Metal Transfer in Gas Metal Arc Welding by Yong - Seog Kim y, Seoul National University (1980) Science, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (1982) SUBMIT ERIALS SCI. PMENT OF RING IN PARTIAL DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY at the MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY June 1989 © yong - Seog Kim, 1989 The author hereby grants to MIT permission 10 reproduce and to distribute copies of this thesis document in whole or in part Signature of Author .. i Selence and Engineertuy May 5, 1989 Depdrinent br Mater Certified by Thomas W, Eu alhests Supervisor Certified and Accepted by .. 1M. Allen Sam Departmental Committee on Graduate Students Sn JUN 07 1989 UBRARIEG. ARCHIVESMetal Transfer in Gas Metal Arc Welding Submitted to the Department of Materials Science and Engineering on May 5, 1989 in Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Science in Materials Engineering ABSTRACT This investigation explores the effects of welding parameters on metal transfer phenomena in Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). The welding parame- ters studied include welding current, shielding gas composition, welding mate- rial, and clectrode extension, Droplet sizes were measured For stecl, aluminium, and titanium electrodes by high speed videography and compared with predicted droplet sizes predicted by the static force balance theery and the pinch instability theory. ‘The comparison shows that the droplet size pre- dicted from the static Force balance theory can predict the droplet size reason- ably well in the range of globular transfer, but deviates significantly in the range of spray transfer. ‘The cause of the deviation was found to be duc to tapering of the electrode tip during welding, Heat transfer mechanisms in the electrode were studied in order to couple metal transfer with heat transfer. Electrode melting rates were measured as a unction of the welding parameters and fitted into the quadratic Function pro- posed by previous investigators. The coefficients of the quadratic function were compared with coefficients calculated from energy conservation theory to evaluate the validity of this theory for modeling electrode melting. It is found that the previously proposed theory is inadequate to explain electrode me behavior. Using a more complete temperature distribution model of the el trode, a’new energy balance analysis was developed. This new model included : joule heat, condensation heat, and heat input through the liquid-solid interface, ‘The rate controlling step for heat transfer through the liquid-solid interface was found to be conduction transfer at the interface, Based on this energy balance analysis, a new model of electrode melting was proposed, which agrees with the experimentally measured melting rates. Combining the results of droplet size prediction from the static Force ance theory and the electrode melting rate measurements, y of pulsed current GMAW is proposed. A theoretical pulsing frequency is predicted by this new theory, For given pulse parameters, experimental results show that here is a range of optimum pulsing frequency and that this optimum pulsing, frequency can be predicted using the theorctical pulsing frequency and natural drop transfer frequency. The pulsing parameters were also varied to investi- gate the effect of tapering of the electrode on the droplet size in pulsed current Welding. The results are used to prove the validity of the static force balance theory in modeling the droplet size in pulsed current GMAW. esis Supervisor: Dr. Thomas W. Eagar, Professor of Materials Engineering,Table of Contents Title Abstract sss List of Symbols List of Figure Captions... List of Table Captions .. Acknowledgement Chapter 1 Introduction and Background 1,1 Introduction sean 19) 1.2 Previous Studies 20 1.2.1 Factors Affecting Mctal Transfer Modes 20 1.2.2 Theories of Metal Transfer 27 1.2.3, Analysis of Heat Transfer in the . 36 1.2.4 Pulsed Current Gas Metal Arc Welding 42 1.3. Present Work 1.3.1 Objectives 44 13.2 Approach 45 1A References sun 48 Chapter 2 Materials and Experimental Procedures ... 2.1 Materials 2.2 Experimental Procedure 1.1 Welding Equipt 2.2.3 Metal Transfer Measurements. 2.2.4 Measurements of the Electrode Melting Rate .... 2.2.5 Pulsed Current Welding src 2.3 References. Chapter 3. Analysis of Metal Transfer in GMAW .. 3.1 Calculation of Equilibrium Drop Size .. 3.2. Measurement of Droplet Size and Transfer Frequency for Steel Electrodes. 3.2.1 Effect of Welding Current. 3.2.2. Effect of Shiclding Gas. 3.2.3 Effect of Electrode Extensic 3.2.4 Effect of the Welding Material 3.2.5 The Cause of Droplet Size Deviation between the Static Force Balance Theory and the Experimental Results 102 3.3 Simulation Experiment ., 3.3.1 Oil Dripping Experiment 3.3.2 Pulsed Current Welding .. 3.4 Comparison between the Static Force Balance Theory and the Pinch Instability Theory 108 ut3.5 Conclusions 3.6 References ... Chapter 4 Analysis of Electrode Melting Rates... 4.1 Theoretical Melting Rate of the Electrode from Encrgy Conservation Theory. 4.2 Characteristics of the Heat Source and its Boundary Conditions 4.3 Observation of the Current Path into the Electrode and Taper Formation. 