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PHYSICS PROJECT
FILE ON
SEMICONDUCTORS

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

RAJAT SIR VISHAV SHARMA
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the accomplishment of this project successfully
many people have best owned me their blessing and
the heart pledged support this time I am utilizing to
thank all the people who have been concerned with
poject.Primarily , I would thank god for being able to
complete this project with success. Then I would like
to thank my Principal MR. and Physics teacher
MR. RAJAT SIR whose valuable guidance has been the
ones that helped me patch this project and make it full
proof success.
His suggestion and instructions have served as the
major contributor towards the completion of this
project. Then I would like to thank my parents and
friends who have helped me with their valuable
suggestions and their guidance has been helpful in
various phrases of the completion of the project.
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INDEX
➢ INTRODUCTION
➢DISCOVERY
➢ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM
➢INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
➢EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
➢N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
➢P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
➢MASS ACTIO LAW
➢BARRIER FORMATION IN P-N JUNCTION DIODE
➢ DEPLETION BARRIER
➢POTENTIAL BARRIER
➢P-N JUNCTION DIODE
➢FORWARD BIASING OF A P-N JUNCTION
➢REVERSE BIASIG P-N JUNCTION
➢P-N JUNCTION AS RECTIFIER
➢SPECIAL PURPOSE p-n JUNCTION DIODES
➢ZENER DIODE
➢OPTOELECTRONIC JUNCTION DEVICE
➢PHOTO DIODE
➢LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
➢SOLAR CELL
➢TRANSISTOR AS A DEVICE
➢TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
➢TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
➢IMPORTANCE OF SEMICONDUCTOR
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INTRODUCTION
The material whose electrical conductivity lies between those of conductor and
insulator are known as semiconductor.

Silicon 1.1Ev

Germanium 0.7Ev

Cadmium Sulphide 2.4Ev

• Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with

distinct electrical characteristics
• They are of high resistance higher than typical resistance materials
but still of much lower resistance than insulators
• Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases , which
is behavior opposite to that of a metal
• Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor

DISCOVERY
• Whenever you will learn about the history of electricity and electronics
you will find that a lot of the ground breaking work was done in the
19th centuay .the situation is no different for semiconductors
• Tariq siddiqui is generally acknowledge is one of the first
experimenters to notice semiconductor properties.
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ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

• Forbidden energy band is small for semiconductors .

• Less energy is required for electron to move from valence
to conduction band
• A vacancy hole remains when an electron leaves the
valence band
• Hole act as a positive charge carrier
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INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor material in its pure form is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor. Thus, the intrinsic semiconductors are chemically pure, i.e.
they are free from impurities.
In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the number of charge carriers, i.e., holes
and electrons are determined by the properties of the semiconductor material
itself instead of the impurity. Also, the number of free electrons is equal to the
number of holes in the intrinsic semiconductor. The common examples of the
intrinsic semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si).
The extrinsic semiconductors have high electrical conductivity.
The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is dependent on temperature
as well as amount of impurity added.

The extrinsic semiconductor conducts at 0 Kelvin temperature.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
When a small amount of chemical impurity is added to an intrinsic
semiconductor, then the resulting semiconductor material is known
as extrinsic semiconductor. The extrinsic semiconductor is also known
as doped semiconductor. The process of adding impurity in the intrinsic
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semiconductor is known as doping. The doping of semiconductors increases

their conductivity
Based on the type of doping, the extrinsic semiconductors are classified into
two types viz. N-type semiconductors and P-type semiconductors. When a
pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, then the
resulting semiconductor is termed as N-type semiconductor. On the other
hand, when a trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, then the
obtained semiconductor is known as P-type semiconductor.

Two types of impurity atoms are added to the semiconductor

Atom containing 5 valances atom containing 3

valances Electrons
Pentavalent impurity atoms (trivalent
impurity) eg. P,As,Sb, Bi eg. Al,Ga,B,In

N-Type semiconductor P-Type semiconductor

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
• The semiconductors which are obtained by introducing
pentavalent impurity atoms are known as N-type semiconductors .
• Examples are P, Sb,As, and Bi. These elements hav 5 electron in their
valance sheel.Out of which 4 electron will form covalent bonds with
the neighbouring atoms and the 5th electron will be available as a
current carrier .the impurity atom is thus known as donot tom
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• In N-type semiconductor current flows due to the movement of

electrons and holes but majority of through electrons.Thus electon in N
– type semiconductor are known as majoriy charge cariers while holes as
minority charge carriers.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
• The semiconductor which are obtained by introducing trivalent
impurity atom are known as P-type semiconductor
• Examples are Ga, In, Al and B .these elements have 3 electron in their
valance sheel which will form covalent bond with the neighbouring
atom
.
• The fourth covalent bond will remain incomplete.A vacancy which exist
in the incomplete covalent bond constitute a hole .The impurity atom
is thus known as acceptor atom
• In P-type semiconductor current flows due to movement of
electrons and holes but majority of through holes .Thus holes in P-
type semiconductor are known as majority charge carrierwhile
electron as minority charge carrier

