Learning Theories in Plain English Vol 1

in plain English
Vol. 1 of 2
Learning Theories in Plain English – 2017 Edition – Volume 1 of 2
Summaries of learning theories and models for educational psychology, cognitive science, human-computer interaction,
instructional design, and other related fields. https://www.learning-theories.com
Learning Theories in Plain English

Vol. 1 of 2
Summaries of learning theories and models for educational
psychology, cognitive science, human- computer interaction,
instructional design, and other related fields.
NOTE: Volume 1 contains the first 200 pages of theories, models and guides.
Also check out Volume 2 for several more.
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supporters like you – thank you for your support.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
21ST CENTURY SKILLS (P21 AND OTHERS) ............................................................................................................... 5
ACTIVITY THEORY ................................................................................................................................................... 7
ACTOR-NETWORK THEORY (ANT) ........................................................................................................................... 9
ADDIE MODEL ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
AFFORDANCE THEORY (GIBSON) .......................................................................................................................... 13
ANCHORED INSTRUCTION (BRANSFORD, COGNITION & TECHNOLOGY GROUP AT VANDERBILT) .......................... 14
ARCS MODEL OF MOTIVATIONAL DESIGN THEORIES (KELLER) .............................................................................. 15
ATTRIBUTION THEORY (WEINER) .......................................................................................................................... 18
BEHAVIORISM ...................................................................................................................................................... 19
BLOOM'S TAXONOMY (BLOOM) ........................................................................................................................... 21
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (PAVLOV) .................................................................................................................... 22
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP (COLLINS ET AL.) ...................................................................................................... 25
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE (FESTINGER) .................................................................................................................. 27
COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY OF MULTIMEDIA LEARNING (SWELLER) ....................................................................... 29
COGNITIVE THEORY OF MULTIMEDIA LEARNING (MAYER) .................................................................................... 31
COGNITIVE TOOLS THEORY (EGAN) ....................................................................................................................... 33
COGNITIVISM ....................................................................................................................................................... 35
COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE (LAVE AND WENGER) .............................................................................................. 37
CONNECTIVISM (SIEMENS, DOWNES) ................................................................................................................... 39
CONSTRUCTIVISM ................................................................................................................................................ 40
DESIGN-BASED RESEARCH METHODS (DBR) .......................................................................................................... 42
DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP ............................................................................................................................................ 44
DISCOVERY LEARNING (BRUNER) .......................................................................................................................... 46
DISTRIBUTED COGNITION (DCOG) ........................................................................................................................ 48
E-LEARNING THEORY (MAYER, SWELLER, MORENO) ............................................................................................. 50
ELABORATION THEORY (REIGELUTH) .................................................................................................................... 54
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (GOLEMAN) ............................................................................................................... 56
ERIKSON'S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................................................. 59
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING (KOLB) .......................................................................................................................... 63
EXPERTISE THEORY (ERICSSON, GLADWELL) ......................................................................................................... 65
FLOW (CSÍKSZENTMIHÁLYI) .................................................................................................................................. 67
FUNCTIONAL CONTEXT THEORY (STICHT) ............................................................................................................. 68
GAME REWARD SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................................................... 71
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GESTALT THEORY (VON EHRENFELS) ..................................................................................................................... 74
GOMS MODEL (CARD, MORAN, AND NEWELL) ..................................................................................................... 76
GRIT (DUCKWORTH, MATTHEWS, KELLY, PETERSON) ............................................................................................ 78
HUMANISM .......................................................................................................................................................... 79
IDENTITY STATUS THEORY (MARCIA) .................................................................................................................... 81
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY ................................................................................................................... 84
INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATING INSTRUCTION (MALONE) ........................................................................................ 87
LEARNER-CENTERED DESIGN ................................................................................................................................ 88
MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS ........................................................................................................................ 90
MINDSET THEORY - FIXED VS. GROWTH MINDSET (DWECK) ................................................................................. 93
MULTILITERACIES (NEW LONDON GROUP) ......................................................................................................... 102
MULTIMODALITY (KRESS) ................................................................................................................................... 104
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY (GARDNER) .................................................................................................. 106
NARCISSISM (KERNBERG) ................................................................................................................................... 109
OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY (MELANIE KLEIN) .................................................................................................... 112
ONLINE COLLABORATIVE LEARNING THEORY (HARASIM) ................................................................................... 115
ONLINE DISINHIBITION EFFECT (SULER) .............................................................................................................. 118
CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING (SKINNER) ......................................................................................... 121
POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY / PERMA THEORY (SELIGMAN) ....................................................................................... 124
PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL) ...................................................................................................................... 127
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY (DECI AND RYAN) .............................................................................................. 130
SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY (BEM) ....................................................................................................................... 132
SELF-THEORIES (DWECK) ..................................................................................................................................... 134
SEMIOTICS (DE SAUSSURE, BARTHES, BAKHTIN) ................................................................................................. 136
SEPARATION-INDIVIDUATION THEORY OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT (MAHLER) ....................................................... 137
SITUATED COGNITION (BROWN, COLLINS, & DUGUID) ....................................................................................... 140
SITUATED LEARNING THEORY (LAVE) .................................................................................................................. 142
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY (VYGOTSKY) ...................................................................................................... 143
SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY (TAJFEL, TURNER) ....................................................................................................... 146
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (BANDURA) .............................................................................................................. 148
SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS (SCOTT, PRELL) ...................................................................................................... 151
STAGE THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (PIAGET) ..................................................................................... 153
SYSTEMS THINKING (BERTALANFFY) ................................................................................................................... 156
THEORY OF MIND, EMPATHY, MINDBLINDNESS (PREMACK, WOODRUFF, PERNER, WIMMER) ........................... 158
ALBERT BANDURA BIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................... 161
ABRAHAM MASLOW BIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 164
ATTACHMENT THEORY (BOWLBY) ...................................................................................................................... 168
DOPAMINE, GAMES, AND MOTIVATION ............................................................................................................. 171
EDUCATIONAL ROBOTICS AND CONSTRUCTIONISM (PAPERT) ............................................................................ 174
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ERIK ERIKSON ..................................................................................................................................................... 176
ERIK ERIKSON BIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................. 179
GAMIFICATION IN EDUCATION ........................................................................................................................... 182
MONTESSORI METHOD (MONTESSORI) .............................................................................................................. 185
PSYCHOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM (STAATS) .......................................................................................................... 188
TOOLS TO TEACH CODING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE .......................................................................................... 190
USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY .................................................................................................................... 192
USING MIND MAPS (CONCEPT MAPS) IN THE CLASSROOM ................................................................................. 195
4
21st Century Skills (P21 and others)

https://www.learning-theories.com/21st-century-skills-p21-and-others.html
Summary: Skills necessary for students to master in order for them to experience school and life success
in an increasingly digital and connected age; includes digital literacy, traditional literacy, content
knowledge, media literacy, and learning/innovation skills.
Originators & Proponents: Groups – United States Department of Education, Partnership for 21st Century
Skills, MacArthur Foundation; Individuals – Henry Jenkins[1], Mimi Ito, John Seely Brown
Keywords: collaboration, digital literacy, innovation, technology, work-life skills, readiness,

interdisciplinary learning, problem-solving, ICT (information and communication technologies)
21st Century Skills (Partnership for 21st Century Skills and other groups and individuals)
The 21st Century Skills initiative is an education standards and reform movement, located primarily in
the United States, that is focused on improving what US public school students must learn in school so
that they are better prepared to succeed in their school and career lives. The term “21st century skills”
includes the following skill sets:
Life/career skills: adaptability & flexibility, initiative & self-direction, leadership & responsibility,
productivity & accountability, social & cross-cultural skills
Core subjects: English/language arts, mathematics, arts, science, history, geography and others
21st century themes: civic literacy, environmental literacy, financial literacy (including economic,
business, and entrepreneurial skills), global awareness, health literacy
Information/media/technology skills: media literacy, information literacy
Learning/innovation skills: creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, problem
solving
Students are expected to master these skills and understand these themes while learning core subject
content in meaningful, interdisciplinary way. Teachers, administrators, schools, and districts are expected
to use these guidelines, known as the P21 Framework, as a foundation for developing curriculum,
assessments, and standards that they deem appropriate for their students.
Some organizations, like the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, provide tools and resources for educators
to use in supporting their students’ acquisition of these skills. In addition, there are also model
classrooms, schools, and districts that can serve to guide others as they develop their alignment with these
standards. Teachers are encouraged to create their own curriculum following the P21 Framework that
would work best for their students.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c0xa98cy-Rw
For more information, see:
5
Partnership for 21st Century Skills -- The P21 Framework

Jenkins, H. (2009). Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the
21st Century (The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Reports on Digital Media and
Learning). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
“How do you define 21st-century learning? One question. Eleven answers.” Education Weekly
Teacher PD Sourcebook, October 11, 2010
“Museums, Libraries, and 21st-century skills” -- Institute of Museum and Library Services
“21st Century Skills” -- Glossary of Education Reform
References
1. Jenkins, H., Purushotma, R., Weigel, M., Clinton, K., & Robison, A. J. (2009).Confronting the
challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. Mit Press.
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Activity Theory
https://www.learning-theories.com/activity-theory.html
Summary: Activity Theory is a framework or descriptive tool for a system. People are socio-culturally
embedded actors (not processors or system components). There exists a hierarchical analysis of motivated
human action (levels of activity analysis).
Originator: Vygotsky, Leont'ev, Luria, and others starting in the 1920s.
Key terms: Activity, action, operation, object-orientedness, internalization/externalization, mediation,

development.
Activity Theory
Activity Theory is more of a descriptive meta-theory or framework than a predictive theory. Considers
entire work/activity system (including teams, organizations, etc.) beyond just one actor or user. Accounts
for environment, history of the person, culture, role of the artifact, motivations, complexity of real life
action, etc[1].
The unit of analysis is motivated activity directed at an object (goal). Includes cultural and technical
mediation of human activity, artifacts in use (and not in isolation). Activities consist of goal-directed
actions that are conscious. Constituents of activity are not fixed; they can dynamically change.
Engestrom's model above is useful for understanding how a wide range factors work together to impact
an activity. In order to reach an outcome it is necessary to produce certain objects (e.g. experiences,
knowledge, and physical products) Human activity is mediated by artefacts (e.g. tools used, documents,
recipes, etc.) Activity is also mediated by an organization or community. Also, the community may
impose rules that affect activity. The subject works as part of the community to achieve the object. An
activity normally also features a division of labour.
Three levels of activity:
Activity towards an objective (goal) carried out by a community. A result of a motive (need) that
may not be conscious social and personal meaning of activity (Answers the Why? question)
Action towards a specific goal (conscious), carried out by an individual or a group possible goals
and subgoals, critical goals (Answers the What? question)
Operation structure of activity typically automated and not conscious concrete way of executing
an action in according with the specific conditions surrounding the goal (Answers the How?
question)
Principles:
1. Object-orientedness. (this is not to be confused with object-oriented programming) People live in

a reality that is objective in a broad sense: the things that constitute this reality have not only the
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properties that are considered objective according to natural sciences but socially/culturally
defined properties as well.
2. Internalization/externalization. Distinction between internal and external activities. Internal
activities cannot be understood if they are analyzed separately from external activities, because
they transform into each other. Internalization is the transformation of external activities into
internal ones. Internalization provides a means for people to try potential interactions with reality
without performing actual manipulation with real objects (mental simulations, imaginings,
considering alternative plans, etc.). Externalization transforms internal activities into external
ones. Externalization is often necessary when an internalized action needs to be "repaired," or
scaled. It is also important when a collaboration between several people requires their activities to
be performed externally in order to be coordinated.
3. Mediation. Activity Theory emphasizes that human activity is mediated by tools in a broad sense.
Tools are created and transformed during the development of the activity itself and carry with
them a particular culture - historical remains from their development. So, the use of tools is an
accumulation and transmission of social knowledge. Tool use influences the nature of external
behavior and also the mental functioning of individuals.
4. Development. In Activity Theory development is not only an object of study, it is also a general
research methodology. The basic research method in Activity Theory is not traditional laboratory
experiments but the formative experiment which combines active participation with monitoring of
the developmental changes of the study participants. Ethnographic methods that track the history
and development of a practice have also become important in recent work.
All four of the above basic principles should be considered as an integrated system, because they are
associated with various aspects of the whole activity[2].
Yrjö Engeström's book: Perspectives on Activity Theory (Learning in Doing: Social, Cognitive
and Computational Perspectives)
Acting with Technology: Activity Theory and Interaction Design

References
1. Engeström, Y., Miettinen, R., & Punamäki, R. L. (1999). Perspectives on activity theory.
Cambridge University Press.
2. Kaptelinin, V., & Nardi, B. A. (2006). Acting with technology: Activity theory and interaction
design. MIT press.
8
Actor-Network Theory (ANT)

https://www.learning-theories.com/actor-network-theory-ant.html
Summary: Actor-Network Theory is a framework and systematic way to consider the infrastructure
surrounding technological achievements. Assigns agency to both human and non-human actors (e.g.
artifacts)
Originator: Michel Callon[1] (1991) and Bruno Latour[2] (1992); John Law[3]; others.
Key Terms: actor, network, generalized symmetry, equal agency
Actor-Network Theory (ANT)
Originally created by French scholars Latour and Callon as an attempt to understand processes of
technological innovation and scientific knowledge-creation, Actor-Network Theory (ANT) can be
contrasted with "heroic" accounts of scientific advance. For example, rather than saying Newton
"founded" the theory of gravitation seemingly as though he were alone in a vacuum, Actor-Network
Theory emphasizes and considers all surrounding factors -- no one acts alone[4]. Galileo's past
experiences, his colleagues, his connections with the Astronomer Royal, John Flamsteed, his use of
Euclidean geometry, Kepler's astronomy, Galileo's mechanics, his tools, the details of his lab, cultural
factors and restrictions placed upon him in his environment, and various other technical and non-technical
elements would all be described and considered in his actor-network.
Actor-Network Theory does not typically attempt to explain why a network exists; it is more interested in
the infrastructure of actor-networks, how they are formed, how they can fall apart, etc.
Actor-Network Theory incorporates what is known as a principle of generalized symmetry; that is, what is
human and non-human (e.g. artifacts, organization structures) should be integrated into the same
conceptual framework and assigned equal amounts of agency. In this way, one gains a detailed
description of the concrete mechanisms at work that hold the network together, while allowing an
impartial treatment of the actors.
Criticism
There are various criticisms held regarding ANT. These include: (1) the absurdity of assigning agency to
nonhuman actors; (2) that ANT is amoral; (3) that because it assumes all actors are equal within the
network, no accomodations for power imbalances can be made; and (4) that ANT leads to useless
descriptions that seem pointless.
References
1. Callon, M. (1986). Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of the Scallops

and the Fishermen of St Brieuc Bay. In John Law (ed.), Power, Action and Belief: A New
Sociology of Knowledge. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
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2. Latour, B. (1987). Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Through Society
(Milton Keynes: Open University Press).
3. Law, J. (1987). Technology and Heterogeneous Engineering: The Case of Portuguese Expansion.
In W.E. Bijker, T.P. Hughes, and T.J. Pinch (eds.), The Social Construction of Technological
Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
4. Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory (Oxford:
Oxford University Press).
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ADDIE Model
https://www.learning-theories.com/addie-model.html
The ADDIE model is a systematic instructional design model consisting of five phases: (1) Analysis,
(2) Design, (3) Development, (4) Implementation, and (5) Evaluation. There are several versions of
the ADDIE model.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Resources and References
Contributors
Unknown. Refined by Dick and Carey[1] and others[2]
Key Concepts
The generic term for the five-phase instructional design model consisting of Analysis, Design,
Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. Each step has an outcome that feeds into the next step in
the sequence. There are probably over 100+ different variations of the generic ADDIE model[3].
The five phases of ADDIE are as follows:
Analysis
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During analysis, the designer identifies the learning problem, the goals and objectives, the audience’s
needs, existing knowledge, and any other relevant characteristics. Analysis also considers the learning
environment, any constraints, the delivery options, and the timeline for the project.
Design
A systematic process of specifying learning objectives. Detailed storyboards and prototypes are often
made, and the look and feel, graphic design, user-interface and content is determined here.
Development
The actual creation (production) of the content and learning materials based on the Design phase.
Implementation
During implementation, the plan is put into action and a procedure for training the learner and teacher is
developed. Materials are delivered or distributed to the student group. After delivery, the effectiveness of
the training materials is evaluated.
Evaluation
This phase consists of (1) formative and (2) summative evaluation. Formative evaluation is present in
each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists of tests designed for criterion-related
referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from the users. Revisions are made as
necessary.
Rapid prototyping (continual feedback) has sometimes been cited as as a way to improve the generic
ADDIE model.
Additional Resources and References

Resources
Instructional Design: The ADDIE Approach: Branch's book is better than most books on this
topic, as it focuses on fundamental ADDIE principles without a lot of professional jargon.
References
1. Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1996). The Systematic Design of Instruction (4th Ed.). New York:
Harper Collins College Publishers.
2. Leshin, C. B., Pollock, J., & Reigeluth, C. M. (1992). Instructional Design Strategies and
Tactics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Education Technology Publications.
3. Branch, R. M. (2009). Instructional design: The ADDIE approach (Vol. 722). Springer Science &
Business Media.
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Affordance Theory (Gibson)

https://www.learning-theories.com/affordance-theory-gibson.html
Summary: Affordance theory states that the world is perceived not only in terms of object shapes and
spatial relationships but also in terms of object possibilities for action (affordances) -- perception drives
action.
Originators: J. J. Gibson (1904-1979)
Keywords: Affordances, direct perception, ecological
Affordance Theory (J. J. Gibson)
American psychologist James Jerome Gibson was influential in changing the way we consider visual
perception. According to his theory, perception of the environment inevitably leads to some course of
action[1][2]. Affordances, or clues in the environment that indicate possibilities for action, are perceived in
a direct, immediate way with no sensory processing. Examples include: buttons for pushing, knobs for
turning, handles for pulling, levers for sliding, etc.
Based upon Gestalt theories, Affordance Theory has various implications for design, human-computer
interaction, ergonomics, visualization, etc. Some believe that good design makes affordances explicit.
Don Norman's book: The Design of Everyday Things: Revised and Expanded Edition. An updated
classic, with basic rules of design explained like: make things visible, exploit natural relationships
that couple function and control, and make intelligent use of constraints. Good examples of
affordance theory.
Schlatter and Levinson's book: Visual Usability: Principles and Practices for Designing Digital
Applications. A practical, hands-on guide to visual design. Highly recommended for its clarity and
relevant examples.
References
1. Gibson, J. J. (1966). The senses considered as perceptual systems.

