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242 M a r i n e A t l a s o f t h e W e s t e r n A r a b i a n G u l f
Chapter 7: FISHERIES
Saudi Arabia’s coastline represents a vital part of the habitat of at least three species of marine mammals found in the Arabian Gulf:
Dugongs (Dugong dugon), bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.) and Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis). These three species are members of two
different marine mammal orders: Sirenia (represented by the dugong) and Cetaceans (dolphins and whales). Other species of dolphins and possibly some whales
likely utilize Saudi’s Gulf waters, however, little is known about Saudi Arabia’s marine mammal inhabitants. This chapter provides an overview of the documented
records of dugong and dolphin sightings in Saudi Arabia’s Gulf territory, what is known of the general biology and ecology of these animals, and the human activities
that threaten their survival in these waters.
Marine mammals tend to have extensive fat stores on their body to help maintain their body temperature. As a consequence of these fat stores, their long life
spans, and for dolphins, their position high in their food chain, some species carry tissue pollutant levels that are among the highest recorded in all animals
(Reijnders, et al., 1999a, b).
Plate 8.2 Dugong (Dugong dugon) the legendary mermaids of Arabia are abundant in the shallow productive marine waters of the Gulf of Salwa.
244 M a r i n e A t l a s o f t h e W e s t e r n A r a b i a n G u l f
The three resident marine mammals in Saudi Arabian Gulf inhabit inshore waters, the areas where humans also concentrate their activities. Coastal dolphins,
such as bottlenose and humpback dolphins, are among the most threatened species of cetaceans in the world because of their close proximity to human
activities (Thompson, et al., 2000; DeMaster, et al., 2001). Dugongs also rely on a food source, seagrass, which grows only in shallow inshore waters, and are
threatened by coastal developments throughout most of their global range (Marsh, et al., 2002). Direct impacts of human coastal activity on marine mammals
include death or injury from boat strikes, entanglement in fishing nets and hunting. Coastal activity also indirectly impacts marine mammals by reducing the
quality of, or totally removing, their habitat.
As a result of human population growth and the proportion of people throughout the globe living in the coastal zone, Marsh, et al., (2003) conclude that by
the end of the 21st century, the number of extant populations and species of marine mammals will be fewer, and that the decline will be more pronounced for
coastal species than non-coastal.
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Monitoring of marine mammals can produce evidence of any additional stresses from human activities. There have been at least four die-offs of marine
mammals in the Gulf since the 1980s. Two were due to oil spills during wars in 1983 and 1991 (Preen 1989, 1991). The other two in 1986 and 1991 resulted
in 415 and 71 carcasses along the east Qatar and Saudi Arabian coastlines (Preen, 2004) and were thought to have been caused by morbillivirus (Tony Preen,
personal communication). This virus, similar to measles in humans, affects dolphins worldwide. It is suggested that dolphins become less resistant to this
disease when they have high levels of organochlorine contaminants (an industrial pollutant) built up in their system (Van Bressem, et al., 2001).
Marine mammals are also effective sentinel species because they are charismatic and have great public appeal (Reddy, et al., 2001; Bossart, 2006). People’s
sentimentality about marine mammals makes them more likely to respond to deteriorating ecosystem health if this is reflected by disappearing marine
mammal populations or sick animals washing up on coastal beaches. Their role as sentinels makes monitoring of marine mammal populations, and a detailed
understanding of their ecological needs, a critical part of safeguarding the health of Saudi Arabia’s environment.
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The Dugong Project revealed that the Southern and Western Gulf is the world’s second most important habitat for dugongs (Marsh, et al., 2002) and the most
significant dugong habitat in the western half of its range (Preen, 2004). This area extends from Ras Tanura in Saudi Arabia to Abu Dhabi in the United Arab
Emirates, including the coasts of Bahrain and Qatar, and an important area of Saudi Arabia’s coastline at Khawr Duwayhin and Ghaghah Island.