4.3.1 Effects of Electrode Materials, Shiclding Gas, and Welding Current on the Current Path. 43.2. The Taper Formation Mechanism. 4.4 Measurement of Melting Rates, 4.4.1 Melting Rates of Steel Electrodes. 4.4.2 Melting Rates of Aluminum and Titanium Electrodes. 4.5 Least Square Fitting of the Meiting Rate. 4.5.1 Least Square Fit for the Steel Electrode. 46 Least Square Fit for Aluminum Alloys and Tita Alloy Electrodes. 4.7 Proposed Model of Electrode MEIiN 8. enn 4.8 Transitions in Melting Rate. 4.8.1 Transitions in Melting Rate and in Metal Transfer Mode. 4.8.2. Causes of the Melting Rate Transitions. 4.9 Conclusions .. 4.10 References .... Chapter 5 Modeling of Temperature Distribution and Analysis of Energy Balance in the Electrode 5.1. Assumptions and Boundary Conditions .. 5.2 Temperature Distribution in the Electrode sseu.u 5.2.1 Steel Electrodes Shielded with Helium and Carbon Dioxide Gas ... 5.2.2 Steel Electrodes shielded with Argon 5.2.3 Aluminium electrode and Ti-6Al-4V electrode 188 5.3. Energy Balance Analysis of Electrode Melting ... 188 5.3.1 Steel Electrodes Shielded with Helium and Carbon Dioxide ...... 192 5.3.2 Steel Electrodes Shielded with Argon 194 5.3.3. Aluminium and Ti-6Al-4V Electrodes 198 5.4 Modeling of the Electrode Melting. su.nnnn 198 5.5 Conclusions .. 210 5.6 References 21 169 170 173 173 179 Chapter 6 Analysis of Pulsed Current GMAW 6.1 Theoretical Framework of Pulsed Current GMAW 6.2 Pulsed Current GMAW with Steel Electrodes .. 6.2.1 Effect of Peak Current 6.2.2 Effect of Base Current 62.3 Effect of Load Duty Cyele ... 212 213 217 217 228 23263 Effect of Materials 6.4 Further Considerations of Pulsed Current 240 244 6.5 Conclusions . 247 Chapter 7 Summary, Conclusions , and Future Work. 248 7.1 Summary 248 248 249 7.1.1 Experimental Results 7.1.2. Analysis and Modeling 7.2. Conclusions 7.3. Future Work .. Appendix A. Effect of Are Gap on Metal Transfer sunmnnnmmannnimmnnne 256 Appendix B Calculation of Critical Wavelength in Liquid Column Carrying Current . senrennmennmene 260 Appendix C_ Effects of Distribution Parameter Value on Temperature Distribution and Energy Balance Analysis in the Electrode. wa 264 Appendix D Calculation of the Heat Transfer Coefficient at the Liquid-Solid Interface 270 Appendix E Phoenics Computer code (user modified) ... 273List of Symbols @ = radius of the electrode (em) a, = radius of undisturbed liquid jet (em) A= cross sectional area of the electrode (cm?) = projected area of the drop exposed to the fluid (em) B = magnetic flux (henry/n?) = drag coefficient C, = specific heat of solid (J/g.K) Ch = specific heat of liquid metal (J/g.K) Co.61.02.€ +C"2 = constants ¢ = electron charge {> pulsing frequency Jo > drop transfer frequency Feanaaym * cathode plasma jet force (dynes/sec) Fy ~ drag force (dynes) F_ = electromagnetic force (dynes) F, = gravitational force (dynes) F, = surface tension force (dynes) @ > gravitational constant (cm/sec?) fh = heat transfer coefficient (J/sec.cm?.K) He-smurtue * heat Flow rate through the liquid-solid interface (watts/em?) 1 = welding current (ampere) J, = base current (ampere) In * average welding current (ampere) 1, + peak current (ampere)J = current density (A/cm?) Jnener * current density at the cylindrical surface of the electrode (ampere/em?) Jv, * current density in the electrode (ampere/cm?) k= thermal conductivity (J/sec.cm.K) Ky, = constants L = electrode extension (em) m = electrode melting rate (g/sec) m(,) = melting rate at base current yan * melting rate at pulsed current my) = melti B rate at peak current n= taper Nw = Nusselt number ‘= Prandlt number Ng ~ Reynolds number 1, = projection of the outward unit normal to the surface in the jth direction P = pressure (dynes/em?) P, = pressure at the bulged region (dynes/cm?) P. = pressure ar the constricted region (dynes/em?) ‘2 = atmospheric pressure (dynes/em?) Purtace wanes * pressure due to surface tension (dynes/cm?) condensation heat (joule/sec) Qrue * total joule heat generated (joule/sec) you~ joule heat generation rate (J/sec.cm$) em ~ net remainder heat input (joule/scc) Qian = net remainder heat input of the liquid drop (watts)fon * net heat remainder of the electrode (watts) R = droplet radius (em) r= radius of the electrode at the tapered region r, = radius of the perturbed part Ry = viscous energy dissipation s + thickness of the liqi film on the taper (em) 4 = time (sec) t, = base time (sec) T) = temperature of liquid drop (K) fay 7 period of drop transfer (sec) T, = melting point of material (K) T, = room temperature (K) T. = average temperature of liq drop (K) 1, * peak time (sec) u, = velocity component in the ith direction V = volume of electrode (em$) uv = electrode travel speed (cm/sec) Uharase = average velocity of liquid film on the taper (cm/sec) ‘2 7 anode voltage drop (volts) V, = apparent condensation voltage (-(}k7/e+l', +6) Vary * volume of liquid drop (cm) uy = velocity of welding plasma near to liquid drop (cm/sec) vy, = electrode traveling speed in pulsed current welding (cm/sec) W(1,) = electrode traveling velocity at peak current (em/sec) Vasep(lp) ™ predicted droplet size at peak current (cm) u(1,) + electrode traveling velocity at base current (cm/sec)= generalized body force = = axial distance from the contact tip (cm) AH verse heat of transition (J/g) Allg > heat of fusion (J/g) AH = heat required to melt a unit weight of electrode (joule/s) @ = portion of the welding current which directly condense on the cylindrical electrode a,(!) = amplitude of the perturbation = thermal diffusivity (em?