2. Gibson, J. J. (1950). The perception of the visual world.
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Anchored Instruction (Bransford, Cognition & Technology Group

at Vanderbilt)
https://www.learning-theories.com/anchored-instruction-cognition-technology-group-at-vanderbilt-
bransford.html
Summary: Anchored Instruction involves the use of an “anchor” material or media, often a video, to
create a shared experience among learners and a beginning point for further learning on a topic.
Originators & Proponents: Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV), John D. Bransford
Keywords: anchor, case-based learning, case study, curriculum, discussion, shared experience, situated
cognition, social learning, technology, video
Anchored instruction (Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt, Bransford)
Anchored instruction involves the use of an “anchor” material or piece of media, often a video, to create a
shared experience among learners and a beginning point for further learning on a topic[1]. The anchor
video should support a few key instructional objectives. It should be:
short enough to showcase a case example which can introduce beginning vocabulary terms and/or
important points of discussion.
engaging enough so that students will want to watch it repeatedly to learn and reinforce the
information.
understandable by students with a variety of background knowledge on the topic.
After the anchor is used by the teacher to introduce a topic to students, the teacher then builds upon it
through additional lessons. During classroom discussions and activities, the teacher and students can refer
to the video anchor for additional learning and any questions that arise as students understand more about
the topic.
References
1. Bransford, J. D., Sherwood, R. D., Hasselbring, T. S., Kinzer, C. K., & Williams, S. M. (1990).
Anchored instruction: Why we need it and how technology can help. Cognition, Education, and
Multimedia: Exploring Ideas in High Technology, 115-141.
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ARCS Model of Motivational Design Theories (Keller)

https://www.learning-theories.com/kellers-arcs-model-of-motivational-design.html
Summary: According to John Keller's ARCS Model of Motivational Design Theories, there are four steps
for promoting and sustaining motivation in the learning process: Attention, Relevance, Confidence,
Satisfaction (ARCS)[1][2].
Originator: John Keller
Key terms: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS)
ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)
1. Attention
Keller attention can be gained in two ways: (1) Perceptual arousal - uses surprise or uncertainly to
gain interest. Uses novel, surprising, incongruous, and uncertain events; or (2) Inquiry arousal -
stimulates curiosity by posing challenging questions or problems to be solved.
Methods for grabbing the learners' attention include the use of:
Active participation -Adopt strategies such as games, roleplay or other hands-on methods
to get learners involved with the material or subject matter.
Variability - To better reinforce materials and account for individual differences in

learning styles, use a variety of methods in presenting material (e.g. use of videos, short
lectures, mini-discussion groups).
Humor -Maintain interest by use a small amount of humor (but not too much to be
distracting)
Incongruity and Conflict - A devil's advocate approach in which statements are posed that
go against a learner's past experiences.
Specific examples - Use a visual stimuli, story, or biography.
Inquiry - Pose questions or problems for the learners to solve, e.g. brainstorming activities.
2. Relevance
Establish relevance in order to increase a learner's motivation. To do this, use concrete language
and examples with which the learners are familiar. Six major strategies described by Keller
include:
Experience - Tell the learners how the new learning will use their existing skills. We best
learn by building upon our preset knowledge or skills.
Present Worth - What will the subject matter do for me today?
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Future Usefulness - What will the subject matter do for me tomorrow?
Needs Matching - Take advantage of the dynamics of achievement, risk taking, power, and
affiliation.
Modeling - First of all, "be what you want them to do!" Other strategies include guest
speakers, videos, and having the learners who finish their work first to serve as tutors.
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Choice - Allow the learners to use different methods to pursue their work or allowing s
choice in how they organize it.
3. Confidence
Help students understand their likelihood for success. If they feel they cannot meet the objectives
or that the cost (time or effort) is too high, their motivation will decrease.
Provide objectives and prerequisites - Help students estimate the probability of success by
presenting performance requirements and evaluation criteria. Ensure the learners are aware of
performance requirements and evaluative criteria.
Allow for success that is meaningful.
Grow the Learners - Allow for small steps of growth during the learning process.
Feedback - Provide feedback and support internal attributions for success.
Learner Control - Learners should feel some degree of control over their learning and assessment.
They should believe that their success is a direct result of the amount of effort they have put forth.
4. Satisfaction
Learning must be rewarding or satisfying in some way, whether it is from a sense of achievement,
praise from a higher-up, or mere entertainment.
Make the learner feel as though the skill is useful or beneficial by providing opportunities to use
newly acquired knowledge in a real setting.
Provide feedback and reinforcement. When learners appreciate the results, they will be motivated
to learn. Satisfaction is based upon motivation, which can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
Do not patronize the learner by over-rewarding easy tasks.
For more information, we recommend:
John Keller's book: Motivational Design for Learning and Performance: The ARCS Model
Approach. Keller's book explains in detail the ARCS model. Separate chapters cover each
component of the model and offer strategies for promoting each one in learners. Plenty of real-
world examples and ready-to-use worksheets. The methods are applied to both traditional and
alternative settings, including gifted classes, K12, self-directed learning, and corporate training.
References
1. Keller, J. M. (2009). Motivational design for learning and performance: The ARCS model
approach. Springer Science & Business Media.
2. Keller, John M. "Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design." Journal of
instructional development 10, no. 3 (1987): 2-10.
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Attribution Theory (Weiner)

https://www.learning-theories.com/weiners-attribution-theory.html
Summary: Attribution Theory attempts to explain the world and to determine the cause of an event or
behavior (e.g. why people do what they do).
Originator: Bernard Weiner (1935- )
Key terms: Attribution, locus of control, stability, controllability
Attribution Theory (Weiner)
Weiner developed a theoretical framework that has become very influential in social psychology today.
Attribution theory assumes that people try to determine why people do what they do, that is, interpret
causes to an event or behavior[1]. A three-stage process underlies an attribution:
1. behavior must be observed/perceived

2. behavior must be determined to be intentional
3. behavior attributed to internal or external causes
Weiner's attribution theory is mainly about achievement. According to him, the most important factors
affecting attributions are ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. Attributions are classified along three
causal dimensions:
1. locus of control (two poles: internal vs. external)

2. stability (do causes change over time or not?)
3. controllability (causes one can control such as skills vs. causes one cannot control such as luck,
others' actions, etc.)
When one succeeds, one attributes successes internally ("my own skill"). When a rival succeeds, one
tends to credit external (e.g. luck). When one fails or makes mistakes, we will more likely use external
attribution, attributing causes to situational factors rather than blaming ourselves. When others fail or
make mistakes, internal attribution is often used, saying it is due to their internal personality factors.
1. Attribution is a three stage process: (1) behavior is observed, (2) behavior is determined to be
deliberate, and (3) behavior is attributed to internal or external causes.
2. Achievement can be attributed to (1) effort, (2) ability, (3) level of task difficulty, or (4) luck.
3. Causal dimensions of behavior are (1) locus of control, (2) stability, and (3) controllability.
References
1. Weiner, B. (1972). Attribution theory, achievement motivation, and the educational process.
Review of educational research, 42(2), 203-215.
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Behaviorism
https://www.learning-theories.com/behaviorism.html
Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of "stimulus-response." All behavior caused

by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to
consider internal mental states or consciousness[1].
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
John B. Watson
Ivan Pavlov
B.F. Skinner
E. L. Thorndike
Albert Bandura
Key Concepts
Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental
stimuli. The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and behavior is shaped through positive
reinforcement or negative reinforcement[2]. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will happen again. In contrast, punishment (both
positive and negative) decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again. Positive
19
indicates the application of a stimulus; Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is
therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner. Lots of (early) behaviorist work was done with
animals (e.g. Pavlov's dogs) and generalized to humans[3].
Behaviorism precedes the cognitivist worldview. It rejects structuralism and is an extension of Logical
Positivism.
Radical behaviorism
Developed by BF Skinner, Radical Behaviorism describes a particular school that emerged during the reign
of behaviorism. It is distinct from other schools of behaviorism, with major differences in the acceptance of
mediating structures, the role of emotions, etc.
Resources
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KYDYzR-ZWRQ
References
1. Skinner, B. F. (2011). About behaviorism. Vintage.

2. Watson, J. B. (2013). Behaviorism. Read Books Ltd.
3. Pavlov, I. P., & Anrep, G. V. (2003). Conditioned reflexes. Courier Corporation.
20
Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom)

https://www.learning-theories.com/blooms-taxonomy-bloom.html
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a model that is a hierarchy — a way to classify thinking according to six
cognitive levels of complexity.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Benjamin S. Bloom (1913-1999)
Key Concepts
Bloom’s model consists of six levels, with the three lower levels (knowledge, comprehension, and
application) being more basic than the higher levels (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation)[1]. Some think
of the levels as a stairway, in which learners are encouraged to achieve a higher level of thinking. If a
student has mastered a higher level, then he or she is considered to have mastered the levels below.
Bloom’s model has been updated to account for 21st century needs [2].

References
1. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals.

Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., & Bloom, B. S. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and
assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Allyn & Bacon.
21
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

https://www.learning-theories.com/classical-conditioning-pavlov.html
Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the
capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936)
John B. Watson (1878 - 1958)
Key Concepts
Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i.e., making a new association
between events in the environment[1]. There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning
(made famous by Ivan Pavlov's experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning.
Pavlov's Dogs
In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on
digestion[2]. While studying the role of saliva in dogs' digestive processes, he stumbled upon a
22
phenomenon he labeled "psychic reflexes." While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the
importance of it. Pavlov's dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder
and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he
noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by
the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat
powder.
Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a
bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell
was used alone. Pavlov's dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the
food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs' salivation).
However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able
to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-
response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated
much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding.
In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog's
salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to
associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the
conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.
John B. Watson: Early Classical Conditioning with Humans
John B. Watson further extended Pavlov's work and applied it to human beings[3]. In 1921, Watson studied
Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a
white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of
fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS),
Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear (UCR). The
implications of Watson’s experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in
humans.
Resources
McSweeney and Murphy: The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Operant and Classical
Conditioning.: This brand new book contains an up-to-date, inclusive account of a core field of
psychology research, with in-depth coverage of operant and classical conditioning theory, its
applications, and current topics including behavioral economics.
References
23
1. Mackintosh, N. J. (1983). Conditioning and associative learning (p. 316). Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
2. Pavlov, I. P., & Anrep, G. V. (2003). Conditioned reflexes. Courier Corporation.
3. Watson, J. B. (2013). Behaviorism. Read Books Ltd.
24
Cognitive Apprenticeship (Collins et al.)

https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitive-apprenticeship-collins-et-al.html
Summary: Cognitive Apprenticeship is a theory that attempts to bring tacit processes out in the open. It
assumes that people learn from one another, through observation, imitation and modeling.
Originator: Collins, Brown and Newman
Key Terms: Modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection
Cognitive Apprenticeship
Around 1987, Collins, Brown, and Newman developed six teaching methods -- modeling, coaching,
scaffolding, articulation, reflection and exploration. These methods enable students to cognitive and
metacognitive strategies for "using, managing, and discovering knowledge"[1][2].
Modeling
Experts (usually teachers or mentors) demonstrate a task explicitly. New students or novices build a
conceptual model of the task at hand. For example, a math teacher might write out explicit steps and work
through a problem aloud, demonstrating her heuristics and procedural knowledge.
Coaching
During Coaching, the expert gives feedback and hints to the novice.
Scaffolding
Scaffolding the process of supporting students in their learning. Support structures are put into place. In
some instances, the expert may have to help with aspects of the task that the student cannot do yet.
Articulation
McLellan describes articulation as (1) separating component knowledge and skills to learn them more
effectively and, (2) more common verbalizing or demonstrating knowledge and thinking processes in
order to expose and clarify them.
This process gets students to articulate their knowledge, reasoning, or problem-solving process in a
domain" (p. 482). This may include inquiry teaching (Collins & Stevens, 1982), in which teachers ask
students a series of questions that allows them to refine and restate their learned knowledge and to form
explicit conceptual models. Thinking aloud requires students to articulate their thoughts while solving
problems. Students assuming a critical role monitor others in cooperative activities and draw conclusions
based on the problem-solving activities.
25
Reflection
Reflection allows students to "compare their own problem-solving processes with those of an expert,
another student, and ultimately, an internal cognitive model of expertise" (p. 483). A technique for
reflection could be to examine the past performances of both expert and novice and to highlight
similarities and differences. The goal of reflection is for students to look back and analyze their
performances with a desire for understanding and improvement towards the behavior of an expert.
Exploration
Exploration involves giving students room to problem solve on their own and teaching students
exploration strategies. The former requires the teacher to slowly withdraw the use of supports and
scaffolds not only in problem solving methods, but problem setting methods as well. The latter requires
the teacher to show students how to explore, research, and develop hypotheses. Exploration allows the
student to frame interesting problems within the domain for themselves and then take the initiative to
solve these problems.
References
1. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1987). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft
of reading, writing and mathematics (Technical Report No. 403). BBN Laboratories, Cambridge,
MA. Centre for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois. January, 1987.
2. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1988). Cognitive apprenticeship.Thinking: The Journal of
Philosophy for Children, 8(1), 2-10.
26
Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)

https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitive-dissonance-festinger.html
Summary: Cognitive dissonance is the negative feeling that results from conflicting beliefs and behaviors.
Originator: Leon Festinger (1919-1989), American social psychologist
Keywords: social psychology, forced compliance, decision-making, error justification
Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance refers to the uncomfortable feeling that occurs when there is a conflict between
one’s belief and behavior[1]. This unsettling feeling brings about intense motivation to get rid of the
inconsistency. An individual experiencing dissonance has three optional courses of action in order to
minimize the dissonance: change the behavior, change the belief, or rationalize the behavior. For
example, an overweight individual is faced with the health risks associated with his eating habits. In order
to minimize the dissonance, the individual could go on a diet (behavior) declare that he believes in
enjoying the moment (belief), or find research that show that health risks are actually affected by genetics
(rationalization). However, behavior is usually difficult to change, especially since one cannot undue past
behaviors. Thus, usually people tend to either change their beliefs or rationalize. The motivation to reduce
dissonance may cause irrational or even dangerous behavior. Dissonance can also occur when observing
others, when people don’t act as expected.
There are certain circumstances that can cause dissonance to increase, such as the degree of significance
of the subject matter, the disparity between the two ideas, and the ability to explain the disparity in any
other way. Dissonance is felt most strongly when it concerns one’s own identity. People don’t like
feeling unethical, dumb, or cheated. People can go to great lengths in order to reduce dissonance and thus
sustain their positive self-image. When experiencing dissonance in decision making, the ramifications of
the decision, and the ease which one can go back and undue the decision will affect how much dissonance
is experienced.
Cognitive dissonance experiments (1950s)
Festinger and colleagues first tested cognitive dissonance by infiltrating a cult which believed that the
world would be destroyed by a flood on a specific date[2]. When the prophecy did not occur, the members
of the cult were faced with the unnerving feeling that they had been duped. Festinger observed that the
steadfast believers, those who had risked everything for the cult, went to extreme lengths to explain and
publicize that the prophecy was real, but that their cult had actually saved the world from the flood.
Following this observation, Festinger and colleagues went out to test this theory in laboratory settings.
Participants were asked to perform a boring task, and then asked to do the experimenter a favor, and tell
the next participant how interesting the task actually was. Afterwards, the participants were surveyed as to
the degree they found the task interesting. Participants who were paid a large sum of money consistently
rated the task as boring. However, participants who were paid a minimal fee for participation rated the
27
task as more interesting. The difference between the two groups can be explained by cognitive
dissonance. Those who were well paid experienced less dissonance when lying about the task, as they had
a good enough reason to do so. However, when the pay was low, participants had to explain to
themselves why they had gone through all the trouble. Thus, they changed their belief, and actually
convinced themselves that the task was more interesting than it was.
Implications of cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance implicates related processes[2]. For example, the experiment above touches on the
topic of forced compliance, or being forced to do something you don’t believe in. Once the behavior has
been completed, it cannot be changed. Thus, forced compliance is a method that can cause individuals to
change their beliefs because of the dissonance that is created. An example of this phenomenon is Nazi
Germany, where people were forced to commit atrocities and were then left to rationalize the behavior to
themselves.
Cognitive dissonance has implications for decision making[2]. Decisions are difficult to make, especially
when choosing between similar and positive alternatives. Thus, after making a decision, people tend to
"spread apart the alternatives." In other words, they explain to themselves how beneficial their decision
was by exaggerating the positive aspects of their choice and the negative aspects of the unchosen
alternative.
Cognitive dissonance causes a phenomenon called "error justification." Many times people invest time
and energy into something that turned out to be a big mistake. This reality causes great dissonance, and
thus motivation to explain what occurred in a different way. Rather than accepting failure, people tend to
justify their effort by saying it was fun, it was an important experience, or brush it off altogether by
saying they didn’t really try.
References
1. Festinger, L. (1962). A theory of cognitive dissonance (Vol. 2). Stanford university press.
2. Cooper, J. (2007). Cognitive dissonance: 50 years of a classic theory. Sage.
28
Cognitive Load Theory of Multimedia Learning (Sweller)

https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitive-load-theory-of-multimedia-learning-sweller.html
Summary: A theory that focuses the load on working memory during instruction.
Originators and proponents: John Sweller (1946-)
Keywords: cognitive load theory, working memory, multimedia learning
Cognitive Load Theory of Multimedia Learning (Sweller)
John Sweller describes the human cognitive architecture, and the need to apply sound instructional design
principles based on our knowledge of the brain and memory[1][2]. Sweller first describes the different
types of memory, and how both are interrelated, because schemas held in long-term memory, acting as a
“central executive”, directly affect the manner in which information is synthesized in working memory.
Sweller then explains that in the absence of schemas, instructional guidance must provide a substitute for
learners to develop either own schemas.
Sweller discusses, in his view, three types of cognitive load:
extraneous cognitive load

intrinsic cognitive load
germane cognitive load
Intrinsic cognitive load
First described by Chandler and Sweller, intrinsic cognitive load is the idea that all instruction has an
inherent difficulty associated with it (for instance, calculating 5+5). This inherent difficulty may not be
altered by an instructor. However many schemas may be broken into individual "subschemas" and taught
in isolation, to be later brought back together and described as a combined whole.
Extraneous cognitive load
Extraneous cognitive load, by contrast, is under the control of instructional designers. This form of
cognitive load is generated by the manner in which information is presented to learners (i.e., the design).
To illustrate an example of extraneous cognitive load, assume there are at least two possible ways to
describe a geometric shape like a triangle. An instructor could describe a triangle in a verbally, but to
show a diagram of a triangle is much better because the learner does not have to deal with extraneous,
unnecessary information.
Germane cognitive load
29
Germane load is a third kind of cognitive load which is encouraged to be promoted. Germane load is the
load dedicated to the processing, construction and automation of schemas. While intrinsic load is
generally thought to be immutable, instructional designers can manipulate extraneous and germane load.
It is suggested that they limit extraneous load and promote germane load.
Extraneous cognitive load and intrinsic cognitive load are not ideal; they result from inappropriate
instructional designs and complexity of information. Germane cognitive load is coined as “effective’
cognitive load, caused by successful schema construction. Each of the cognitive loads are additive, and
instructional design’s goal should be to reduce extraneous cognitive load to free up working memory[3].
Reviews in the mid-2000's provide recent developments and future directions in cognitive load theory
research[4][5].
John Sweller's book: Cognitive Load Theory (Explorations in the Learning Sciences, Instructional
Systems and Performance Technologies). A bit expensive, but a useful book for academics,
researchers, instructional designers, cognitive and educational psychologists, and those interested
in cognition and or education technology.
Ruth Clark's book: Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive

Load. One of the first books to contribute a full-length practical design guide to the application of
CLT.
References
1. Sweller, J., Van Merrienboer, J. J., & Paas, F. G. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional
design. Educational psychology review, 10(3), 251-296.
2. Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2004). Cognitive load theory: Instructional implications of the
interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture. Instructional science, 32(1),
1-8.
3. Mousavi, S. Y., Low, R., & Sweller, J. (1995). Reducing cognitive load by mixing auditory and
visual presentation modes. Journal of educational psychology, 87(2), 319.
4. Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent
developments. Educational psychologist, 38(1), 1-4.
5. Van Merrienboer, J. J., & Sweller, J. (2005). Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent
developments and future directions. Educational psychology review, 17(2), 147-17.
30
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer)

https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitive-theory-of-multimedia-learning-mayer.html
Summary: A cognitive theory of multimedia learning based on three main assumptions: there are two
separate channels (auditory and visual) for processing information; there is limited channel capacity; and
that learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information.
Originator: Richard Mayer (1947-)
Key terms: dual-channel, limited capacity, sensory, working, long-term memory
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer)
The principle known as the "multimedia principle" states that "people learn more deeply from words and
pictures than from words alone" (p. 47)[1]. However, simply adding words to pictures is not an effective
way to achieve multimedia learning. The goal is to instructional media in the light of how human mind
works. This is the basis for Mayer's cognitive theory of multimedia learning. This theory proposes three
main assumptions when it comes to learning with multimedia[2]:
1. There are two separate channels (auditory and visual) for processing information (sometimes
referred to as Dual-Coding theory);
2. Each channel has a limited (finite) capacity (similar to Sweller's notion of Cognitive Load);
3. Learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information based
upon prior knowledge.
Humans can only process a finite amount of information in a channel at a time, and they make sense of
incoming information by actively creating mental representations. Mayer also discusses the role of three
memory stores: sensory (which receives stimuli and stores it for a very short time), working (where we
actively process information to create mental constructs (or 'schema'), and long-term (the repository of all
things learned). Mayer's cognitive theory of multimedia learning presents the idea that the brain does not
interpret a multimedia presentation of words, pictures, and auditory information in a mutually exclusive
fashion; rather, these elements are selected and organized dynamically to produce logical mental
constructs. Furthermore, Mayer underscores the importance of learning (based upon the testing of content
and demonstrating the successful transfer of knowledge) when new information is integrated with prior
knowledge.
Design principles including providing coherent verbal, pictorial information, guiding the learners to select
relevant words and images, and reducing the load for a single processing channel etc. can be entailed
from this theory[3][4].
For more information, see the following recommended resources:
Richard Mayer's book: Multimedia Learning
31
The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology)
References
1. Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge University Press.