As a result of the Dugong Project, there are published sighting records of three species of cetaceans within Saudi Arabian Gulf waters: bottlenose dolphins,
Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins and finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides), though the latter is thought to be an uncommon resident (Preen
1989, 2004). Other species noted to occur according to Saudi Arabia’s National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan (NBSAP) (NCWCD 2005) are the
rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis), common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), Risso’s dolphin (Grampus
griseus), spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata), and finless porpoise. However, the NBSAP does cite references for this list of species and does not specify
whether they occur in the Red Sea or the Gulf. The NBSAP also suggests there are 10 species of larger whales, but does not list these. Lindén et al., (2004)
list the larger whales that occur in the Arabian Gulf as comprising: Bryde’s whale, the humpback, minke, fin, and blue whales sperm, killer, and false
killer whales. The author does not specify where in the Gulf these species can be found. Species considered common in or near the Jubail Marine Wildlife
Sanctuary include common, bottlenose and humpback dolphins, while finless porpoises and Bryde’s whale are considered rare (Robineau and Fiquet, 1996).
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Preen (1989, 2004) conducted aerial surveys of the Southwestern Arabian Gulf in winter (January to
March) and summer (August to October) 1986, which included the Saudi Arabian coastline. The surveys
were designed to record dugong distribution and abundance. However, the observers also record other
marine fauna, including dolphins. The dolphin sightings were opportunistic, and the species could not
always be identified.
The summer survey did not include the northern coastal waters of Saudi Arabia because no dugongs were
seen in that area during the first survey or during additional overflights and beach surveys (Preen, 2004).
A population estimate cannot be derived for each dolphin species because: (a) not all dolphins could be
identified to species level, and (b) there are no data to determine corrections for dolphins not seen.
Preen (2004) conducted a repeat aerial survey of U.A.E. waters in 1999. This showed that dolphin
numbers (including both bottlenose and humpback dolphins) had dropped in this region by 71% since m
the 1986 survey. No repeat survey has been conducted for dolphins in Saudi Arabian waters to determine
if a similar decline has occurred there.
Plate 8.6 Dugongs have two nostrils near the top of their heads on a
"fleshy lip," which can curl up to make breathing easier on the surface.
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The survey flights followed transect lines spaced 2 nm (3.7 km) apart. The helicopter was flown at an altitude of 152.4 m (500 ft)
and speed of 85-95 knots (157-176 km/hr). The observers recorded animal sightings within a 195 meter wide strip either side of the
transect line marked out by equipment attached to the outside of the helicopter. This meant the survey covered (sampled) 10%-12% of
the total survey area.
The perception correction was calculated by having the flight coordinator act as an observer wherever possible. His sightings could
then be compared to the observer seated immediately behind him. For these periods, each sighting was categorized as being recorded
by the observer, flight coordinator or both. These categories were then modeled (using a mark recapture framework) to calculate the
probability of a dugong group being seen (captured) by the observer (Marsh and Sinclair, 1989).
The Ratio Method (Caughley and Grigg, 1981; Marsh and Sinclair, 1989) was used to calculate the population estimate in each
survey block and the associated standard errors. Each sighting was corrected for availability and perception and the mean group size
per block before calculating the population estimate. Standard errors were estimated by accounting for these correction factors also.
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Dugongs
Status Plate 8.9 Dugong (Dugong dugon) preparing to dive.
The dugong is a unique animal, being the only living species within its Family, Dugongidae, in the Order Sirenia. The only other species of Dugongidae was the large
Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas), from North Pacific waters. The Steller’s sea cow was hunted to extinction only 27 years after its discovery in 1741 (Stejneger,
1887). Sirenians also include three species of manatees (Family: Trichechidae), which occur in the Caribbean Sea, the Amazonian Basin and West Africa. All species
of manatee rely on freshwater (Reynolds and Odell, 1991), meaning that dugongs are the only truly marine mammal that is herbivorous (feeding only on seagrass).
The dugong is listed by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as “vulnerable to extinction” at a global scale (IUCN, 2009). The geographic range of dugongs includes suitable
habitat from Mozambique, around the rim of the Indian Ocean, to Vanuatu in the Southwest Pacific (Nishiwaki, et al., 1981), including 37 countries and territories (Marsh,
et al., 2002). The only quantitative population estimates have been obtained from Australia, the Eastern Red Sea and Arabian Gulf (Marsh, et al., 2002). Though dugong
populations still exist at the historical limits of the animal’s global range, it is believed most are relict populations now separated by large distances (Marsh, et al., 2002).