/sec) B : load duty cycle Y + surface tension (dyne/em) A = wave length of fluctuation (em) Re = critical wave length (cm) p(T) = electrical resistivity (ohm-m) Pu = density of material (g/ems) p, = fluid density B ~ average electrical resistivity of solid (ohm-m) = average electrical resistivity of liq:id (ohm-m) % = work function of the material (volts) He = permeability of free space (4x 10°’) t,, = stress tensor = fluid viscosityFig. Ll. Fig. 1.2. Fig. 13. Fig. 1.4, Fig, 1.10. Fig. 111 Fig. 2.1. Fig, 3.2. Fig.3.3(a). List of Figure Captions Metal transfer modes according to IW classification, Effect of current on the size and frequency of drops transferred in an argon-shielded arc, after Lesnewich 0.1, The variation in drop size with electrode pos Cooksey et al, [1.14] Effect of composition of mixture of Ar-COy on the transfer of electrode metal (1=150 A, V=35 V), after Elisstratov et al, {1.18}. Effect of electrode extension on the globular-spray traas- ition current, after Lesnewich (1.1). Current path and Lorentz force. Assumed geometry of a drop for calculation of static forces, after Greene [1.4], Variation of /, asa function of 0 value, ve, after The forces acting on the drop at the electrode tip. Fg = gravitational, Fp = drag, Fem = electromagnetic, Fy = surface tension, after Waszink [1.32]. Relation between wire feed rate and current fo four commonly used in COp, after Smith 1.2} Resistivity of wire material used. ~-st steel, after Waszink [1.40] Boundary conditions of one-dimensional model in calcu- lating the electrode temperature distribution. Overall layout of welding equipment. Contact tip design, An aluminium tube is inserted inside of the contact tip so that the actual contacting point is kept constant. Optical lens train of the laser back-light system. Oil dripping apparatus. Operational parameters for pulsed current welding. Variations of the detaching force as the droplet size increases. The assumed plasma velocity is 19 m/sec. Variations of the detaching force as the droplet size increases. The assumed plasma velocity is 100 m/sec. The equilibrium droplet size calculated from the static balance theory, less steel; x ~ 10 24 23 23 24 25 28 30 30 32 39 4 41 55. 56 59 60 62 68 69 70Fig.3.3(b). Fig. 3.4, Fig. 35. Fig. 3.6. Fig. 3.7, Fig. 3.8. Fig. 3.9. Fig. 3.10. Fig. 3.11. ig. 3.12, 3.13, 3.14. Fig. 3.15. Fig, 3.16, Fig. 3.17. Fig, 3.18. Fig, 3.19, Fig, 3.20. Fig, 5.21 Fig.3.22(a) The relative magnitude of forces acting on a drop at the electrode tip (plasma velocity : 100 m/sec). Variations of the detaching force as the droplet size increases for aluminium electrodes. The assumed plasma velocity is 10 m/sec. Variations of the detaching force as the droplet size increases for aluminium electrodes. The assumed plasma velocity is 100 m/sec. The equilibrium droplet size of an aluminium electrode calculated from the static force balance theory. Variations of the detaching forces of Ti-6Al-4V elec trodes as the droplet size increases. The assumed plasma velocity is 10 m/sec. Variations of the detaching forces of Ti-6Al-4V elec trodes as the droplet size increases, The assumed plasma velocity is 100 m/sec. The equilibrium droplet size of Ti-6AI-4V clectrodes calculated from the static force balance theory. The droplet size of steel electrodes calculated from the pinch instability. Experimentally measured droplet sizes for steel clec- trodes shielded with Ar-2%O,. The electrode extension was 2.6 em, Frequency of drop transfer with Ar-2%Qz shielding. Comparison of predicted and measured droplet size. Repelled transfer with steel electrode shielded with helium gas. Repelled metal transfer of steel electrodes shielded with CO; gas. Experimentally measured droplet size for steel electrodes shielded with helium gas. Experimentally measured droplet size for steel electrodes shielded with CO, gas. Frequency of drop transfer of steel electrodes shielded with helium gas. Frequency of drop transfer of steel electrodes shielded with COp gas. Current path into the liquid drop. The electrode is stec! and the shielding gas is CO; Effects of electrode extension on the droplet size of steel electrodes, The shielding gas is Ar-2%Oz Comparison of predicted and measured droplet sizes of an aluminium 1100 electrode n n a 14 15 16 n 8 19 80 81 83 84 85 86 87 89 90 a 94 96Fig.3.22(b) Comparison of predicted and measured droplet Fig. 3.23. Fig, 3.24. Fig. 3.25. Fig. 3.26. Fig. 3.27. Fig. 3.28, Fig, 3.29. - 3.30, Fig. 3.31. Fig. 3.32 Fig. 3.33, Fig. 3.34. Fig, 41 Fig. 4.2. Fig. 4.3, izes of ain aluminium $356 electrode, Comparison of predicted and measured droplet sizes of a Ti-6AL-4V electrode. Repelled metal transfer of Ti by the strong cathode jet force. Successive pictures of a drop rejected by the strong cathode jet from the base metal, The electrode material is zirconium and the shielding gas is pure argon. Typical taper shape of a steel electrode shielded with Ar-2%Op, Mechanism of reducing the holding force duc to taper formation. Modified static force balance theory. The holding force is reduced by considering the