Profibus project.

• 12.3 Standardization

PROFIBUS consists of a range of compatible products. There are three main options for
PROFIBUS, thus, under this common name we have to identify them depending on their
application. The three versions share a common protocol of data link layer (layer 2 OSI-model).
The three protocols are PROFIBUS-FMS, PROFIBUS-DP and PROFIBUS-PA.

PROFIBUS-FMS
It is a universal solution for the interaction problems at the superior level (plant) and the lower
level (field) of the industrial networks hierarchy. The protocol FMS (FMS - Fieldbus Message
Specification) offers a wide range of functionality and flexibility to perform extensive tasks
related to the fast data transfer services. Since 1990, PROFIBUS-FMS is the national standard
in Germany DIN 19245, parts 1 and 2. The PROFIBUS-FMS protocol appeared. First, it was
designed to work at a plant level. It requires a high level of functionality, and this criterion is
more important than the speed criterion.
FMS-protocol allows the hybrid architecture between nodes and it is based on concepts such
as virtual network device, device objects (variable, array, record, memory area, etc.), logical
addressing, etc.
PROFIBUS-DP
It is a version of the PROFIBUS optimized performance, designed specifically for the
interaction in critical time between the automation systems and peripheral devices. PROFIBUS-
DP is based on Part 1 of the DIN 19245 standard, which is complemented with the efficient
communication functions for special purposes. Since 1993, the PROFIBUS-DP version is
available as a project of the German standard DIN 19243, part 3.
The PROFIBUS-DP protocol was designed to organize the fast communication channel with a
field level.
The algorithm consists of a model of cyclic requests. Besides, there is a set of non-cyclic
functions for the configuration, diagnostic and support signals.
 There are three types of devices in DP-protocol:

• Class 2 master (DPM2): it can work for configuration and diagnostic of the
network devices.

• Class 1 master (DPM1): it is about the programmable automata (PLC, PC),

in the working mode, they are the main nodes in the network.

• Slaves (DP slave): they are passive devices with analog or digital
inputs/outputs.

DP-protocol allows the organization of the communication system with only one Master (one
DPM1 and up to 126 DP slaves) and the configuration of many Master (multiple DPM1 and DP
slaves).
PROFIBUS-PA protocol is an extension of the DP-protocol of the data transfer technology. PA
is not based on RS485, but in the application of the standard IEC1158-2 for transmissions in
explosive atmospheres. For the communication of devices, it is necessary only a twisted pair;
that can be simultaneously used for the information interchange and the devices input. It has
the same data format than ProfiBus-DP protocol. The information regarding the control
commands and status are digitally transmitted to the master and up to 31 participants
connected to the same cable.
PROFIBUS-ISP
The InterOperable Systems Project (ISP) is based on the PROFIBUS technology and is
complemented with the abilities of control and self-protection. ISP prpovides the complete
interoperability technology between the DDL - Device Description Language and the Function
Blocks. At the physical level, ISP is 100% compatible with the Fieldbus International Standard
(IEC 1158-2).
The PROFIBUS components can be connected to the ISP networks through a single repeater.
The PNO organization (PROFIBUS Nutzer-Organisation) and the ISPF (ISP) work together under
a cooperation agreement.
In the same physical channel (RS485 or fiber optic) can work the three types of PROFIBUS
devices simultaneously. The operation speed can be selected in the range of 9,6-12000 Kbit/s.
Studies developed by marketing companies mention that PROFIBUS covers more than the 40%
of the open industrial networks of the market in Germany and Europe. The implementation
continues growing fast in the American market.
FF and Profibus-PA protocols are similar; therefore, the European Standardization Association
CENELEC has presented a proposal to include the FF standard in the EuroNorm 50170
standard.