Description
When at the water surface, the lack of a dorsal fin is the easiest way to identify a dugong. They have thick brown skin, which becomes scarred as the animals
age, and a tail shaped similar to a dolphin. Their eyes are small, and their paired nostrils are situated at the end of their snout. The dugong’s head is distinctively
shaped, with their muzzle directed downward and a modified upper lip that forms a rostral disc, which is covered with short bristles. The dugongs use this
upper lip to grasp plant material, including rhizomes, and move the food into their mouth (Nishiwaki and Marsh, 1985; Preen, 1989). Their flippers are short
and rounded at the ends and their mammary glands are located under the “armpit” of each flipper. Their skeleton is of very dense bone that acts as a weight to
counteract the buoyant effect of the animal’s fat reserves and help it sink in salt water to feed on seagrass beds (Nishiwaki and Marsh, 1985). Adults can reach
over three meters in length and weight up to half a ton.
Habitat requirements
The dugong lives in tropical and subtropical shallow, sheltered coastal and island waters. They are restricted to warm waters of at least 15°C-19°C (Anderson,
1986; Hodgson, 2004) as a result of their low metabolic rate. Dugongs rely on seagrass beds for almost their entire diet, which they graze and uproot: this gives
the dugong its popular name of “sea cow.” Although dugongs spend most of their time at water depths of less than 3 m (Chilvers, et al., 2004), they have also
been reported 58 km from the coast where water depth was 37 m (Marsh and Saalfeld, 1989), and feeding trails have been recorded at depths of 33 m (Lee Long
and Coles, 1997).
There are three main species of seagrass in Saudi Arabian waters, Halophila ovalis, Halophila stipulacea
and Halodule uninervis, and dugongs likely forage on all three species. Preen (1989) suggested that a
possible limitation for dugong foraging in the Gulf is sediment type. He noted that all three seagrass
species occur in sediments ranging from coarse sand to fine silt. However, dugongs were mostly sighted
in waters deeper than 5-6 m where there is fine lose sediment rather than the coarse, compacted sediment
found in shallower waters. The dugongs’ rooting mechanism, where the whole plant including the
rhizomes is removed, is probably facilitated by the sediments found in the deeper waters. Therefore,
dugongs’ preferred habitat in the Gulf may be waters of 6-10 m (where light conditions are suitable for
seagrass growth), particularly in winter when seagrass die-back occurs and dugongs are dependent of
getting at accessible rhizomes (Preen, 1989).
Winter sea temperatures are another factor preventing dugongs from occurring in the northern Arabian
Gulf. Waters north of Ras Tanura appear to be too cold for dugongs to regularly access the seagrass in
that area (Preen, 2004). In winter the dugongs may regularly aggregate in the area between Bahrain and Plate 8.10 The Dugong (Dugong dugon) is the last strictly
Qatar where the large dugong herd was seen during Preen’s (2004) survey. marine herbivorous mammal remaining on the planet.
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More research is needed to determine the cause of this, but Preen suggests that as water temperatures drop during winter the dugongs may be aggregating around
freshwater springs known to occur in the area. High salinity does not seem to substantially limit dugong distribution as they inhabit the southern end of the Gulf
of Salwa, where salinity reaches 70‰.
Of the whole area surveyed throughout the Gulf, there were two areas considered critical dugong habitat in Saudi Arabian territory (Preen, et al., 1989):
1. Coastline between Qatar and the U.A.E.
2. Waters between Saudi Arabia and Bahrain, bounded in the north by the King Fahd Causeway and in the south by Dwhat Zalum in
Saudi Arabia and Ras al Barr in Bahrain.
Life history
Dugongs are long-lived with the maximum age estimated from growth layers in their tusks being 73 years (Marsh 1980, 1995, 1999). They are slow to reach
sexual maturity with females having their first calf at 6 to 17 years of age, and bear a single calf every 3 to 7 years (Marsh, 1995; Kwan, 2002). Lactation lasts for
at least 18 months (Marsh, et al., 1984).
In several regions, calving is thought to be seasonal and the timing may ensure that birth corresponds with warm seasonal waters, avoiding temperature stress
in the 20-35 kg newborns (Marsh, et al., 1984). Preen (1989) notes that in the Arabian region, seagrass grows in summer, and that dugong calving is diffusely
seasonal to correspond with this growth, meaning the newborns and mothers have access to the most nutritional forage.
