PART -A METROLOGY CHAPTER Standards of Measurement 1.1 Introduction Metrology is the science of pure measurement. The science of metrology had been applied to engineering to a limited extent before the first world war. However, considerable progress has been made in the application of scientific principles to the dimensional control of engineering products. Further accurate control of standards of measurement was an important function of every precision engineering industry. Long ago Lord Kelvin made a classic statement concerning metrology. "When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know something about it; and when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind. It may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thought advanced to the stage of a science.” Definition of Metrology : Metrology is the name given to the science of pure measurements. For engineering purposes, itis restricted to measurements of length and angle and quantities which are expressed in linear or angular terms Measurement : Measurement is the process of comparing quantitatively an unknown magnitude with a predefined standard. 1.2 Objectives of Metrology The basic objective of metrology is to determine whether a component has \ufactured to the required specification. The advances in metrology have ible the mass production of modem ultra-precise apparatus. Metrology is | part of the development of technology. ic objectives of metrology are as follows : ide the required accuracy at minimum cost. evaluation of newly developed products, to ensure that components the specified dimensions,Metrology and Measurements 3) To determine the process capabilities 4) To asses the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that they are adequate for their specific measurements. 5) To reduce the cost of inspection by effective and efficient utilization of available facilities. 6) To reduce cost of rejections and rework by applying statistical quality contro} techniques. 7) To standardize measuring methods by proper inspection methods at the development stage itself. 8) To maintain the accuracies of measurement through periodical calibration of the measuring instruments. 9) To prepare designs for gauges and special inspection fixtures. 1.3. Role of Standards A standard is defined as “Something that is set up and established by an authority as a rule for the measure of quantity, weight, extent, value or quality.” For example : A metre is a standard established by an international organization for the measure of length. Industry, commerce, international trade and in fact, modern civilization itself would be impossible without a good system of standards. The role of standards is to achieve, uniform, consistent and repeatable measurements and to support the systems which make such measurements possible throughout the world. 1.4 Standards of Length !t was ¢lear that accurate measurement must be made by comparison with a standard of known dimension and such a standard is called *Primary Standard’ Rapid advances were made in engineering due to the improved materials available and more accurate measuring techniques were developed. The first accurate standard was made in England and was known as Imperial Standard Yard. This was followed by international prototype meter made in France. Since these two standards of length were made of metal alloys they are called material length standards.-— 1,4.1 International Prototype Metro Engraved lines Kngraved lines Nom i: bm 4 Fig. 1.1 International Prototype Meter 1 metre (at 0°C) 1020 mm >} Intemational prototype meter is defined as the straight line distance, at 0°C between the engraved lines of pure platinum-irridium alloy (10% irridium) of 1020 mm total length and having i as cn as shown in the fig. 1.1. The graduations are on the upper surface of the web which coincides with the neutral axis of the section. The sectional shape gives greater rigidity for the amount of metal involved and is therefore economic in the use of an expensive metal. 1.4.2 Imperial Standard Yard —— +36" (at 62°F) —————_> Bronze bar composition 82% Cu, 13%Tin, 5% Zn Enlarged view of a gold plug showing engraving Fig. 1.2. Imperial Standard Yard[7721 — 4 — Metrology and Measurements The imperial standard yard, as shown in figure 1.2 is a bronze (82% cu, 13% tin, 5% zine) bar of 1 inch by 1 inch square section and 38 inches long. ‘A round recess, one inch away from the two ends is cut at both ends upto the centre of the bar. A gold plug 1/10 inch in diameter having engravings is inserted into these holes so that the lines (engravings) are in neutral plane. aes“ the distance between the two central transverse lines of the The purpose of keeping the gold plugs in line with the neutral axis is to ensure that the neutral axis remains unaffected due to bending, and to protect the gold plugs from accidental damage. 1.4.3. Airy Points Supports O577L Fig. 1.3 Airy Points In order to minimise slightest error in neutral axis due to support at ends, the supports must be placed such that the slope at ends is zero and the flat end faces of the bar are mutually parallel as shown in the fig. 1.3. Sir G.B. Airy showed that this condition was obtained when the distance between 1 xL the supports is “where n — No. of supports, L ~ length of bar. For a simply supported beam, the expression becomes xL=0.577L iB of support are known as “Airy” points OR dista = ESSTTL. In the case of aity point of the bar and this sag is just sufficient to suring plane. But in the case of points ‘minimum, When a bar is suppor o lift the centre and points of support areStandards of Measurement 5 \dards varies in length over the years owing tomoledtilar Y from which they were made thus seriously affecting e surements. 2) The exact replicas of material length standards were not available for use somewhere else 3) If these st accidentally become damaged of destroyed then exact le. 4) Conversion factor has to be used for changing over to metric system. 1.5 Light Wave (Optical) Length Standard Because of the problems of variation in length of metal b using light as a basic unit to define primary standard had bee, to define a standard length in this way source from which a given radiation couk Of the selected radiation was measured ars, the possibility considered. In order it was necessary to find a suitable light Id be readily selected. And the wavelength and used as the basic unit of length Eleventh general conference of weights and measures held in Pari defined the metre as equal REM =vclon ths of the of _Koypton-6 isotope in vacuum mained at 68K Definition : The Metre is defined as 1650763. 73 wave in vacuum of the krypton-86 isotope. The Yard is defined as 1509458.35 wavelengths of the of the krypton-86 isotope. The yard is also defined The substance krypton-86 is used because it interference lines. elengths of the orange radiation ige radiation in vacuum Produces sharply defined 1.5.1 Advantages of using Wavelength (light) Standard as basic unit to define Primary Standards 1) Length does not changes. 2) It can be replaced easily if destroyed, 3) This primary unit can be accessible to any physical laboratories. 4) It can be used for making comparative measurements with much higher accuracy than with the material standards, 1.5.2 Metre as of Today k It was foreseen that if a definition of a metre is based on the speed of light " would be technically feasible and practically advantages. Therefore in 1983 the 17" general conference of weights and measures changed the definition of metre.6 Metrology and Measurements Metre is now defined as the Jength of the path travelled by ‘alas e 1/299792458 second. This is achieved in practice by using 1.6 Subdivision of Standards The imperial standard yard and metre, defined previously are just like master standards and cannot be used for ordinary purposes. Thus, depending upon the importance of standard, standards are sub-divided into four grades. 