2. Mayer, R. E. (2002). Multimedia learning. Psychology of learning and motivation, 41, 85-139.
3. Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions?.Educational
psychologist, 32(1), 1-19.
4. Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning.
Educational psychologist, 38(1), 43-52.
32
Cognitive Tools Theory (Egan)

https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitive-tools-theory-egan.html
Summary: There exist five kinds of understanding (or cognitive tools) that individuals usually master in a
particular order during the course of their development; these have important educational implications.
Originator: Kieran Egan, a Professor at Simon Fraser University, proposed his theory of cognitive tools as
part of a sustained program of writing and research on the role of imagination in learning, teaching, and
curriculum.
Keywords: Cognitive, Stages, Imagination, Ironic, Literacy, Memes
Cognitive Tools Theory (Egan)
Canadian curriculum theorist Kieran Egan (1997) offered a theory of cognitive tools as a possible
replacement for several dominant theories of learning widely applied to education, including Piaget’s
theory of cognitive stages, Dewey’s theories about the nature and goals of education, and applications of
evolutionary theory applied to cognitive development and learning[1]. Egan proposed that there exist five
kinds of understanding (or cognitive tools) that individuals usually master in a particular order during the
course of their development that reflect psychological, epistemological, and cultural factors. The first four
cognitive tools that Egan proposes (Somatic, Mythic, Romantic, and Philosophical) mirror the
characteristics and timing of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, pre-operational,
concrete operational, formal operational). In addition, Egan proposes a fifth tool, Ironic understanding.
However, it is not a matter of the brain’s characteristics unfolding in a fixed sequence with new
capacities emerging in a biologically driven sequence and timing. What Egan proposes is that various
human inventions—cognitive tools—were developed over history and that these effectively can be
introduced to children once they reach a particularly level of biological maturation. However, these tools
compete, as it were, for access to children at different stages of their development. Civilization has
developed in concert with the training of youth in these cognitive tools over time. Later elements of the
civilization software, as it were, depend on the prior installation and practice with the earlier elements
(see Carson, 1998[2]). Teachers, then, effectively play the role of ensuring that the new modes of
understanding are introduced at the right points and only after there has been sufficient practice with the
earlier cognitive tools.
1. The first kind of understanding is Somatic, from birth till about age 2. The main goal is the
mastery of mimetic (copying) activities. The main characteristics involve mastery of physical
activities and a non-verbal appreciation of the world.
2. The second kind of understanding is Mythic, from about ages 3-7. The main goal is the mastery
of oral language. The main characteristics involve binary opposites in thinking, metaphors, and
stereotypes, including socialization into the culture’s myths and taboos, and gaining a shared
sense of right and wrong.
3. The third kind of understanding is Romantic, from about ages 8-14. The main goal is the mastery
of literacy. The main characteristics involve acquisition of conventional skills involving getting
along, writing and literacy, and to gain an appreciation for finer gradations in perception and
33
thinking (not just the binary opposites of Mythic understanding). There is also a concern with the
limits and extremes of human potential.
4. The fourth kind of understanding is Philosophical, from about ages 15-20. The main goal is the
mastery of theoretic abstractions. The main characteristics involve a concern with the theories of
the world and one’s position in the world, including its theories. All the facts that the individual
had been accruing through Romantic understanding now become sorted and organized into
various preferred theories. One develops an ability to both support a theory with the addition of
relevant facts as well as to ignore or dismiss facts that may appear inconsistent with that preferred
theory.
5. The fifth kind of understanding is Ironic, from about age 21+. The main goal is the mastery of
refined reflexiveness. The main characteristics involve skepticism about the various theories
(typical of Romantic understanding), or skepticism about the features and interpretation of facts or
stories about human potential (characteristic of Romantic understanding), and so on. Such
skepticism can range in how extreme it becomes (from scathing caustic satire on one extreme, to
gently skeptical questioning and kind or even silly humor on the other).
Egan’s theory has important implications for learning and education. First, one might argue against the
current trend to push literacy education into ages traditionally associated with Mythical understanding,
because this may negatively affect the ability of those children and the adults that they subsequently
become to exercise their imaginations. Second, one might argue in favor of current trends to emphasize
skills-oriented education at the elementary level (including heavy emphasis on reading and math skills);
when Egan published the theory, this was a popular idea only among educational conservatives. Third,
one might argue for greater emphasis in secondary education for more rigorous instruction in logic,
rational thinking, and theory testing. This is consistent with the current emphases on STEM education.
Fourth, one might argue for greater emphasis on skeptical thinking of all sorts in post-secondary
education. This might run counter to some of the emphasis in college programs that may focus too
exclusively on vocational preparation (except for comedians; Egan might well approve of such courses at
the college level).
References
1. Egan, K. (1997). The Educated Mind: How Cognitive tools shape our understanding. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
2. Carson, A. D. (1998). Review of the book The educated mind: How cognitive tools shape our
understanding. McGill Journal of Education, 33(1), 106-109.
34
Cognitivism
https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html
The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the “black box” of the mind should be opened and
understood. The learner is viewed as an information processor (like a computer).
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Marriner David Merill (1937 - )
Charles Reigeluth (1946 - )
Robert Mills Gagné (1916 – 2002)
Jerome Bruner (1915-2016)
Roger Schank (1946 - )
Key Concepts
The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant paradigm. Cognitivism focuses
on the inner mental activities – opening the “black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for
understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-
solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions.
Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata[1][2].
35
A response to behaviorism, people are not “programmed animals” that merely respond to environmental
stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a
consequence of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring
in the learner’s head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is
being processed, and leads to certain outcomes.

References
1. Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing

critical features from an instructional design perspective.Performance improvement quarterly,
6(4), 50-72.
2. Cooper, P. A. (1993). Paradigm Shifts in Designed Instruction: From Behaviorism to Cognitivism to
Constructivism. Educational technology, 33(5), 12-19.
36
Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger)

https://www.learning-theories.com/communities-of-practice-lave-and-wenger.html
Summary: Etienne Wenger summarizes Communities of Practice (CoP) as "groups of people who share a
concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly." This
learning that takes place is not necessarily intentional. Three components are required in order to be a
CoP: (1) the domain, (2) the community, and (3) the practice.
Originators: Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in 1991 and further elaborated in 1998.
Key Terms: domain, community, practice, identity, learning
Communities of Practice
The term was first used in 1991 by theorists Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger who discussed the notion of
legitimate peripheral participation[1]. In 1998, the theorist Etienne Wenger extended the concept and
applied it to other domains, such as organizations[2]. With the flourishing of online communities on the
Internet, as well as the increasing need for improved knowledge management, there has been much more
interest as of late in communities of practice. People see them as ways of promoting innovation,
developing social capital, facilitating and spreading knowledge within a group, spreading existing tacit
knowledge, etc.
Communities of Practice can be defined, in part, as a process of social learning that occurs when people
who have a common interest in a subject or area collaborate over an extended period of time, sharing
ideas and strategies, determine solutions, and build innovations. Wenger gives a simple definition:
"Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do
and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly." Note that this allows for, but does not require
intentionality. Learning can be, and often is, an incidental outcome that accompanies these social
processes.
One needs to distinguish between what is a CoP and what is not. There are three required components of
CoPs:
1. There needs to be a domain. A CoP has an identity defined by a shared domain of interest (e.g.
radiologists, Star Trek fans, middle school history teachers, Seahawks football fans, etc.); it's not
just a network of people or club of friends. Membership implies a commitment to the domain.
2. There needs to be a community. A necessary component is that members of a specific domain

interact and engage in shared activities, help each other, and share information with each other.
They build relationships that enable them to learn from each other. In this way, merely sharing the
same job does not necessitate a CoP. A static website on hunting in itself is not a community of
practice. There needs to be people who interact and learn together in order for a CoP to be formed.
Note that members do not necessarily work together daily, however. Wenger points to the
example of Impressionist painters who sometimes met in cafes to discuss their painting styles. He
indicates that even though these men normally painted alone, these kinds of interactions were
37
essential to making them a CoP.
3. There needs to be a practice: A CoP is not just people who have an interest in something (e.g.
sports or agriculture practices). The third requirement for a CoP is that the members are
practitioners. They develop a shared repertoire of resources which can include stories, helpful
tools, experiences, stories, ways of handling typical problems, etc. This kind of interaction needs
to be developed over time. A conversation with a random stranger who happens to be an expert on
a subject matter that interests you does not in itself make a CoP. Informal conversations held by
people of the same profession (e.g. office assistants or graduate students) help people share and
develop a set of cases and stories that can become a shared repertoire for their practice, whether
they realize it or not.
Communities develop their practice through a variety of methods, including: problem solving, requests
for information, seeking the experiences of others, reusing assets, coordination and synergy, discussing
developments, visiting other members, mapping knowledge and identifying gaps.
For Etienne Wenger, learning is central to human identity. A primary focus is learning as social
participation – that is, an individual as an active participant in the practices of social communities, and in
the construction of his or her identity through these communities. People continuously create their shared
identity through engaging in and contributing to the practices of their communities. The motivation to
become a more central participant in a community of practice can provide a powerful incentive for
learning. Students will have a desire to develop skills (e.g. literacy skills) if the people they admire have
the same skills. That is, they want to join the “literacy club” and will work towards becoming a a
member.
Etienne Wenger's book: Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity (Learning in
Doing: Social, Cognitive and Computational Perspectives)
Etienne Wenger's book: Cultivating Communities of Practice
References
1. Lave, J. (1991). Situating learning in communities of practice. Perspectives on socially shared

cognition, 2, 63-82.
2. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity.
38
Connectivism (Siemens, Downes)

https://www.learning-theories.com/connectivism-siemens-downes.html
Summary: Connectivism is a learning theory that explains how Internet technologies have created new
opportunities for people to learn and share information across the World Wide Web and among
themselves.
Originators & Proponents: George Siemens, Stephen Downes
Keywords: communication, connection, distributed cognition, distributed learning, information, Internet,

knowledge sharing, links, massive open online course (MOOC), nodes, online, open educational
resources (OER), social networks
Connectivism[1][2]
Connectivism is a learning theory that explains how Internet technologies have created new opportunities
for people to learn and share information across the World Wide Web and among themselves. These
technologies include Web browsers, email, wikis, online discussion forums, social networks, YouTube,
and any other tool which enables the users to learn and share information with other people.
A key feature of connectivism is that much learning can happen across peer networks that take place
online. In connectivist learning, a teacher will guide students to information and answer key questions as
needed, in order to support students learning and sharing on their own. Students are also encouraged to
seek out information on their own online and express what they find. A connected community around this
shared information often results.
The massive open online course (MOOC) phenomenon comes from connectivist theory. In a connectivist
MOOC (cMOOC), it is open to anyone who wants to enroll, it uses open software and systems across the
Web to facilitate learning and sharing, it takes place primarily online, and it happens according to a
specified curriculum for a designated period of time. While facilitators guide the cMOOC, its participants
are largely responsible for what they learn and what and how they share it; this connected behavior
largely helps create the course content.
References
1. Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of
Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1), 3-10.
2. Downes, S. (2010). New technology supporting informal learning. Journal of Emerging
Technologies in Web Intelligence, 2(1), 27-33.
39
Constructivism
https://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html
Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process.

The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective
representations of objective reality. New information is linked to to prior knowledge, thus mental
representations are subjective.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896 - 1943)[1]
Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980)[2]
John Dewey (1859 - 1952)
Jerome Seymour Bruner (1915 - 2016)
Key Concepts
A reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction, constructivism states
that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it.
Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners
continuously test these hypotheses through social negotiation. Each person has a different interpretation
and construction of knowledge process. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) but brings past
40
experiences and cultural factors to a situation[3][4].
NOTE: A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors should never tell
students anything directly but, instead, should always allow them to construct knowledge for themselves.
This is actually confusing a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory of knowing. Constructivism
assumes that all knowledge is constructed from the learner's previous knowledge, regardless of how one
is taught. Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct new knowledge.
Vygotsky's social development theory is one of the foundations for constructivism.

Resources
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xa59prZC5gA
References
1. Vygotsky, L. S. (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.

Harvard university press.
2. Piaget, J. (2013). The construction of reality in the child (Vol. 82). Routledge.
3. Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing
critical features from an instructional design perspective.Performance improvement quarterly,
6(4), 50-72.
4. Cooper, P. A. (1993). Paradigm Shifts in Designed Instruction: From Behaviorism to Cognitivism to
Constructivism. Educational technology, 33(5), 12-19.
41
Design-Based Research Methods (DBR)

https://www.learning-theories.com/design-based-research-methods.html
Summary: Design-Based Research is a lens or set of analytical techniques that balances the positivist and
interpretivist paradigms and attempts to bridge theory and practice in education. A blend of empirical
educational research with the theory-driven design of learning environments, DBR is an important
methodology for understanding how, when, and why educational innovations work in practice; DBR
methods aim to uncover the relationships between educational theory, designed artefact, and practice.
Originators: A. Brown[1], A. Collins[2], DBR Collective[3], and others
Keywords: design experiments, iterative, interventionist, theory-building, theory-driven
Design-Based Research Methods (DBR)
In recent years, educators have been trying to narrow the chasm between research and practice. Part of the
challenge is that research that is detached from practice "may not account for the influence of contexts,
the emergent and complex nature of outcomes, and the incompleteness of knowledge about which factors
are relevant for prediction"[3].
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vgefBCppMJg
According to Collins et al., Design-based Research (also known as design experiments) intends to address
several needs and issues central to the study of learning[4]. These include the following:
The need to address theoretical questions about the nature of learning in context
The need for approaches to the study of learning phenomena in the real world situations rather
than the laboratory
The need to go beyond narrow measures of learning.
The need to derive research findings from formative evaluation.
Characteristics of design-based research experiments include:
addressing complex problems in real, authentic contexts in collaboration with practitioners

applying integrating known and hypothetical design principles to render plausible solutions
conducting rigorous and reflective inquiry to test and refine innovative learning environments
intertwined goals of (1) designing learning environments and (2) developing theories of learning
research and development through continuous cycles of design, enactment, analysis, and redesign
research on designs that must lead to sharable theories that help communicate relevant
implications to practitioners and other educational designers
research must account for how designs function in authentic settings
development of such accounts relies on methods that can document and connect processes of
enactment to outcomes of interest[3].
42
Design-based research vs. traditional evaluation
The following excerpt highlights the difference between the goals and contributions of design-based
research methods can offer and traditional evaluation:
"In traditional evaluation, an intervention (e.g. a textbook, an instructional program, a policy) is measured
against a set of standards. During formative evaluation, iterative cycles of development, implementation,
and study allow the designer to gather information about how an intervention is or is not succeeding in
ways that might lead to better design. Then the intervention is 'frozen', and the rigorous summative
evaluation begins....Like formative evaluation, design-based research uses mixed methods to analyze an
intervention's outcomes and refine the intervention. Unlike evaluation research, design-based research
views a successful innovation as a joint product of the designed intervention and the context. Hence,
design-based research goes beyond perfecting a particular product. The intention of design-based
research...is to inquire more broadly into the nature of learning in a complex system and to refine
generative or predictive theories of learning. Models of successful innovation can be generated through
such work -- models, rather than particular artifacts or programs, are the goal"[3].
Cobb, P., diSessa, A., Lehrer, R., Schauble, L. (2003). Design experiments in educational
research. Educational Researcher, 32(1): 9-13.
References
1. Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges in creating

complex interventions in classroom settings. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2(2): 141-178.
2. Collins, A. (1992). Towards a design science of education. In E. Scanlon & T. O'Shea (Eds.), New
directions in educational technology (pp. 15-22). Berlin: Springer.
3. Design-Based Research Collective. (2003). Design-based research: An emerging paradigm for
educational inquiry. Educational Researcher, 32(1): 5-8.
Barab, S., & Squire, K. (2004). Design-based research: Putting a stake in the ground. The Journal of the
Learning Sciences, 13(1).
43
Digital citizenship
https://www.learning-theories.com/digital-citizenship.html
Summary: Digital citizenship is the state of having access to the Internet and communication technologies
that help promote equal opportunity, democracy, technology skills, and human rights.
Originators and Key Contributors: Karen Mossberger, Caroline J. Tolbert, Ramona S. McNeal
Keywords: citizenship, civic engagement, community, online society, rights
Digital citizenship is the state of having access to Internet and Communication Technologies (ICTs) that
help promote equal opportunity, democracy, technology skills, and human rights.
Mossberger, Tolbert, and McNeal developed the phrase “digital citizenship” in response to the Internet
becoming a place where many people consumed and discussed media and information[1]. Having
consistent Internet access meant more exposure to a wider range of information and viewpoints and the
opportunity to engage in dialog.
When people have “full” digital citizenship, they have consistent access to the Web, and they use it
regularly to learn skills, gain information, participate in conversations around issues that matter to them,
create media about topics of concern, and perhaps even communicate with an elected official about their
issues or concerns. They have more economic stability, which is based on having access to skills and
information that may directly benefit their lives.
When people do not have Internet access, they get less information and, therefore, cannot make as
informed decisions for themselves or their wider communities. They also have less economic opportunity
and lower skills, which creates harmful economic inequity. This creates lower levels of participation in
the political process.
In order to support a healthy democracy in the Internet age, it is recommended that governments provide
their citizens with the digital tools to help them be fully included in socio-political processes to make
their lives and extended communities better. When groups in society have widely varying states of digital
citizenship, this can create a “digital divide” in which wealthier, more educated group have more Internet
access than more poor, less educated groups. One solution for supporting widespread digital citizenship is
by promoting more Internet access in people’s homes.
To read more about digital citizenship, check out this book: Digital Citizenship--The Internet, Society,
and Participation
References
1. Mossberger, K., Tolbert, C. J., & McNeal, R. S. (2007). Digital citizenship: The Internet, society,
and participation. MIT Press.
44
45
Discovery Learning (Bruner)

https://www.learning-theories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html
Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning believes that it is

best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Jerome Bruner (1915 - )
Key Concepts
Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving
situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover
facts and relationships and new truths to be learned[1]. Students interact with the world by exploring and
manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments.
As a result, students may be more more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their
own (in contrast to a transmissionist model)[2]. Models that are based upon discovery learning model
include: guided discovery, problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, case-based learning,
incidental learning, among others.
46
The theory is closely related to work by Jean Piaget and Seymour Papert.
Proponents of this theory believe that discovery learning:
encourages active engagement

promotes motivation
promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence
develops creativity and problem solving skills.
tailors learning experiences
Critics believe that discovery learning:
creates cognitive overload

may result in potential misconceptions
makes it difficult for teachers to detect problems and misconceptions

References
1. Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard educational review.

2. Bruner, J. S. (2009). The process of education. Harvard University Press.
47
Distributed Cognition (DCog)

https://www.learning-theories.com/distributed-cognition-dcog.html
Summary: Distributed cognition is a branch of cognitive science that proposes cognition and knowledge
are not confined to an individual; rather, it is distributed across objects, individuals, artefacts, and tools in
the environment.
Originators: Edwin Hutchins in the 1990s.
Key Terms: Cognition in the Wild, mind in the world, artefacts, environment, representational media
Distributed Cognition (DCog)
Edwin Hutchins, a cognitive psychologist and anthropologist, studied how navigation is coordinated on
US navy ships around San Diego[1]. From his observations, he posited that the mind is in the world (as
opposed to the world being in the mind). That is, the necessary knowledge and cognition to operate a
naval vessel do not exist solely within one's head; knowledge and cognition is distributed across objects,
individuals, artifacts, and tools in the environment[2][3][4]. The goal of Distributed Cognition is to describe
how distributed units are coordinated by analyzing the interactions between individuals, the
representational media used, and the environment within which the activity takes place[1]. The unit of
analysis can therefore be described as systems that dynamically reconfigure their sub-systems to
accomplish functions individuals, artifacts, their relations to each other (e.g. bridge of a ship, airplane
cockpit, air traffic control). Distributed Cognition is about defining mechanisms of cognitive processes:
e.g. memory in a cockpit encompasses internal processes, physical manipulation of objects, and the
creation/exchange of external representations.
Distributed Cognition, which often makes use of ethnographically collected data, is not so much a
method; more accurately, it is a useful descriptive framework that describes human work systems in
informational and computational terms. It is useful for analyzing situations that involve problem-solving.
As it helps provide an understanding of the role and function of representational media, it has
implications for the design of technology in the mediation of the activity, because the system designers
will have a stronger, clearer model of the work. Thus, it is an important theory for such fields as CSCL,
CSCW, HCI, instructional design, and distance learning[5].
References
1. Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the wild. MIT Press.

