ATILIM UNIVERSITY

EE 492 DESIGN PROJECT II REPORT

AUDIO AMPLIFIER DESIGN

Group Members
OSMAN CAN KAYALI
EMRE ALADAĞ

Atılım University

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

SPRING 2013

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 ABSTRACT
The aim of this report is to explain audio amplifier project which performed in EE 492 Design
Project II course. This report contains specific background about types of audio amplifiers,
designing methods, experiments,simulations and results, tables and figures, conclusions,
references and appendices. In the light of this aim, specific background of audio amplifier types
and definitions of necessary concepts are explained in introduction part of the report. Developing
and explaining the study, the work done are explained in describing methods part. Testing of
project, calculations, simulations and results constitutes another part of the report. Formulations,
graphics and tables are illustrated in tables and figures part of the report. Also, visual elements
which describe project and make the project more comprehensible are demonstrated in tables and
figures part. In the conclusion part, brief summary of the report is represented and discussions
about the aim of the project are mentioned. Guides, web pages and scientific articles which are
used in the process of the audio amplifier designing project are given in references part of the
report. Graphs, tables and formulations are given in appendices part.

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 ÖZETÇE
Bu raporun amacı EE 492 Tasarım Projesi II dersinde icra edilmiş olan ses yükselteci tasarımı
projesini açıklamaktır. Bu rapor ses yükselteci tipleri hakkında detaylı bilgi, tasarım yöntemleri,
deneyler, simülasyonlar ve sonuçlar, tablolar ve figürler, sonuç, referanslar ve eklerden
oluşmaktadır. Bu amacın ışığında, ses yükselteçleri hakkında detaylı bilgiler ve gerekli
kavramların tanımları raporun giriş bölümünde açıklanmıştır. Çalışmanın gelişimi ve
açıklanması, yapılan iş tanımlama yöntemi bölümünde anlatılmıştır. Projenin test edilmesi,
hesaplamalar, simülasyonlar ve sonuçlar raporun bir diğer kısmını oluşturmaktadır.
Formülasyonlar, grafikler ve tablolar tablolar ve figürler bölümünde gösterilmiştir. Ayrıca projeyi
betimleyen ve daha anlaşılabilir yapan görsel unsurlar da tablolar ve figürler kısmında
sunulmuştır. Sonuç kısmında projenin kısa bir özeti sunulmuş ve projenin amacı hakkındaki
tartışmalardan bahsedilmiştir. Ses yükselteci projesi sürecinde kullanılmış olan kılavuzlar, web
sayfaları ve bilimsel makaleler raporun referanslar bölümünde gösterilmiştir. Grafikler, tablolar
ve formülasyonlar ekler kısmında gösterilmiştir.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................2

ÖZETÇE..........................................................................................................................................3

TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................................4

LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................................5

LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................................6

1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................7-8

2. DESCRIBING METHOD............................................................................................................9

2.1 Detailed Information About Class-AB Power Amplifier...............................................9

2.2 Reducing the Total Harmonic Distortion.......................................................................9

2.3 Architecture..................................................................................................................10

2.3.1 Advantages of Three-Stage Architecture.......................................................10

2.3.2 Examining Three-Stage Architecture in Specific..........................10-11-12-13

3. EXPERIMENTS, SIMULATIONS & RESULTS.....................................................................11

3.1 Simulations of Basic Amplifier Stages………………………………………………13

3.1.1 First Stage Simulations..................................................................................13

3.1.2 Second Stage Simulations.............................................................................14

3.1.3 Third Stage Simulations................................................................................15

3.2 Final Design of the Project......................................................................15-16-17-18-19

3.2.1 Simulation of Final Design...........................................................................19

3.2.2 Printed Circuit of the Amplifier...............................................................20-21

4. CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................22

5. REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................23

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page

1. Crossover Distortion Schematic.........................................................................................10