1) Primary Standards : In order that, the standard unit of length, i.e., yard or metre does not change its value and it is strictly followed and precisely defined there should be one and only one material standard preserved under most careful conditions. This has no direct application to a measuring problem encountered in engineering. They are used after 10 or 20 years solely for comparison with secondary standards. 2) Secondary Standards : These are close copies of primary standards respect to design, material and length. These are made, as far as possible exactly similar to primary standards. Any error existing in these bars is recorded by comparison with primary standards after long i ey are number of place: vision are SaaS fein standards wheneer dese. rise eciases/safenerd erent joss or destruction of primary standard 3) Tertiary Standards : The primary or secondary standards exists as the ultimate controls for reference at rare interv: iary stanc Is are reference standards employed by “atonal Physica! aban 4) na are the first standards to be used for reference in laboratories and workshops. They are also made as true copy of secondary standards and are kept as reference for comparison with working standards. 4) Working standards : These standards are similar in design to primary, secondary and tertiary standards, but being less in cost and are made of low grade materials. They are used for general applications in metrology laboratories Sometimes standards are also classified as © Reference standards (used for reference purposes) © Calibration standards (used for calibration of inspection and working standards) Inspection standards (used by inspectors) Working standards (used by operators) 1.7. Line Standards Both the material standards are “line standards”, When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two lines then it is called “line standard”. Line standards do not provide high accuracy as that of end standards. Ex : Measuring scales,8 — Metrology and Measurements 1.9 Transfer from Line Standard to End Standard or NPL Method of deriving End Standard from Line Standard Iis clear that the line standard of length is an inconvenient form for general measurement applications. In order to determine the position of the defining lines in line standard, a special microscope has to be employed. Since the line standard was defined first and end standard being of real importance and more utility, the end standards have to be produced to the highest accuracy in relation to the line standards. In order to transfer the line standard correctly to the ends of a bar, the use of an instrument called Line-standard comparator is made. It consists of two microscopes mounted about a yard apart over a table. A gauge, about 35% inches in length is produced with end faces flat and mutually parallel. Two 1/2 inch blocks are then wrung to the ends of this gauge, The two 1/2 inch blocks are engraved witha fine line on one surface approximately in the centre of the two end faces ‘Thus, the distance between the centre lines is approximately 36 inches after wringing these 1/2 inch blocks to the main 351% inch gauge. ‘The standard and the above blocks are mounted on the table. The microscopes have accurate micrometer screw controlled eyepieces. In eyepiece, there are cross wires to focus on the lines of the standard, The table is capable of being traversed across so that either block may be brought under the microscope. The apparatus compares the position of lines on the standard with the lines on the gauge, then with micrometer eyepieces any small longitudinal variations between them can be determined. Let the actual length of 35% inch gauge be /. The distance between the two lines on line standard is 36 inches, Let us ignore the effect of the wringing film between the surfaces in contact, as itis always present in the use of end bars and gauges. The other possible errors are the misplacing of the line at the mid-position of the end faces of 1/2 inch blocks and possible error in the length of 35% inch gauge. The two blocks at the ends may be arranged in four ways and one of the position is as shown in the Fig. 14. 4 i aa ee Measured difference d =X; ~X, = me | 36 inch Line standard j V/2inch block vetncn a i End bar LOD ie camel. Let, Fig. 1.4— Metrology and Me 1.9 Transfer from Line Standard to End Standard or NPL Methoa of deriving End Standard from Line Standard |is clear that the line standard of length is an inconvenient form for generay measurement applications. In order to determine the position of the defining line in line standard, a special microscope has to be employed. Since the line standard was defined first and end standard being of real importance and more utility, the end standards have to be produced to the highest accuracy in relation to the ing standards. In order to transfer the line standard correctly to the ends of a bar, the use of an instrument called Line-standard comparator is made. It consists of two microscopes mounted about a yard apart over a table. A gauge, about 35/4 inches in length is produced with end faces flat and mutually parallel. Two 1/2 inch blocks are then wrung to the ends of this gauge. The two 1/2 inch blocks are engraved with a fine line on one surface approximately in the centre of the two end faces Thus, the distance between the centre lines is approximately 36 inch these 1/2 inch blocks to the main 35% inch gauge. fter wringing ‘The standard and the above blocks are mounted on the table. The microscopes have accurate micrometer screw controlled eyepieces. In eyepiece, there are cross wires to focus on the lines of the standard. The table is capable of being traversed across so that either block may be brought under the microscope. The apparatus compares the position of lines on the standard with the lines on the gauge, then with micrometer eyepieces any small longitudinal variations between them can be determined. Let the actual length of 35% inch gauge be /. The distance between the two lines on line standard is 36 inches, Let us ignore the effect of the wringing film between the surfaces in contact, as it is always present in the use of end bars and gauges.The other possible errors are the misplacing of the line at the mid:position of the end faces of 1/2 inch blocks and possible error in the length of 33% inch gauge, The two blocks at the ends may be arranged in four ways and one of the Position is as shown in the Fig. 1.4. x el liana Measured difference d= X,~X, | 36 inch Line standard 1/2 inch block End bar eg Se eer eet Fig. 1.4Standards of Measurement The difference of readings between lines on standard and the line on gauges are noted every time. Let the difference be d,, d,, d, and d, respectively. Then for the successive positions of the 1/2 inch blocks, we! have '+b+c= 3644, +b +d =36 +d, 14a c= 364d, I+a+d=36+d, Taking mean, | + q (a+b+c+d) 2 =36+ a may In the above equation it may be noted that the error due to the possible misplacing of the lines between the end faces of the 1/2 inch blocks are eliminated. Next 35% inch bar wrung with one of the 1/2 inch blocks is compared with 36 inch end standard (to be calibrated) on a Brookes level comparator and the deviation D, was noted as shown in the fig. 1.5. ‘Then the other 1/2 inch block is wrung and again it is compared with 36 inch end standard (which is to be calibrated) and the deviation D, was noted. If L is the actual length of 36 inch end standard, then I+a+b=L+D,, I+tc+d=L+D, | 1/2 inch block D, b a L Pek ae 36 inch End standard being calibrated Fig. 1.540 Metrology and Measurements Taking the average 1 I+-(a+b+e+d) 2 ee (2) 2 Combining eqns(1) and (2) ps6 Le O 4 2 ‘Thus 36 inch end standard has been calibrated and by this method the unknown errors in 351% inch bar and 1/2 inch blocks are systematically eliminated. 