2. Hutchins, E. (1991). The social organization of distributed cognition.
3. Hutchins, E., & Klausen, T. (1996). Distributed cognition in an airline cockpit. Cognition
and communication at work, 15-34.
4. Hutchins, E. (1995). How a cockpit remembers its speeds. Cognitive Science, 19, 265-288.
5. Hollan, J., Hutchins, E., & Kirsh, D. (2000). Distributed cognition: toward a new foundation for
human-computer interaction research. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction
(TOCHI), 7(2), 174-196.
48
49
E-Learning Theory (Mayer, Sweller, Moreno)

https://www.learning-theories.com/e-learning-theory-mayer-sweller-moreno.html
learning theory consists of cognitive science principles that describe how electronic educational
technology can be used and designed to promote effective learning.
Contributors
History
Key Concepts
Contributors
Richard E. Mayer Roxana Moreno John Sweller
History
The researchers started from an understanding of cognitive load theory to establish the set of principles
that compose e-learning theory. Cognitive load theory refers to the amount of mental effort involved in
working memory, and these amounts are categorized into three categories: germane, intrinsic, and
extraneous[1].
Germane cognitive load describes the effort involved in understanding a task and accessing it or storing it
in long-term memory (for example, seeing an essay topic and understanding what you are being asked to
50
write about). Intrinsic cognitive load refers to effort involved in performing the task itself (actually
writing the essay). Extraneous cognitive load is any effort imposed by the way that the task is delivered
(having to find the correct essay topic on a page full of essay topics).
Key Concepts
Mayer, Moreno, Sweller, and their colleagues established e-learning design principles that are focused on
minimizing extraneous cognitive load and introducing germane and intrinsic loads at user-appropriate
levels[2][3][4][5][6]. These include the following empirically established principles:
Multimedia principle (also called the Multimedia Effect)
Using any two out of the combination of audio, visuals, and text promote deeper learning than using just
one or all three.
Modality principle
Learning is more effective when visuals are accompanied by audio narration versus onscreen text. There
are exceptions for when the learner is familiar with the content, is not a native speaker of the narration
language, or when printed words are the only things presented on screen. Another exception to this is
when the learner needs to use the material as reference and will be going back to the presentation
repeatedly.
Coherence principle
The less that learners know about the presentation content, the more they will be distracted by unrelated
content. Irrelevant video, music, graphics, etc. should be cut out to reduce cognitive load that might
happen through learning unnecessary content. Learners with some prior knowledge, however, might have
increased motivation and interest with unrelated content.
Contiguity principle
Learning is more effective when relevant information is presented closely together. Relevant text should be
placed close to graphics, and feedback and responses should come closely to any answers that the learner
gives.
Segmenting principle
More effective learning happens when learning is segmented into smaller chunks. Breaking down long
lessons and passages into shorter ones helps promote deeper learning.
Signaling principle
51
Using arrows or circles, highlighting, and pausing in speech are all effective methods of signaling
important aspects of the lesson. It is also effective to end a lesson segment after releasing important
information.
Learner control principle
For most learners, being able to control the rate at which they learn helps them learn more effectively.
Having just play and pause buttons can help more than having an array of controls (back, forward,
play, pause). Advanced learners may benefit from having the lesson play automatically with the ability
to pause when they choose.
Personalization principle
A tone that is more informal and conversational, conveying more of a social presence, helps promote
deeper learning. Beginning learners may benefit from a more polite tone of voice, while learners with
prior knowledge may benefit from a more direct tone of voice. Computer characters can help reinforce
content by narrating the lesson, pointing out important features, or illustrating examples for the learner.
Pre-training principle
Introducing key content concepts and vocabulary before the lesson can aid deeper learning. This
principle seems to apply more to low prior knowledge learners versus high prior knowledge learners.
Redundancy principle
Having graphics explained by both audio narration and on-screen text creates redundancy. The most
effective method is to use either audio narration or on-screen text to accompany visuals.
Expertise effect
Instructional methods that are helpful to low prior knowledge learners may not be helpful at all, or may
even be detrimental, to high prior knowledge learners.

Resources
• In E-learning Theory and Practice, authors Caroline Haythornthwaite and Richard Andrews
provide a theoretical framework and explore the world-changing effects of e- learning.
• Tina Stavredes offers practical advice and specific strategies to promote effective online learning in
Effective Online Teaching: Foundations and Strategies for Student Success, while also presenting
clear summaries of learning theories that are essential for any online instructor to know.
References
1. Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia
learning. Educational psychologist, 38(1), 43-52.
2. Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions?.Educational
52

3. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. (2007). Interactive multimodal learning environments.
Educational Psychology Review, 19(3), 309-326.
4. Low, R., & Sweller, J. (2005). The modality principle in multimedia learning.The
Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning, 147, 158.
5. Mayer, R. E. (2003). Elements of a science of e-learning. Journal of Educational
Computing Research, 29(3), 297-313.
6. Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). E-learning and the science of instruction:
Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning. John
Wiley & Sons.
53
Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)

https://www.learning-theories.com/elaboration-theory-reigeluth.html
Summary: Elaboration theory is an instructional design theory that argues that content to be learned
should be organized from simple to complex order, while providing a meaningful context in which
subsequent ideas can be integrated.
Originators: Charles Reigeluth (Indiana University) and his colleagues in the late 1970s.
Key Terms: conceptual elaboration sequence, theoretical elaboration sequence, simplifying conditions
sequence
Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)
The paradigm shift from teacher-centric instruction to learner-centered instruction has caused "new needs
for ways to sequence instruction" [1]. Charles Reigeluth of Indiana University posited Elaboration Theory,
an instructional design model that aims to help select and sequence content in a way that will optimize
attainment of learning goals[2]. Proponents feel the use of motivators, analogies, summaries and syntheses
leads to effective learning. While the theory does not address primarily affective content, it is intended for
medium to complex kinds of cognitive and psychomotor learning.
According to Reigeluth (1999), Elaboration Theory has the following values:
It values a sequence of instruction that is as holistic as possible, to foster meaning-making and

motivation
It allows learners to make many scope and sequence decisions on their own during the learning
process
It is an approach that facilitates rapid prototyping in the instructional development process
It integrates viable approaches to scope and sequence into a coherent design theory
There are three major approaches: (1) Conceptual Elaboration Sequence (used when there are many
related concepts to be learned), (2) Theoretical Elaboration Sequence (used when there are many related
principles to be learned), and (3) Simplifying Conditions Sequence (used when a task of at least moderate
complexity is to be learned).
The simplest version of the concept, principle or task should be taught first. Teach broader, more
inclusive concepts, principles, or tasks before the narrower, more detailed ones that elaborate upon them.
One should use either a topical or a spiral approach to this elaboration. Teach "supporting" content such
as principles, procedures, information, higher-order thinking skills, or attitudes together with the concepts
to which they are most closely related. Group concepts, principles, or steps and their supporting content
into "learning episodes" of a useful size (not too small or large). Finally, allow students to choose which
concepts, principles, or versions of the task to elaborate upon or learn first (or next).
Criticisms
54
Some scholars have offered various criticisms of Elaboration Theory. For example, there is no
prescription for providing "authentic" or "situated" learning. Also, the use of three primary structures (i.e.
conceptual, procedural, and theoretical) is a design constraint. As conceptual structures are sequenced
from the most general category down to the most detailed subcategory, elaboration theory does not
accommodate learners' prior knowledge.
Reigeluth and Carr-Chelman's book: Instructional-Design Theories and Models, Volume III:
Building a Common Knowledge Base. The third volume begins to build a common knowledge
base for the vast array of instructional theories, models and strategies.
References
1. Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). The elaboration theory: Guidance for scope and sequence decisions.
Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory, 2, 425-453.
2. Reigeluth, C., & Stein, R. (1983). Elaboration theory. Instructional-design theories and models:
An overview of their current status, 335-381.
55
Emotional Intelligence (Goleman)

https://www.learning-theories.com/emotional-intelligence-goleman.html
Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is defined as the ability to identify, assess, and control one’s own
emotions, the emotions of others, and that of groups.
Contributors
Daniel Goleman (1995)
Howard Gardner (1983)
Key Concepts
In the 1900s, even though traditional definitions of intelligence emphasized cognitive aspects such as
memory and problem-solving, several influential researchers in the intelligence field of study had begun
to recognize the importance of going beyond traditional types of intelligence (IQ). As early as 1920, for
instance, E.L. Thorndike described “social intelligence” as the skill of understanding and managing
others. Howard Gardner in 1983 described the idea of multiple intelligences, in which interpersonal
intelligence (the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people) and
intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one’s feelings, fears and
motivations) helped explain performance outcomes.
The first use of the term “emotional intelligence” is often attributed to A Study of Emotion: Developing
Emotional Intelligence from 1985, by Wayne Payne. However, prior to this, the term “emotional
56
intelligence” had appeared in Leuner (1966). Stanley Greenspan (1989) also put forward an EI model,
followed by Salovey and Mayer (1990), and Daniel Goleman (1995). A distinction between emotional
intelligence as a trait and emotional intelligence as an ability was introduced in 2000.
Daniel Goleman’s model (1998) focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive
leadership performance, and consists of five areas:
Self-awareness
Know one’s emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values and goals and recognize their impact on
others while using gut feelings to guide decisions.
Self-regulation
Manage or redirect one’s disruptive emotions and impulses and adapt to changing circumstances.
Social skill
Manage other’s emotions to move people in the desired direction.
Empathy
Recognize, understand, and consider other people’s feelings especially when making decisions
Motivation
Motivate oneself to achieve for the sake of achievement.
To Golman, emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be
worked on and can be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman believes that individuals
are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional
competencies[3].
Emotional Intelligence is not always widely accepted in the research community. Goleman’s model of EI,
for instance, has been criticized in the research literature as being merely “pop psychology.” However, EI is
still considered by many to be a useful framework especially for businesses.

Resources
57
Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ: A well-written book by Daniel
Goleman, a former writer for the New York Times. The book explains how the rational and
emotional work together to shape intelligence, citing neuroscience and psychology of the brain.
Goleman explains why IQ is not the sole predictor of success; furthermore, he demonstrates how
emotional intelligence can impact important life outcomes. A fascinating read!
Emotional Intelligence 2.0: Bradberry, Greaves, and Lencioni's book that actually gives strategies
for how to increase your emotional intelligence (not just explaining what emotional intelligence
is). Helps readers increase four emotional intelligence skills: self-awareness, self-management,
social awareness, and relationship management. Gives access to an online test that informs which
strategies will increase your EQ the most.
References
1. Goleman, D. (2006). Emotional intelligence. Bantam.

2. Goleman, D. (1996). Emotional Intelligence. Why It Can Matter More than IQ.Learning, 24(6),
49-50.
3. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. Bantam.
58
Erikson's Stages of Development

https://www.learning-theories.com/eriksons-stages-of-development.html
An eight stage theory of identity and psychosocial development.
Erik Erikson, a German psychoanalyst heavily influenced by Sigmund Freud, explored three aspects of
identity: the ego identity (self), personal identity (the personal idiosyncrasies that distinguish a person from
another, social/cultural identity (the collection of social roles a person might play)[1].
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Erik Erikson (1902 -1994)
Key Concepts
Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development considers the impact of external factors, parents and
society on personality development from childhood to adulthood. According to Erikson’s theory, every
person must pass through a series of eight interrelated stages over the entire life cycle[2].
59
1. Infancy: Birth-18 Months Old
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust – Hope
During the first or second year of life, the major emphasis is on the mother and father’s nurturing ability
and care for a child, especially in terms of visual contact and touch. The child will develop optimism,
trust, confidence, and security if properly cared for and handled. If a child does not experience trust, he or
she may develop insecurity, worthlessness, and general mistrust to the world.
2. Toddler / Early Childhood Years: 18 Months to 3 Years
Autonomy vs. Shame – Will
The second stage occurs between 18 months and 3 years. At this point, the child has an opportunity to
build self-esteem and autonomy as he or she learns new skills and right from wrong. The well-cared for
child is sure of himself, carrying himself or herself with pride rather than shame. During this time of the
“terrible twos”, defiance, temper tantrums, and stubbornness can also appear. Children tend to be
vulnerable during this stage, sometimes feeling shame and and low self-esteem during an inability to
learn certain skills.
3. Preschooler: 3 to 5 Years
Initiative vs. Guilt – Purpose
During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative in creating play
situations. We make up stories with Barbie’s and Ken’s, toy phones and miniature cars, playing out roles
in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it means to be an adult. We also
begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world—”WHY?”
While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the psychosocial
features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said that at this stage we usually become
involved in the classic “Oedipal struggle” and resolve this struggle through “social role identification.” If
we’re frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may easily experience guilt.
The most significant relationship is with the basic family.
4. School Age Child: 6 to 12 Years
Industry vs. Inferiority – Competence
During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creating and accomplishing
numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is also a very social stage
of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority among our peers,
we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-esteem.
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As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and neighborhood. Parents
are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are still important.
5. Adolescent: 12 to 18 Years
Identity vs. Role Confusion – Fidelity
Up until this fifth stage, development depends on what is done to a person. At this point, development
now depends primarily upon what a person does. An adolescent must struggle to discover and find his or
her own identity, while negotiating and struggling with social interactions and “fitting in”, and
developing a sense of morality and right from wrong.
Some attempt to delay entrance to adulthood and withdraw from responsibilities (moratorium). Those
unsuccessful with this stage tend to experience role confusion and upheaval. Adolescents begin to
develop a strong affiliation and devotion to ideals, causes, and friends.
6. Young adult: 18 to 35
Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation – Love
At the young adult stage, people tend to seek companionship and love. Some also begin to “settle down”
and start families, although seems to have been pushed back farther in recent years.
Young adults seek deep intimacy and satisfying relationships, but if unsuccessful, isolation may occur.
Significant relationships at this stage are with marital partners and friends.
7. Middle-aged Adult: 35 to 55 or 65
Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation – Care
Career and work are the most important things at this stage, along with family. Middle adulthood is also
the time when people can take on greater responsibilities and control.
For this stage, working to establish stability and Erikson’s idea of generativity – attempting to produce
something that makes a difference to society. Inactivity and meaninglessness are common fears during
this stage.
Major life shifts can occur during this stage. For example, children leave the household, careers can
change, and so on. Some may struggle with finding purpose. Significant relationships are those within the
family, workplace, local church and other communities.
8. Late Adult: 55 or 65 to Death
Integrity vs. Despair – Wisdom
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Erikson believed that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage involves
much reflection. As older adults, some can look back with a feeling of integrity — that is, contentment and
fulfillment, having led a meaningful life and valuable contribution to society. Others may have a sense of
despair during this stage, reflecting upon their experiences and failures. They may fear death as they struggle
to find a purpose to their lives, wondering “What was the point of life? Was it worth it?”

Resources
The Life Cycle Completed (Extended Version): Erikson's own well-written book that explains the
stages and identity crisis directly from the firsthand source.
Handbook of Identity Theory and Research [2 Volume Set]: This impressive handbook brings
“unity and clarity to a diverse and fragmented literature.” presenting perspectives from many
different theoretical schools and empirical approaches: psychology (e.g., narrative, social identity
theory, neo-Eriksonian) and from other disciplines (e.g., sociology, political science, ethnic
studies).
References
1. Erikson, E. H. (1994). Identity: Youth and crisis (No. 7). WW Norton & Company.
2. Erikson, E. H. (1993). Childhood and society. WW Norton & Company.
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Experiential Learning (Kolb)

https://www.learning-theories.com/experiential-learning-kolb.html
A four-stage cyclical theory of learning, Kolb’s experiential learning theory is a holistic perspective
that combines experience, perception, cognition, and behavior.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
David A. Kolb (1939-)
Key Concepts
Building upon earlier work by John Dewey and Kurt Levin, American educational theorist David A. Kolb
believes “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience”
(1984, p. 38)[1]. The theory presents a cyclical model of learning, consisting of four stages shown below.
One may begin at any stage, but must follow each other in the sequence:
Concrete experience (or “DO”)
The first stage, concrete experience (CE), is where the learner actively experiences an activity such as a
lab session or field work.
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Reflective observation (or “OBSERVE”)
The second stage, reflective observation (RO), is when the learner consciously reflects back on that
experience.
Abstract conceptualization (or “THINK”)
The third stage, abstract conceptualization (AC), is where the learner attempts to conceptualize a theory
or model of what is observed.
Active experimentation (or “PLAN”)
The fourth stage, active experimentation (AE), is where the learner is trying to plan how to test a model
or theory or plan for a forthcoming experience.
Kolb identified four learning styles which correspond to these stages. The styles highlight conditions
under which learners learn better[3]. These styles are:
assimilators, who learn better when presented with sound logical theories to consider
convergers, who learn better when provided with practical applications of concepts and theories
accommodators, who learn better when provided with “hands-on” experiences
divergers, who learn better when allowed to observe and collect a wide range of information

References
1. Kolb, David A. 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and
Development. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
2. Kolb, D. A. (2014). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
FT press.
3. Kolb, D. A. (2014). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. FT
press.
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Expertise Theory (Ericsson, Gladwell)

https://www.learning-theories.com/expertise-theory-ericsson-gladwell.html
Expertise theory specifies how talent develops across specified fields or domains, focusing on cognitive
task analysis (to map the domain), instruction and practice, and clearly specified learning outcomes
against which one can objectively measure the development of expertise.
Anders Ericsson, a professor at Florida State University, is the leading figure in the field of expertise
theory. However, many others are associated with it as well: Robert Sternberg (Cornell University),
Richard Clark (University of Southern California), Benjamin Bloom (late of the University of Chicago),
Herbert Simon (late of Carnegie Mellon University), and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (Claremont Graduate
University). Another notable figure is Malcolm Gladwell, whose work has served to popularize the
theory.
Keywords: expertise, practice, instruction, cognitive task analysis
Expertise Theory
Expertise theory represents an update on classical behavioral learning theories dating back to Pavlov,
Watson, Edward Thorndike, Edward Tolman, Clark Hull, and B. F. Skinner. However, by the 1970s and
1980s, the dominant theories for how adults succeeded in their work and careers had shifted heavily in the
direction of trait-oriented theories. For example, tests for hiring and identification of talent were weighted
heavily towards tests of general cognitive ability (g), and personality tests that measured the “Big 5”
personality traits were developed and were generating research, much of it supportive of their using in
selection and classification decisions.
Anders Ericsson, who had studied with Herbert Simon at Carnegie Mellon University, had been
introduced to the major currents of cognitive psychology and the emerging broader field of cognitive
science while there. At Florida State University, Ericsson established a lab to study the development of
expertise, which assumed that talent useful in careers and the workplace depended not primarily on traits
(cognitive, personality, or otherwise) but rather on the acquisition of skills and knowledge through
learning and practice. His lab generated a number of studies, reported in journals and edited volumes[1][2],
which collectively established that expertise (and talent generally) appears to conform to orderly laws
rather like those of classical learning theory. In particular, the amount of practice in which an individual
engages, coupled with quality curriculum and expert coaching, appears to predict the rate and ultimately
limits of the development of expertise within a given domain.
The type of practice required to develop expertise, according to Ericsson, is not simply doing work. It is a
cognitively effortful activity in which one is thinking about what one is doing. It involves a reflective
component, plus the opportunity to obtain feedback on the quality of one’s performance through an
expert coach. Ericsson also has argued that to document the development of expertise, one must have
clearly specified learning outcomes against which one can objectively measure its development.
Through his book Outliers, Malcolm Gladwell popularized expertise theory and introduced the key
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concepts to a broad audience[3]. He extended credit for the development of the basic theory and
supporting research to others (including Ericsson).
Richard Clark at the University of Southern California has pursued a research program with a similar
agenda to Ericsson’s, except that Clark’s approach focuses primarily on a method for identifying the
cognitive structure of skills required to complete the set of tasks to perform within a narrow domain as an
expert. He and his students have developed methods that allow one to use interview methods with a
handful of subjects, then reconstruct the basic structure of skills that one must acquire (and in which
order) to perform at a reasonably expert level in a particular domain[4]. Clark’s approach thus provides a
relatively efficient technology for determining the curriculum through which to train others to be come
experts, while Ericsson’s approach is to plot out the amount of time required to practice to achieve it.
References
1. Ericsson, K. A. (Ed.). (1996). The road to excellence: The acquisition of expert performance in
the arts and sciences, sports and games. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
2. Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, J. (Eds.). (1991). Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and
limits. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
3. Gladwell, M. (2008). Outliers: The story of success. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company.
4. Clark, R. E., Feldon, D., vanMerrienboer, J. J. G., Yates, K., & Early, S. (2007). Cognitive task
analysis. In Spector, J. M., Merrill, M. D., vanMerrienboer, J. J., G., & Driscoll, M. P. (Eds.).
Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Flow (Csíkszentmihályi)
https://www.learning-theories.com/flow-csikszentmihalyi.html
Summary: Flow is an optimal psychological state that people experience when engaged in an activity that
is both appropriately challenging to one’s skill level, often resulting in immersion and concentrated focus
on a task. This can result in deep learning and high levels of personal and work satisfaction.
Originators & proponents: Mihály Csíkszentmihályi[1][2]
Keywords: anxiety/stress, challenge level, creativity, engagement, expertise, happiness, immersion, flow,
focus, learning, motivation, satisfaction, self-regulation, skill level
Flow (Csíkszentmihályi)
Flow is one of eight mental states that can happen during the learning process which Csíkszentmihályi
outlines in his flow theory. In addition to flow, these mental states include anxiety, apathy, arousal,
boredom, control, relaxation, and worry; they result when a learner experiences a combination of skill and
challenge levels of a task in non-optimal combinations.
Flow is the most optimal of these states for learning, as it is where skill level and challenge level of a task
are at their highest. This creates an opportunity for learning and intense focus, where learners can even
feel that they lose track of time because they are so immersed in the task.
In contrast, a learner can experience relaxation in learning a task when their skill level is very high and
the task challenge is very low. Conversely, a learner can experience anxiety when their skill level is very
low and the task challenge is very high. Neither state is supportive of optimal learning.
Flow can be experienced in any task in any field of activity, from music to writing to painting to sports.
Educational researchers try to understand flow in order to help their students optimize their learning.
References
1. Csíkszentmihályi, M. (1996). Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New Yprk:
Harper Collins. Chicago
2. Csíkszentmihályi, M. (2008). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY:
Harper Perennial.
67
Functional Context Theory (Sticht)