Conclusion
If you are about to choose a communication technology, you can check the quantitative
parameters (load volume of transmitted data, maximum bus length, allowed number of nodes
in the bus, resistance to industrial interference, etc.), the cost criterion (cost per unit),
popularity, efficiency in the resolution of problems, ease of configuration, etc. but, also
consider that the improvement of a parameter may result in the deterioration of another one.
However, the most important criteria must be coherent with the open systems principles –
standardization and availability. This allows manufacturers and users to make reliable
predictions and guarantee the security of their investments.
The idea of a universal network for any occasion would be comfortable, but it is very unlikely.
Each implementation of an industrial network has its advantages and disadvantages.

Introduction

It would be ideal to have a universal bus for all the industrial applications, without worrying
about the type of data to be transferred and the type of devices to be connected; a universal
bus is still the dream of engineers. For now, it is important to consider many factors about the
production processes in the industrial environment to choose the correct bus.

Explanation
• 13.1 History and Evolution
The history of the CAN protocol started in the early 1980s when the creation of technology and
the operation of modern vehicles required the installation of many sensors, linked through a
single information network with the shutdown in the computer located inside the vehicle.
BOSCH company (Germany) developed the CAN protocol (Control Area Network) for this
purpose. The protocol was accredited with the ISO11898 international standard.
According to the characteristics, the protocol not only fulfills the real-time requirements, but it
also works efficiently for the detection and correction of erroneous signals.
CANbus – is a serial bus with decentralized access based on the model CSMA/CM. The
possible conflicts associated with the simultaneous access to the bus are solved by the
priority of the messages to be transmitted.

Retrieved from: http://img.directindustry.es/.

For educational purposes only.

The history of the development of this protocol is a clear example of how the non-standardized
work leads to a series of incompatible protocols. The development of the CAN protocol
stopped through the determination of the first two levels of the OSI model. The following levels
were designed and developed as autonomous solutions:
CAN11
(BMW)
SDS
(Honeywell)
DeviceNet
(Allen Bradley)
CAL (CIA -
Association)
SeleCAN
(Selectron)
Spain
(Kvaser)
It is evident that this situation is not convenient for the users, they must make a decision
among the variations of CAN. The current leaders are SDS and DeviceNet (in the USA market)
and CAL (in Europe).
Modbus was developed by the Modicon Company to use it in programmable logic controllers
(PLCs). The protocol was published by the first time in 1979. From the beginning, it was an
open standard, describing the formats for messages and the methods to send them to the
network composed of different electronic devices.
In the beginning, the Modicon controllers used the RS-232 serial interface, some time later it
became the RS-485 interface, providing more flexibility, low cost, only one power source of
+5V, ability to have multiple receptors and transmissions, transmission speed and connection
to many devices in the same line.
Many equipment manufactures used this electronic standard, and they found in the market
hundreds of products working with Modbus. Nowadays, the non-profit organization Modbus-
IDA is responsible for the development of Modbus, supported by the manufacturers and users
of the established electronic devices. The Modicon Company was purchased by Schneider
Electric.

• 13.2 Physical and Data Layer

ModBus
The physical means of connection may be a half-duplex bus (RS-485 or fiber optic). This
means sending data by devices in one bus direction. It may also be a full duplex (RS-422, BC 0-
20mA or fiber optic). This means sending data by devices in both bus directions. The
communication is asynchronous, and the maximum distance between stations depends on the
physical level, it can reach up to 1200 m without repeaters.
The logic structure is the master-slave type, with access to the environment controlled by the
master. The maximum number of planned stations is 63 slaves and a master station. The
interchange of messages can be of two types:

1 Point-to-point interchange, always composed of two messages: a request of

the master and an answer of the slave.

2 Broadcast messages, which consist of a unidirectional communication from

the master to all the slaves. This type of message does not have a response
by the slaves, and they are used to send common configuration data, reset,
etc.