geometry change duc to tapering. Comparison of droplet sizes predicted by the static force balance theory and by the modified static force balance theory with measured values, |AI-4V electrodes caused Droplet size measured as a function of gas flow rate (relative scale) in oil dripping apparatus. Mlustration of drop forming position, With low gas flow rate (a), drop forms at the cylindrical part of the electrode and with high gas flow race (b) drop forms at the end of electrode, Comparison between the droplet size from the static force balance theory and minimum droplet size from pulsed current welding. Streaming metal transfer showing the pinch instability phenomena on the liquid column, (a) shows the intact cylindrical liquid jet and (b) shows instability of the liquid jet after an incubation time, Successive pictures of pendent drop motion prior to detachment from the electrode (total clapsed time : 60 milliseconds). Current path in globular metal transfer mode (a) in steel electrodes, (b) in aluminium electrodes, (¢) in Ti-6AI-4V electrodes with argon shielding goscs. Effect of shielding gas on the current pari., (a) steel electrode with carbon dioxide shielding, (b) stecl clectrode with helium shielding, (c)Ti-6AI-4V electrode with carbon dioxide shielding. Current path in the range of (a) streaming ‘ransfer with steel electrodes and (b) sprey transfer with Ti-6Al-4V electrodes. 2 7 98 100 101 103 104 106 107 109 110 112 4 us 129)Fig. 4.4. Fig. 4.5. Fig. 4.6. Fig. 4.7. Fig. 4.8, Fig. 49. Fig. 4.10. Fig 4.11 Fig. 4.12. Fig. 4.13, Fig. 4.14, Fig. 5. . 5.2. . 5.3, Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5. Fig. 5.6. Fig, 5.7. Fig. 5.8. Development of a taper is welding current increases. (a) 205 amperes, (b) 237 amperes, (c) 253 amperes, (d) 281 amperes, and (¢) 310 amperes. Comparison of the Cully developed taper on (a) steel electrodes and (b) aluninium electrodes. Melting rates of steel electrodes shielded with Ar-2%Oz, Melting rates of steel electrodes shielded with pure argon. Melting rates of steel electrodes shielded with COa. Meling rates of steel electrodes shielded with helium. Melting rates of steel electrodes shielded with Ar-He mixtures. Melting rates of aluminium 1100 electrodes. Melting rates of aluminium 5356 electrodes, Melting rates of Ti-6AI-4V electrodes. Boundary conditions for elestrade melting. Finite differenc: volume meshes of an electrode used to calculate temperature distribution in the electrode. Boundury conditions of heat flow into the electrode. Temperature distribution in steel electrodes at two different welding currents shielded with helium gas, Temperature distribution in steel electrodes at wo different welding currents shielded with carbon diox- ide gas. Comparison of temperature distributions from analyti- cal solutions and from FDM. Effect of the a value on the temperature distribution in the electrode. (a) a = 0.0, a = Ol, (b) a = 0.2,(c) a = 03, (d) a - 04, (a) @ + 1.0. The welding current is 280 amperes, Temperature distribution at various welding currents in steel electrodes shielded with Ar-2% O. The electrode extension is 2.6 cm. Temperature distribution at various welding currents in steel electrodes shielded with Ar-2% Oz. The etectrode extension is 3.6 cm. Temperature distribution in an aluminium electrode, Welding current is 130 amperes and a = 0.0. Temperature distribution in a Ti-6AI-4V electrode, Welding current is 150 amperes and a = 0.0. Energy baiance in steel electrodes shielded with CO, gas. 131 132 136 137 139) 140 141 142 143 145 161 172 174 175 176 178 180 186 187 189 190 191Fig. Fig, Fig. Fig. Fig, Fig. Fig. Fig, Fig. Fig. Fig, Fig Fig. Fig. Fig, Fig. Fig. 5.12, 5.13. 5.4. 5.15. 5.16. 5.18, 6.1. 62. 63. 6.4. 65. 66. 67. 6.8. 69, 6.10, 6.11. Energy balance in stecl electrodes shielded with helium gas, Etfeet of @ value on the energy halance in steel electrodes. Welding current is 260 amperes and the extension is 2.6 cm. Effect of a value on the average clectrical resistivity of steel electrodes. The welding current is 260 amperes and the electrode extension is 2.6 em. Energy balance analysis in stect electrodes shiclded with Ar-2%03 The a value used is 0.25 and the electrode extension is 2.6 em. ¥nergy balance analysis in aluminium electrodes suielded with pure argon. The a value used is 0.0 and the electrode extension is 2.6 em, Energy balance analysis in Ti-6Al-4V electrodes shielded with pure argon. The a value used is 0.0 and the electrode extension is 2.6 em. Effects of welding current on the average electrical resistivity of steel electrode at a given a value. Schematic diagram of weld current pulsing Theoretical pulsing frequency as a function of peak current. Optimum pulsing frequency regions for steel electrodes shielded with Ar-2%O3, The base current was 180 amperes and the load duty cycle was 5%, Droplet size variation in the range of optimum pulse frequency. The peak current is 500 amperes, Comparison between droplet size from the static force balance theory and minimum droplet size in pulsed current welding, The relationship between drop transfer frequency and drop radius at a constant melting rate based on 180 ampere base current. Melting rate of the electrode at three different peak currents. The shape of the drop (a) at low pulsing frequency and (b) at high pulsing frequency. Pulsing frequency regions at a base current of 200 amperes, Pulsing frequency regions at a base current of 220 amperes. Pulsing frequency regions at a base current of 260 amperes. “ 193 195 196 197 199 200 205 216 218 219 226 227 229 230 231Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 6.12, 6.13, 6.14, 6.15. Fig, 6.16, Fig Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19, 6.20. 