2. Structure of Three-Stage Amplifier....................................................................................11
3. Differential Amplifier.........................................................................................................11
4. Class B Push-Pull Structure................................................................................................12
5. Differential Amplifier on Multisim....................................................................................13
6. Common Emitter Configuration on Multisim....................................................................14
7. Class B Push-Pull Configuration on Multisim...................................................................15
8. Schematic of Final Design Circuit.....................................................................................17
9. FFT of the Output Signal...................................................................................................18
10. Input/output Voltage Relation...........................................................................................18
11. Ripples................................................................................................................................18
12. Printed Circuit Schematics on Proteus/Ares.......................................................................20
13. Transfer Paper.....................................................................................................................21
14. Connection Ways................................................................................................................21
15. From Downward.................................................................................................................21
16. From Upward......................................................................................................................21

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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page

1. Formula table of Total Harmonic Distordion percentage....................................................8

2. First Stage Simulation Results............................................................................................13
3. Second Stage Simulation Results.......................................................................................14
4. Third Stage Simulation Results..........................................................................................14
5. Harmonic Values................................................................................................................19
6. Simulation Values of Final Design I..................................................................................19
7. Simulation Values of Final Design II.................................................................................19
8. Component List..................................................................................................................21

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1. INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of the projet is to design an audio amplifier and reduce its total harmonic
distortion (THD) as low as possible. In this way, the purpose of the project reveals some mainly
two important questions. As it is necessary to mention about first question, what is an audio
amplifier and what does an audio amplifier do? The second and the most important question
which make the project challenging is that how total harmonic distortion can be reduced?

Audio Amplifier: Audio amplifier is an electronic circuit that amplifies the input audio-signals
which frequency and power are insufficient to use. In other words, audio amplifiers are the
electronic circuits amplifies the input signals applied to input of the system.

Amplifiers types can be divided into some classes. Also, there are many different types of
amplifier designs are available to implement in usage of utilization. In this project, amplifiers in
terms of structures of output stage are in interest. Amplifiers in terms of output stages are Class-
A, Class-B, Class-AB and Class D types. These type classes of amplifiers are investigated in
order to design which class of amplifier type in the project.

Class-A Amplifiers: Class A amplifiers have the lowest distortion but the disadvantage is that
class A amplifiers are extremely wasteful and inefficient amplifiers, dissipating 80% of its power
in heat with an efficiency of only 20%.

Class-B Amplifiers: This type of amplifiers are much more efficient than (about 50% to 70%)
Class A amplifiers but non-linear distortion occurs. This situation reveals a challenging problem,
in Class B operations, when obtaining output signal opposite half cycles comes from two
transistors must be combined. So, full cycle of output signal can be generated at output of the
amplifier. When combining two opposite half wave, there can be occured crossover distortion. To
deal with distortion problem there is need to linearization operation.

Class-AB Amplifiers: There are two main benefits of Class-AB Amplifiers. First advantage is
that sound quality of Class-AB is close to Class-A amplifiers. Second advantage is efficiency of
Class-AB amplifiers is almost equal to Class-B.

Class-D Amplifiers: There are different type variations class D amplifiers such as switching or
Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) design. Class D amplifiers are very efficient, typically in the
range of %85 to %90.

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD): In general, harmonics are defined as distortions in

waveform of current or voltage in periodically.

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When an output signal has a number of individual harmonic distortion components, the signal can
be seen to have a total harmonic distortion based on the individual elements as combined by the
relationship of the following equation:

Table 1

[1]

Also, inconsistency of the circuit components, tranformator,loads on output stage and

environmental effects can be cause distortions.

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2. DESCRIBING METHOD
In the project, to reach the final design of the audio amplifier, study of the project is defined as a
long process which is divided into stages. To this respect, widely literature search has been made
on audio amplifiers before the decission which is releated to how design audio amplifier and use
techniques is made. In the light of the literature search, implementing appropriate techniques
firstly on simulation stage. Simulations are performed with using proteus-ISIS softwares. When
simulation supply the needs of the design, physical implementation of audio amplifier and testing
process is availible in laboratory.