The operation is very simple: the master requests and the slaves respond or act based on the
request. The ModBus always work with one master and one or more slaves, where the master
controls at any time, the beginning of the communication with slaves, requesting information
from the other devices that are connected working as slaves, and providing information to
slaves, which according to the specification, can be up to 247 in the same network. The slave
only returns the data requested by the master. Each slave must have a unique direction so that
the master knows how to communicate directly. From a practical point of view, there cannot
exist two slave devices with the same Modbus direction. The master always starts the
communication sending a well-structured information packet to all the slaves; the slave ID is
included in the information sent. The selected slave responds, sending a well-structured data
packet.
CAN
The physical layer is always responsible for the transfer of bits between the different modules
of the network. Different elements of the transfer are established, for example,
synchronization, transfer time, signal levels, coding, etc.
The physical layer of CAN was not defined since the beginning, so users had different options
to pick. Some time later, the electrical signals in the bus were established by the ISO standard
11898.
Currently, the most used specification is CiA (CAN in Automation), it complemented the
physical environment and connectors. The modules connected to the bus interpret two logic
levels:
Dominant: the differential tension (CAN_H-CAN_L) is 2.0V with CAN_H=3.5V and CAN_L=1.5V
(nominal).
Recessive: the differential tension (CAN_H-CAN_L) is 5V with CAN_H=0V CAN_L=5V (nominal).
The shorter the length of the bus, the faster the message is received. For example, for delivery
at 30 meters, the speed reaches 1Mbps, at the distance of 500 meters slows down up to 125
Kbps.
All devices in a CAN network have their clock. A crystal oscillator and the transfer speed is
adjusted to have the same on all devices.
To transfer data, some electrical and optical means are used, UTP or STP twisted-pair cable,
with the differential transmission, depending on the distance.
The CAN bus layer used for the industrial applications is called node. Each CAN node is an
electronic control unit, consisting of a microprocessor with the application program and the
software for the higher layers of protocol, a CAN controller and a high-speed CAN transceiver
on a wire pair according to ISO-11898-2. There are many low-cost microcontrollers that include
a CAN controller; they are available in the market. There are more than 50 devices of 15
manufacturers that offer CAN controllers as independent devices and as a model in
programmable logic.
The data layer in the CAN protocol is composed of two sub-layers.
There are many types of different frames:

Data Frame Arbitration Field Control Field

Remote Frame Start of Frame Data Field

Error Frame Bus Idle CRC Field Interframe Space

Overload Frame Interframe Space ACK Field End of Frame

Data Frame – the transmitter node sends data to the bus to the receivers. The information can
be from 0 to 8 bytes long.
Remote Frame – a node can request the transmission of the data frame with the same
identifier. The node with the information defined by the identifier will transmit it in a data
frame.
Error Frame – the information regarding a bus error is transmitted to the nodes.
Overload Frame – is used to provide the node with an extra delay to process information
between the preceding and the succeeding data frame.
Start of Frame Field- the message begins with a dominant bit, whose leading edge is used by
the modules for synchronization.
Interframe Space (IFS) – it is a predefined sequence to separate data messages.
Bus Idle – inactivity intervals, when the recessive level is activated.
Arbitration Field
The 11 bits of this field are used as identifiers to recognize the priority message modules. The
lower the value of the identifier, the higher will be the priority; therefore, it determines the order
to introduce the messages of the line.
Control Field
This field informs about the characteristics of the data field. The IDE bit displays a "0" when it
is a standard frame (BasicCAN, 11 bits) and a "1" when it is an extended frame (PeliCAN, 29
bits).
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
This field is 16 bits long and is used to detect errors during the first 15, and the last one will
always be a recessive bit (1) to delimit the CRC field.
Acknowledge field (ACK)
ACK field is composed of two bits that are always transmitted as recessive (1). All modules
that receive the same CRC modify the first bit of the ACK field by one dominant (0), so that the
module transferring data recognizes that at least one module has correctly received one
message. If not, the module that is transferring data interprets that the message contains an
error.
End-Of-Frame field (EOF)
This field indicates the end of a message with a 7-recesive-bits chain. Certain messages may
produce a long chain of zeroes and ones, resulting in a loss of synchronization between
modules. The CAN protocol solves this situation keeping one bit of different value every five
equal bits: a “1” is inserted every five "0" or backward. The module that uses this message
discards one bit after five consecutive equal bits; this process is called bit stuffing (Alonso,
2013).