https://www.learning-theories.com/functional-context-theory-sticht.html
Summary: Functional Context Theory is a cognitive learning theory that was developed specifically for
educating adults in businesses and the military.
Originator: Thomas Sticht
Keywords: Job task analysis, knowledge base, literacy, learning strategies, instructional strategies
Functional Context Theory (Sticht)
There are various styles of learning requiring educators to learn about their students so that they can
choose the most appropriate learning theory upon which to develop their instructional strategies. The
functional context theory is considered a cognitive learning theory. The theory is based on the premise
that students learn best when instruction is based on prior knowledge base, making use of long-term
memory[1]. Instructional strategies must be developed that require students to make use of their language
and problem solving skills[2].
Although the functional content theory is a cognitive theory, it is in direct opposition to other major
components of cognitive theories that hold the premise that learning occurs in stages and is totally
separate and apart from any environmental influence.
Sticht stresses that learning has everything to do with a person’s environmental influences. Instead of
developing in life’s predetermined stages, instructional strategies must be developed that are based on
their relevance to the students and their own personal experiences[2]. Importantly, according to Sticht’s
functional context theory, learning is accomplished through the context of the students’ activity, giving
them the ability to transfer their classroom learning successfully to their daily work tasks.
Using this theory, educators combine literacy and other of the most basic skills, such as reading, in order
to incorporate them with content learning. In 1975, Thomas Sticht developed this theory strictly for the
education of adults[3]. His learning theory was tested in the development of a functional content course for
enlisted Navy personnel. The goal of the program was to improve reading and math skills as pertaining to
their specific job duties A job task analysis was conducted in order to find out exactly what level of
reading and math skills soldiers needed to successfully complete their job tasks.
The results of the program enabled the development of technical manuals and instructional materials that
the Navy could use to train their enlisted personnel. The purpose of the functional content theory of
learning is to ensure that all instruction is based on a prior knowledge base, making instruction inclusive
of knowledge and skills that students can actually apply successfully in the work place.
A very important component of the function content theory is literacy. The purpose is to improve adult
literacy through the improvement of content, helping students use and improve their problem solving and
critical thinking skills. Assessments are designed that are valid to the learning material, requiring context
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and content that will supply specific measurements directly related to the learning materials.
The assessment of learning success using the function content theory is not to be based on grades, but
rather, on the specific content learning and, distinguishing between academic learning and function
learning.
Sticht has used his functional content theory to develop instructional material for the health care industry,
as well as a very diverse variety of jobs where specific content related learning is necessary. Programs
have and instructional materials have been developed for office workers and mechanics. There are really
too many fields to list.
The premise is that adults are not going to be interested in spending time learning something that is not
relative to their work. By the time one adulthood is reached, people tend to know exactly what they want
and they require context specific training.
The function content theory is coupled with the importance of adult literacy[4]. Reading and math literacy
are important tenets of learning and job success. Without good literacy skills that are related to an
individual’s work task, success cannot be expected.
Function content goes hand in hand with situated learning theory, which also is based on the premise that
learning is best accomplished when it is based on the student’s previous knowledge and current situation.
Academic learning involves the learning of facts needed for school success, but functional learning
involves learning reading and math skills directly related to a real world job situation.
As early as 1861, teachers were working on developing experience specific instruction for freed slaves
after the civil war. They strove to develop content learning that was based on the previous lives of the
freedmen in order to help them learn, adding new knowledge to their previous knowledge base. Instead of
beginning the education of the freemen at the level at which a child begins education, the materials were
developed based on the current living environment of the freed slaves.
Adults must not be educated like school children are educated, rather, their education must be developed
based on current life situations. World War II soldiers were educated through the use of materials that
related to current job tasks. The basic principles of the theory first came to light during his time period in
America’s history.
Although Sticht’s functional content theory is in opposition to other cognitive theories it is widely used
for adult literacy education, preparing students for real world jobs. The use of function content has spread
widely throughout adult literacy and vocational programs, preparing adults for real world job situations to
enable them to be successful at their chosen vocation.
Thomas Sticht’s extensive research into those principles used to train WWII soldiers has made a he
impact on adult education. The impact on instructional strategies now used in adult vocational and
literacy education. The Functional Literacy Program used the principles that underlie the basic tenets of
the cognitive sciences.
The immense impact Sticht’s research has had on adult education has created a ripple effect throughout
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adult educational programs, making teaching and learning more successful and effective.
References
1. Sticht, T. G. (1987). Functional Context Education. Workshop Resource Notebook.

2. Sticht, T. (2000). Functional Context Education: Making Learning Relevant.
3. Sticht, T. G. (1975). Reading for Working: A Functional Literacy Anthology.
4. Sticht, T. G. (1988). Adult literacy education. Review of research in education,15, 59-96.
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Game Reward Systems

https://www.learning-theories.com/game-reward-systems.html
Summary: The phrase game reward systems describes the structure of rewards and incentives in a game
that inspire intrinsic motivation in the player while also offering extrinsic rewards. Game reward systems
can be modeled in non-game environments, including personal and business environments, to provide
positive motivation for individuals to change their behavior.
Originators and Key Contributors: Many theories on intrinsic motivation, sense of satisfaction, and
other reward concepts have been developed that form the foundation for current thinking about game
reward systems. In the 1930s, B. F. Skinner explored reward schedules with pigeons, and his findings
have influenced the design of reward mechanisms both inside and outside of the field of game mechanics.
In their paper Game Reward Systems: Gaming Experiences and Social Meanings (2011), Hao Wang and
Chuen-Tsai Sun analyze the main structural features of reward systems within videogames that have
relevance outside videogames as well[1].
Keywords: game, variable ratio, fixed ratio, reward, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation
Game Reward Systems
Skinner found through his pigeon experiments that the most effective reward schedule was that of
a variable ratio reward. He found that the pigeons under study were most likely to press a lever when
there was a 50% chance of receiving a reward--even more than when they received a reward every time.
This finding, applied to humans, helps explain why slot machines in casinos are so appealing. Many
videogames apply this principle within their structure of rewards; for example, World of Warcraft only
sometimes leaves the loot that players need from killed mobs (Max Seidman).
In 1973, psychologists Mark Lepper and Richard Nisbett observed a difference in behavior when it came
to intrinsic versus extrinsic motivations in a study of kindergarten students[2]. The group of children who
were told they would be given prizes for drawing pictures displayed a different kind of motivation than
the ones who were left alone to draw. After the children received their rewards, they showed less interest
in drawing than they had before, whereas the children who were left alone continued drawing, happy to
pursue it for its own sake. We understand this today to be a result of extrinsic motivation decreasing
intrinsic motivation (in other words, “I’m drawing so that I can get a prize” overpowering “I’m drawing
because I like to draw”). This effect is called the overjustification effect. There was a third group of
children who received rewards without being told that they would receive them--this group, like the group
that received no rewards, showed the same levels of intrinsic motivation before and after the rewards
were handed out.
Further analysis since the discovery of the overjustification effect has shown that though it might seem to
make an argument that rewards have unwanted consequences and are unnecessary, rewards can, however,
increase intrinsic motivation for tasks that have little intrinsic value in the first place. Further research
demonstrates that rewards can help encourage feelings of competence and autonomy, and it also indicates
that the negative aspects of the overjustification effect may be stronger for children than for young adults
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or older people. This suggests that children might learn best when their intrinsic motivation and their
independence is fostered, except in situations where the task is very dry or unappealing and could benefit
from extrinsic motivators.
To apply these findings on reward schedules and the overjustification effect to game design suggests that,
generally speaking, games can increase player engagement by varying when rewards are given. By
adopting a variable reward schedule into their games, game designers allow players to play the game for
the game itself. The fact that a player cannot predict when a reward is going to come means that the shift
to extrinsic motivation that would normally happen when rewards are presented does not occur. In this
way, players are free to complete quests, find gold coins, and earn levels for fun, based on their own
intrinsic motivation for doing so.
To add nuance, however, different reward schedules tend to produce different kinds of activity, and there
are many different types of games with just as many different systems of rewards. Within the context of
videogames, four different types of reward schedules can be described:
1. Fixed ratio schedule: the player receives a reward after a fixed number of actions
2. Variable ratio schedule: the player receives a reward after a random number of actions
3. Fixed interval schedule: the player receives a reward after a fixed interval of time
4. Variable interval schedule: the player receives a reward after a variable interval of time
A simple game might make use of just one type of reward schedule. The more complex a game gets,
however, generally the more reward schedules the game will need in order to provide the right level of
engagement for the player. Ratio schedules tend to promote high levels of activity, as the player races
through the actions necessary to get their reward, while variable schedules tend to promote constant
activity, since everything has a chance to reveal a reward. Burnout can happen in the case of a variable
ratio schedule, so it might actually benefit the game designer to include some rewards in the form of a
fixed schedule to provide a necessary break in the game. A reward set on a variable ratio schedule might
be like opponents that the player can choose to take on, which, after being defeated, may or may not
release rewards. To combat burnout that can happen from the player pursuing these variable rewards, the
game might include a fixed ratio schedule of rewarding the player with increased maximum health every
time the player finds a fixed number of special healing potions.
These reward schedules, as applied to game design, have implications for non-game contexts as well. The
variety of game reward systems and their benefits and drawbacks for different types of games
demonstrate that there is much room for nuance. By observing players’ motivations to play a game and
seeing what keeps them engaged versus what doesn’t, we can learn a great deal about play and the rules
for engagement for all challenging learning situations.
For more information, please see:
In Designing Games, Tynan Sylvester explains the process of designing the structure for a game.
Especially appropriate for aspiring and current game designers, this book also offers breakdowns
of player motivation and game rewards that will prove interesting to those coming from more of a
psychology background.
Geoffrey R. Loftus’ Mind at Play: Psychology of Video Games offers a unique psychological
72
perspective on video games. The book discusses the unpredictable feedback and rewards that
many videogames employ that lead players to be consistently engaged and addicted to those
games.
References
1. Wang, H., & Sun, C. T. (2011, September). Game reward systems: gaming experiences and social
meanings. In Proceedings of DiGRA 2011 Conference: Think Design Play (pp. 1-12).
2. Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with
extrinsic reward: A test of the" overjustification" hypothesis. Journal of Personality and social
Psychology, 28(1), 129.
73
Gestalt Theory (von Ehrenfels)

https://www.learning-theories.com/gestalt-theory-von-ehrenfels.html
Summary: The Gestalt theory of learning originated in Germany, being put forth by three German
theorists who were inspired by the works and ideas of the man who gave the learning theory its name.
Graf Christian von Ehrenfels was a learning theorist who took the holistic approach to learning by putting
forth the idea that learning takes place as students were able to comprehend a concept in its entirety,
rather than broken up into parts[1].
Key Terms: holistic, mechanical response, phenomenology, Isomorphism, factor of closure, factor of
proximity, trace factor, factor of similarity, figure ground effect
Theorists: Graf Christian von Ehrenfels, Wertheimer[2][3], Kohler[4], Koffka[5], insight learning
Gestalt Theory
The term "Gestalt," comes from a German word that roughly means pattern or form. The main tenet of
the Gestalt theory is that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; learning is more than just invoking
mechanical responses from learners.
As with other learning theories, the Gestalt theory has laws of organization by which it must function.
These organizational laws already exist in the make-up of the human mind and how perceptions are
structured. Gestalt theorists propose that the experiences and perceptions of learners have a significant
impact on the way that they learn.
One aspect of Gestalt is phenomenology, which is the study of how people organize learning by looking
at their lived experiences and consciousness. Learning happens best when the instruction is related to
their real life experiences. The human brain has the ability to make a map of the stimuli caused by these
life experiences. This process of mapping is called "isomorphism."
Whenever the brain sees only part of a picture, the brain automatically attempts to create a complete
picture. This is the first organizational law, called the "factor of closure," and it does not only apply to
images, but it also applies to thoughts, feelings and sounds.
Based upon Gestalt theory, the human brain maps elements of learning that are presented close to each
other as a whole, instead of separate parts. This organizational law is called the "factor of proximity," and
is usually seen in learning areas such as reading and music, where letters and words or musical notes
make no sense when standing alone, but become a whole story or song when mapped together by the
human brain.
The next organizational law of the Gestalt theory is the "factor of similarity," which states that learning is
facilitated when groups that are alike are linked together and contrasted with groups that present differing
ideas. This form of Gestalt learning enables learners to develop and improve critical thinking skills.
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When observing things around us, it is normal for the eye to ignore space or holes and to see, instead,
whole objects. This organizational law is called the "figure-ground effect."
As new thoughts and ideas are learned the brain tends to make connections, or "traces," that are
representative of the links that occur between conceptions and ideas, as well as images. This
organizational law is called the "trace theory."
The Gestalt theory placed its main emphasis on cognitive processes of a higher order, causing the learner
to use higher problem solving skills. They must look at the concepts presented to them and search for the
underlying similarities that link them together into a cohesive whole. In this way, learners are able to
determine specific relationships amongst the ideas and perceptions presented.
The Gestalt theory of learning purports the importance of presenting information or images that contain
gaps and elements that don’t exactly fit into the picture. This type of learning requires the learner to use
critical thinking and problem solving skills. Rather than putting out answers by rote memory, the learner
must examine and deliberate in order to find the answers they are seeking.
When educators are presenting information to the students using the Gestalt theory of learning, they must
ensure that their instructional strategies make use of the organizational laws presented earlier in this
article.
The Gestalt theory of learning came into the forefront of learning theories as a response to the Behaviorist
theory. Other theories have evolved out of the original Gestalt learning theory, with different forms of the
Gestalt theory taking shape. The field of Gestalt theories have come to be acknowledged as a cognitive-
interactionist family of theories.
The Gestalt theory purports that an individual is a whole person and the instructional strategies used to
teach them will help to discover if there is anything that is mentally blocking them from learning certain
new information. Teaching strategies are used to present problems as a whole and to attempt to remove
any mental block from the learner so that new information can be stored.
Designing instructional strategies that take into consideration the learner’s past and current experiences
and perceptions is the key to teaching new information. In Gestalt learning theory, when the learners
come across information or concepts that are not organized, the mind organizes it in an attempt to enable
the learner to recognize and apply the concepts being taught.
References
1. Ehrenfels, C. V. (1937). On Gestalt-qualities. Psychological Review, 44(6), 521.

2. Wertheimer, M. (1938). Laws of organization in perceptual forms.
3. Wertheimer, M., & Riezler, K. (1944). Gestalt theory. Social Research, 78-99.
4. Köhler, W. (1970). Gestalt psychology: An introduction to new concepts in modern psychology.
WW Norton & Company.
5. Koffka, K. (2013). Principles of Gestalt psychology (Vol. 44). Routledge.
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GOMS Model (Card, Moran, and Newell)

https://www.learning-theories.com/goms-model-card-moran-and-newell.html
Summary: The GOMS Model is a human information processing model that predicts what skilled users
will do in seemingly unpredictable situations.
Originators and proponents: Card, Moran and Newell in 1983[1]; Bonnie E. John and David E. Kieras in
1996[2].
Keywords: Goals, operators, methods, selection rules
GOMS Model (Card, Moran, and Newell)
This model is the general term for a family of human information processing techniques that attempt to
model and predict user behavior. Typically used by software designers, a person's behavior is analyzed in
terms of four components:
Goals - something that the person wants to accomplish. Can be high level (e.g. WRITE-PAPER)
to low level (e.g. DELETE CHARACTER)
Operators - basic perceptual, cognitive, or motor actions used to accomplish goals, or actions that
the software allows user to make (e.g. PRESS-ENTER-KEY or CLICK-MOUSE)
Methods - procedures (sequences) of subgoals and operators that can accomplish a goal
Selection rules - personal rules users follow in deciding what method to use in a circumstance
One of the most validated methods in Human Computer Interaction (HCI), the GOMS model assumes
expert user and well-defined tasks. It should be noted that there are various limitations to this technique,
e.g.:
1. Task in question must be usefully analyzed in terms of the procedural (how to do it) knowledge.
2. Represents only skilled behavior. Not useful for ill-defined problem solving, exploration, etc.
Cognitive walkthrough is useful for exploratory behavior by novices.
3. Need to start with a list of top-level tasks or user goals. List must be provided outside of GOMS.
GOMS is useful for uncovering a frequent goal supported by a very inefficient method thereby informing
a design change to include a more efficient method.
Variations include:
Keystroke Level Model (KLM) by Stuart Card: The first, simplest form of GOMS consisting of
the sum of subtasks and required overhead. That is, the sum of the time of P - pointing, H -
homing, D - drawing, M - mental operator, R - waiting for system response[3].
Card Moran Newell (CMN)-GOMS: A serial stage model of GOMS.
Critical Path Method (also known as Cognitive Perceptual Motor or CPM-GOMS): A parallel
stage model (for users with highest level of skill) critical-path-method or cognitive-perceptual-
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motor analysis of activity - perceptual, cognitive, motor operators can be performed in parallel as
the task demands.
Card, Moran and Newell's book: The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction. A classic from
the original researchers.
Michal Levin's book: Designing Multi-Device Experiences: An Ecosystem Approach to User

Experiences across Devices. An extremely practical book for the multi-device world. Highly
recommended for all designers.
References
1. Card, S. K., Newell, A., & Moran, T. P. (1983). The psychology of human-computer interaction.
2. Card, S. K., Moran, T. P., & Newell, A. (1980). The keystroke-level model for user performance
time with interactive systems. Communications of the ACM, 23(7), 396-410.
3. John, B. E., & Kieras, D. E. (1996). The GOMS family of user interface analysis techniques:
Comparison and contrast. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI), 3(4),
320-351.
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Grit (Duckworth, Matthews, Kelly, Peterson)

https://www.learning-theories.com/grit-duckworth-matthews-kelly-peterson.html
Summary: Grit is a quality that learners have that enables them to persevere while facing struggles and
obstacles. This can help the learners attain success because they don’t give up until they reach their goals.
Originators & proponents: Angela Duckworth (University of Pennsylvania); Michael D. Matthews