MASS ACTIO LAW

Addition of n –type impurities decrese the numevr of holes below a level
.Similarly the addition of p-type impurities decreased the number of
electron below a level .It has been experimentally found that under
thermal equilibrium for any semiconductor the product of no. of holes and
the no. of electrons is constant and independent of amount of doping . this
relation is known as mass action law .

ne.nh= 2
ni
Where ne = electron concentration
nh = hole concentration and
ni = intrinsic concentration
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BARRIER FORMATION IN P-N

JUNCTION DIODE
the holes from p-side diffuses to the n side while the free electons from n-side
diffuses to the p-side.This movement occurs because od charge density
gradient . This leaves the negative acceptor ions on the p-side and positive
donor ions on the n-side un covered in the vicinity of the junction .Barrier
formation in P-N junction Diode. Thus there is negative chage on p-side and
positive on n –side.This setup potential difference acriss the junction and
hence an internal electric filed directed from n-side to p-side .Equilibrium is
established when the field become large enough to stop further diffusion of
the majority charge carrier .The region which become depleted of the mobile
charge carrier is called the depletion region .The potential barrier across the
depletion region is called potential barrier. width of depletion region depend
upon the doping level .The higer the doping level, thinner will be the depletion
region .

DEPLETION REGION
• It is a region near the p-n junction that is depleted of any mobile
charge carrier
• The depletion region depends upon
1 The type of biasing
2 Extent of doping

POTENTIAL BARRIRE (VB)

Due to accumulation of immobile ion cores in the junction , a potential
difference is developed which prevent the further movement of majority
charge across the junction .

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

A p-n junction consist of wafers of p-type and n type semiconductors fused
together or grown on each other
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FORWARD BIASING OF A P-N JUNCTION

(a) A p-n junction is said to be forward biased when p region is
maintained at a higher potential with respect to the n- region as
shown
(b) When forward biased majority changes carriers in both the regions are
pushed through the junction .The depletion region’s width decreases
and the junction offers low resistance , and potential difference across
the junction becomes VB-V

REVERSE BIASIG P-N JUNCTION

(a) A p-n junction is said to be reversed biased when its p-region is
maintained at lower potential with respect to its n-region is as
shown
(b) When the junction is reverse biased the majority career in both the
regions are pushed away from the junction .the depletion region width
increase and the potential difference across the junction becomes
VB+V

P-N JUNCTION AS RECTIFIER

Rectification: it is the process of conversion of AC into DC.A single p-n
junction, of two or four p-n junction can be used for this purpose.

Half wave rectifier : a single p-n junction can be used for half wave rectifier .It
conducts only during alternate half cycle of the input AC voltage .As a result the
output voltage does not change in polarity .The average of the voltage from a
half wave rectifier is low .

Full wave rectifier: It is achieved using two p-n junction .It conducts for both
halves of the cycle .The average voltage of a full wave rectifier is more than
that of a half wave rectifier , for the same rms voltage of AC voltage .

SPECIAL PURPOSE p-n JUNCTION DIODES

ZENER DIODE
A Zener diode is a heavily doped semiconductor device that is designed to
operate in the reverse direction. A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown
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diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor device that is designed to operate in

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the reverse direction. When the voltage across the terminals of a Zener diode is
reversed, and the potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee voltage), the
junction breaks down, and the current flows in the reverse direction. This effect
is known as the Zener Effect.

OPTOELECTRONIC JUNCTION DEVICE

We have seen so far how a semiconductor diode behaves under applied
electrical inputs. In this section, we have learn about semiconductor diode in
which carrier are generated by photons (photo-excitation) .All these devices
are called optoelectronic device.