• 13.3 Advantages and Limitations

ModBus
the main advantage of Modbus is that there is no need for special controllers, besides, the
application software is simple, and the operation fundamentals are easy. These elements
reduce the cost for the development of the Modbus standard. The high degree of access to
this protocol is secured by completely free standards, which can be downloaded from its
website.
The main disadvantage of the Modbus application is the communication means:
“master/slave” type. This way of data interchange does not allow slaves to transfer data when
they receive them and which is ready to send. In this type of communication, the master needs
many requirements for every slave regarding the available data.
One example may be that someone (master) calls a friend (slave), and he is not at home. The
easiest solution would be to leave a message so that the friend calls back when he is at home.
However, the master/slave relation does not allow this process, instead of following a logic
process, it will continue calling until he is back home.
CAN
One of the advantages of CAN is that it is more reliable, for example, it has less plug-in
connectors, which may cause errors. The cabling used for this standard is less complex and
less expensive. It is easy to implement and replace because the additional elements (for
example, control units) are easy to integrate. The place of installation can be interchangeable
and without electrical complications. Cables can be easily evaluated.
One of the disadvantages is the high cost of the software. It is likely to have an undesirable
interaction during the normal interaction. Besides, there is a risk to have the incomplete
technology for the client.

Conclusion
Nowadays, there is a large number of protocols available in the market; it is important to know
the characteristics of some of them to apply them according to the specification of the
designed production. The study of this topic helped you to understand the functions of the
fieldbuses, the advantages, and disadvantages for the client, as well as the different
applications of an industrial network. You learned that the CAN protocol is mainly used in the
automotive industry. This type of technology has been adopted by large companies like BMW
to transfer information in its control network, which allows a more efficient work of the
diagnostic tools used for field devices.

Introduction
Some companies that develop different protocols are trying to find a universal solution to
connect devices of different manufacturers in the same network. One of the most successful
projects in this area is the technology OPC - (Object Linking for Process Control). I invite you to
study further this topic related to the OPC technology.

Explanation
• 14.1 Origin

OPC (Object Linking for Process Control) is the industrial standard created by a consortium of
manufacturers supported by Microsoft. Most of the companies that offer distributed control
equipment, instruments, databases, etc. to their clients, have the key to connect with the
control network through the OPC interface. Having equipment, within a process network, able
to “talk” or communicate with the OPC tool, helps the company to reduce costs regarding
licenses or specialized software to communicate different equipment. The OPC standard
describes the communication interface between the control devices and computer
applications. The main purpose is to provide developers with some independence of a
determined type of controllers. OPC technology is based on the technology OLE/COM/DCOM
of Microsoft, Inc.
OLE for Process Control (OPC) is an open standard to share data between field devices and
computer applications, based on Microsoft’s OLE (Object Linking and Embedding). It allows
interaction of information from different equipment or applications, providing the user with the
opportunity to read and write process values. The standard, controlled by the OPC foundation,
is public domain and allows free access.

Retrieved from: http://www.ceasiamag.com/cmsimages/0909_CEA_pg30.jpg.

For educational purposes only.
 When a program receives data from different sources, the following problems may
appear:

• Every program must have a sending controller for each device, especially in automation
systems.

• There is a conflict among conductors of different suppliers, which leads to equipment

parameters or modes unsupported by devices of different manufacturers.

• Modifications in the equipment may result in loss of functionality of the controller.

• Access conflicts when some programs want to reach the same device.

• Equipment manufacturers are trying to solve this problem through the development of
additional controllers.

OPC sets a clear division between hardware manufacturers and controllers developers. The
technology provides a mechanism to collect data from different sources and to transfer these
data to any application of the client, regardless of the type of the equipment used. This
process allows developers to focus on the performance and optimization of data.
OPC was designed to provide the client with access to the lowest level of the industrial
process in the most convenient way.

The OPC technology used in the industrial processes has the following advantages:

• The information transfer systems are independent of the equipment type used in the
specific project.

• Software developers do not have to constantly adapt their products due to the
modification of equipment or release of new products.

• The client has the option to choose among different equipment suppliers. Besides, the
client can integrate this equipment into the information system of the company, which
can cover all the logistic, control and production systems.