(USMA, West Point); Dennis R. Kelly (USMA, West Point); Christopher Peterson (University of
Michigan)
Keywords: achievement, grit, growth mindset, motivation, non-cognitive factors, performance,

perseverence, persistence, personality, resilience, success
Grit (Duckworth, Matthews, Kelly, Peterson)
Grit is the quality of maintaining resilience and perseverance while experiencing obstacles and struggles
in working towards meeting goals[1]. This trait is considered part of a growth mindset because it focuses
on the importance of change and adaptation as needed in the learning process, not just on successfully
reaching the goal.
While some learners exhibit grit as a natural part of their personality or disposition, others need to learn
how to stay motivated and engaged in the face of troubles. Researchers belief that learners can be taught
to adopt grit, and that doing so will help them maintain effort instead of giving up and quitting.
Grit is studied in the field of educational psychology and is considered a “non-cognitive factor” important
for school and life success[2].
References
1. Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: perseverance and
passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087.
2. Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., & Seligman, M. E. (2009). Positive predictors of teacher effectiveness.
The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(6), 540-547.
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Humanism
https://www.learning-theories.com/humanism.html
Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a

personal act to fulfill one’s potential.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
Malcolm Knowles
Key Concepts
Humanism, a paradigm that emerged in the 1960s, focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and potential.
A central assumption of humanism, according to Huitt (2001), is that people act with intentionality and
values[1]. This is in contrast to the behaviorist notion of operant conditioning (which argues that all
behavior is the result of the application of consequences) and the cognitive psychologist belief that the
discovering knowledge or constructing meaning is central to learning. Humanists also believe that it is
necessary to study the person as a whole, especially as an individual grows and develops over the
lifespan. It follows that the study of the self, motivation, and goals are areas of particular interest.
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Key proponents of humanism include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. A primary purpose of humanism
could be described as the development of self-actualized, autonomous people[2]. In humanism, learning is
student centered and personalized, and the educator’s role is that of a facilitator. Affective and cognitive
needs are key, and the goal is to develop self-actualized people in a cooperative, supportive environment[3].
References
1. Huitt, W. (2001). Humanism and open education. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta,
GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved September 11, 2007, from the URL:
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/affsys/humed.html.
2. Rogers, C., & Freiberg, H. J. (1994). Freedom to learn (3rd Ed.). New York: Macmillan.
DeCarvalho, R. (1991). The humanistic paradigm in education. The Humanistic Psychologist, 19(1), 88-104.
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Identity Status Theory (Marcia)

https://www.learning-theories.com/identity-status-theory-marcia.html
Refining and extending Erik Erikson's work, James Marcia came up with four Identity Statuses of
psychological identity development. The main idea is that one's sense of identity is determined
largely by the choices and commitments made regarding certain personal and social traits.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
James Marcia
Key Concepts
Based on Erik Erikson's groundbreaking work on identity and psychosocial development in the 1960s,
Canadian developmental psychologist James Marcia refined and extended Erikson's model, primarily
focusing on adolescent development[1][2]. Addressing Erikson's notion of identity crisis, Marcia posited
that the adolescent stage consists neither of identity resolution nor identity confusion, but rather the
degree to which one has explored and committed to an identity in a variety of life domains from vocation,
religion, relational choices, gender roles, and so on. Marcia's theory of identity achievement argues that
two distinct parts form an adolescent's identity: crisis (i. e. a time when one's values and choices are being
reevaluated) and commitment. He defined a crisis as a time of upheaval where old values or choices are
being reexamined. The end outcome of a crisis leads to a commitment made to a certain role or value.
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Identity Statuses of psychological identity development
Upon developing a semi-structured interview for identity research, Marcia proposed Identity Statuses of
psychological identity development:
Identity Diffusion - the status in which the adolescent does no have a sense of having choices; he
or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment
Identity Foreclosure - the status in which the adolescent seems willing to commit to some
relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this stage have not experienced an
identity crisis. They tend to conform to the expectations of others regarding their future (e. g.
allowing a parent to determine a career direction) As such, these individuals have not explored a
range of options.
Identity Moratorium - the status in which the adolescent is currently in a crisis, exploring
various commitments and is ready to make choices, but has not made a commitment to these
choices yet.
Identity Achievement - the status in which adolescent has gone through a identity crisis and has
made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e. certain role or value) that he or she has chosen
Note that the above status are not stages and should not viewed as a sequential process.
Identity Formation Process
The core idea is that one's sense of identity is determined largely by the choices and commitments made
regarding certain personal and social traits. The work done in this paradigm considers how much one has
made certain choices, and how much he or she displays a commitment to those choices. Identity involves
the adoption of 1) a sexual orientation, 2) a set of values and ideals and 3) a vocational direction. A well-
developed identity gives on a sense of one's strengths, weaknesses, and individual uniqueness. A person
with a less well-developed identity is not able to define his or her personal strengths and weaknesses, and
does not have a well articulated sense of self.
To better understand the identity formation process, Marcia conducted interviews with young people. He
asked whether the participants in his study (1) had established a commitment to an occupation and
ideology and (2) had experienced, or were presently experiencing, a decision making period (adolescent
identity crisis). Marcia developed a framework for thinking about identity in terms of four identity
statuses.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_t0y-gCySN0

Resources
82
Marcia et al.: Ego Identity: A Handbook for Psychosocial Research: This useful book contains an
integrated presentation of identity theory, including literature reviews that span hundreds of of
research studies, a discussion of the techniques of interviewing for psychosocial constructs, and
model Identity Status Interviews and scoring manuals for a variety of age groups.
Schwartz et al.: Handbook of Identity Theory and Research [2 Volume Set]: This impressive
handbook brings "unity and clarity to a diverse and fragmented literature." presenting perspectives
from many different theoretical schools and empirical approaches: psychology (e.g., narrative,
social identity theory, neo-Eriksonian) and from other disciplines (e.g., sociology, political
science, ethnic studies).
References
1. Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status.Journal of personality and

social psychology, 3(5), 551.
2. Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. Handbook of adolescent psychology, 9(11), 159-187.
83
Information Processing Theory

https://www.learning-theories.com/information-processing-theory.html
Information processing theory discusses the mechanisms through which learning occurs.
Specifically, it focuses on aspects of memory encoding and retrieval.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
George A. Miller (1920-2012)
Atkinson and Shriffin (1968)
Craik and Lockhart (1972)
Bransford (1979)
Rumelhart and McClelland (1986)
Key Concepts
The basic idea of Information processing theory is that the human mind is like a computer or information
processor — rather than behaviorist notions that people merely responding to stimuli.
These theories equate thought mechanisms to that of a computer, in that it receives input, processes, and
delivers output. Information gathered from the senses (input), is stored and processed by the brain, and
finally brings about a behavioral response (output).
Information processing theory has been developed and broadened over the years. Most notable in the
84
inception of information processing models is Atkinson and Shriffin’s ‘stage theory,’ presenting a
sequential method, as discussed above, of input-processing-output[2]. Though influential, the linearity of
this theory reduced the complexity of the human brain, and thus various theories were developed in order
to further assess the inherent processes.
Following this line of thought, Craik and Lockhart issued the ‘level of processing’ model[3]. They
emphasize that information s expanded upon (processed) in various ways (perception, attention, labelling,
and meaning) which affect the ability to access the information later on. In other words, the degree to
which the information was elaborated upon will affect how well the information was learned.
Bransford broadened this idea by adding that information will be more easily retrieved if the way it is
accessed is similar to the way in which it was stored[4]. The next major development in information
processing theory is Rumelhart and McClelland’s connectionist model, which is supported by current
neuroscience research[5]. It states that information is stored simultaneously in different areas of the brain,
and connected as a network. The amount of connections a single piece of information has will affect the
ease of retrieval.
The general model of information processing theory includes three components:
Sensory memory
In sensory memory, information is gathered via the senses through a process called transduction. Through
receptor cell activity, it is altered into a form of information that the brain could process. These memories,
usually unconscious, last for a very short amount of time, ranging up to three seconds. Our senses are
constantly bombarded with large amounts of information. Our sensory memory acts as a filter, by
focusing on what is important, and forgetting what is unnecessary. Sensory information catches our
attention, and thus progresses into working memory, only if it is seen as relevant, or is familiar.
Working memory/short term memory
Baddeley (2001) issued a model of working memory as consisting of three components[6]. The executive
controls system oversees all working memory activity, including selection of information, method of
processing, meaning, and finally deciding whether to transfer it to long term memory or forget it. Two
counterparts of this system are the auditory loop, where auditory information is processed, and the visual-
spatial checkpad, where visual information is processed. Sensory memories transferred into working
memory will last for 15-20 seconds, with a capacity for 5-9 pieces or chunks of information. Information
is maintained in working memory through maintenance or elaborative rehearsal. Maintenance refers to
repetition, while elaboration refers to the organization of information (such as chunking or chronology).
The processing that occurs in working memory is affected by a number of factors. Firstly, individuals
have varying levels of cognitive load, or the amount of mental effort they can engage in at a given
moment, due to individual characteristics and intellectual capacities. Secondly, information that has been
repeated many times becomes automatic and thus does not require much cognitive resources (e.g. riding a
bike). Lastly, according to the task at hand, individuals use selective processing to focus attention on
information that is highly relevant and necessary.
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Long term memory
Long term memory includes various types of information: declarative (semantic and episodic), procedural
(how to do something), and imagery (mental images).
As opposed to the previous memory constructs, long term memory has unlimited space. The crucial factor
of long term memory is how well organized the information is. This is affected by proper encoding
(elaboration processes in transferring to long term memory) and retrieval processes (scanning memory for
the information and transferring into working memory so that it could e used). As emphasized in
Bransford’s work, the degree of similarity between the way information was encoded and the way it is being
accessed will shape the quality of retrieval processes. In general, we remember a lot less information than is
actually stored there.
Resources
http://ww.edpsycinteractive.og/topics/cognition/infoproc.html.
Processing New Information: Classroom Techniques to Help Students Engage with Content
(Marzano Center Essentials for Achieving Rigor).
References
1. Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity
for processing information. Psychological review, 63(2), 81.
2. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control
processes. Psychology of learning and motivation, 2, 89-195.
3. Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research.
Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 11(6), 671-684.
4. Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1977). Levels of processing versus transfer
appropriate processing. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 16(5), 519-533.
5. Rumelhart, D. E., McClelland, J. L., & PDP Research Group. (1988). Parallel distributed
processing (Vol. 1, pp. 354-362). IEEE.
6. Baddeley, A. D. (2001). Is working memory still working?. American Psychologist, 56(11), 851.
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Intrinsically motivating instruction (Malone)

https://www.learning-theories.com/intrinsically-motivating-instruction-malone.html
Summary: Intrinsically motivating instruction takes place in computer gaming software when it provides
players with choice around three key categories: challenge, curiosity, and fantasy.
Originators and Key Contributors: Thomas W. Malone
Keywords: challenge, choice, computer games, curiosity, fantasy, intrinsic motivation
Intrinsically Motivating Instruction
In trying to understand what made computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) fun and engaging, Dr.
Thomas W. Malone studied computer games[1]. In doing so, Malone developed a theory of intrinsically
motivating instruction. The three categories which comprise his theory are challenge, fantasy, and
curiosity[2].
Challenge: Each challenge must have a series of goals, which can be personally meaningful to the player
and/or may be generated by the game to keep the player engaged. The game provides the player feedback
on progress toward the goal throughout the game play. Because the computer game’s outcome is
uncertain, this keeps the player engaged and motivated. When a player is challenged and succeeds
through the struggle, a player’s self-esteem can increase, as long as the computer game’s feedback is
constructive and supports learning. An optimal challenge should be neither too difficult nor too easy.
Fantasy: Malone defines fantasy as the “mental images” the players create based on interacting with the
environment. The most effective fantasies in computer games are those which are more fully integrated
with the content to be learned (intrinsic). Incorporating intrinsic fantasies creates more engagement,
which increases memory of the material, because they may satisfy players’ emotional needs and help
them learn skills within a meaningful context. (An example that Malone describes is an Adventure game
where players practice reading maps, writing instructions, and feeling excited, puzzled, and triumphant as
they proceed through it.)
When a computer game is designed based on this framework, players are more motivated to play and
learn[3].
References
1. Malone, T. W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science,

5(4), 333-369.
2. Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic
motivations for learning. Aptitude, learning, and instruction, 3(1987), 223-253.
3. Lepper, M. R., & Malone, T. W. (1987). Intrinsic motivation and instructional effectiveness in
computer-based education. Aptitude, learning, and instruction, 3, 255-286.
87
Learner-centered design
https://www.learning-theories.com/learner-centered-design.html
Summary: Learner centered design focuses on creating software for heterogeneous groups of learners
who need scaffolding as they learn while completing constructivist activities.
Originators and Key Contributors: Elliot Soloway, Mark Guzdian, Kenneth E. Hay
Keywords: constructivism, learner-centered design, learners, scaffolding, software
Learner-centered Design
Learner-centered design (LCD) theory emphasizes the importance of supporting the learners’ growth and
motivational needs in designing software[1]. In addition, since learners have different learning needs and
learn in different ways, the software must be designed for the specific learner-audience.
The concept of scaffolds is central to learner-centered design. In order to support learners optimally,
software should be designed with scaffolds that will support the learners as they need it. Examples of
scaffolds in software are hints, explanation and encouragement to help learners understand a process, and
questions to help learners reflect on what they are learning[2].
Software scaffolds that support learners best are adaptive, meaning that they change according to what the
learner needs in any learning moment. When a learner needs more support, the software provides an
increase in feedback to help the learner grow, stay engaged, and progress in mastering a skill. When the
learner is reaching mastery, the software will provide reduced scaffolds in response to the learner’s
increased skill level.
In focusing on learner-centered design, four elements must be addressed in designing the software. They
are:
1. Context: The goal, purpose, and audience of the software

2. Interface: The front end and/or aesthetics of the software that learners interact with
3. Tasks: What the learners will do in the software
4. Tools: What is needed in the software to support the tasks that students will do; these can include
scaffolds
Designing software from a LCD perspective keeps the learner in mind and, if done well, provides an
effective and meaningful learning experience[3].
For more information on learner-centered design, read The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning
Sciences.
References
88
1. Soloway, E., Guzdial, M., & Hay, K. E. (1994). Learner-centered design: The challenge for HCI
in the 21st century. interactions, 1(2), 36-48.
2. Soloway, Elliot, et al. "Learning theory in practice: Case studies of learner-centered design."
Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems. ACM, 1996.
3. Quintana, C., Carra, A., Krajcik, J., & Soloway, E. (2001). Learner-centered design: Reflections
and new directions.
89
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

https://www.learning-theories.com/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs.html
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (often represented as a pyramid with five levels of needs) is a
motivational theory in psychology that argues that while people aim to meet basic needs, they seek to
meet successively higher needs in the form of a pyramid.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Abraham Maslow (1908 - 1970)
Key Concepts
Abraham H. Maslow felt as though conditioning theories did not adequately capture the complexity of
human behavior. In a 1943 paper called A Theory of Human Motivation, Maslow presented the idea that
human actions are directed toward goal attainment[1]. Any given behavior could satisfy several functions
at the same time; for instance, going to a bar could satisfy one's needs for self-esteem and for social
interaction.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
90
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs has often been represented in a hierarchical pyramid with five levels. The
four levels (lower-order needs) are considered physiological needs, while the top level of the pyramid is
considered growth needs. The lower level needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence
behavior. The levels are as follows (see pyramid in Figure 1 below).
Self-actualization - includes morality, creativity, problem solving, etc.

Esteem - includes confidence, self-esteem, achievement, respect, etc.
Belongingness - includes love, friendship, intimacy, family, etc.
Safety - includes security of environment, employment, resources, health, property, etc.
Physiological - includes air, food, water, sex, sleep, other factors towards homeostasis, etc.
Figure 1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Pyramid.
Deprivation Needs
The first four levels are considered deficiency or deprivation needs ("D-needs") in that their lack of
satisfaction causes a deficiency that motivates people to meet these needs. Physiological needs, the lowest
level on the hierarchy, include necessities such as air, food, and water. These tend to be satisfied for most
people, but they become predominant when unmet. During emergencies, safety needs such as health and
security rise to the forefront. Once these two levels are met, belongingness needs, such as obtaining love
and intimate relationships or close friendships, become important. The next level, esteem needs, include
the need for recognition from others, confidence, achievement, and self-esteem.
Growth Needs
The highest level is self-actualization, or the self-fulfillment. Behavior in this case is not driven or
motivated by deficiencies but rather one's desire for personal growth and the need to become all the
things that a person is capable of becoming[2][3].
Criticisms
While a useful guide for generally understanding why students behave the way that they do and in
determining how learning may be affected by physiological or safety deficiencies, Maslow's Hierarchy of
Needs has its share of criticisms. Some critics have noted vagueness in what is considered a "deficiency";
what is a deficiency for one is not necessarily a deficiency for another. Secondly, there seem to be various
exceptions that frequently occur. For example, some people often risk their own safety to rescue others from
danger.
Resources
91
Hierarchy of Needs: A Theory of Human Motivation: Maslow's classic publication -- perhaps

essential reading for psychology students, educators and professionals.
Toward a Psychology of Being: Human flourishing -- a useful book that helps you understand
reaching self-actualization (sometimes called "flow" or "positive psychology." One of Maslow's
best.
References
1. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological review,50(4), 370.

2. Maslow, A. H., Frager, R., & Cox, R. (1970). Motivation and personality (Vol. 2, pp. 1887-1904).
J. Fadiman, & C. McReynolds (Eds.). New York: Harper & Row.
Maslow, A. H. (2013). Toward a psychology of being. Start Publishing LLC.
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Mindset Theory - Fixed vs. Growth Mindset (Dweck)

https://www.learning-theories.com/mindset-theory-fixed-vs-growth-mindset-dweck.html
Mindset Theory
Your intelligence and other characteristics – where do they come from? Can they change?
People vary in the degree to which they attribute the causes of intelligence and other traits. Are
they innate and fixed factors ("fixed" mindset) or are they variable factors that can be influenced through
learning, effort, training, and practice ("growth" mindset)? A "growth" mindset is generally seen as more
advantageous.
Carol S. Dweck, a psychologist on the faculty at Stanford University, proposed mindset theory as a way
to understand the effects of the beliefs that individuals hold for the nature of intelligence. This in turn has
implications for learning and education.
Keywords: mindset, intelligence, traits, fixed mindset, growth mindset
Mindset Theory - Fixed vs. Growth Mindset (Dweck)
Dweck proposed that the implicit theories that people hold for the nature and causes of intelligence have a
number of implications, particularly for motivation to practice and learn[1]. In her earlier research, Dweck
identified “entity” and “incremental” theorists, based on whether individuals attributed success in tasks
that required intelligent behavior to having sufficient native aptitude (entity) versus having practiced a
skill and improving performance over time (incremental). Eventually, she proposed a theory of “mindset”
to integrate a number of related ideas that she had developed over the years[2].
“Mindset” refers to implicit theories that individuals hold regarding the nature of intelligent behavior; to
the degree that individuals attribute intelligence to fixed traits, they hold a “fixed” theory of intelligence
(that is, a fixed mindset), and to the degree that they attribute intelligence to learning, effort, training, and
practice, they hold a “growth” theory of intelligence (that is, a growth mindset). The terms fixed and
growth mindset replaced the earlier terms for entity and incremental theories of intelligence.
Individuals with a fixed mindset believe that their qualities (such as intelligence and other
personality traits) are "set in stone"– how God made you is basically who you are. One's traits
are fixed -- not something that can be practiced or developed.
Individuals with a growth mindset, on the other hand, believe that effort or training can
change one's qualities and traits.
Individuals with a fixed mindset tend to be interested only in feedback on their success in activities to the
degree that it serves to evaluate their underlying ability. They are not using the feedback to learn, since
they do not believe that their success depends on their effort to learn. Rather, they believe that success
depends on the level of innate ability that they have. Therefore, they dread failure, because it suggests
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constraints or limits that they will not be able to overcome.
A growth mindset, on the other hand, attributes success to learning. Therefore, the individual is not
terrified of failure, because it only signals the need to pay attention, invest effort, apply time to practice,
and master the new learning opportunity. They are confident that after such effort they will be able to
learn the skill or knowledge, and then to improve their performance.
Messages to children can influence the development of mindset. If parents or teachers constantly seem to
attribute success to inborn or innate abilities, children will come to develop a fixed mindset (“Johnny
failed the math test because he is low on math ability”). Praise of a child’s performance can be
particularly likely to produce a fixed mindset when it attributes the success to the child’s intelligence
(implying aptitude or fixed traits). However, if parents or teachers attribute success to effort and practice,
children will be more likely to developed a growth mindset (“Johnny failed the math test because he did
not do his homework, but he will pass the next one because I will make sure he puts in the time and
practices”). Praise of a child’s efforts to practice, or attributions of success that reference the prior
practice in which the child engaged, can spur the child to develop a growth mindset.
Differences in mindset may affect broader issues as well, including how employers focus on hiring staff
and in how politicians fund public education. Employers that hold a fixed mindset may focus more on
investment in high ability employees and correspondingly invest less in professional development and
ongoing training. Politicians who believe that the learning of which children are capable is limited by
fixed traits may resist calls to improve funding for public education, perhaps considering such additional
funding an unnecessary investment to try to improve fixed abilities. However, those same politicians
might be willing to support spending on programs for the gifted when entrance to such programs is
filtered by intelligence tests. It is also possible that there may exist international differences in mindset;
for example, Americans and Western Europeans, given the history of the prevalence of the use of
intelligence tests for the past century, may be more likely to attribute success to innate ability (fixed
mindset) than to effort and practice; the reverse may be the case in many Asian nations, and particularly
China, where the culture of education emphasizes learning and rigorous practice[3].
References
1. Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. New
York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group.
2. Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Constable & Robinson Limited.
3. Zhao, Y. (2014). Who’s afraid of the big bad dragon?: Why China has the best (and worst)
education system in the world. San Francisco: CA: Jossey-Bass.
Multiliteracies (New London Group)

https://www.learning-theories.com/multiliteracies-new-london-group.html
Summary: Multiliteracies is a pedagogical approach developed in 1994 by the New London Group that
aims to make classroom teaching more inclusive of cultural, linguistic, communicative, and technological
diversity. They advocate this so that students will be better prepared for a successful life in a globalized
world.
Originators & Proponents: New London Group
Keywords: communication, community engagement, cultural diversity, education, expression,

globalization, language, linguistic diversity, literacy, modes, multimodality, pedagogy, technology
Multiliteracies (New London Group)
The term multiliteracies• was developed by the New London Group (NLG), a group of ten researchers,
educators, and visionaries, in 1994 in New London, New Hampshire, USA[1]. Based on their assessment
of how new technologies were influencing society, the NLG devised the multiliteracies approach to
address these changes; in particular, how technology changes and globalization were affecting
education[2].
According to the NLG, a multiliteracies pedagogy accepts and encourages a wide range of linguistic,
cultural, communicative, and technological perspectives and tools being used to help students better
prepare for a rapidly changing, globalized world. In order to continue helping students have the widest
range of opportunities possible in creating their lives and contributing to their community and to their
future, school must now adapt to the growing availability of new technologies for teaching and learning,
communication channels, and increased access to cultural and linguistic diversity.
Multiliteracies are related to multimodality, as many modes are encouraged to be used in different forms
of expression[3]. In addition, different technologies and communication channels allow for different
modes to be used by people in expressing themselves. This differs widely from traditional classroom
pedagogy that is often focused on monomodal tools for learning and which does not included a range of
perspectives, which can result in a lack of cultural and linguistic diversity represented in teaching
approaches.
The New London Group members are (in alphabetical order): Courtney Cazden (USA), Bill Cope
(Australia), Norman Fairclough (UK), James Gee (United States), Mary Kalantzis (Australia), Gunther
Kress (UK), Allan Luke (Australia), Carmen Luke (Australia), Sarah Michaels (US), Martin Nakata
(Australia).
References
1. The New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures.
Harvard educational review, 66(1), 60-93.

2. Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2000). Multiliteracies: Literacy learning and the design of
social futures. Psychology Press.
3. Lankshear, C., & Knobel, M. (2011). New literacies. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
Multimodality (Kress)
https://www.learning-theories.com/multimodality-kress.html
Summary: Multimodality is a theory which looks at how people communicate and interact with each
other, not just through writing (which is one mode) but also through speaking, gesture, gaze, and visual
forms (which are many modes).
Originators & Proponents: Gunther Kress[1]
Keywords: communication, design literacy, expression, gesture, linguistics, medium, mode, multimedia,
semiotic resources, sign, visual literacy, writing
Multimodality (Kress)
Multimodality is a theory which looks at the many different modes that people use to communicate with
each other and to express themselves. This theory is relevant as an increase in technology tools, and
associated access to multimedia composing software, has led to people being able to easily use many
modes in art, writing, music, and dance and every-day interactions with each other[2].
A mode is generally defined as a communication channel that a culture recognizes. Examples of modes
are writing, gesture, posture, gaze, font choice and color, images, video, and even the interactions
between them.
While many of these modes have always existed, they have not always been recognized as a legitimate or
culturally accepted form of communication or expression. Learning theorists who advocate for
multimodality emphasize that people communicate in a variety of ways, and that in order to completely
understand someone, the many modes they use to communicate must be observed and recognized[3][4].
The theory of multimodality can be found in writings and discussions related to communication theory,
linguistics, media literacy, visual literacy, anthropological studies, and design studies.
Gunther Kress's book: Multimodality: A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary

Communication
Carey Jewitt's book: Multimodal Literacy (New Literacies and Digital Epistemologies, V. 4)
References
1. Kress, Gunther R., and Theo Van Leeuwen. Multimodal discourse: The modes and media of
contemporary communication. Vol. 312. London: Arnold, 2001.

2. Kress, G. (2009). Multimodality: A social semiotic approach to contemporary communication.
Routledge.
3. Kress, G. (2000). Multimodality. Multiliteracies: Literacy learning and the design of social
futures, 182-202.
4. Jewitt, C., & Kress, G. R. (Eds.). (2003). Multimodal literacy. New York: Lang.
Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner)

https://www.learning-theories.com/gardners-multiple-intelligences-theory.html
Multiple Intelligences Theory posits that there are seven ways people understand in the world,
described by Gardner as seven intelligences.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Resources and References Criticism
Contributors
Howard Gardner (1943-)
Key Concepts
Developed by Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner in 1983 and subsequently refined, this theory states
there are at least seven ways (“intelligences”) that people understand and perceive the world[1][2]. These
intelligences may not be exhaustive. Gardner lists the following:
Linguistic
The ability to use spoken or written words.

Logical-Mathematical
Inductive and deductive thinking and reasoning abilities, logic, as well as the use of numbers and abstract
pattern recognition.
Visual-Spatial
The ability to mentally visualize objects and spatial dimensions.
Body-Kinesthetic
The wisdom of the body and the ability to control physical motion.
Musical-Rhythmic
The ability to master music as well as rhythms, tones and beats.
Interpersonal
The ability to communicate effectively with other people and to be able to develop relationships.
Intrapersonal
The ability to understand one’s own emotions, motivations, inner states of being, and self-reflection.
Implications for Classrooms

The verbal-linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences are the ones most frequently used in
traditional school curricula[3]. A more balanced curriculum that incorporates the arts, self-awareness,
communication, and physical education may be useful in order to leverage the intelligences that some
students may have.
Criticism
This theory, while widely popular over the last two decades, has its share of critics. Some argue that
Gardner’s theory is based too much on his own intuition rather than empirical data. Others feel that the
intelligences are synonymous for personality types.

Resources
Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice: Howard Gardner’s up-to-date
edition that covers research and new developments since Gardner’s original publication.
Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom: A practical, well-written book. Thomas Armstrong
provides countless examples of how to use each intelligence and how to assess them in the
classroom. Ideas for M.I. portfolios and application for special education is also included. Well
organized and thoughtful.
References
1. Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. Basic books.
2. Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple intelligences: New horizons. Basic books.
3. Armstrong, T. (2009). Multiple intelligences in the classroom. Ascd.
Narcissism (Kernberg)
https://www.learning-theories.com/narcissism-kernberg.html
Kernberg describes the significance of object-relations on self-esteem regulation and pathological

narcissism.
Contributors
Otto F. Kernberg (1928-present)
Key Concepts
Otto Kernberg’s theories have been instrumental in the continual development of the ‘Object-relations
theory’ of psychology. This field of thought, developed by Melanie Klein in the mid 1900s, is one of the
central schools of thought stemming from Freud’s psychodynamic theory. It emphasizes early
interactions between infants and their primary caretakers (i.e. objects). These interactions are internalized
over time as mental constructs and thus affect self concept and the nature of future relationships.
Kernberg has left numerous marks on object-relations theory, including his theory on narcissism, a form
of transference based psychotherapy, a developmental model, and a construct for analyzing personality
organization (most notably, borderline personality organization). His work on narcissism is often
contrasted with that of Kohut, which although discusses similar phenomena, is marked by opposing
points of view.
In Kernberg’s theory on narcissism, he focuses on the effect of object-relations on self-esteem[1]. He

refers to narcissism as a basic structure of typically developing individuals. He defines it as libidinal
investment of the self. Practically, it refers to the way in which self-esteem is regulated. Various forms of
narcissism are discussed, as delineated below.
Normal adult Narcissism
Normal adult narcissism is considered the narcissism characteristic of typically developing individuals.
This state is achieved to due the existence of healthy object relations. Meaning, the individual has
experienced positive relationships with early caretakers, and has thus internalized a positive mental
concept of the self and of others (objects).
A by-product of positive object relations is an integrated sense of self. The individual is able to cope with
ambivalence and with the coexistence of good and bad in individuals and the self. Furthermore, the
superego is adaptive and able to cope with disparity between the self and ideal self. Thus, a stable self
concept is formed that can readily regulate self-esteem from within. Individuals who present normal adult
narcissism have an inner voice which tells them they are good enough. With this basis, individuals can be
active and effective players in their lives, and have a stable moral system while expressing innate drives
such as aggression and sexuality in acceptable ways.
Normal infantile narcissism
As children develop, their objects relations and self concept are not yet fully integrated. Therefore, their
regulation of self- esteem is partly focused at external gratification. In order to feel good about
themselves, they need others to admire them or their possessions. However, at an early stage of
development, this is age appropriate.
Regression to infantile narcissism
This is a pathological form of narcissism in which the superego has remained infantile, and thus
maintained childish values and ideals.
Narcissistic personality disorder
This is the classic narcissistic pathology[2]. These individuals present aberrations in self-love, expression
of love to others, and a deviant moral system and superego. Self- love refers to characteristic self
absorbance. They are grandiose, and fantasize about excessive success in love, beauty, happiness, and
influence. However, their self-love is excessively unstable and relies exclusively on praise and admiration
of others.
When the environment does not respond as expected, or when they perceive an inability to achieve their
grandiose aspirations, they come crashing downwards with intense feelings of worthlessness, depression,
and extreme anger. Relationships are usually functional in nature, as they are necessary for regulating the
narcissists’ self-esteem. When they perceive that others have achieved or own something that they
haven’t, they present extreme envy and work toward destroying the object or achievement of the other by
devaluation. They have a tendency to take advantage of others in order to feel superior. This precludes the
ability to form stable and long lasting relationships.
According to Kernberg, this pathology develops as a result of early pathological object relations, which
result in negative and ambivalent internalized mental images of the self and other. The defense
mechanism characteristic of this state is splitting, a primitive method where the self and others are
regarded as either entirely good or entirely bad. Having been let down by early relationships, the
narcissist develops a mechanism where he becomes self sufficient by creating a pathological symbiosis
between the self, the ideal self, and the ideal object. Meaning, in fantasy, the narcissist unifies the desires
he has of himself and other, and therefore does not need others.
However, by taking the ideal self from the superego and unifying it with the self, the superego is
weakened and becomes overly strict. Thus, it becomes increasingly difficult for the individual to pass the
superego’s high standards. Taken together with the fact that the narcissist does not have comforting
object relations to fall back onto, failure becomes imminent and debilitating. When they manage to
override the strict ambitions of their superego they feel on top of the world, but when they don’t manage
to get there, they come crashing down with no internal structure telling them they are good enough.

Resources
Kernberg discusses treating patients with personality disorders: Resource 1 description

Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism (The Master Work Series).
References
1. Kernberg, O. F. (1985). Borderline conditions and pathological narcissism. Rowman & Littlefield.
Kernberg, O. F. (1993). Severe personality disorders: Psychotherapeutic strategies. Yale University Press.
Object Relations Theory (Melanie Klein)

https://www.learning-theories.com/object-relations-theory-melanie-klein.html
Object Relations Theory (Melanie Klein)
Summary: A model of human psyche, transitioning from a paranoid-schizoid to a depressive position,

while emphasizing the critical role of parental care during infancy.
Key Contributors: Melanie Reizes Klein (1882-1960) Austrian-British psychoanalyst[1][2]
Keywords: Object relations, unconscious phantasy, paranoid-schizoid position, depressive position, child
development, binary splitting, projective identification
Object Relations Theory
Melanie Klein is regarded as one of the founders of `Object Relations Theory,’ a field of thought that
developed from Freud’s psychodynamic theory. This collection of theories discusses the effect of the
internalized relations with primary caretakers during infancy (i.e. objects), and their unconscious
influence on the nature of future relationships. According to object relations theorists, children do not
only internalize the object itself, but also the entire relationship. The infant internalizes two sets of object
relations-- both positive and negative-- which include representations of the self, the object, and the
emotion that links between the two. Other psychoanalysts responsible for developing Object Relations
theory in the early-mid 1900s include Otto Rank, Sandor Ferenczi, Ronald Fairbairn, Donald Winnicott,
Harry Guntrip, and Scott Stuart.
Although Melanie Klein bases her theory on Freud, she contends that his suggested time frame is flawed,
with the superego present from birth, and the oedipal complex occurring in the first year of life. Freud’s
concept of life and death forces (Eros and Thanatos) as primal human drives heavily color Klein’s
thoughts. Her theory focuses primarily on development within the first year of life, however emphasizes
that these continue to develop throughout life.
Unconscious Phantasy
Unconscious phantasies serve as the basis for all future mental mechanisms. They are defined as primitive
internalized mental images of instincts and drives. Ultimately the unique mental and emotional capacities
of an individual result from the interaction of these phantasies with actual experience, and the emotion
that ensues. For example, the newborn’s rooting reflex will only become a mental image, once the
newborn finds the nipple and begins nursing. The repetition of this activity over time forms a mental
image accompanied by the soothing emotions that ensue. Therefore, the degree of fulfillment of the
infant’s needs largely implicates self development.
Paranoid-schizoid position (newborn- 4-6 months)

Klein is of the understanding that during the first few months of life the infant is in a state of anxiety,
stemming largely from the death instinct (thanatos)[3]. In order to cope with this anxiety, the infant
utilizes the phantasies of splitting, projection identification, and introjection. As the ego is still in a
primitive state, the infant is unable to maintain a unified mental image of the self or of others. Therefore,
relationships are maintained with parts of objects (e.g. breast rather than mother), and split between good
and bad. Thus, negative feelings are projected outward unto the mother, while positive sensations are
internalized in a process called binary splitting. This splitting ties the self to positive sensations and thus
forms the basis for the development of a positive self concept, more suited to sustain negative aspects of
the self as well. The infant’s state of mind is largely characterized by omnipotence, of complete control
over objects.
In categorizing objects as either good or bad, the infant in essence creates two individual mental images
of objects, existing as unrelated individual entities. For example, ‘the bad breast’ exists when the mother
is unable to fill the infant’ needs immediately, causing a desire to destroy this object. Meanwhile, ‘the
good breast’ exists when needs are fulfilled, causing feelings of love towards the object.
The fact that all bad is projected outwards, coupled with drives to destroy the bad, causes paranoia that
the bad will return to seek revenge. In order to cope with this paranoia, the infant begins a cycle where
some negativity is internalized in order to gain control of it, and some good is projected unto the mother
so that she could protect the infant[4].
The Depressive Position (6 months +)
These cycles of projection and introjection continue until the infant comes to the understanding that the
good mother and the bad mother are one. In addition, the fragmented view of partial objects develops into
the awareness of the object as a single entity. Here begins a developing capacity to view the self and
objects as including both good and bad, thus forming the basis for an integrated ego. In other words, the
mother who frustrated the infant is the same mother who satisfied. Accordingly, the infant who desires to
destroy the mother is the same infant who loves her. The infant realizes, that the mother whom he
phantasized of destroying, is the same mother he loves. Rather than feelings of anxiety which
overwhelmed the infant during the previous state, the depressive position is characterized by feelings of
guilt, and of mourning lost omnipotence. The fear of being destroyed is exchanged by the fear of
destroying another. The infant thus engages in reparation in an effort to restore and fix objects he
phantasized destroying. This ability to view the self and objects with complexity, and engaging in
appeasement efforts is crucial for the development of healthy relationships in adulthood.
melanie-klein-trust.org.uk
References
1. Klein, M. (2002). Love, guilt and reparation: and other works 1921-1945 (Vol. 1). Simon and
Schuster.
2. Klein, M. (1997). Envy and gratitude and other works 1946-1963. Random House.
3. Klein, M. (2013). Notes on some schizoid mechanisms3. Projective identification: The fate of a
concept, 19.
4. Klein, M., & Strachey, A. (1997). The psycho-analysis of children. Random House.
Online Collaborative Learning Theory (Harasim)

https://www.learning-theories.com/online-collaborative-learning-theory-harasim.html
Summary: Online collaborative learning theory, or OCL, is a form of constructivist teaching that takes the
form of instructor-led group learning online. In OCL, students are encouraged to collaboratively solve
problems through discourse instead of memorizing correct answers. The teacher plays a crucial role as a
facilitator as well as a member of the knowledge community under study.
Originators and Key Contributors:
Linda Harasim, professor at the School of Communication at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver,
developed online collaborative learning theory (OCL) in 2012[1]from a theory originally called computer-
mediated communication (CMC), or networked learning[2][3][4].
Keywords: collaborative learning, internet, virtual classroom, e-learning, discourse, constructivism
Online Collaborative Learning Theory (Harasim)
Core Design Principles of OCL
According to Harasim, there exist three phases of knowledge construction through discourse in a group:
1. Idea generating: the brainstorming phase, where divergent thoughts are gathered
2. Idea organizing: the phase where ideas are compared, analyzed and categorized through
discussion and argument
3. Intellectual convergence: the phase where intellectual synthesis and consensus occurs, including
agreeing to disagree, usually through an assignment, essay, or other joint piece of work.
The end result is the Final Position, although a learner is never truly finished generating, organizing, and
synthesizing ideas, and continues those processes at progressively deeper levels. Harasim believes that
the teacher is critical to this knowledge construction, not only through facilitating the process and
providing resources to the group, but also through ensuring that the core concepts and practices of the
subject domain are fully integrated. The teacher is here understood to be a representative of the
knowledge community or subject domain under study.
The following diagram by Harasim (2012), Figure 6.3, p. 95 illustrates this process:
OCL Versus Traditional Teaching Models
OCL, like many other online teaching models, operated in an environment that is asynchronous and place-
independent. Students are typically free to engage in class discussions on their own time (up to a point)
and can log on anywhere they have internet access. Where the OCL model might differ from other
models, however, is that discussion is seen as central to learning, and textbooks and other materials as
supplementary. This differs from traditional online courses, where readings might be the primary
material, and discussions secondary. Students in traditional online courses might exhibit the tendency to
forego discussion, which they see as extra work outside of what they will be graded for.
In a keynote presentation to the Brazilian Association of Distance Education in 2006, Harasim noted that
usage patterns in virtual classrooms practising OCL saw students sending about 85% of messages, versus
instructors in face-to-face learning taking up 80%+ of airtime. The distribution of communications was
also found to be more equitable, with fewer outliers than in face-to-face learning. Another shift was in
traditional student and teacher roles. In OCL classrooms, the teacher’s role shifted from being that of a
provider/entertainer to being more of a facilitator as students took more responsibility for the learning
process and for generating discourse.
Strengths and Weaknesses of OCL
Two main strengths include:
On par with college classrooms. Online collaborative learning can promote deep learning and
encourage discussions at the level of, if not higher than, discussions found in face-to-face campus
classrooms. The asynchronicity that OCL offers as well as its other benefits outweigh any
downsides, like lack of physical cues.
High-level skill development. OCL supports high-level skills such as critical thinking, analytical
thinking, synthesis, and evaluation.
Two weaknesses of OCL include:
Hard to scale. OCL requires highly skilled instructors with a deep level of knowledge in their
field, and students must be limited in order for discussions to be effective.
Not as friendly to science and engineering disciplines. Because OCL lacks an inquiry-based or
problem-based approach, it is less accommodating as a structure for faculty in the science and
engineering fields, though it would not be impossible to combine OCL with such approaches.
In Learning Theory and Online Technologies, Linda Harasim offers an overview of e-learning and
outlines several major approaches to e-learning.
Tim S. Roberts compiles articles from a variety of practitioners that are focused on both theory
and practice in the area of online collaborative learning. Online Collaborative Learning: Theory
and Practice offers a great resource for both researchers and instructors.
Linda Harasim’s presentation to the Brazilian Association of Distance Education in slideshow
form (2006): http://www.slideshare.net/aquifolium/linda-harasim-on-online-collaborative-learning
“Online Collaborative Learning” by A.W. (Tony) Bates
References
1. Harasim, L. (2012). Learning theory and online technologies. Routledge.