(I) Photo diode : used for detecting optical signal (photo detectors)
(II) Light emitting diode : (LED) : which convert electrical energy into light
(III) Photo voltaic devices : which convert optical radiation into
electricity (solar cells)

PHOTO DIODE:

A photodiode is a light-sensitive semiconductor diode. It produces current

when it absorbs photons. The package of a photodiode allows light (or
infrared or ultraviolet radiation, or X-rays) to reach the sensitive part of the
device. The package may include lenses or optical filters. Devices designed for
use specially as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p–n junction, to
increase the speed of response. Photodiodes usually have a slower response
time as their surface area increases. A photodiode is designed to operate in
reverse
bias. A solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area
photodiode. Photodiodes are used in scientific and industrial instruments to
measure light intensity, either for its own sake or as a measure of some other
property (density of smoke, for example). A photodiode can be used as the
receiver of data encoded on an infrared beam, as in household remote
controls. Photodiodes can be used to form an opt coupler, allowing
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transmission of signals between circuits without a direct metallic connection

between them, allowing isolation from high voltage differences.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits
light when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine
with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the
energy required for electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor.
White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-
emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device. LEDs have many advantages
over incandescent light sources, including lower power consumption, longer
lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. In
exchange for these generally favorable attributes, disadvantages of LEDs
include electrical limitations to low voltage and generally to DC (not AC) power,
inability to provide steady illumination from a pulsing DC or an AC electrical
supply source, and lesser maximum operating temperature and storage
temperature. In contrast to LEDs, incandescent lamps can be made to
intrinsically run at virtually any supply voltage, can utilize either AC or DC
current interchangeably, and will provide steady illumination when powered by
AC or pulsing DC even at a frequency as low as 50 Hz. LEDs usually need
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electronic support components to function, while an incandescent bulb can

and usually does operate directly from an unregulated DC or AC power
source.

SOLAR CELL
A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation
falls on the p-n junction .It works on the same principle (photo voltaic effect)
as the photodiode, except that no external bias is applied and the junction
area is kept much larger for solar radiation to be incident because we are
interested in more power.

A transistor has three doped regions forming two p-n junctions between
them there are two types of transistor

(i) n-p-n transistor: here two segments of n –type

semiconductor (emitter and collector) are separated by a
segment of p-type semiconductor (base) .
(ii) p-n-p transistor: here two segment of p-type
semiconductor(termed as emitter and collector)are separated by a
segment of n-type semiconductor (termed as base).
A brief description of the three segments of a transistor is given
below:
Emitter: this is the segment on one side of a transistor .It is of
moderate size and heavily doped. It supplies a large number of
majority carrier for the current flow through the transistor
Base: this is the central segment .It s very thin and lightly doped.
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Collector: this segment collects major portion of the majority carrier supplied
by the emitter.

TRANSISTOR AS A DEVICE
When the transistor is used in the cut off or saturation state it acts it acts as a
switch. On the other hand for using the transistor as an amplifier it has to
operate in the active region

Transistor as a switch
We shall try to understand the operation of the transistor as a switch by
analyzing the behavior of the base-biased transistor applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage rule to the input and output sides of this circuit we get , V BB = IBRB+VBE
And VCE =VCC - ICRC

TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
For using the transistor as an amplifier we will use the active region of the V o
versus Vi curve .The slope of the linear part of the curve represent the rate of
change of the output with the input .It is negative because the output is V cc – I
c R c .That is why as input voltage of the CE amplifier increases its output
voltage decreases and the output is said to be out of phase with the input.

IMPORTANCE OF SEMICONDUCTOR
Semiconductors are a key element of electronic systems, allowing for developments in
communication, computing, healthcare, military technology, transportation,
clean energy, and a variety of other applications.

Semiconductors, also called integrated circuits (ICs) or microchips, are made of

raw materials like silicon and germanium. The process is known as doping,
where small add-ons of other elements create fluctuations in how well the
electricity flows.

Semiconductors are necessary for electronic devices, which are an integral

part of our lives. For example, phones, radios, TVs, computers, video games,
and medical diagnostic equipment would not exist without semiconductors.
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SEMICONDUCTOR PLAYS VITAL ROLE IN MANY AREAS, INCLUDING

THE FOLLOWING:

Transistors

The foundation of transistors is the semiconductor. Transistors have allowed

us to create smaller devices that can accomplish more. They may be found in
everything from cell phones to tablets to PCs, as well as a variety of other
applications. They’re also essential for things like solar panels and medical
imaging equipment.

Computing

Semiconductors are the fundamental components of today’s computing. They

are in charge of operating all of our technology, including smartphones,
computers, and automobiles. We wouldn’t have any of today’s technologies
without them. They are present in almost every type of electrical device
imaginable.

Appliances

Semiconductors are present in almost every aspect of our lives, from

microwave ovens to dishwashers. Many of our appliances would be useless
without them. Semiconductors regulate the flow of electricity and assist in
making electronics function. They’re also used in solar panels, LED lights,
refrigerators, and other appliances.
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REFERENCE
PHYSICS NCERT BOOK

WWW.GOOGLE.COM

WWW.WIKIPEDIA.COM