6.21. The minimum droplet size at three different base currents. Partial tapering of the end of the electrode, The base current is 220 amperes and the peak current is 400 amperes. The minimum droplet size at different peak current, ‘The base current is 180 amperes and the losd duty cycle is 10 %, The pulsing frequency region at three different peak currents. The width of the optimum pulsing frequency region has increased significantly at 10 % load duty cycle, The pulsing frequency region at 20 % load duty cycle. The base current is 220 amperes. A fully developed taper formed at peak current in pulsed GMAW. The minimum droplet size under different pulsing conditions, Depending on the degree of tapering, the droplet size forms over a range of droplet sizes. The pulsing frequency region with Ti-6AI-4V elec trodes. Tapering of a Ti-GAI-4V electrode shielded with argon gas. (a) shows the beginning of the tapering and (b) shows an established taper. The base curreat is 200 amperes and the peak current is 500 amperes. The load duty cycle is 10 %. Secondary metal transfer with aluminium electrodes in pulsed current welding. 16 233 234 236 237 238 239 241 245Table 1.1. Table 1.2. Table 2.1, Table 2.2. Table 2.3. Table 2.4 Table 2.5. Table 4.1. Table 4.2, Table 4.3, Table 4.4, Table 4.5, Table 4.6. Table 4.7. Table 4.8, Table 4.9, Table 5.1 List of Table Captions LLW. classification of metal transfer. Contributions of the forces in drop detachment (per- cent). Thermophysical properties of the materials used in this study at 20 °C, Selected thermophysical properties of the shielding gases. The combination of welding parameters used in this study. Equipment specifications for the laser back- illumination system. Conditions used for pulsed current welding. Theoretically calculated value of coefficients in equa- tion [1,19] for 1.6 mm diameter electrode. Experimentally determined values of equation {1.19} for steel electrodes of 1,6 mm diameter. Comparision of electrode melting rates with different shielding gases at similar electrode extensions, Least square fitted coefficients of equation 4.7 for the steel electrode. Calculation of the quadratic function coefficient of maclting, Contribution of cach heat sources to melting of clec- trode. Lea: ital square fit for the aluminium alloys and the m alloy electrode. Calculation of the net remainder heat input, apparent condensation voltage, and electrical resistivity. Contribution ef each heat sources in melting alumin- ium alloys and titanium alloy clectredes. Range of values of Biot number for steel, aluminium, and titanium electrodes 6 2 31 52. 53 37 59 62 120 121 138 147 148 148 150 151 151 201Acknowledgements ‘Over the course of this work, many people have helped the author. 1 would like to express my gratitude and appreciation for their contributions and support. 1 would like to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude to Prof. Thomas W. Eagar, He provided crucial guidance and encouragement throughout this research program, Also he gave me the freedom to explore my own ideas while keeping this study on a constructive path, 1 also wish to express my appreciation to all members of Materials Joining Group for discussions and supports. Special thanks should be given to S. Eickhoff who built the current regulator, Without bis contribution, accurate work would not have been possible. In addition, 1 would like to thank to E, W. Kim and R. Kapoor who provided help in various ways. Also I would like thank the UROP students who worked with me: Kevin Bird and Julic Putnam, for help with reduc- tion of data, I would like to thank Dr. T. W. Kang for his help in understanding the PHOENICS computer code and computer graphics. Also 1 would like to thank to Dr. 8. Y. Yoon for his encouragement and friendship throughout my life at MIT, Finally, 1 thank my wife and children for their sacrifice and support, and it is to them that I would like to dedicate this work. Also 1 would like to express great appreciation for my parents for their love and support which has brought me to where am today. Their encouragement have always been the source of inspira tion throughout my life. This research was funded by a grant from the United States Department of Energy under contract number DE-FG02-85ER-13331.To Chang - Sook, Chul - Joong, and Taek - Joong.Chapter 1 Introduction and Background 1.1 Introduction In Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), there are various modes of the metal transfer such as globular, repelled globular, projected spray, streaming, and rotal g transfer, These transfer modes show different aze stabilities, weld pool penetrations, spatter generation, and weld quality. The control and prediction of these droplet transfer modes have been the primary goal in investigation of the process. Since Lesnewich’s [1.1] classical study of GMAW metal transfer