Behavioral ecology
Dugongs can be found as a solitary animal or in herds of up to several hundred animals. The only place where dugongs are known to form large herds all
year round is in Moreton Bay, in Queensland, Australia (Preen, 1995). These herds do not appear to have a strong social structure (Hodgson, 2004) with the
strongest social bond being between a mother and her calf (Nishiwaki and Marsh, 1985). The largest, densest dugong herds tend to be feeding rather than
conducting any other behavior (Hodgson, 2004). The dugongs “cultivate” the seagrass beds by removing 95% of the seagrass as they pass through a meadow
and encouraging new growth of their favored (pioneer) seagrass species, which has the highest nutritional content (Preen, 1995).
The home range of individual dugongs varies from 0.5 to 733 km² (Sheppard, et al., 2006). Dugongs have to move in response to tidal movements in places
where they are dependent on seagrass growing in intertidal and shallow subtidal areas (Heinsohn, et al., 1977; Anderson and Birtles, 1978; Marsh and Rathbun,
1990). In places were dugongs are living at the higher latitudinal limits to their range, they use deeper waters as a thermal refuge from cooler inshore waters
during winter (Anderson, 1986; Preen, 1992). Dugongs make similar winter movements in the Arabian Gulf. Dugong with large home ranges make long
journeys in relatively short timeframes: one dugong traveled 560 km in just under 17 days (Sheppard, et al., 2006); another migrated between areas that were
over 140 km apart three times in less than seven weeks (Marsh and Rathbun, 1990). Reports of dugongs appearing at Aldabra Atoll between the Seychelles and
the Comoros Islands in the open Indian Ocean in 2001, mean these animals had crossed an ocean trench that is up to 4 km deep (Marsh, et al., 2002). Large
numbers of dugongs have been known to move in response to changes in seagrass quality. Dugongs respond to mass seagrass loss by either remaining in the
area and surviving on minimal forage (risking starvation), or moving to find seagrass elsewhere (Preen and Marsh, 1995; Gales, et al., 2004; Marsh, et al., 2004).
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Conservation
Patterns of human activity have changed extensively throughout the Arabian Gulf in recent decades (Price, et al., 1993; Abuzinada, et al., 2008). Rapid
development activities have made a great impact on the coastal zone and its shallow waters. Saudi Arabia’s National Strategy for Conservation of Biodiversity
(NCWCD, 2005) seeks to address a range of threats to marine mammals in the Arabian region, including incidental capture in fishing nets, overfishing,
agricultural activities, dredging and land reclamation and pollution. The proposed strategy is to: “promote the conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable
use of resources by placing biodiversity at the core of national planning and development.” This is a complex undertaking, as the effects and ramifications of
multiple individual threats can add together to create cumulative threats.
Sedimentation can occur naturally, particularly as a result of cyclones and extreme rainfall events, but has been enhanced by human activities, such as clearing
of inland and coastal vegetation, which has increased erosion (Green and Short, 2003), and dredging and land reclamation (Erftemeijer and Lewis, 2006). The
stress caused by these human impacts then affects the ability of the seagrass to recover from natural events, such as flooding and storms (Wachenfeld, et al.,
1998).
By 1990, 40% of the coastline of Saudi Arabia had been reclaimed or greatly impacted by adjacent landfill
or oil contamination (Sheppard et al., 1992). Land reclamation is one of the most destructive activities
to coastal and marine ecosystems, causing severe and permanent destruction of habitat through burial
and direct obliteration. Dredging destroys seagrass in the dredged area and the resulting increase in
sedimentation is known to cause long-term smothering and destruction of seagrass beds (Price, et al.,
1983). The physical scouring caused by dredging can make seagrass growth impossible for many years.
The level of seagrass destruction caused by dredging and land reclamation in Saudi Arabia is unknown as
there are no historical records of seagrass habitat and water turbidity levels with which to compare current
conditions. The small colonizing seagrass species found in Saudi waters tend to recolonize relatively
quickly following an impact, but do not endure long once environmental conditions are beyond that to
which they can adapt (Erftemeijer and Lewis, 2006). Land reclamation can also change ocean current
patterns and water movements (Al-Madany, et al., 1991; Erftemeijer and Lewis, 2006), and the changed
wave action can have detrimental effects of seagrass beds.