OPC Foundation, is an international organization located in Boca Raton, Florida, the USA,
responsible for the development of the OPC standards, support, and promotion. This
organization has more than 250 members, including leading growth companies related to the
development of programs for the control, visualization, and programming, as well as other
applications for control processes, for example, Honeywell, Fisher - Rosemount, Siemens,
Wonderware, Intellution, among others. Microsoft, Inc. is also a member of the OPC
Foundation, it participates in the development of new specifications.

• 14.2 Physical Layer

The OPC standard is based on the OPC specifications. Currently, the most common
specifications are:
OPC Data Access 1.0 and 2.0. They provide “real-time” access to data. OPC Data Access 1.0
and 2.0 are the most popular specifications among the ones used in the OPC-servers and
clients.
They are used to prepare the type of data mentioned below:
Data received in real-time from sensors (temperature, pressure, flow, etc.).

Exposition control (open, close, start, stop, etc.).

Information regarding the current status of executive programs and equipment of systems and
sub-systems.
Los datos recibidos de los sensores en tiempo real (temperatura, presión, flujo, etc.).
Control de la exposición (abrir, cerrar, iniciar, detener, etc.).
Información sobre el estado actual de los equipos y programas ejecutivos de los sistemas y
subsistemas
OPC standard is based on the client-server communication diagram. This architecture does
not limit the connection of many clients to the same server, on the contrary, this standard
allows that a client connects to different servers.
The OPC communication standard can be used for the data interchange in the industrial
information systems. There are servers that communicate with automated control systems,
built in the PLC (PLC – Programmable Logic Controllers). They are designed based on the
communication protocol (for example AS511, RK512, S -bus, Modbus, DF1, etc.) and the
connected equipment (for example, PLC), which are automatically recognized. The access to
the protocols, saved in a database, guarantee that the OPC–servers have the OPC Historical
Data Access specifications.
The SCADA HMI programming (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Human Machine
Interface) is installed in the OPC-client computers. The connection with OPC–servers is
performed through a local area network (LAN), which increases the possibilities of data
acquisition using OPC-servers.
Despite the efforts to increase participation of the standard communication protocols
(Profibus, Fieldbus, CANbus, etc.), it is hard to define the best option to build the data
interchange system, with the specific protocols of the equipment manufacturers or the
fieldbus protocols. Thus, the OPC server standards copy the most popular automated control
systems.
In future, data can be at the level of Process Management and be used in control systems and
production planning, for example, in ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) and MES
(Manufacturing Execution Systems) at the level of business management. This allows the use
of real data from all the company units when required.

• 14.3 Application Layer

The application layer of the OPC technology is composed of two main parts – OPC server and
OPC clients. The main function of an OPC server is to translate data from the data source into
a proprietary protocol in the OPC format to allow compatibility with one or many OPC
specifications. Some additional components are used, you are going to know them.
Additionally, some other components are used, you are going to know them below.
Structure of the OPC Data Access server
OPC Data Access Server includes the following objects types:

• OPC-server provides information to the real server and saves the data.
• OPC-group provides information to the members of the group and provides a
mechanism for updates and logic organization of the OPC cells.
• OPC-cell provides a connection of the data source with the server. This means that the
OPC cell is not the real source of data, but contains the correct address in the server
configuration (ItemID).