1.10 Calibration of End Bars The following procedure may be adopted for calibrating two end bars of each 500 mm basic length tn ‘A one metre (1000 mm) calibrated bar Was wrung to a surface plate and two 500 mm bars (A and B) are wrung together to form a basic length of one metre, whichtwas then wrung to the surface plate adjacent to a metre bar as shown in the Fig. 1.6(a). The difference in height X, was noted ! I I metre length bar 6 B L, B L, Surface plate i: A [ TOT (a) (b) 1.6 Set-up for Calibrating two bars Then comparison Was made between the two 500 mm length bars A and B to determine the difference in length as shown in Fig.1.6(b)Standards of Measurement 44, 4, = the length of 500 mm length bar A the length of 500 mm length bar B difference between on fe metre length bar and the combi th an igth bar and the combined leng difference in length between bar A and bar B. L = Actual length of one meter bar Then from Fig. 1.6(a) LEX = Ly +l, (1) From Fig. 1.6(b) by = Lat X ~Q) Substituting equation (2) in equation (1) LEX, = Ly + (Ly t Xp) =2L, 2X, Or Ly = LEX tX, LEX, Xx, Ly= ae : and Lp = Ly + X, The above procedure can be used for calibrating any other number of length standards of the same basic size. 1.11 Numerical Problems Problem 1 A calibrated metre end bar has an actual length of 100.0003 mm. It is to be used in the calibration of two bars A and B, each having a basic length of 500 mm. When compared with the metre bar L, + Ly was found to be shorter by 0.0002 mm. In comparing A with B it was found that A was 0.0004 mm longer than B. Find the actual length of A and B.VV... ee 12 Metrology and Measurements Solution : X, = 0.0002 mm | 1 t ! Bp | 500mm Calibrated bar (L) Js ——— 100.0003 mm ——*) > | Ll en ann Fig. 1.7 | Let, L-X,=ly + Lp (1) and L, = Lg + Xp --(2) Substituting eqn(2) in eqn(1) L~X, = (bg + X,)+bg =2ihn +X, lg = L-X,-X, 1, - LZXi= Xo _ 1000.0008 - 0.0002 - 0.0004 pe ee 2 2 Ly = 499.99985 mm From eqn(2) Ly = Lg + Xp = 49999985 + 0.0004 ZL, = 500.00025 mm Problem 2 Three 100 mm end bars are measured on a level comparator by first wringing them together and comparing with a 300 mm bar. The 300 mm bar has a known error of + 40 tm and the three bars together measure 64 1m less than the 300 mm. bar. Bar A is 18 ym longer than bar B and 23 um and longer than bar C. Find the actual length of each bar.Standards of Measurement 43, Solution : Suppose the actual length of each bar A, B and C be L,, Ly and L¢ respectively, Then L4 + Ly +Le = 300mm +40 um ~ 64 wm = 300 mm ~ 24 um ~() and Ly ~ Lg =18 um 2 Ly - le = 23 um --@) Adding eqn(1), eqn(2) and eqn(3) 34 = 300mm ~ 24 ym +18 um +23 pm = 300 mm +17 pm. = 300 mm + 0.017 mm = 300.017 mm L4 = 100.006 mm From eqn(2)_ Ly ~ Ly =18 um 100.006 ~ Ly = 0.018 mm Ly = 100.006 - 0.018 Ly = 99.988 mm From eqn(3)_— Ly ~ Le = 23 um 100.006 ~ Le = 0.023 mm Lg = 100.006 ~ 0,023 Lc = 99.983 mm Problem 3 Four length bars A, B, C and D each having a basic length 125 mm are to be calibrated using a calibrated length bar of 500 mm basic length. The 500 mm bar has an actual length of 499,991 mm. Also it was found that Ly = Ly + 0.0001 mm Le = Ly + 0.0005 mm Lp = Ly ~ 0.0002 mm and lq +by +c +Lp = L+0.0003 mm,14° Metrology and Measurements Determine Ly, Lg, le and Ly Solution a) }-——— 499.9991 mm | Fig. 1.8 | From Fig. 1.8 L+X = by thy + ke + by But Lg = Ly + Xp lg = Ly +X Ly = Ly-Xy LHX = Ly + (Ly + Xp) + (Ly + Xq) + (La - Xq) LX = 414 + Xp 4X3 -Xy and 4Ly = L +X, ~ Xp ~ Xy+X, += 499.9991 + 0.0003 - 0.0001 - 0.0005 + 0. = 499.999 mm ZL, = 124.9975 mm Further Lp = Ly + 0.0001 = 124.9975 + 0.0001 [Ly =124.99985 mm ig = Ly + 0.0005 = 124,99975 +Standards of Measurement 15 Lc = 125.0025 mm Lp = L4 - 0.0002 = 124.9975 - 0.0002 Lp = 124.9955 mm Problem 4 ‘A metre end standard is to be obtained from a calibrated line standard by using a composite line standard. The calibrated line standard has an actual length of 1000,001 mm. The composite line standard consists of a length bar having a basic length of 950 mm and two end blocks, (a+b) and (c+d), each having a basic length of 50 mm. Each end block has a central engraved line Four comparisons were made between the calibrated bar and composite bar using all combinations of the end blocks. The four measurements obtained were as follows : 1, = 100.0025 mm Ly = 100.0035 mm Ly = 100.0015 mm Ly = 1000,0025 mm ‘The two end blocks were compared with each other and block (a+b) was found to be 0.001 mm shorter than block (c+d). Solution : 1/2X = 0.0005 100.0025 A+(a+b) = 1000.002 V4 (ytLytLy+L)='46 Metrology and Measurements Given : 2, = 1000.0025 mm Ly = 1000,0035 mm . Ly = 1000,0015 mm Ly = 10000025 mm. Sean ne nen Total = 4000.0100 mm a Sp ttt ty _ AA A(agb) 42%, 4 4 400.0100 _ 44 +4(a +6) + 2X 4 4 or —_1000.0025 1 A+(a+b)+—-X (a+b)+) End standard using (a + b) = 1000.0025 — ox = 100.0025 — 0.0005 = 1000,002 mm End standard using (¢ + d) = 100.0025 + y2X = 100.0025 + 0.0005 = 1000.003 mm16 Metrology and Measurements Given : L, = 100.0025 mm Ly = 10000035 mm Ly = 1000,0015 mm Ly = 100.0025 mm Total = 4000.0100 mm. Lytlytlgtly 4A+4(a+b)+2X eS ns 4 4000.0100 _ 4A +4(a+b)+2X 4 4 And 1 or 1000.0025 = + (a+)+ > x 1 End standard using (a + b) = 1000.0025 - > x = 1000.0025 - 0.0005 = 1000.002 mm End standard using (c + d) = 1000,0025 + 1/2 X = 1000.0025 + 0.0005 = 1000.03 mm 1.12 Slip Gauges (Johannson Gauges) They are rectangular blocks of steel having a cross-section of 30 mm long and 10 mm wide, as shown in fig 1.10 and are most commonly used end standards in engineering practice. They are made up of high grade steels with a range of sizes in a set enabling dimensions to build up to 0.005 mm, 0.001 mm or 0.0005 mm according to the set chosen. The slip gauges are first hardened to resist wear and carefully stabilized so that they are independent of any subsequent variation in size or shape. The longer Sauges in the set, and length bars are hardened only locally at their measuring ends. After being hardened, blocks are carefully finished on the measuring faces to such a fine degree of finish, flatness and accuracy that any two such faces when perfectly clean may be “wrung” together. This is accomplished by pressing the faces into contact (keeping them 1) and then imparting a small twisting motion while maintaining the contact pressure. The phenomenon of wringing occurs due‘Stancarcs of Measurement 17 : and the mating surtaces. By winging — combsnation of two or more guages together any dimensions may Dusen. Lm Measuring Face a Fig 1.10 Slip Gauge Block To reduce wear on slip guages a pair of protector gauge blocks (I or 1.5 or 2mm length) are supplied and they are wrung to the ends of slip gauge ‘combinations. The protector gauge blocks are made of tungsten carbide or similar ‘wear resisting material which do not wear out and protect the slip gauges from wear. They are marked with letter /p’ on one measuring face.and Measurements ae @ reasonable amount of handling as a single unit. And also it should be Possible to detach all individual stip gauges so that they are re-usable without any damage to their original size or other properties 1.12.3 Indian Standard on Slip Gauges (is : 2984 -1966) pup Sauges are graded according to their accuracy as Grade 0, Grade land Grade Il. Grade It is intended for use in workshops duting the actual Production of dep nents, tools and gauges. Grade 1 is of higher accuracy and used in inspection Geparments. Grade 0 is used in laboratories and standard room which serves as 8 as shown in Fig. 1.10, Generally two sets of slip gauges (i) Normal set and Gi) Special set are used. A normal set consists of the following gauges : [ anes Gom [se am) 1.01 to 1.09 Lito 19 1to9 10 to 90Standards of Measurement 19 Range (mm) Steps (mm) Pieces | 1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9 