in the 1950's, there have becn many studies of this process. Lesnewich [1.1] showed that the mode of metal transfer depends on many operational variables such as: welding current lectrode extension, clectrode diameter, and polarity. Later A. A. Smith [1.2] reported that shielding gas has a significant effect on the mode of metal transfer. With many factors influencing metal transfer, theoretical models have not been developed accurately enough to predict the actual welding conditions. Nonetheless, both the static force balance theory [1.3 - 1.5] and the pinch instability theory [1.6 - 1,8] have been proposed to explain the metal transfer phenomenon. It has been shown that the static balance theory can successfully explain the metal transfer behavior in the range of globular transfer [1.5]. Melting rates of the electrode are also important in controlling metal transfer from the electrode, because the melting rate and the droplet size together determine the droplet transfer frequency. In analyzing the melting rate of the electrode, an energy conservation method has been used [1.9 - 1.10], which assumes that all the 10heat input into the electrode is used in melting the clectrode. ‘This method does not include losses and details of the heat {low mechanism : hence it is not able to model the melting rate of the electrode precisely. Introduction of the pulsed current welding method in the carly 1960's [1.11] has improved the ability to control metal transfer dramatically. With proper welding conditions, the frequency of drop transfer and the droplet size can be controlled by changing the pulsing rate and the peak welding current, Although this process provides a wide range of workable welding conditions, it also requires a trial and error method of determining the proper operational conditions, thus there is no theoretical method currently available for determining the droplet size and the melting rate of tke electrode during pulsed current welding. This dissertation begins with a literature review of metal transfer, heat flow into the electrode, and pulsed current welding, which provides guidance for further investigation and guides the analysis of the present research results. 1.2 Previous Studies 1.2.1 Factors Affecting Metal Transfer Modes According to the International Institute of Welding (11W) [1.12], metal transfer modes in welding using consumable electrodes are classified as shown in table 1.1 and in Fig. 1.1. In GMAW, most of the welding is performed with cither globular or spray transfer mode. With globular transfer mode, the penetration depth is usually shallow, therefore this transfer mode is often used for welding of thin sheet. With the spray transfer mode, penetration is deep and the melting rate of the clectrode is high, therefore this mode of metal transfer is adapted for welding of thick plate, With the spray transfer mode, good weld quality is usually obtained. EyTable 1.1, LLW. Classification of metal transfer Metal Transfer Mode Examples globular 1.drop low current GMAW 2repelled CO; shielded GMAW Free Flight Transfer spray I projected intermediate current GMAW 2streaming medium-current GMAW 3.rotating high-current GMAW jexplosive [SMA (coated electrode) Bridging Transfer "[shor-czcuiting short-arc GMAW bridging without interruption |welding with filler wire laddition Slag-protected transfer |flux-wall guided SAW other modes SMA, cored wire, elec-| troslag O q ys — ° : Orop Replied Projected Streaming I , oN cera) i eae >" Rotating Explosive Short-circuiting Ftux-wall quided Fig. L.1. Metal transfer modes according to IIW classification, 2The operational factors affecting the mode of metal transfer are: welding current, composition of shiclding gas, extension of the electrode beyond the current contact tip, the ambient pressure, active elements in the electrode, polarity, and the welding material. Of all of these, welding current has the most significant effect on the mode of metal transfer. Globular transfer mode occurs at low welding currents, while spray transfer mode occurs at relatively higher welding currents. In the spray transfer mode, there are three different types of metal transfer, namely; projected transfer, streaming transfer, and rotational transfer. Projected transfer, which occurs when the droplet diameter is approximately the same as the diameter of the electrode, occurs in the lower welding current range of the spray transfer mode. As the welding current increases, the metal transfer mode changes from projected transfer mode to streaming transfer mode, In streaming mode, the drop transfers in a continuous stream of tiny drops as suggested by its name, When the welding current increases, the metal transfer mode changes to rotational transfer in which the of the electrode. This mode shows uid string rotates about the a: very unstable metal transfer and sets a practical upper limit of heat input into the electrode. The phenomena described above are observed in sequence only when the welding material is stecl and the shielding gas has an argon-rich composition. With other materials aud with other shiclding gases, not every one of these metal transfer modes is observed. As the welding current increases, using stecl electrodes with argon shielding, the transition of metal transfer mode from