2.1 Detailed Information About Class-AB Power Amplifiers

In introduction part, it is mention about that audio amplifiers are divided into some types in terms
of output stages. To this respect, Class-AB amplifiers are more efficient than Class-A amplifier
and occurs less crossover distortion than Class-B amplifier. Therefore, Class-AB amplifier is
suitable the design project. If background information about Class-AB amplifier is expanded
widely, it can be said that Class-AB amplifiers is constructed with two transistors impending pnp
and npn. In Class-AB amplifiers, Q-point on the load line is selected under compared with Q-
point of Class-A and upper compared with Q-point of Class-B. When there is no input signal, a
small amaount of current flows on circuit.So, this provides more efficieny than Class-A
amplifiers. Shifting of operating point of Class-AB from Class-A to Class-B crossover distortion
occurs such as in Class-B amplifiers. In the next section, reducing methods of crossover
distortion are explained.

2.2 Reducing the Total Harmonic Distortion

As it is stated in the introduction part, the main problem is reducing the total harmonic distortion.
There are various techniques availible in articles to overcome this problem.

Crossover distortion occurs in Class-B and Class-AB amplifiers. Reason of this overcorss
distortion is combining two opposite half cycle waves as showed in Figure 1. In order to reduce
crossover distortion, Class-AB amplifiers use negative voltage feedback. It necessary to use pre-
amp circuit to reduce the noise of input signal. Pre-amp circuits prepares the input signal the next
amplification.

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 Figure 1 Crossover Distortion Schematic

2.3 Architecture

In amplifier designing, there are different types amplifiers structures are used. When we make
comprehensive resarch on amplifiers, it can be seen that three-stage amplifiers are mostly used
for audio amplifiers.

2.3.1 Advantages of Three-Stage Architecture

When three-stage architecture compared with other structures, it provides some advantages for
audio amplifiers in terms of voltage gain, low-distortion. Typically, closed loop gain is expected
between 20 dB and 30 dB. Also, Negative Feedback Factor at 20 kHz is expected between 25 dB
and 40dB.

2.3.2 Examining Three-Stage Architecture in Specific

As it can be easily understand from the name of three-stage architecture, it is formed by three
amplifiers stages. In other words, three different stages are combined to design it. Figure 2 shows
structure.

Figure 2 can be defined as below;

First is the transconductance stage and a differential amplifier builds up this stage. Second is a
transimpedance stage and second stage can be build different variations of amplifiers. Third is the
unity voltage-gain stage. The critical matter about these stages, second stage provides big part of
the voltage gain. For this reason, second stage is called and stated voltage-amplifier stage in
Figure 2. Third stage has no contribution to voltage gain and build up with symmetrical push-pull
Class-B structure.

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 Figure 2 Structure of Three-Stage Amp.

As it mentioned above, differential amplifier is used for the first stage. Also, working principle of
the differential amplifier is explained below.

Function of a differential amplifier is to take difference of two different input signals applied to
input of the amplifier. Input signals are applied to base of two transistors. Output signals can be
taken from collectors of transistors because of this property, the circuit is a common-emitter
structure as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Differential Amplifier.

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Each transistor has a characteristic impedance (re). RC1 resistor belongs to Q1 transistor and
RC2 resistor belongs to Q2 transistor. If there is no resistor on the collectors of transistors ,
according to formula of VCE = VCC- IC x RC , output is always equals to VCE voltage. So, there
will be no voltage increase on output signal. Output voltage can be defined as below;

“Ad” denotes the gain of the difference of the input signals. “Ac” denotes the common gain of
the input signals on input terminals.

For the second stage, as it stated in beginning of the this topic, there are different variation of
amplifiers can be used. The critical point should not be forgotten, the second stage provides big
part of the voltage gain. So, for the second stage most suitable variation must be used. Also, it
will be stated in experiment,simulation and results part, common emitter bias configuration
amplifier for simulation.

For the third stage, Unity voltage-gain stage is build up with push-pull Class B structure . This
stage contributes to power of the amplifier so it can be called power stage.

Figure 4 Class B Push-Pull Structure

Power stage of the amplifier is defined as symmetrical power amplifier (push-pull type). QN and
QP are transistors at the output connected symmetrical. Positive alternance of the sinusoidal
signal coming from voltage-gain stage turns on the QN and negative alternance of the of the
sinusoidal signal coming from driver stage turns on QP. As long as QN is turned on, IN current is
coming from Vcc goes to load (speaker). As long as QP is turned on, IP current is coming from

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-Vcc goes to load (speaker). As it is shown, while polarity of the signal is changing voltage feeds
speaker is changing. Due to this structure of design, third stage can be defined as symmetrical
power amplifier.