1,010 to 1.490 0.010 49 0,50 to 24.5 0.50 49 25, 50, 75, 100 25 4 1.0005 " Total 112 1.12.5 Wringing Phenomena The phenomenon of wringing takes place when two flat lapped surfaces are placed in contact with a sliding movement. If the surfaces are cleaned they will adhere strongly when slid carefully together. Generally speaking a minute amount of grease or moisture must be present between the surfaces for them to wring satisfactorily. The phenomenon of wringing is due to molecular adhesion between a liquid film and the meeting of the flat surfaces. It has been found that the gap between the two wrung flat pieces is approximately 6 nanometers, which has no effect on the total length. The technique of wringing together two slip guages is quite simple, provided the surfaces are clean and free from burrs. The surfaces should be wased in petrol, benzene, carbontetrachloride or other de-greasing agents and wipped dry on a clean cloth, Then one gauge is placed at right angles to the other and slid one over the other as shown in the Fig. 1.11(a), while pressing them together, a rotary motion is applied until the guage blocks are lined up as shown in the Fig. 1.11(b) and (c). In this way, the air is expelled from between the gauge faces causing the two slip gauges to adhere.eS 1.12.6 Numerical Problems on Bulldi Ing of Slip Gauges 2 Problem 1 Build 58.975 mm using M112 set of Kouges, Solution : * Always start with the last decimal place, Here it is 0.005 mm and for this 1.005 mm stip gauge is selected * S8.975 - 1.005 = 57.970 mm. ‘Then take the subsequent decimal places Le, 87.970 - 1.47 = 56.500 mm, ¢ Minimum number of slip guages should be selected h.e., we cannot select 107 since 56.900 would be left o ut and the next gauge would be 14mm piece. Possible block in each step), " eh auaud mm choose 6.500 mm piece and finally 50.000 mm piece, Thus, we 3 have 50,000 + 6.500 + 1.47 + 1.005 = 58.975 mm select 1.47 mm slip gauge to be wrung together to produce an overall dimension of two protection slips of 2.500 mm size,22 Metrology and Measurements [Grade (0) Grade (iI) | 09 | 10 1 1 1 | 14 | 15 Determine the set you will prefer and the range of the set dimension Solution : From M-45 set the required dimensions can be set as follows Original dimension 58.975 3" decimal place + 1 mm = 1.005 57.970 2°4 decimal place + Imm ~ 1.070 56.900 1* decimal place + Imm = 1.900 55.000 To round off 0 50.000 Combination = 50.00 + 5.000 + 1.900 + 1.070 + 1.005 = 58.975 mm Sum of errors = = (0.20 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1) + 0.6 um + 0.0006 mm Therefore range of dimension 58.975 + 0.0006 58.9756 to 58.9744 mm. From M-112 set the required dimension can be set as follows : Original dimension = 58.975 3° decimal place + Imm =1.005 57.970 24 and Ist decimal places 1.470 56.500 To round off 6.500 50.000Standards of Measurement Combination = 50.000 + 6.500 + 1.470 + 1.005 = 58.975 mm Sum of errors = + (1.0 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5) = +25um = + 0.0025 mm. Range of dimension = 58.975 + 0.0025 = 58.9775 to 58.9725 mm Since the range of variation for M45 (Grade 0) set is less as compared to that of M112 (Grade 11) it is preferable to use M45 set for greater accuracy. Problem 5 The slip gauge set M38 consists of the following + Range (mm) | Steps (mm) | Pieces 1.005 - 1 1.01 - 1.09 0.01 9 11-19 ol 9 1.0 - 9.0 1.0 9 10.0 - 100.0 10.0 10 List the slip gauges to be wrung together to produce the following ‘dimensions : mm (ii) 15.09 mm (iil) 101.345 ei24 Metrology and Measurements a cs GD) 15,09 mm Original dimension 15.09 2" decimal Place + Imm. 1.09 14.00 To round off _=4.00_ 10.00 Combination is 10.00 + 4.00 + 1.09 = 15.09 mm, ‘ Gi)101.345 mm Original dimensional 101.845 3" decimal place + Imm =1.005 100.340 2" decimal place + Imm. =1.040 99.300 1" decimal place + Imm _=1.300 a 98.000 = le ad Te round off <0 sows ‘Combination 4s 90.000 + 8.000 + 1.300 + 1.040 + 1.005 = 101.345 mmStandards of Measurement 25 8. What are Airy points ? (VTU Feb 2002) 9, Where are the Airy points located on 600 mm length bar ? {Ans : 346.2 mm] 10, Discuss the following standards of measurement (i) Line Standard (ji) Wave length standard. (iii) End standard (VTU. Feb 2002)(VTU July 2003) 11, Enumerate the advantages of using wavelength standard as a basic unit 10 define primary standards (VTU. Feb 2002) (VTU Feb.2003) 12. How metre is defined today ? 13, Explain the following terms : (i) Primary standard, (ti) Secondary standard, (iii) Working standard. (VTU. March 2001) rimary standards 14. Distinguish between (i) Line and End measurements, (ii) P1 (VTU. Feb 2003) and secondary standards. line and end standards ? Discuss their relative 15. What do you understand by (VTU Feb. 2002) characteristics. 16. State at least three important characteristics of line standard and end standard instruments (VTU Aug. 2001) 17. Distinguish clearly between ‘Line standards’ and "End_ standards". Give examples of the standards. (VTU Jan, 2004), (VTU Aug. 2002) 18. Explain the NPL method of deriving end standards from line standards (VTU Feb. 2002) 19, How are the end standards derived from the line standards ? 20. Discuss the procedure for the calibration of End bars. 21, Three 12" gauges are measured on a level comparator by wringing them together and then comparing with a 36" gauge and then inter comparing them ‘The 36" gauge actually measures to be 36.0009" and the three gauge logelher dre found to have combination length of 36.0014". Gauge A is 0.00008" jonger than gauge B but shorter than gauge C by 0.00004", Determine the correct length of each gauge. [Ans : L, = 12.0009", Ly = 12.0001", be = 12,0013") calibrated using a calibrated bar B, C and D are to be : 1 the four length bars. Explain the 22. Four length bars A, ly equal to sum of all whose length is near! procedure.26 Metrology and Measurements longer. Determine the actual dimensions of all the four end bars [ans :L, = 99.9997 mm, L, = 99,9999 mm, £¢ = 100.0001 mm, L,, = 99.9996 mm| 24. Write a note on Johansson gauges. 25. What are the major requirements for slip gauges. 26. Discuss briefly Indian standards on slip gauges. 27. Explain the wringing phenomena of slip gauges and breaking of a stack of slip gauges. 28. Describe the procedure for wringing of slip gauges, using a slip gauge set M-87, build up the following dimensions. (i) 29.758 mm (ii) 46.635 mm. (VTU Jan.2004) (VTU Aug.2001) 29. Describe the steps in wringing of slip gauges. r ‘ E ee * (VTU Feb.2003) z a € details of M-87 set and hence build the following dimensions. i eS mm : i) 87.3215 mm ; iat a, 0000 + 6.0000 + 1.3800 + 1.002 + 1.0005 (ii) 80. i “4.0000 + 1 iCHAPTER System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 2.4 Introduction Every process is a combination of three elements i.e., man, machine and material. A change in any one of these will constitute a change in the process. All these three elements are subjected to inherent and characteristic variations. These variables result in the variation of size of components. It is, therefore obvious that it is impossible to produce a part to an exact size and some allowance known as tolerance has to be allowed. This tolerance allowed depends on the functional requirements. In engineering practice any component manufactured is required to fit or match with some other component. The correct and prolonged functioning of the two components depends upon the correct size relationships between the matching parts, in the desired way. ~ For example : If a shaft is to rotate in a hole there must be enough clearance between the shaft and hole to allow the lubricating oil film to be maintained. If the clearance is too small, excessive force would be required in rotating the shaft. If clearance is too wide, there would be vibrations and rapid wear. __ The desired condition of match shaft and hole could be obtained —28 Metrology and Measurements variation in dimensions. It is thus important to note that the cost of production increases tremendously for very precise tolerance, as shown in the Fig. 2.1 From this it is clear that the magnitude of tolerance must be set so as 10 permit as low manufacturing cost as possible and still achieve the necessary functional performance. 