The effect of habitat loss on dugongs was exemplified in Hervey Bay, Australia. Widespread loss of seagrass
beds during a cyclone resulted in the death and emigration of many dugongs from this important habitat
area (Preen and Marsh, 1995). When their access to forage is limited, dugongs also respond by delaying
breeding, which can significantly reduce population growth (Marsh and Kwan, 2008).
The destruction of intertidal areas through land reclamation also is likely the most significant impact
affecting dolphin populations. The humpback dolphins’ preferred nearshore areas of high productivity
typically associated with mangroves and estuaries (Parra, 2006) were still being destroyed along the Saudi
Arabian coastline in the early 1990s (Sheppard et al, 1992). The resultant loss of nutrient flow, together
with the loss of fish nursery habitat through the destruction of seagrass beds, has likely reduced the fish
Plate 8.13 Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.) in the Gulf of Salwa.
stocks, and therefore, the areas of suitable habitat available to both dolphin species.
Both bottlenose and humpback dolphins show a high level of site fidelity, consistently returning to particular habitats to forage and socialize (Parra, 2006). Species
with high levels of site fidelity and restricted nearshore habitats are particularly vulnerable to population declines as a result of habitat degradation and loss
(Warkentin and Hernandez, 1996). The various habitats within the home ranges of individual dolphins are unlikely to be of the same quality, and the distance
between good quality habitat increases with continued degradation of coastal habitats, causing habitat fragmentation (Andrén, 1994). Dolphins that once regularly
used the modified area can no longer find suitable food and will then have a lower chance of survival. Bottlenose dolphins can co-exist with coastal development (e.g.,
Chilvers, et al., 2005), however there are many studies providing evidence that this species exhibits subtle changes in their behavior in response to human impacts
that can negatively impact and endanger local populations (e.g., Bejder, et al., 2006b).
With our limited knowledge of the habitat requirements of these coastal dolphin species, their conservation can only be assured by adopting the precautionary
approach of preserving the quality of their core habitat areas. Therefore, efforts to determine what areas within Saudi Arabian waters represent a key habitat for
bottlenose and humpback dolphins, and to maintain or improve the habitat quality inside and adjacent to these key areas will play a key role in the persistence
of local populations in Saudi Arabia.
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Pollution
The principle sources of chemical pollutants and toxins in Saudi Arabia include oil that has spilled from oil tanker or oil facility accidents, ballast water from
vessels containing oil and chemicals, pollution from industrial sources, and runoff from residential and agricultural areas, and discharge from wastewater
treatment facilities (NCWCD, 2005).
Environmental pollutants threaten marine mammals both directly, through accumulation of toxins in the body, and indirectly, by polluting their habitat
(Reijnders, et al., 1999b). For example, some dugongs in Queensland, Australia, were found to have high levels of dioxins, which are attached to the sediment
they ingest when uprooting their seagrass forage (Haynes, et al., 1999; McLachlan, et al., 2001). Dugongs can also accumulate high levels of heavy metals as they
age, but the effects of this are unknown (Haynes, et al., 2005). Diuron, a component of herbicides, can reduce seagrass growth even when in low concentrations
(Haynes 2001). Dolphins are particularly susceptible to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) because of their position high up in the food chain, meaning that
the pollutants build up in their fish prey and then accumulate within their body fat throughout their life (Reijnders, et al., 1999b; Pierce, et al., 2008). The effects
of these pollutants include depression of the immune system, increased risk of infection and disease, reproductive failure and the impairment of offspring
(Reijnders, et al., 1999b; Pierce, et al., 2008).
Pathogen pollution may also have considerable negative effects on populations of coastal marine mammals (Kreuder, et al., 2003). Humpback dolphins are
known to be susceptible to Toxoplasmosis gondii (Bowater, et al., 2003), a terrestrial parasite that can be fatal or negatively affect the health of marine mammals.
This parasite is probably transferred to the coastal ecosystem via runoff of contaminated water with cat faeces or litter (Miller, et al., 2002). Therefore, controls
on the disposal of cat faeces, and improvements of the treatment of stormwater and sewage discharges is fundamental to prevent the pathogen infection.