3. EXPERIMENTS, SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS

This part contains simulation of three-stages separately. Main aim of this simulation process is to
make confirmation on increasing of voltages of stages. In other words, we implement theoretical
knowledges on simulation. Also, it is important to state that these stages are not final design but it
creates main skeleton of the design. Simulations are performed using Multsim which is a
electronic circuit design software based on computer.

3.1 Simulations of Basic Amplifier Stages

3.1.1 First Stage Simulations

As it stated, first is stage is built up with differential amplifier. Using Multisim input voltage,
output voltage, frequency, THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) and harmonics are measured. These
values are represented in Table 2. Also, for other two stages measured values will be represented
in tables.

As it is expected, voltage increase at the output of the differential is observed. Also, THD and
harmonics are observed.

Figure 5 Differential Amplifier on Multisim

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 Input Values Osiloskop Values THD Spectrum Analyzer Values
Magni Freq Input Output % dB Second Third Fourth
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
5Vp-p 5KHz Magni Freq Magni Freq 47.6 -6.5 -75.048dB -79.762dB -84.419dB
5vp-p 5KHz 20vp-p 5KHz
Table 2 First Stage Simulation Results

3.1.2 Second Stage Simulations

Simulation results of stage of amplifier are represented in Table 3.

Figure 6 Common Emitter Configuration on Multisim

Input Values Osiloskop Values THD Spectrum Analyzer Values

Magni Freq Input Output % dB Second Third Fourth
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
5Vp-p 5KHz Magni Freq Magni Freq 40.6 -8.86 -64.722dB -70.718dB -81.927dB
5vp-p 5KHz 10vp-p 5KHz
Table 3 First Stage Simulation Results

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3.1.3 Third Stage Simulations

As in theory, unity voltage gain stage has no contribution for voltage gain of the system. So,
expected values are observerd for third stage. Also, Third Stage Results are represented in Table
4. As it represented in Table 4, input/output approximately equal. So this confirms expectations.

Figure 7 Class B Push-Pull Amplifier Configuration on Multisim

Input Values Osiloskop Values THD Spectrum Analyzer Values

Magni Freq Input Output % dB
Second Third Fourth
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
5Vp-p 5KHz Magni Freq Magni Freq 0.008 -82.4 -140dB -136dB -137dB
4.8vp-p 5KHz 4.2vp-p 5KHz

Table 4 Third Stage Simulation Results

3.2 Final Design of the Project

In final design, as decided to architecture of amplifier, audio amplifier design is completed with
respect to three-stage configuration. After audio amplifier is set up on printed circuit (this process
is explained specifically in next sections) laboratory testing process is started. In testing process
we observed that circuit is works correctly. Testing process is completed in two steps. The first
step, we connect a mp3 player to the input of the amplifier and 8 Ohm load (speaker) to the
output. Output is taken as music and our amplifier works good. In the second step, function
generator is connected to input and one probe of oscilloscope is connected to input to observe
input values and other probe is connected to the output to observe output signal values. Voltage
gain and harmonics of the output signal are observed in the testing process and specifically
represents in tables in next sections. In testing process, as it is expected heating on circuit because

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of designing amplifier with BJT transistor. To reduce heating on the circuit, metal cooler block is
added on circuit.

As it stated many times in previous sections, our audio amplifier designed with respect to three-
stage architecture. In the first stage which is differential amplifier, BC 556 pnp transistors which
has switching property. At 1 kHz and Rg (Emitter resistor of differential amplifier) is taken
approximately 2k Ohms, noise magnitude changes between 2-10 dB. In the second stage (voltage
amplifier stage), BD 139 (npn) transistor has medium power linear and switching properties.
Gain level of BD 139 is less than transistors in first stage. BC 546 (npn) transistor is used to
adjust gain of the system and it provides to amplify the signal. It has approximately 2-10 dB
noise-figure. BD 148 has a switching property and it drives the BD 246 transistor in second stage.
Also, BD 139( npn ) transistor drives BD 245 transistor. On the collector of BD 245 (npn)
maximum 10A current can flow.On the collector of BD246 (pnp) maximum -10A current can
flow.Both transistor targets current gain. For this reason at the third stage(unity voltage-gain
stage) voltage gain is not increased it remains unity.