globular to spray transfer has been reyorted as a critical phenomenon [1.1]. As seen in Fig. 1.2, the transition is observed over a very narrow current range : less than 10 amperes. Ludwig [1.13] also observed a sharp increase in the frequency of drop transfer. Nonetheless, he did not observe a region in which the droplet size remained constant after the transition as did Les- newich, On the other hand, Cooksey et al. [1.14] showed a very smooth transition from globular to spray transfer using various electrodes such as mild stecl, copper, 2nickel, and titanium electrodes. In this case the transition occurs over a wide range of welding current and any discon uous jump in droplet size was not observed as shown in Fig, 1.3. Fig. 1.2, LRETE oF TRANSFER (0HOPS SEC roe Diameter mms ‘cunment arenes) Effect of current o 1 size and frequency of droyis transterved in an argon shielded arc, after Lesnewich {1.1} Conver © Wengen j e 4 ‘The variation In drop size with electrode positive, after Cooksey etal, (114), 3Different shielding gases can produce a entirely different set of metal transfer modes. With argon shiclding, the most commonly used metal transfer mode is spray projected transfer. However when carbon dioxide, helium, and nitrogen are used as shielding gases, the repelled globular transfer mode is usually observed [1.15-1.17] and neither streaming transfer nor rotational transfer is observed. One of the characteristic differences between argon and these other gases is that they need more ther because of the additional energy concentrated energy to form a plasma flame, for dissociation of the gas molecules in the are as with carbon dioxide and nitrogen or because of the higher ionization potential of the gas as with helium, When mixtures of argon and carbon dioxide are used, an interesting result is found [1.18]. As seen in Fig. 1.4, the rate of drop transfer increases linearly with the composition of the argon gas. é 7 a & ~ 6 — 6 te su uu WO Ae (%) Fig. 1.4. Effect of composition of mixture of Ar-COg on the transfer of electrode metal (I=150 A, V=35 V), after Elisstratoy ct al, {1.18} “There have been several attempts to increase the workable range of welding currents using argon-base shielding [1.19-1.20]. With argon or Ar-2% Oz shiciding gases, the maximum workable range of welding current with 1.6 mm diameter stecl electrodes is around 400 amperes. The maximum current corresponds to the welding current at which rotational transfer begins. Therefore, the workable range of welding current can be expanded when the rotational transfer mode i suppressed. When helium and/or carbon dioxide are added to the argon gas, the range of welding current for projected spray transfer is greatly increased. These optimized mixtures are commercially available in the market under different brand names, c.g. TIME, LINDE 6, and the like. With a longer clectrode extension, the current for the globular-spray transfer transition decreases [1.1]. As shown in Fig. 1.5, as the clectrode extension increases and the electrode diameter decreases, the transition current decreases. 400] | TRANSITION CURRENT (AMPERES! —_] |_| corey 200 |__.030° 0-7 ee |__| 5 t ? 3 ELECTRODE EXTENSION (CHES! Fig. 15, Effect of electrode extension on the globular-spray transition current, after Lesnewich [1.1].The effects of ambient pressure on metal transfer during GMAW have been studied for the purpose of underwater weldi g. Stout etal. [1.21] observed that when the pressure reaches 5 atm, spray transfer becomes irregular and fluctuation of the voltage increases. Amson [1.22] observed that as the pressure increases, the transition current increases. Pressure also increases the melting rate of the electrode [1.23]. The use of thin coatings on the electrode consisting of : alkali, alkatine earth, rare earth elements, and certain oxides have been shown to increase the stability of metal transfer [1.24-1.26]. ‘These coatings arc believed to alter the cathode or anode jet behavior and thus affect the mode of metal transfer, ‘These coatings show great advantages in reducing spatter and stabilizing metal transfer in Direct Current Electrede Negative (DCEN) welding and in welding with carbon dioxide and helium shielding. However these coatings are not readily applied on an industrial scale because there are difficulties in obtaining a uniform distribution of the coating on the surface of the electrode. The Direct Current Electrode Positive (DCEP) welding method has been widely used because metal transfer is more stable [1.1] although the electrode melting rate is lower than with the DCEN method. Repelled transfer usually occurs with DCEN ; producing much spatter. However the DCEN method shows a 30% - 60% higher melting rate than the DCEP method and hence would be preferable if it could be stabilized. When the shielding gas is argon, stecl and aluminum clectrodes show stable projected metal transfer modes with DCEP, but Ti-6AI-4V electrodes show repelled transfer mode at low welding currents which produces much spatter [1.27]. This extraordinary behavior with Ti-6A1-4V electrodes has been ascribed to the formation of a strong plasma jet which is caused by the deficiency of surface oxides at the cathode (base plate). Oxides, which usually have a lower work function than the bare