2.2 Need for Limit Systems The correct and prolonged functioning of m its correct size relationship between various cor Means that the parts must fit together in a ce! For example : The needle valve anufactured product depends upon of the assembly. This shown in fig 2.2 is a close slide fit in the bronze bush. This bush in turn is a drive fit in the body of the = QS y Ss instrument. Movement of the valve SSS : inthe direction of te arow closes CS} ofce _Needevatve the orifice, thus regulating the SS pressure of fluid through the orifice. nf i) If this assembly is to be mass- SS produced cheaply and efficiently, Nien ae and the customer or user is to be provided with a spare part service, — we must decide on the sort of fits piesa pa ones eae {ee ore importantly, we must decide on the Fig 22 Valve Assembly dimensions that will produce the sort of fits needed. If every engineering designer were allowed free rein in this matter of deciding the sizes of mating components to produce different kinds of fits, then complete disorder would result Hence it is the purpose of a limit system to establish the types of fits most likely to be needed in engineering manufacture, and to recommend the dimensions of the mating parts. 2.3 Definition of Limits The maximum and minimum permissible sizes within which the actual size of ‘a component lies are called limits. 2.4 Tolerance It is impossible to make anything to an exact size, therefore, it is essential to allow a definite tolerance or permissible variation on every specified dimension. Consider the dimensioning shown inthe gos figure 2.3. When making the part we try to 4000 achieve a diameter of 40.00 mm. This is called the basic or nominal diameter. gfSystem of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 29 The shaft will be satisfactory if its diameter lies between 40.00 + 0.05 = 40.05 mm and 40.00 ~ 0.05 = 39.95 mm. The dimension 40,05 mm is called the upper limit and the dimension 39.95 mm is called the lower limit. The difference between the upper and lower limits is called the tolerance. Tolerance in the above example is 40.05 - 39.95 = 0.10 mm The tolerance is always a positive quantitative number, 2.4.1 Toleranced Dimensions Tolerances on a dimension may be either unilaterial or bilateral A toleranced dimension is bilaterial if the limits are given above and below the nominal size as shown in the figure 2.4 | Q L Fig 2.4 Bilateral Tolerance When the two limits are only above the nominal size [Fig 2.5 (a)] or only below the nominal size [Fig 2.5 (b)] then the tolerances are said to be unilateral ff fo § wh J sha Pe @ (b) Fig 2.5. Unilateral Tolerance red over bilateral tolerances because the operator f the shaft (lower limit for a hole) still having the before the parts are rejected. e most likely to deviate in one direction Unilateral tolerances are prefel can machine to the upper limit of whole tolerance left for machining : In drilling the dimensions ar ther than undersize. | tolerances can be schematically represente For example only i.e., over size r Unilateral and bilateral in Fig 2.6 das shownSystem of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 31 The statistical approach bases the permissible tolerances on the normal etrbntion curve. considering that only 0.3% of the parts would lie outside = 32 mits This approach, obviously, allows wider tolerances and permits cheaper production methods especially in mass production. If all the assignable causes of on are fully controlled, then expected frequency curves of shafts and holes will be normal frequency curves, and accordingly the expected frequency of the clearances will also be a normal curve. It was estimated that about 33% more tolerance may be permitted by statistical approach compared to total interchangeability. 2.4.3 Tolerance Accumulation or Tolerance “Build-up” Wa part comprises of several steps, each step having some tolerance over its ength, then overall tolerance on complete length will be the sum of the tolerances on individual lengths as shown in the Fig. 2.832 Metrology and Measurements 2.4.4 Compound Tolerances considering the effect of A compound tolerance is one which is derive d by tolerances on more than one dimension. For example, in Fig. 2.10 the tolerances on dimension ’ are dependent on tolerances on D, H and 0. This compound tolerance on ‘i’ is the combined effect of all the three tolerance The dimension L will be maximum when the base dimension is D +a, angle i a and the vertical dimension is H ~ d. Similarly, L will be minimum when base d D ~ b, angle is @ ~ B and the vertical dimension is H+C Fig. 2.10 7 Compound Tolerance a 0° / D° a 2.5 Interchangeability ‘an be substituted for Interchangeability occurs when one part in an assembly ci a similar part which has been made to the same drawing. Suppose there are 100 parts each with a hole, and 100 shafts which have to fit into these holes. If there is interchangeability then any one of the 100 shafts fit into any of the holes and we can obtain the kind of fit required. Hence, for the interchangeability of holes and shafts, we need a system of limits and fits which gives standard values for the limits on the hole and shaft, so that any particular type of fit can be obtained. Interchangability is possible only when certain standards are strictly followed. In universal interchangeability the mating parts are drawn from any two different manufacturing sources. Universal interchangability is desirable and to achieve this all standards used by various manufactures should be traceable to a single source which will be an international standard, When all parts to be assembled are made in the same manufacturing unit, then local standards may be followed which is known as local interchangeability. The required type of fit in an assembly can be obtained either by universal or full interchangeability or by selective assembly. 2.6 Selective Assembly In selective assembly the parts are graded according to the size and only matched grades of mating parts are assembled. This technique is most suitable where close fit of two component assembles are required. It results in complete ‘non-conforming assemblies and reduces machining costs sinceLimits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 33 system of For example : If some parts to be assembled are manufactured to a tolerance of Do} mm, then an automatic gauge can seperate them into ten different groups ‘ith 0.001 mm limit for selective assembly of the individual parts. Thus paris with tolerances of 0.001 mm are obtained and both the conditions of high quality and Jow cost can be achieved by selective assembly technique Selective assembly is often followed in aircraft, automobile and other industries where the tolerances are very narrow and are not possible by any sophisticated machine at reasonable costs. The selective assembly, however enables such tolerances to be achieved without actually being produced 2.7 Limits of Size In deciding the limits for a particular dimension it is necessary to consider the following (® Functional requirements - the intended function that a component should perform. (ii) Interchangeability - Replacement of the component in case of failure without difficulty. (iii) Economy in production time and cost Thus the degree of tolerance provided on the mating components calls for a compromise. Number of standards on limit and fit systems have been published to help the designer in selecting the uniform limits and fits. A limit system consists of a series of tolerances arranged to suil a specific range of sizes and functions. Further such limits of size may be selected and given to assembling components to ensure specific classes of fit. 2.8 Indian Standard (IS 919 - 1963) ‘The Indian Standard system of limits and fits comprises suitable combination of 18 grades of fundamental tolerances or grades of accuracy of manufacture, and 25 types of fundamental deviations represented by letter symbols for both holes and shafts (capital letters A to ZC for holes and small letters a to zc for shafts) in diameter steps upto 500 mm. The 25 fundamental deviations are represented by, A,B,C, D, EF, G, Hy Jy J, Ky M,N, P,R, S, T, U,V, X, Y, Z, ZA, ZB, ZC. Number of fits ranging from extreme interference to those of extreme clearance may be obtained by a suitable combination of fundamental tolerances and fundamental deviations. 