OPC-server
For every OPC-client, OPC-server creates an object and a special communication channel
(thread). This action protects the data interchange against the influence of other OPC-clients
and improves the performance of the OPC-server.
OPC-group
Every OPC group has a unique name among all the groups of OPC clients. The OPC-client can
change this name later; it can also specify the active or passive status of the group.
Additionally, it can activate or deactivate the data reception from the OPC server without
changing the OPC-cells or OPC-groups into a passive status. Therefore, OPC-group does not
affect communication between the server and the control system (PLC).
The OPC-groups are created based on the requirements of the current application (the client).
According to these requirements, the content of the group may vary and the number including
OPC-cells; however, it does not affect the control system (PLC).
OPC-cell
Different from OPC-group and OPC-server, the OPC-cells do not support OPC interface, and
they are not COM objects (Component Object Model). It is an internal object of the OPC-server,
containing the important information about the OPC–clients requests. For example, the type of
data used to load values, or the status (active or passive) of the requested values, etc.
From the OPC-client perspective, OPC-cell is not a real data source, but it provides a logic
connection. With ItemID, the OPC-cell is linked exclusively with a point in the physical
configuration of the OPC-server. This means that the number of OPC-cells associated with a
data source is unlimited.
ItemID
ItemID is a unique identification label, which is used by OPC-client to communicate with OPC-
server. ItemID is a sequence of names of all the configuration levels. For example, in OPC-
server of three levels, developed by the manufacturer Merz, ItemID would look like
this: name_station.name_buffer.name_cell, you can see it in detail in the image shown below.

ItemID
OPC Alarm & Events – provides information regarding incidents and specific alarms for OPC -
client.
OPC Historical Data Access – provides access to protocols and databases.
OPC Batch – sends data about the batch process and supervises its application. OPC Batch is
another OPC specification widely used in automation. It is used for processes that require
batchers in manufacturing; it monitors proportions (laboratory systems, batching, weighing
systems, etc.). It is important to mention that each OPC Batch (client) is also an OPC Data
Access 2.0 server (client). In other words, the OPC Batch server (client) also includes the OPC
Data Access 2.0 specification and some additional interfaces (for example, browsing
variables). At present, there are two more standards under development:
OPC Data Access 3.0 – this new version of the OPC technology includes OPC XML – a flexible
and easy-to-use interface for the data interchange through OPC, using XML (Extensible Markup
Language) in the Internet / Intranet applications. The XML functions allow the recording of
data files in format .xml, and send them through the Internet. Within this innovation, there will
still exist standardized data templates (offered by different organizations supporting
protocols). Besides, users can create and customize their templates.

Conclusion
Day after day, the designers of communication protocols for industrial networks are getting
closer to a fast and easy solution that allows the connection of all equipment under the same
communication protocol. OPC technology is very friendly, and currently all modern equipment
have an OPC communication protocol; that is, it is the most used language among equipment.
For you as an engineer, it is important to identify the scenario to implement the OPC interface,
do research to know the equipment you are going to connect, know if it has a communication
protocol and verifies its database.
OPC technology still has pending details, but the task to improve the existing systems is
constant, and there is a long road ahead. There is so much to do, and perhaps your generation
can get a solution that would change the vision about communication protocols.

Introduction
At the beginning of the last century, there was no need for efficiency because markets were
national and there was no foreign competition. Manufacturers could tell consumers what to
buy. A clear example is Henry Ford with “a customer can have a car painted any color he wants
as long as it's black”. This was the way of thinking of many important manufacturers of the last
century, but a new era in the manufacturing industry arrived after World War II. The Discovery
of new materials and production techniques increased quality and productivity. Foreign
markets were opened, and the strong competition started. The production process has
dramatically changed in the last 50 years, and it will continue changing in the future.

Explanation
• 15.1 Current Development

In this subtopic, you will know two production systems: agile manufacturing and flexible
manufacturing. It is important that you analyze them because you will see the latest advances
in the manufacturing field.
The agile manufacture started at the end of the nineties, when the development of
technologies increased, requesting changes in the production lines. The large manufacturing
companies faced the challenge of flexibility in their production processes, with people trained
and prepared for fast processes of change.