The amount of discharge into the marine environment from desalinization plants throughout the Gulf is equivalent to the flow of a major river and Saudi Arabia is
the second biggest source of this pollutant (Lattemann and Höpner, 2008). The discharge is highly saline, has elevated temperatures and reduced oxygen content,
and contains chemical pollutants including chlorine, antiscalants and heavy metals. Shallow coastal areas where seagrass occurs are vulnerable because they have
low water exchange and sediment mobility so the pollutants are not flushed out of these ecosystems (Lattemann and Höpner, 2008).
The Nowruz oil spill in 1983 led to the death of an estimated 60 dugongs and several times as many dolphins along the Saudi Arabian coast (Preen, 1989; Sadiq and
McCain, 1993). A further 93 marine mammals died during the Gulf War in 1991, including 14 dugongs, 57 bottlenose dolphins, 13 humpback dolphins, one finless
porpoise, and eight unidentified dolphins. The anti-clockwise circulation of Gulf waters carries spills along the Qatar, Bahraini and Saudi Arabian coasts, making
these habitats particularly vulnerable to oil spills (Preen, 1989). Oil can harm dugongs or dolphins by covering nostrils, congesting or damaging the respiratory
system, or inhaling droplets of oil or oil fumes (Krupp and Abuzinada, 2008). In dugongs it could also be ingested with seagrass or sediments or cause starvation due
to seagrass death (Preen, 1989). The degradation of seagrass beds through oil pollution also affects dolphins by destroying their prey fish nursery habitat. However,
if given the opportunity, dolphin populations can recover. One year after the Gulf War oil spill there was no evidence of increased deaths of dolphins within the
proposed Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary and a group of humpback dolphins had returned to a heavily polluted site (Robineau and Fiquet, 1994).
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Similarly, disruptions of the behavioral activities of dolphins leads to displacement from their preferred habitat and reduced fitness and fecundity, which
can potentially result in population declines (Bejder, et al., 2006a, 2006c; Williams, et al., 2006; Stensland and Berggren, 2007). Boats can prevent dolphins
from accessing particular areas within their home range (Allen and Read, 2000) and alter their behavior (Lusseau, 2003; Constantine, et al., 2004). Acoustic
communication between humpback dolphins and their ability to maintain cohesive groups is also impaired by boat traffic and noise (Van Parijs and Corkeron, 2001).
Boat strikes are a significant cause of dugong mortality in Australia (Greenland and Limpus, 2006), and can also cause serious injuries and mortalities to coastal
dolphins (Wells and Scott, 1997; Parsons and Jefferson, 2000). The delayed response of dugongs to boats makes them particularly vulnerable to large and/or
high speed vessels (Groom, et al., 2004; Hodgson, 2004). Shallow waters represent particularly high risk areas for dugongs as they cannot dive deep to avoid
vessels (Hodgson, 2004) and in Australia they have been crushed between boats and the seabed (Yeates and Limpus, 2003). There are currently no dugong or
dolphin mortality records for Saudi Arabia and therefore it is hard to assess the magnitude of this threat. However, it may be possible to minimize the risk of
boat strikes to dugongs by defining critical dugong habitat as “Go Slow Zones,” or defining boating channels through deep waters and thereby directing boat
traffic away from shallow high risk areas (Maitland, et al., 2006). However it is critical to maintain a high level of compliance with these regulations (Groom,
2003; Hodgson, 2004).
Fishing activities
Entanglements in fishing nets have long been recognized as a major threat for coastal dolphins (e.g., Cockcroft, 1990; Paterson, 1990; Hale, 1997). There have
been reports of humpback dolphins being incidentally captured and drowned in fishing nets in the Gulf (Baldwin, et al., 1999). In Oman, dolphin carcasses have
been found in the vicinity of fishing areas still entangled or with scarring evidence of entanglement (Baldwin, et al., 2004).
Shrimp trawler boats operate Saudi Arabian waters (Abdulqadar, 2006) and may contribute to the degradation of dugong habitat areas. Bottom trailing is the
most destructive fishing gear currently in use (Watson, et al., 2006). Trawling directly damages seagrass beds (Leriche, et al., 2006), degrades seagrass through
increased turbidity (Preen, et al., 1995), and limits seagrass recovery by leaving sea beds unsuitable for recolonization (Tanner, 2003).