2.8.1 Conditions for the success of any system of limits and fits The limits and fits system itself must meet a number of conditions if itis to be comprehensive 1) The range of sizes covered by the system must be sufficient for most purposes.System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 35 2.10 Some Definitions Hole Tolerance on shaft Lower deviation Tolerance for hole Upper deviation Hole ZZ Zero line Shaft SSS Basic size Shaft Fig 2.12 Shaft and hole system Consider the shaft and the hole system as shown in the figure : Nominal size : The nominal size of a component is the size by which it is referred to as a matter of convenience. Basic size : A basic size for convenience may be defined as theoretical or nominal size which for the practical reasons is only approximated or it is the size ‘would be obtained if perfection were possible. It is the size of a pat in ‘which all limits of variation are determined, ; and Nominal size : A nominal size ° eneral identification. Thus the nominal size of a h ough the basic size of the hole36 Metrology and Measurements Deviation : It is defined as the algebraic difference between a size (actual maximum etc) and the corresponding basic size : Upper Deviation : It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit of size (of either hole or shall) and the corresponding basie size. I is destghated bp letters ES for hole and es for shalt, It is a positive quantity when the maximum limit of size is greater than the basic size and a negative quantity when the maximum limit of size is less than the basic size I is the algebraic difference betwee ize. It is a positive quantity when the minimum timiy minimum timit of size Lower Deviation and the corresponding basic s of size is greater than the basic size and a negative quantity when the minimum limit of size is less than the basic size. It is designated by EV for a hole and et for a shaft Fundamental Deviation ; This is the deviation, either the upper or the lower deviation, which is nearest one to the zero line for either a hole or a shalt. It fixes the position of the tolerance zone in relation to the zero line nit and the minimum, Size Tolerance : The difference between the maximum I limit of size i.e., the difference between the upper deviation and lower deviation ie., Tolerance T = ES ~ El (for hole) = es ~ ei (for shafts) Upper deviation, ES (postive) Fundamen destation \d (positive) Lower deviation, (negative) Zeroine Q \ N Fundamental deviation a ia YMA, Yt Fig 2.13 Upper deviation, lower deviation and fundamental deviation for holeSystem of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 37 Fig 2.14 Upper deviation, Lower deviation and fundamental deviation for shaft 2.11 Definition of Fit When two parts are to be assembled, the relationship resulting from the | difference between their sizes before assembly is called a_ fit. 2.11.1 Types of Fit and their Designation (IS 919 - 1963) | | _ Depending upon the actual limits of hole or shaft, the fit may be a clearance | ‘fit, a transition fit or an interference fit fae” ‘Clearance Fit : In this type of fit, the largest permitted shaft diameter is smaller the diameter of the smallest hole (as shown in Fig 2.15), so that the shaft93005 929.95 38 Metrology and Measurements b) Interference Fit : [tis defined as the fit established when a negative clearance exist between the sizes of the holes and the shaft. In this type of fit, the minimum permitted diameter of the shaft is larger than the maximum allowable diameter of the hole as shown in fig 2.16. In this case the shaft and the hole members are intended to be attached permanently and used as a solid component, Example : Bearing bushes, small end in the connecting rod. 2990 Schematic representation 3330 Schematirep Hole _ Hole J zoom Tine Shalt Sha @) ) foie Fig 2.16 Interference Fit ¢) Transition Fit : In this type of fit, the diameter of the largest allowable hole greater than that of the smallest shaft, but the smallest hole is smaller than the largest shaft, so that a small positive or negative clearance exists between the shaft and the hole as shown in fig 2.17. Example : Coupling rings, spigot in mating holes, etc., Negative clearance: x00 9 3068 = 015, Positive clearance A060 0 3055 = 005 Hale F fot Fig 2.17(a)42. Metrology and Measuremer ‘ | related features are a, | tolerance used for a single feature 4 ne geomeltica in Fig. 2.18 (a) and (b) respectively shown in Fig. (a) Single tolerance (b) Related feature Fig. 2.18 2.13 Positional Tolerances The conventional method of giving a positional tolerance by tolerancing co-ordinates is as shown in the Fig. 2.19. In the case of hole illustrated, it will be seen that the tolerance zone for the hole center is a square. If the tolerance Co-ordinates are not equal then the zone would be rectangle. Thus the permissible error in position of center varies with the direction of error. But, in most of the cases the designer wishes to restrict the amount by which the hole may vary from its true position irrespective of the direction of error. Min, hole Centre tolerance zone Fig. 2.19 Square Tolerance Zone produced by Co-ordinate Tolerances.44 Metrology and Measurements perfectly concentric, they are eccentric and the permissible tolerance is one of be teed OY Ht the error is absolutely zero should the word conc entricity be ‘used. However, these terms have become so widely used, although rather loosely, that they must be accepted and are generally understood, 2.14 Symbols and terms used in IS 919-1965 Basic shaft : is a shaft whose upper deviation is zero eg : shaft “h B hole : is one whose lower deviation is zero eg : hole “H Pala x00} Positive *0) 200 HOLES Basic size Z lMitiea, | = lif, negative 2 li 3a q positive +3 SSNS PSSST, ss y a iy 100 a “0 Basic size ¢ 7 “40 ry wef fas SHAFTS negative 0 a vel Fig 2.21 Letter Symbols for Tolerances ray The letter symbols for tolerances on shafts and holes are shown in the Fig 2.2 =q In the spe form! “deviations May BE derived of jc relationship Formulae for deviation in Ht46 Metrology and Measurements . Maximum and minimum metal condition : Maximum metal condition (MMC) corresponds to a condition when a part has maximum amount of metal. For example maximum limit on shaft and minimum limit on the hole. Similarly minimum metal condition corresponds to minimum size of shaft and maximum size of hole. MMC is important with regard to geometrical tolerances since it critically affects the interchangeability of manufactured parts. 