The agile manufacture is applied only if the company is prepared (regarding equipment and
staff) for a fast response when there is a change in demands, new requests of the customer,
new more advanced products. It is necessary to start the manufacturing of a different product
on the same production line. The time to change to the new process must be reduced, without
additional capital investment and reduction of production quality. For example, the production
lines for mobile phones provide the possibility to change manufacturing to another model in a
short period. Even Chinese manufacturers continue the production of toy mobile phones in the
same manufacturing line when the real model becomes obsolete. This manufacturing style
has been applied for more than a decade, but it is not completely implemented, not even by
those companies that could benefit from it.
A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a production system consisting of a set of identical
and complementary machines, which are connected through an automated transportation
system. Each process in FMS is controlled by a dedicated computer (FMS cell computer).
For example, the car assembly process in a plant. For the customer, each model is different
(Crossover, Sedan, SUV, Coupe, etc.), but for the manufacturer, they have some parts in
common (transmission, shock-absorber, suspension, chassis, power steering, etc.), and some
other are different (seats, dashboard, body shell, etc.). Based on the way to group the parts, the
manufacturer can organize its production line in a more efficient way and change to the new
car model if necessary. This process allows the company to have a faster response to
customer’s requests. Besides, the virtual verification is used to reconfigure existing
installations for the production of a new model.

• 15.2 Perspectives

The Reconfigurable Manufacturing System can be similar to the agile or flexible system, or it
can be the combination of both. A distinguishing characteristic of the reconfigurable system is
its unlimited capacity. It is an advanced-level system, designed in such a way that allows the
fast installation of new devices and the software required to operate.
To have a reconfigurable system, the characteristics shown below must appear:

• Modularity – Characteristic that allows the system to be built by separate modules, easy to
replace in case of failure or maintenance.
• Integrability – Characteristic is indicating the simplicity of assembly among the different
components of the system, which makes easier the complete union among them.
• Customization – It is not possible to apply the automation system of a smart home to an
automotive plant, it is necessary to change the components and adopt or customize
systems according to the manufacturer’s requirements. Each customization characteristic
arises when a system is designed using the components required to fulfill one or more
specific needs.
• Convertibility – Characteristic related to the ease to apply the required adjustments to make
the system works by the new demands. Flexibility and fast response to the adjustments in
the customer’s demands are the competitive advantages that the companies obtain through
an automation network that can be adapted for a new process.
• Diagnosability – Everything is connected in the industry, any failure can stop all
manufacturing processes by hours or even days. Thus, the modern networks must be easy
to diagnose and repair. This characteristic indicates the ease to check the system
performance and, if necessary, apply adjustments to correct and improve the operation of
that system.

With modular design platforms, companies require efforts to adapt their production lines to
meet the requirements of fast response to the market changes and the customers’ needs.
Fulfilling the requirements of customers requires a high degree of flexibility and the ability to
reconfigure the operations for the changing demands, new product designs, and technologies.
Reconfigurable systems focus on low-cost and quick response capacity. A reconfigurable
system is highly automated; however, the objectives cannot be successfully fulfilled without
the human intervention in the reconfiguration process. It implies the human / machine
interaction at physical and cognitive levels.
The other level of automation systems is the extensible manufacturing. It works through cells
that can be separated by a significant distance, even in different production plants. An
effective communication system is established to synchronize manufacturing processes.

• 15.3 Expansion Speed of Industrial Networks

The capability of the network infrastructure to operate in manufacturing environments and the
flexibility of the automated control systems depend on the efficiency of modern companies.
New products constantly replace the traditional industrial protocols.
With all the variety of applied methods and different data, the control means (centralized or
decentralized), almost all industrial protocols have a fast response in real time and high
reliability of the data transmission within an environment of a high degree of electromagnetic
interference.
Manufacturers are continuously developing different technologies, bus interfaces, the
architecture of controllers, operating systems, real-time protocols; they also promote their
network solutions that allow the manufacturing process control in the communication
equipment. Industrial networks are growing fast, they are more sophisticated and more
automated, following the path of the consumers market of the recent decades.

Conclusion
Recently, consumers are more exigent about the products and services they require. On the
other side, the modern technology provides a competitive advantage to manufacturers; they
can be up-to-date, fast and flexible considering the consumers’ requests, and they can even
interchange technologies and developments among competitors. If you usually visit a
computer and IT products store, you will realize that the products offer is in constant
renovation. The computer that you buy today will be “obsolete” after a few months. In this
topic, you learned the four types of manufacturing systems: agile, flexible, reconfigurable and
extensible, which allow manufacturers to be updated.