Climate change
In addition to natural stressors and human impacts, global warming threatens to add further pressure to these inshore marine mammals. Potential detrimental
effects of global warming on seagrass beds include plant community changes, the decline or elimination of communities due to increases in water depth,
changes to tidal regimes, salinity changes, increased UV radiation, increased turbidity and growth of epiphytes (Short and Neckles, 1999). Global warming has
already bleached and killed coral communities in the Gulf (Anon, 2006). The effects of climate change on marine mammal habitats need to be considered in the
context of the potential impacts of other human activities. When combined with other impacts, global warming presents a serious threat to marine mammals.
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Saudi Arabia’s commitment to conserve all species of wildlife within the Kingdom is demonstrated by ratifying the Convention on Biological Diversity and
fulfilment of its obligation to prepare a National Biodiversity Strategy (NCWCD, 2005). Within their report to the convention on the Kingdom’s protected
areas, the NCWCD suggested that Saudi was in discussions with Bahrain and Qatar to establish a transboundary marine reserve in the Gulf of Salwa in
recognition of the large dugong population residing there (NCWCD, 2003). This reserve has not yet been established. Saudi Arabia is also a signatory of the
Convention on Migratory Species.
Saudi Arabia is also a signatory of the Convention on Migratory Species, which specifically addresses the conservation of transboundary species. However,
Saudi Arabia has not yet signed the Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Dugongs (Dugong dugon) and their Habitats
throughout their Range, which recognizes that the conservation of dugongs and management of human impacts on this species requires the cooperation of the
countries within their range. The MOU states that the signatories “express their desire to work closely together to improve the conservation status of dugongs
and the habitats on which they depend.”
All states within the dugongs’ range in the Arabian Gulf are also members of the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME),
an organization which reflects the goodwill of these countries to cooperation in protecting their common marine environment. Through ROPME there is the
potential to coordinate research of marine mammals and development regional protection policies.
C h a p t e r 8 : M A R I N E M A M M A L S 257
1. Defined objectives and management plan 3. Regular monitoring of marine mammal populations 7. Genetic research
for marine mammal conservation
The Saudi Arabian government needs to define the ecological Regular surveys of dugong and dolphin populations Recent genetic research using mitochondrial (maternally
provide standardized abundance estimates and therefore inherited) DNA shows regional differentiation between
and socio-economic objectives for marine mammal
can indicate population trends within the survey area. dugong populations along the coast of the state of
conservation and the management of human impacts on Such surveys also provide information on marine Queensland, Australia (Blair, et al., in review). A similar
these animals in Saudi Arabian waters. It will be impossible mammal distribution, and therefore can indicate the study of dugong populations in Saudi Arabia and
to determine the effectiveness of management and research relative importance of habitat areas, movements between surrounding Gulf countries would enhance our knowledge
of marine mammals in Saudi Arabia without explicit these areas, and whether these areas change over time. of the interconnectedness between these populations and
objectives against which to assess the species conservation Ultimately, the best information would be obtained by provide a baseline for determining the best spatial scale at
outcomes. Ultimately the management of human impacts regularly surveying the entire Gulf region. For example, which to manage dugongs in the Arabian Gulf.
dugong surveys are conducted every five years in important
on marine mammals needs to be coordinated at the scale
habitat areas in Australia, providing long-term trends in Genetic studies are also needed for both dolphin species
of the Arabian Gulf as a whole. So, in addition, the Saudi dugong populations.
Arabian government should work with Bahrain, Qatar and as the taxonomic status of both is currently unclear. The
bottlenose dolphins could be Tursiops aduncus or T.