Figure 8 represents final design circuit schematics. C4 coupling capacitor at the input of the
circuit provides coupling voltage at very low milivolt levels to transconductance stage
(differential amplifier). R2 resistor provides transmitting noise to the ground when there is no
input signal at the input. Input signal enters the base of Q5. From the same transistor’s emitter,
the signal is not occured phase change is transmitted from the base of Q2 to C8 and R9 coupling
elements and then it goes to the output. The signal has no phase change comes from emitter of Q1
and Q2 transistors is transmitted to collector of Q7 and transmitted to base of Q8. The signal
comes from Q7 can be adjusted by potentiometer which is located between base and collector of
Q7 to make adjustement on gain. The signals at the emitters of Q6 and Q8 are phase changed
and negative and positive alternances of the signals are increased. Output stage is set up with
push-pull configuration.So, at the power stage there is no voltage gain. Positive alternance of the
sinusoidal signal comes from driver (voltage) stage enables Q8 transistor and negative alternance
enables Q6 transistor to conduction. As long as, Q8 transistor is in conduction with positive
alternance and Q6 transistor is in conduction with negative alternance, current reaches speakers
to generate sound. In the circuit, C7 and C8 capacitors used to coupling. At DC voltages,
capacitors behaves like open circuit increases impedance at low frequencies. At AC signals,
capacitors behaves like short circuit decreases impedance at high frequencies, for this reason gain
of the system is decreased. C5, C2, C1 and C10 capacitors at voltage feeding section transmits
the noise which leaks from transistors to ground.

If input/output relation is observed, at maximum impedance is set by potentiometer (in daily life
it is called volume controller) provides gain of 8 this means output voltage 8 times greater than
input voltage ( in testing, 500mV applied to input). At maximum output voltage, on the output
signal wave ripples are observed this causes noisy sound at speaker. Figure 10 represents
input/output voltages and Figure 11 represents ripples at maximum output voltage.

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Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) Testing:
In the testing process, we are not able to use spectrum analyzer to measure harmonics but
oscilloscope is used for harmonic measurements. Tektronix oscilloscope is used this
measurement, in specifically, to measure harmonics of output signal one probe must connected to
output and MATH function is selected from oscilloscope menu to take FFT ( Fast Fourier
Transform) of the output signal. As shown in Figure 9, peaks are representing harmonics. Highest
peak is first harmonic and other harmonics are decreased peaks. Harmonic values are obtained
from FFT measurement are represented in Table 5.

Figure 8 Schematic of Final Design Circuit

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 Figure 9 FFT of the Output Signal

Figure10 Input/output Voltage Relation Figure11 Ripples

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 21.5 watts
Harmonic dB Power
2 -58.12 1.51E-06
3 -71 7.94E-08
4 -69.1 1.23E-07
5 -76.6 2.18E-08

THD % by voltage 1.2449476

Table 5 Harmonic Values

3.2.1 Simulation of Final Design

As shown in table 5 , applying to input 500mVp-p and 1 kHz singal and results are represented.
Also, output voltage,frequency and THD values in percent and in dB are shown. Table 6
represtes the case thath input voltage remains the same but frequency is increased to 5 kHz. So,
changed impedance decreases the gain.