2.15 System of Fits To obiain various types of fits, the amount of maximum and minimum clearances either positive or negative must exist between the mating parts While allotting the tolerances between the two mating parts, from the production and economic point of view, one of the mating parts limit dimensions is fixed and by varying the limit dimensions of the other, various types of fits are obtained. Based on this the system of fits are classified as : (i) Hole basis system and ii) Shaft basis system 2.15.1 Hole Basis System In this system hole limit dimensions are considered constant and various types of fits are obtained by suitably varying the limit dimensions of the shaft Figure 2.22 shows the clearance and interference fits in the hole basis system Tolerance zone on the shaft ‘Tolerance zone Clearance fit Interference fit Basic Hole Fig 2.22 Hole Basis System 2.15.2 Shaft Basis System In this system, the shaft limit dimensions are constant and vari , rious types of fits are oblained by varying the hole limit dimensions. Fig, 2.23 shi and interference fits in the shaft basis system, ot een aeSystem of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 47 Tolerance zone Tolerance zone on the hole onthe hole ZA. are Basic shaft ‘Clearance fit Interference fit Fig 2.23 Shaft Basis System 2.15.3 Significance of Hole Basis System The Bureau of Indian Standards recommends both hole basis and shaft basis system, but their selection depends on the production methods. Generally holes are produced by drilling, boring, reaming, broaching etc., Whereas the shafts are either turned or ground, Suppose the shaft basis system is used to specify the limit dimensions, to obtain various types of fits, number of holes of different sizes are required, which in turn requires tools of different types and sizes. If the hole basis system is used, there will be reduction in the production costs, as only one tool is tequired to produce the hole and also the shaft can be easily machined to any desired size. Hence, the hole basis system is preferred to the shaft basis system. 2.16 Tolerance Grade The tolerance grade is an indication of the degree of accuracy of manufacture. In IS specification, 18 grades of tolerances are designated as IT01, ITO, IT! upto IT16. These are known as standard tolerances, and their numerical values have been determined in terms of the standard tolerance unit j, where i in microns is expressed as i(microns) = 0.45 YD + 0.001 D (for basic size upto and including 500 mm), where D is the geometric mean of the lower and upper diameter of a particular step in which the diameter lies, D is in mm. For basic size from 500 mm upto and including 3150 mm, the standard tolerance unit is / and is calculated as follows : 1 = 0.004 D + 2.1 where 'D' is in mm, This formula has been empirically calculated on the basis of the former national standards of other countries and taking account of the fact that in most usual cases48. Metrology and Measurements the tolerance Varies manufacturing cond Grane Manufacture and measuring of higher size diameters, The relative maguneas ofeach grade is given in table 2 ‘ore oF less parabolically in terms of diameter for the same The idea of various grades of tolerance can be had from the applications stated in the table 2.4 Table 2.4 Tolerance Grade | Class of work O07 Gauge blocks High quality gauges, plug gauges 3 Good quality gauges, Gap gauges, 4 Gauges, precise fit produced by lapping. S Ball bearings, machine lapping, 6 z. 8. ine boring and Grinding ding, Fine boring, Nish quality tuning, broaching, boring centre-lathe tuning and boring, Reaming, capstan lathes in good condition, 9 Capstan or automatic lathes, Boring machines, 10. Milling, slotting, planing, roling, extrusion, n Drilling, rough turning and boring, Precision tube drawing| 2, LIght Press work, tube drawing. 13, Press work, Tube rolling M4 Die casting, or molding, rubber molding. 1s, Stamping 16. Sand casting, Flame cutting. range in which it falls, ous ameter steps specified by ISI are 1-3, 3-6, 6-10, 10-18, 18.30, 300" So. 80-120, 120-180, 180,250, 250-315, 318-400, and 400-500 mm.system of Limits, Fits, Tolerances 2nd Gauging 49 ze (geometric mean) for a particular range of aken as the average si ce with size D being | size to avoid a continuous variation of toleran 2.47 Numerical Problems mm shaft and problem 1 and allowance for a 25 J March2001) Calculate the limits of tolerance hole pair designated H,d,- (V.T. +n 25 mm diameter lies in the standar Solution : The give rd dia step of 18-30 mm. D = Ji8 x30 = 23.238 mm ¢ of fundamental tolerance unit i= 0.45 YD + 0.001D The valu j= 0.45 923.238 + 0.001 x 23.238 = 1.307 7= 13h For a hole quality 8 the fundamental tolerance from the table 2.3 is 251 = 25x13 = 32.5 = 33 1 = 0.033 mm leviation = 0. (From table 2.2) For the “H” hole, the fundamental d Hence the hole limits are 25mm and 2 = 25,033 - 25 = 0.033 mm. 5 + 0.033 mm = 25.033 mm Hole tolerance For the quality “9” For “d" shaft the fundamental deviation from the table 2.2 = -16 D4 —16(23.238)" 4 shaft, the fundamental tolerance = 40/ = 40x13 = 52h 63.86 » = 64 = 0.064mm. ‘The shaft limits are 25 - 0.064 = 24.936 mm. and 25 — (0.064 + 0.052) = 24.884 mm and Tolerance = 24.936 - 24.884 =|0.052 mm.System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 54 Fundamental deviation = ~ 2.5 p94 mim 25 (8817) ee =-8664=-9p 176 = 101 = 10x 1.6 = 16 Limit 50g, = 5070009 0.025 cl 50mm, 16 f Fig 2.25 Actual maximum and minimum size of hole is 50.025 to 50.000 mm and for shaft is 49.991 to 49.975 mm Maximum clearance = 50.025 - 49.975 = 0.05 mm Minimum clearance 50.000 - 49.991 = 0.009 mm Probem 3 In a hole and shaft combination of 25 mm nominal size. H, hote are 70031 mm e, shaft limits are “pi mn (®) State the values of maximum and minimum clearances obtainable. (ii) Allowance (mini hole ~ max.shaft). (ill) Tolerance on the hole and shaft. (iv) Type of fit. Solution : Maximum size of hole = 25.000 + 0.021 = 25.021 mm Minimum size of hole = 25.000 - 0.000 = 25.000 mm Maximum size of shaft = 25.000 ~ 0.040 = 24.960 mm Minimum size of shaft = 25.000 - 0.073 = 4.927 mm Maximum clearance = largest hole ~ smallest shaft 25,021 - 24.927 = [0.094 mm ey54 Metrology and Measurements — mene — 0.0743 = Ves ine 0.0603 70mm | ‘ x 0.0297 | = G Fig 2.27 Calculate all the relevant dimensions of 35 the step of 30.50 mm. Fundamental deviation S* = 0.45%D + 0.0010, 117 = 16°, Solution “4 7 H/f, fit dimention 35 falls in for “ shaft is - 5.5 Do, IT8 = 25 s°, Mar FD = -5.5 D' = -5.5 (38.73)! = 24.63, = Safiystem of Limite, Fite, 7 ences ona Gouging 67 ! Yy nar ft ee oe Hole) Fig 2.29 ‘The handle of the plug gauge can be made of any light metal alloys for heavy plug gauges, or suitable non-metallic handles for smaller plug gauges ‘The plug gauges are normally double ended for sizes upto 63 mm and for sizes above 63 mm they are single ended type as shown in the Fig. 2.30 Fig. 2.30 Single Ended Plug Gauges For smaller through holes, a progressive form plug gauge as shown in Fig. 2.3! is used. In this both the GO and NOGO gauges are on the same side separated by ‘a small distance. First the GO portion is inserted into the hole. After the full length enters into the hole, further entry will be obstructed by the portion if NOGO of the hole is within the tolerance limits.rf i [lig aye | oe } 1 ii — kSystem of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging §9 F 4D od a Z No GO Fig. 2.34 GO and NO GO Ring Gauges for Dimensions 3 to 70 mm Red coloured iL = od oD op od "a : co Fig. 2.35 GO and NO GO Gauges for Dimensions 70 to 250 mm NO GO 2.23 Snap Gauges or Gap Gauges A snap gauge usually consists of a plate or frame with a parallel faced gap of the required dimension as shown in the figure 2.36. In these gauges the gauging anvils can be adjusted endwise to suit any particular limit dimension required. Snap gauges are used for both cylindrical as well as non cylindrical work as compared to ring gauges which are conventionally used only for cylindrical work. Double ended snap gauges as shown in Fig. 2.36 can be used for size range from 3 to 100 mm. For the size above 100 upto 250 mm a single ended progressive type snap gauge as shown in the Fig. 2.37 is used.60 — Metrology and Measurements ai NOGO Gap An. DN NS GO Gap Fig 2.36 Double Ended Snap Gauge Fig 2.37 Progressive Type Snap Gauge 2.24 Gauge Materials Essential considerations in the selection of materials for gauges 1) Hardness to resist wear 2) Stability to preserve size and form 2.24.1 3) Corrosion resistance 4) Machinability for obtaining the required degree of accuracy 5) Low coefficient of linear expansion to avoid temperature effect 2.24.2 Materials used for Gauges 1) High carbon steel : Cast steel (0.8 to 1.0% C) either water or oil hardened is relatively inexpensive and most commonly used material for gauges Bigger sizes of plug gauges are made from case-hardening steels. 