the U.A.E. to define the objectives for marine mammal
truncates, or possibly both species occur in Saudi Arabian
conservation and management in the region. 4. Research on behavior and movement patterns
waters (Hammond, et al., 2008a, 2008b). There is also
debate as to whether the humpback dolphins in the Arabian
The government should then develop a management plan for The two best methods to determine dugong movement
Gulf are Sousa chinensis as their anatomical characteristics
the waters of Saudi Arabia in consultation with appropriate patterns are: (1) regular aerial surveys, and (2) satellite
tagging. Tracking dugongs using satellite tags has provided more closely resemble Sousa plumbea (Rosenbaum, et al.,
stakeholders. The plan should include a program of 2002; Baldwin, et al., 2004). Genetic work would help
important information about dugong movements, habitat
research and monitoring of threatened marine mammals use and behavior in Australia (Sheppard, et al., 2006). determine the biodiversity and conservation status of both
to inform the agreed management objectives. This should Satellite tagging dugongs could potentially determine to what species in the region as well as the population structure
be developed in conjunction with a management plan for degree individual dugongs move across borders of the Gulf and relatedness of dolphins inhabiting the waters of Saudi
the waters of the Arabian Gulf, which would provide over- nations, and whether new land reclamation developments or Arabia and surrounding Arabian states. This information
arching policy for the plans for individual countries. other human activities have the potential to hinder dugong would provide a baseline for determining the best spatial
movement patterns. scale at which to manage dolphins in the Arabian Gulf.
2. Updated status assessment of marine mammals 5. Photographic identification surveys for dolphins 8. Assessment of the major cause of mortality
in the Arabian Gulf
Photographic identification surveys for dolphins provide An assessment of the major cause of mortalities of marine
Dugongs are known to conduct large scale movements in information on abundance, site fidelity and residence mammals would provide an indication of the relative
response to changes in seagrass availability (Kwan, 2002; patterns, and from this it is possible to identify the significance of threats caused by human activities to these
Gales, et al., 2004; Sheppard, et al., 2006). Therefore an habitat areas critical for the conservation of each dolphin animal populations. All vessel operators and users of the marine
species (Parra, et al., 2006a). These surveys rely on taking and coastal environment are a potential source of information
accurate comparison between the current status of the
photographs of the dolphins’ dorsal fins, which have unique if they are encouraged to report any deaths or injuries of
dugong population in Saudi Arabia and the 1986 estimate shapes and scaring that are used to identify individuals. marine mammals. In addition, it should be compulsory for
(Preen, 2004), requires a repeat of the entire aerial survey By calculating the encounter rates of new individuals per fishers to report all by-catch of threatened species.
conducted in 1986 rather than a single territory. survey it is possible to estimate the abundance of dolphins
within the survey area. The technique provides detailed There are various methods of encouraging the public to
Even less is known about the status of dolphins in Saudi information about local populations in defined areas. report strandings or mortalities such as a Marine Animal
Arabia than is known about dugongs because the most The surveys need to be conducted over a number of years
Hotline and/or website. The most appropriate method for
accurate method to estimate populations of dolphin species is (depending on the size of the population) to produce a
Saudi Arabia should be determined through social research.
rigorous population estimate, however, this technique
through boat based surveys (Parra, et al., 2006b), which have A marine mammal mortality database should be established
provides the most accurate estimate of abundance along
never been conducted in Saudi Arabian waters. Line transect and administered by the government. The database
with insights into dolphin social structure through the
boat based surveys throughout Saudi Arabian waters, or analysis of group composition and from behavioral records would provide information on mortality rates (and
preferably, throughout the Southwestern Gulf, should be observations conducted during encounters. sustainability of human impacts) and species distribution.
conducted as soon as possible to provide critical information
about the status of both bottlenose and humpbacked dolphin 6. Spatial models for each marine mammal species
9. Regular monitoring of seagrass
populations, and the important habitats for these species.
The data from previous and future aerial and boat based
surveys should be incorporated into a spatially explicit A program that monitors seagrass distribution and health
A repeat aerial survey for dugongs and a boat-based density model for each marine mammal species (Grech and should be established in Saudi Arabia in collaboration with
dolphin survey would provide an updated status assessment Marsh, 2007). These models can be used to prioritize areas surrounding Gulf countries to assess the condition of these
of marine mammals in the Arabian Gulf region. This for the conservation of marine mammals. They can also seagrass ecosystems. Seagrass monitoring can provide an
contemporary data can be used to develop the management be used to produce a spatial risk assessment to determine early warning system for the health of nearshore habitats
plan and outline the management actions needed to the most threatening human impacts for marine mammals of dugongs and dolphins.
conserve this species. throughout the Arabian Gulf (Grech and Marsh, 2008).
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