Input Values Osiloskop Values THD Spectrum Analyzer Values

Magni Freq Input Output % dB Second Third Fourth
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
500 1KHz Magni Freq Magni Freq 0.968 -39.3 -125.3dB -128.6dB -132dB
mvp-p
500 1KHz 2.16 v 1KHz
mv p-p p-p
Table 6 Simulation Values of Final Design I

Input Values Osiloskop Values THD Spectrum Analyzer Values

Magni Freq Input Output % dB Second Third Fourth
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
500 5KHz Magni Freq Magni Freq 0.09 -60.8 -126.7dB -130.08dB -133.5dB
mvp-p
500 5KHz 850m v 5KHz
mv p-p p-p
Table 7 Simulation Values of Final Design II

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3.2.2 Printed Circuit of the Amplifier

After designing and simulation process of the project is completed, the final and most important
step is ready to accomplish. Physical implementation means performing theoretical design to
practical design. In this section, how the printed circuit is designed is told.

Firstly, printed circuit drawn with Proteus/Ares software. The important thing is that construction
of the circuit must be correct. Also, components of the circuit (transistors, diodes, capacitors)
must be integrated on printed circuit correctly. For this reason, component datasheets investigated
carefully then emitter,base and collector of transistors stated correctly. Figure 12 represents final
design of printed circuit schematics on Proteus/Ares.

Figure 12 Printed Circuit Schematics on Proteus/Ares

In Figure 13, the print which is taken to be transfered paper is applied to copper plate using
ironing technique and heating transfer paper on copper plate. Figure 14 represents connection
ways which are created by special chemical solution. After applying chemical solution marked
only connected ways remain on printed circuit. So, components of the circuit are ready to
integrate on board. In Figure 15 and 16, completed circuit from upward and downward are
represented. Finally, Components are used in circuit represented in Table 8.

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 Figure 13 Transfer Paper Figure 14 Connection Ways

Figure 15 From Downward Figure 16 From Upward

Component List
Type Label Number
Transistor NPN BC546, BD 139, BD245 2-2-1
Transistor PNP BC556, BD140, BD246 3-1-1
Diode 1N4148 2
Resistor 1.8k, 47k, 33k,120R, 27R, 1.5k 4-1-1-1-1-3-2-2
,1k, 100R, 0.22R / 5W
Capacitor 1MF, 470MF(electrolytic), 1-2-2-1-1-1
100nF, 33pF, 1nF,
22MF(electrolytic)
Potentiometer 100R 1

Table 8 Component List

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4. CONCLUSIONS
All in all, project designing process which is started with deciding project title developed by
literature research. In literature researching, how an audio amplifier is designed and
implemented? How a design can be analyzed? questions provides us a great vision to handle a
project.

The title of the project decided as audio amplifier. Required literature researches are made to
obtain theoretical knowledge to create a design. This process gives information about principles
of amplifier working and analyzing and the way to create a design. Simulation process is the first
step to practical implementations. In this process we realized how we will continue this project
because simulations gives datas. The other step is physical implementation is the most exciting
part of the project because design comes true.

On the other hand, big part of the aim are achived. THD is measured and reduced. A working
design is obtained during these period. Also, in this period different three amplifier circuits are
tried first two designs did not worked but the last worked.

EE 492 Design Project II course gives chance to implement theoretical knowledge is gained by
Electrical and Electronical Engineering courses during 4 year licence period. The way opened to
develop our project. In next years, we planned that our rotate to digital music market.

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5. REFERENCES
[1] Boylestad R. L and Nashelsky L., Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory,Pearson
Education,Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2009.

[2] Wen S.H and Yang C.C, A 5.2mW, 0.0016% THD up to 20kHz, Ground-Referenced
AudioDecoder with PSRR-enhanced Class-AB 16Ω Headphone Amplifiers, Hsin-Chu, Taiwan,
2012.

[3] Athab H.S and Shadhu Khan P.K, ,A Cost Effective Method of Reducing Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) in Single-Phase Boost Rectifier, Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia
University, 63100 cyberjaya, Malaysia, 2007.

[4] Mistlberger F. and Koch R., Class-AB High-Swing CMOS Power Amplifier, IEEE JOURNAL
OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 27, NO. 7. JULY 1992

[5] Self , Duncan, Hood, Sinclair, Singmin, Davis, Patronis, Watkinson., Audio Engineering,
Newnes, Elsevier Inc., USA, 2009.

[6] Comer D. , Comer D., Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Design, Jong Wiley & Sons Inc. ,
USA, 2009.

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