2) Mild steel : Gauges are usually case hardened on the working surface. They are used for gauges of shapes which might cause cracking during hardening if made in other steels. dlGystom of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 61 5) Ol Hardened steel : It Is best suited where gauges are required in huge quantities 4) Plated gauges + The recent advances in chromium plating have led to its Increasing use for gauges. It renders the surface of the gauges very hard coupled with resistance to abrasion and corrosion. Chromium plating also pro si method of reclaiming the worn gauges For gauging aluminium or other materials having abrasive action, plug © having stellite sibs inserted in the gauging surfaces are used 5) Cast Iron ; It is often employed for the bodies or frarnes of large gauges, whose working faces are hard inserts of tool steel or cemented carbides. 6) Glass : Glass gauges inspite of their good wear qualities have not gained viach popularity because if dropped or heavily knocked they may get damaged Glass gauges have the advantage of eliminating the corrosive effects due to perspiration from hands. Their dimensions are not affected by temperature cranges due to their low coefficient of expansion. Fusther when 2 glass gauge is scratched or chipped, no burn is left on the gauge. 7) Anvar : Containing 36% nickel has low coefficient of expansion but is unsuitable over a long period, 2.25 Taylor’s Principle of Gauge Design It states that Go-gauges should be of full form, that is, they should check shape ‘as well as size, whereas a NO-GO gauge should check only one dimension. This principle is as shown in the figure 2.38, Fig(a) shows a rectangular slot in a component, with the tolerance band shaded. Pin gauges for the length and width, made to the lower limits for their respective dimensions, may “GO” and thereby indicate that the slot is ‘satisfactory although the corners may not be square, as shown in Fig (b). It is necessary for the GO gauge to be a rectangular plate, that js, to be a full-form gauge. The NO-GO gauge. however, must not be of full form if it is so, the condition at (c) may occur. Here the slot, shown by the dotted lines, has the correct width but its length is excessive. As seen in the fig the gauge will not go through the slot which is therefore passed as being satisfactory. The NO GO gauge must ‘consists of two separate pin gauges, one for the length and the other for the width. YEZZZZZZZZLZZZZLY Y Y @ j y g G emma62 Metrology and Measurements ‘gauge Epes to aotiitien metal condition. a shaft or lower Figures (a) limit of a hole as shown inSystem of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 63 NO GO limit gauge : A NOG! For example, lower limit of one feature of the compo: lower limit while the NOG nent at a time. The 30 plug gauge corr 2.26 Gauge Tolerance Gauges, like any other Job require a manufacturing tolerance, and the theoretical Bauige size as determined from the maximum and metal limits of the component NOGO snap gauge corresponds to responds to upper limit. need some modifi tunately there is no universally accepted policy for the amount of gauge tolerance. However, the limit gauges are made 10 ate than the tolerances they are supposed to control. That is, the ch gauge whether GO or NO-GO is 1/10 of the work tolerance. 2.27 Method of Gauge Maker’s Tolerance There are three methods of givi 2.27.4 tolerance on ea ing tolerance on snap and plug gauges, First system (For workshop and Inspection gauges) In this method workshop and inspection gauges are made separately and their tolerance zones are different. According to this system the toleranc to fall within the work tolerance, while th the work tolerance as shown in fig 2.39. Further in workshop gauges, “GO" gauge will consume 10% of work tolerance and similarly the tolerance on “NOGO" gauge will be 1/10 of work tolerance. So, if work tolerance is 10 ul es on the workshop gauges are arranged inspection gauge tolerances fall outside nits then only 8 units will be left as the difference between the minimum of *NOGO" aca maximum of “GO, the tolerance on “GO” as well as “NOGO" gauges individually being, one unit each. wm ae t Tolerance Limit one guage Work tolerance unis sidunis t——GO a guage Lower Tolerance guages Trspection LimiMetrology and Measurements 64 In inspection gauges, gauges are kept beyond work tolerance, by an its value. - Disadvantages of Workshop and Inspection Gauges 1) Some of the components which are with In Work tolerance jimiy rejected under workshop gauges. So, they are again checked py. es and may be accepted after that Pectog ga 2) Some components which are not with in work tolerance limits may be ae when tested by inspection gauges. Phe 8) The workshop and inspection gauges are to be made separately singg ‘ tolerance zones are different. = 2.27.2 Second System (Revised Gauge Limits) In this system the disadvantages of inspection gauges are reduced by reduey the tolerance zone of inspection gauge, while the workshop gauge tolerance remal 2 the same. xd For "GO" and “NOGO" inspection gauge in this system, the 110% Of the range eB peaisibolerance is covered instead of 120% in the first system as shown i, the ig. 2.40. (uTL) Upper Tolerance Limit t — nox Tunit pg Work tolerance | =l0units aps 1 units Tune ! | (umL) Workshop t {00 WHEE B, Limit Suages: Lower Tolerance guages 2.27.3 Third System (Present Bri In this system, following prinej (Tolerance foto principles are fo i i in the work-limits and tolerance for the “System of Limits, Fits, Tolerances and Gauging 5 gauges outside the work-limits as shown in Fig 2.41. Provision for wear of “GO gauges is made by introducing a margin between the tolerance zone for the gauge and maximum metal limit of the work. Wear should not be permitted beyond the maximum metal limit of the work, when the limit is of critical import Ns magnitude is 1/10 of the gauge tolerance. Thus, when work tolerance is less than 0.09 mm there is no need of giving allowance for wear. If work tolerance is more than 0,09 mm then 10% gauge tolerance is given only on "GO" gauge for wear. nce. fe WA . No Go ecsteto waset pis High rit (4) forhole Tolerance forhole —— GO(L) a eed guage Lowertimea) — © {prerndedier tolerance s Torhote ert nc “4 SS od a So Se Se High fimit (4) for shaft < 6 oes 5 < see Be NS SRR < S50 SOBRE By a6 xe % S x RRS RS RRS REN RR SR 58 5 < aac % < Direction of wear of guage = No GO (L) © ZA guage Fig 2.41 Gap and Ring Gauges SS % RZ be 3% Re 1S ee ie < < Lower frit (L) for shaft 2.28 Wear Allowance Consideration on Gauge Maker’s Tolerance The measuring surfaces of “GO" gauges which constantly rub against the surfaces of parts in inspection are consequently Subjected to wear and lose their initial size. Thus, due to wear, the size of “GO” plug gauges is reduced, while that ‘of “GO” snap gauges is increased. But, it is desirable to prolong the service life of guages and therefore a special allowance called wear allowance is added in a direction opposite to the wear. For this reason “GO’ plug gauges are made with two positive deviations and “GO” snap guages with two negative deviations from the nominal size,Minn = 90 + oasis «sommes mn 2) Stat anging (Rng 8) CO mae