metal, are believed to act as a source of electrons. Therefore in the presenceof a surface oxide, the welding plasma distributes uniformly over the base plate, thus inhibiting the formation of the plasma jet. However if there are no oxide patches available for electron emission, the welding plasma will reside in a single location Forming a strong plasma jet from the base plate causing the drops to be blown away, As experimental proof of this concept, Ries [1.27] performed aluminum welding in argon with extremely low oxygen content (less than 10-* ppm). In contrast to the stable metal transfer found in aluminum with commercially pure argon, the metal transfer in extremely pure argon was found to be very unstable. He also proposed that high frequency pulsing will eliminate the strong plasma jet formation and thus may stabilize this arc. 1.2.2 Theories of Metal Transfer There are two well quoted theories of metal transfer. These are the static force balance theory [1.3-1.5] and the pinch instability theory (1. 8], In addition to these theori , the plasma force theory [1.28] and the critical velocity theory [1.29] have been proposed to explain the transition between metal transfer modes. 1) Static Force Balance Theory The static force balance theory postulates that the drop detaches from the electrode when the static detaching forces on the drop exceed the static retaining force. As static forces, four different forces are usually considered ; the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force, and the plasma drag force as detaching forces and the surface tension forces as a retaining force. The gravitational force is due to the mass of the drop and acts as a detaching force when welding in the flat position : 4 = Sue’ Ma ae] a”where R is the droplet radius, p, is the density of the drop, and g is the gravitational constant. This force is known to be the dominant detaching force at low welding currents i.e. in the globular transfer mode [1.5}. The electromagnetic force on the drop results from divergence or convergence of current flow within the electrode, As shown in Fig. 1.6, if the current lines diverge in the drop, the Lorentz force, which acts at right angles to these current lines, ‘creates a detaching force ; however, if the current lines converge, the Lorentz force opposes drop detachment. The clectromagnetic force is given by Lorentz’s law: where J is current density and B is magnetic flux, anode spot Fig. 1.6. Current path and Lorentz force. %The total electromagnetic force on a drop can be obtained | y integrating equation [1.2] over the current conducting surface of the drop. By assuming that the current density on the drop is uniform, Amson [1.3] solved equation [1.2] to obtain equal O31 2, 2 e080 (1-cos0)® 1 #cos0 where I is the welding current and 4, is the permeability of free space. The geometry used in equation [1.3] is shown in Fig. 1.7 and a graph of f, asa function of the conduction zone angle is given in Fig. 1.8. As scen in Fig. 1.6, when the conduction zone is small such that the current lines converge, f2becomes negative . the electromagnetic force acts as a repulsive force. However when the conduction zone is large enough so that the current lines diverge, fz becomes positive and the electromagnetic force becomes a detaching force. The plasma drag force can be calculated by considering the drag force on a sphere immersed in a fluid. The drag force on a sphere immersed in a fh of uniform velocity field is [1.30]: du} = ya,( S08 La Fa + Coa (22) where Cp is the drag coefficient, A, is the projected area on the plain perpendicular to the fluid flow, and v, is the velocity of the gas. Therefore the plasma drag force acting on the liquid drop can be approximated by modifying equation [1.4] to allow for the area occupied by the electrode. »anode spot —~ Fig. 1.7, Assumed geometry of a drop for calculation of static forces, after Greene (1.4) 102 aE detaching 2.00 2.0 coe 90.9 120.0 169.0 ANGLE THETA IH OEGREES Fig. 18. Variation of f, asa function of 0 value,The surface tension force, which acts to retain the liquid drop on the electrode is given as follows; F, +2nay Ls where a_ is radius of the clectrode and y is the surface tension of the liquid metal. In addition to the above forces, Amson [1.31] proposed that the kinetic energy of the liquid metal which is induced by magnetic forces, can also contribute to drop detachment, He called this the magneto-kinetic force. This is essentially an inertial force due to vibration of the drop on the electrode. By considering all these forces, Amson [1.31] calculated the relative contributions of each force in detachi 8 the drop as scen this table. As scen in table 1.2, the dominant force in drop detachment is the gas drag ( plasma drag ) force, although both the Lorentz force and the magneto-kinetic forces are also significant. Table 1.2 Contributions of the forces in drop detachment. (percent) welding gravitational Lorentz force |Magneto-kineti |gas drag current (A) |force je force 147 25 23 225 32 212 2 18 25 35 243 is 17.5 23 62 Waszink [1.32] investigated the relative magnitudes of the three forces, namely the gravitational force, the plasma drag force, and electromagnetic force, The plasma drag force was obtained by using a plasma-GMAW welding machine with a1