2. Harasim, L. M. (1995). Learning networks: A field guide to teaching and learning online. MIT
press.
3. Harasim, L. (1996). Online education. Computer networking and scholarly communication in the
twenty-first-century university, 203-214.
4. Harasim, L. M. (1990). Online education: Perspectives on a new environment. Greenwood Publishing

Group Inc..
Online Disinhibition Effect (Suler)

https://www.learning-theories.com/online-disinhibition-effect-suler.html
Summary: The online disinhibition effect describes the loosening of social restrictions and inhibitions that
are normally present in face-to-face interactions that takes place in interactions on the Internet.
Originators and Key Contributors: In 2004, John Suler, professor of psychology at Rider University,
published an article titled “The Online Disinhibition Effect,” which analyzed characteristics of internet
interactions that contributed to this effect[1]. The term “online disinhibition effect” was already in use at
the time.
Keywords: online, internet, anonymity, invisibility, imagination, disinhibition
Online Disinhibition Effect (Suler)
John Suler describes two main categories of behavior that fall under the online disinhibition effect. These
two categories are benign disinhibition and toxic disinhibition. Benign disinhibition describes behavior in
which people might self-disclose more on the internet than they would in real life, or go out of their way
to help someone or show kindness. Toxic disinhibition describes behavior that includes rude language,
threats, and visiting places of pornography, crime, and violence on the internet--places the person might
not go to in real life.
The distinction between these two categories is not always clear. For example, a friendly email
relationship might evolve into something more intimate in a way that might cause one of the
correspondents to feel overly vulnerable or anxious. An exchange of seemingly hostile words, as another
example, might be considered normal social behavior in certain Internet subcultures.
Suler breaks down six factors that cause online disinhibition:
Dissociative anonymity (“You don’t know me”)
This is one of the principal factors behind the online disinhibition effect. On the internet, you are able to
interact with others, comment on forums, and surf the web completely anonymously. When you feel
anonymous, you feel protected. By remaining anonymous, you do not have to “own” your behavior, and
you can instead compartmentalize it in an online identity that is not integrated with your offline identity.
Anonymity helps you feel less vulnerable about self-disclosing and engaging in antisocial or harmful
behavior.
Invisibility (“You can’t see me”)
Many types of communication over the internet happen through text. The internet offers a kind of shield
and keeps you from being physically visible. Your inhibitions are lowered because you don’t have to
worry about tone and body language when you and another person are communicating. Invisibility also
lets you misrepresent yourself, as in the case of a man representing himself as a woman, or vice versa.
This presents possibilities that are not as easily attainable in face-to-face interaction.
Asynchronicity (“See you later”)
The asynchronous nature of many forms of communication over the internet leads to disinhibition. Email
and message board conversations do not happen in real time. For example, you might put up an
emotionally-charged post and log out without seeing any responses from others. This would allow you to
gain catharsis and escape any potential negative reactions. Asynchronicity also allows you to think more
carefully about what you would like to say before posting, which can help if you have trouble with face-
to-face interactions. This lessens the pressure that can accompany real-life conversations, and can lead
you to present differently online than you do offline.
Solipsistic Introjection (“It’s all in my head”)
Without face-to-face cues, you experience online messages as voices in your head. You might assign
imagined characteristics to another person based off of their messages and online persona. Your online
companions become characters in your own psychic world, shaped by your personal expectations and
needs. Additionally, when reading another’s message, you might “hear” their voice using your own
voice. People sometimes subvocalize as they read, which can lead to a perception that they are talking to
themselves. This leads to feeling more comfortable talking to the other person and leads to disinhibition.
Dissociative Imagination (“It’s just a game”)
Emily Finch, a lawyer who studies identity theft in cyberspace, observes that people might see cyberspace
as a game in which normal rules of everyday interaction do not apply. This leads to a feeling of escapism
and can lead to a person thinking that they can adopt and shed a certain persona simply by logging on and
off. Because the Internet can seem like a make-believe space, you might feel more disinhibited to act in
ways that you normally wouldn’t offline.
Minimization of Status and Authority (“Your rules don’t apply here”)
Authority figures express their authority through dress, body language, name titles, and their
environments. Without these cues, their authority is reduced in online environments. Although you might
know about someone’s offline status and power, you are less likely to feel intimidated by that authority
on the internet. The internet offers a more-or-less equal playing field for everyone, allowing you to feel
more disinhibited and engage others more as peers instead of as authorities.
Psychology and the Internet: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Transpersonal Implications, edited
by Jayne Gackenbach, explores the wide impact the internet has had on intrapersonal,
interpersonal, and transpersonal psychology.
In The Psychology of the Internet, Patricia Wallace examines how the internet influences the way
we behave, in positive and negative ways. Patricia Wallace is Executive Director of the Center for
Knowledge and Information Management at the Robert H. Smith School of Business, University
of Maryland.
References
1. Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition effect. Cyberpsychology & behavior,7(3), 321-326.
Classical and Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

https://www.learning-theories.com/operant-conditioning-skinner.html
A behaviorist theory based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to
continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end[1].
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner (1904 - 1990)
Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936)
Key Concepts
What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning? In operant conditioning,
a voluntary response is then followed by a reinforcing stimulus. In this way, the voluntary response (e.g.
studying for an exam) is more likely to be done by the individual. In contrast, classical conditioning is
when a stimulus automatically triggers an involuntary response.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior through the use of
positive and negative reinforcement. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association
between a particular behavior and a consequence[2].
Example 1: Parents rewarding a child's excellent grades with candy or some other prize.
Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most calm and well-
behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily become quieter and better
behaved, that they earn more points.
Example 3: A form of reinforcement (such as food) is given to an animal every time the animal
(for example, a hungry lion) presses a lever[3].
The term "operant conditioning" originated by the behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who believed that one
should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior (rather than try to unpack the internal
thoughts and motivations)
Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive and negative. We will explain this below.
Positive and negative reinforcers
Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the individual after the
desired behavior. This may come in the form of praise, rewards, etc.
Negative reinforcers typically are characterized by the removal of an undesired or unpleasant
outcome after the desired behavior. A response is strengthened as something considered negative
is removed.
The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase.
Positive and negative punishment
Punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of something undesirable attempts to cause a decrease in the
behavior that follows.
Positive punishment is when unfavorable events or outcomes are given in order to weaken the
response that follows.
Negative punishment is characterized by when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a
undesired behavior occurs.
The goal in both of these cases of punishment is for a behavior to decrease.

Resources
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mt4N9GSBoMI
McSweeney and Murphy: The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Operant and Classical
Conditioning: An excellent book that features chapters by leading researchers, professionals, and
academicians and does a pretty comprehensive treatment of operant and classical conditioning,
including relevant fundamental theory, and applications including the latest techniques.
References
1. Skinner, B. F. (2011). About behaviorism. Vintage.

2. Reynolds, G. S. (1975). A primer of operant conditioning. (Rev ed).
3. Skinner, B. F. (1948). 'Superstition'in the pigeon. Journal of experimental psychology, 38(2), 168.
Positive Psychology / PERMA Theory (Seligman)

https://www.learning-theories.com/positive-psychology-perma-theory-seligman.html
Summary: Positive psychology is the study of happiness, flourishing, and what makes life worth living.
Seligman points to five factors as leading to well-being -- positive emotion, engagement, relationships,
meaning and purpose, and accomplishment.
Originators and key contributors:
Martin Seligman (1942-the present), American psychologist, founder of positive psychology

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1934-the present), Hungarian-American psychologist, co-founder of
positive psychology, researched the concept of "Flow"
Christopher Peterson (1950- 2012), American psychologist, The "VIA" and other topics in
positive psychology
Keywords: flow, character strengths, well-being, happiness, positive emotion, engagement, relationships,
meaning and purpose, and accomplishment
Positive psychology
Positive psychology, initiated by Seligman, is the term given to a collection of studies aimed at
researching what makes life worth living[1]. Positive psychology aims to gain a deeper understanding of
positive emotions, positive traits, and positive institutions. Over the years, the field of psychology has
largely focused on analyzing mental disorders and human suffering. Happiness was regarded simply as an
absence of suffering, but had never been actually studied in depth. Seligman’s aim, influenced by
humanistic psychology, was not to replace traditional psychology, but to build a more complete picture of
human experience. This shifted the main premise of psychology from analyzing psychological issues, to
analyzing mental health and happiness to its basic components.
Since its inception, positive psychology has spurred research in a variety of areas, such as happiness,
optimism, self- esteem, well-being, motivation, flow, strengths and virtues, hope, resilience, mindfulness,
and positive thinking. Specifically, there is a focus on three areas of positive experiences: the past (well-
being and satisfaction) the present (happiness and flow) and the future (hope and optimism). These fields
of research formed the basis for positive interventions, to increase happiness and well-being. These
interventions have been applied in a variety of settings, such as education, human resources,
organizational functioning, therapy, career counseling, and health. The following sections will discuss the
core concepts of the theory.
Authentic Happiness Theory
Seligman’s beginning theory discussed authentic happiness[2]. He described that people can feel
happiness from different types of experiences.
The pleasant life: This refers to feeling positive emotions in the most intuitive way, of feeling pleasant
sensations. For example, eating ice cream because it tastes good, or riding a roller coaster because it’s
fun. Gaining happiness at this level necessitates relatively little effort.
The engaged life: Engagement is characterized by flow. Flow refers to the experience of completely
loosing oneself in an activity[3]. Individuals become totally absorbed in what they are doing and lose track
of time. They are not thinking, but in essence unified with what they are doing. Individuals could
experience this in many activities, such as at work, dancing, playing baseball, or even solving a crossword
puzzle.
In order for flow to occur, the person has to be using their signature character strengths, and usually there
has to be some sort of challenge, but not too big of a challenge. Usually, activities with clear goals and
feedback will cause more flow. Flow causes an inner motivation and intrinsic reward. As opposed to the
pleasant life, this form of happiness necessitates more effort. Being in flow invigorates the person, filling
one with positive energy.
The meaningful life: However engaging flow activities may be, they can be utterly meaningless and fill a
person with a void after some time. For example, after being absorbed in a puzzle and finishing it, one
can still feel like there life is worthless. In order to feel meaning, people have to be engaged in something
that serves a goal beyond themselves, such as in religion, politics, or family.
Well-being Theory
Following criticism of his "Authentic Happiness Theory," Seligman made alterations to it and came up
with the "Well-being Theory." As opposed to the goal of achieving happiness, this theory emphasizes the
goal of reaching well-being. After all, people are motivated to do many things in life that do not
necessarily increase happiness at the present moment. The classic example for this is having children.
Parents to children often report less happiness at the present, but higher overall well-being.
Seligman describes five factors of well-being: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning and
purpose, and accomplishment (PERMA). As opposed to the previous theory, where character strengths
were relevant only for engagement, here character strengths are relevant in order to maximize well being
felt from each factor. Maximum well-being leads to a state of flourishing. Flourishing is described as a
state of thriving, of being full of vitality, and prospering as individuals and as a group.
Character Strengths and Virtues
Character strengths and virtues are the building blocks of flow, happiness, and well-being. There are six
universal virtues: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, transcendence. Each virtue includes
four character strengths, as listed in the table below. A strength is described as something one is naturally
good at, and enjoys engaging in. As opposed to talents, strengths necessitate effort, and are developed
throughout life. When people recognize their strengths and use them for at something they value, it makes
them feel empowered. The VIA (values in action) is a common tool used to assess strengths[4].
[ted id=312]
https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/home
https://www.ted.com/talks/martin_seligman_on_the_state_of_psychology?language=en
Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being, a book by Seligman.
References
1. Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). Positive psychology: An introduction (pp.

279-298). Springer Netherlands.
2. Seligman, M. E. (2004). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your
potential for lasting fulfillment. Simon and Schuster.
3. Csíkszentmihályi, M. (1996). Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New Yprk:
Harper Collins. Chicago
4. Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2006). The Values in Action (VIA) classification of strengths. A
life worth living: Contributions to positive psychology, 29-48.
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

https://www.learning-theories.com/problem-based-learning-pbl.html
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is an instructional method of hands-on, active learning centered on

the investigation and resolution of messy, real-world problems.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Late 1960s at the medical school at McMaster University in Canada
Key Concepts
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a pedagogical approach and curriculum design methodology often used
in higher education and K-12 settings[1][2].
The following are some of the defining characteristics of PBL:
Learning is driven by challenging, open-ended problems with no one “right” answer

Problems/cases are context specific
Students work as self-directed, active investigators and problem-solvers in small collaborative
groups (typically of about five students)
A key problem is identified and a solution is agreed upon and implemented
Teachers adopt the role as facilitators of learning, guiding the learning process and promoting an
environment of inquiry
Rather than having a teacher provide facts and then testing students ability to recall these facts via
memorization, PBL attempts to get students to apply knowledge to new situations. Students are faced
with contextualized, ill-structured problems and are asked to investigate and discover meaningful
solutions.
Proponents believe that PBL:
• develops critical thinking and creative skills

improves problem-solving skills
• increases motivation
• helps students learn to transfer knowledge to new situations
History
PBL’s more recent influence can be traced to the late 1960s at the medical school at McMaster
University in Canada[3][4]. Shortly thereafter, three other medical schools — the University of Limburg at
Maastricht (the Netherlands), the University of Newcastle (Australia), and the University of New Mexico
(United States) took on the McMaster model of problem-based learning. Various adaptations were made
and the model soon found its way to various other disciplines — business, dentistry, health sciences, law,
engineering, education, and so on.
Criticisms
One common criticism of PBL is that students cannot really know what might be important for them to
learn, especially in areas which they have no prior experience[3]. Therefore teachers, as facilitators, must
be careful to assess and account for the prior knowledge that students bring to the classroom.
Another criticism is that a teacher adopting a PBL approach may not be able to cover as much material as
a conventional lecture-based course[3]. PBL can be very challenging to implement, as it requires a lot of
planning and hard work for the teacher. It can be difficult at first for the teacher to “relinquish control”
and become a facilitator, encouraging the students to ask the right questions rather than handing them
solutions.

Resources
Thinking Through Project-Based Learning: Guiding Deeper Inquiry: Krauss & Boss’s book
contains many practical examples of how to teach and create critical thinking experiences in
project-based learning.
Essential Readings in Problem-Based Learning: Exploring and Extending the Legacy of Howard
S. Barrows: Walker, Hmelo-Silver & Ertmer’s book discusses developments in the field of PBL,
bridging the gap between theory and practice.
References
1. Barrows, H. S. (1986). A taxonomy of problem?based learning methods.Medical education, 20(6),

481-486.
2. Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its
constructivist framework. Educational technology, 35(5), 31-38.
3. Boud, D., & Feletti, G. (1997). The challenge of problem-based learning. Psychology Press.
Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem?based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. New directions
for teaching and learning, 1996(68), 3-12.
Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan)

https://www.learning-theories.com/self-determination-theory-deci-and-ryan.html
Summary: Self-Determination Theory is a theory of motivation and personality that addresses three
universal, innate and psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and psychological relatedness.
Originators: Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, psychologists at the University of Rochester.
Key Terms: motivation, competence, autonomy, relatedness
Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan)
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is an important theory of motivation that addresses issues of extrinsic
and intrinsic motivation[1][2][3]. People have innate psychological needs:
Competence
Relatedness
Autonomy
If these universal needs are met, the theory argues that people will function and grow optimally. To
actualize their inherent potential, the social environment needs to nurture these needs.
Competence
Seek to control the outcome and experience mastery.
Relatedness
Is the universal want to interact, be connected to, and experience caring for others.
Autonomy
Is the universal urge to be causal agents of one's own life and act in harmony with one's integrated self;
however, Deci and Vansteenkiste note this does not mean to be independent of others[4].
Motivation has often been grouped into two main types: extrinsic and intrinsic. With extrinsic
motivation, a person tends to do a task or activity mainly because doing so will yield some kind of reward
or benefit upon completion. Intrinsic motivation, in contrast, is characterized by doing something purely
because of enjoyment or fun.
Deci, Lens and Vansteenkiste (2006) conducted a study that demonstrated intrinsic goal framing
(compared to to extrinsic goal framing and no-goal framing) produced deeper engagement in learning
activities, better conceptual learning, and higher persistence at learning activities[4].
For more information, we recommend the following additional reading:
Edward Deci's Book: Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation. Extremely

interesting book, with a strong basis in empirical research. Even so, the book is very easy to read,
with several case studies that a layman can easily understand. Highly recommended.
The Oxford Handbook of Work Engagement, Motivation, and Self-Determination Theory (Oxford
Library of Psychology). This handbook brings together self-determination theory experts and
organizational psychology experts to talk about past and future applications of the theory to the
field of organizational psychology. Topics include: how to bring about commitment, engagement,
and passion in the workplace; managing stress, health, emotions and violence at work; etc.
Daniel Pink's book: Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us. An extremely popular book
that describes three elements to intrinsic motivation: autonomy, mastery, and purpose. Also includes a
Toolkit section with strategies for individuals, companies, tips on compensation, suggestions for education,
etc.References
1. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic
motivation, social development, and well-being.American psychologist, 55(1), 68.
2. Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self?determination theory and work motivation. Journal of
Organizational behavior, 26(4), 331-362.
3. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. University
Rochester Press.
4. Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in self-
determination theory: Another look at the quality of academic motivation. Educational
Self-Perception Theory (Bem)

https://www.learning-theories.com/self-perception-theory-bem.html
Summary: Self-perception theory describes the process in which people, lacking initial attitudes or
emotional responses, develop them by observing their own behavior and coming to conclusions as to
what attitudes must have driven that behavior.
Originators and Key Contributors: Psychologist Daryl Bem originally developed this theory of attitude
formation in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s.
Keywords: identity, perception, behavior, attitude, marketing, therapy
Self-Perception Theory
Self-perception theory is counterintuitive. Common knowledge would have us assume that a person’s
personality and attitudes drive their actions; however, self-perception theory shows that this is not always
the case. In simple terms, it illustrates that “we are what we do.” According to self-perception theory, we
interpret our own actions the way we interpret others’ actions, and our actions are often socially
influenced and not produced out of our own free will, as we might expect[1].
Self-Perception Experiments
Daryl Bem, the originator of the theory, conducted an original experiment that involved subjects who
listened to a recording of a man describing a peg-turning task enthusiastically. One group was told that
the man was paid $1 for his testimonial, while the other group was told he was paid $20 for it. The $1
group believed that he enjoyed the task more than how much the $20 group believed he enjoyed it. The
two groups’ conclusions correlated to the feelings that the actors themselves expressed. Because the
participants were able to correctly guess how the actors felt, it was concluded that the actors must have
arrived at the way they felt from observing their own behavior as well.
A number of studies since have confirmed that self-perception theory exists, and furthermore, influences
us in many unexpected contexts. Tiffany Ito and colleagues conducted a study in 2006 to see if facial
changes could trigger shifts in racial bias among participants. Participants were asked to hold a pencil
with their mouths (thus inducing them to smile) while looking at photographs of anonymous black and
white male subjects. The results showed that those who had been made to smile while looking at the
black subjects showed less implicit prejudice towards black men after the fact than those made to smile
while looking only at white subjects.
Jeremy N. Bailenson, founding director of Stanford University’s Virtual Human Interaction Lab, reports
on one study involving participants who are immersed in a virtual environment via a head-mounted
display[2]. Some participants watched a virtual doppelgänger identical to them exercise, some watched
someone else’s virtual doppelgänger exercise, and some watched their own doppelgänger stand still.
Those who watched their “selves” exercise reported a higher belief that they could exercise successfully,
and later reported in a follow-up questionnaire that they had worked out for almost one hour more than
the other two participant groups. Furthermore, in a follow-up study, the self-efficacy group of participants
was asked to exercise while watching their virtual avatar visibly lose weight for every minute they
exercised[3]. When told that they were allowed to use the exercise room for the next half hour, they
exercised 10 minutes longer than participants in other control situations.
Current Applications
Self-perception theory lends itself to be useful in therapy or persuasion-related contexts.
Traditional therapeutical approaches might consider maladjusted behaviors and actions to be motivated
by inner psychological issues. By employing self-perception theory, therapists can take the approach of
starting with the behavior first to result in a change of attitudes, and ultimately a more lasting change in
behavior. In one example, this approach has been used to have teens perform community service, which
positively alters their self-image. They are thus less likely to experience teenage pregnancies and to
engage in other risky behaviors.
In the marketing and persuasion industry, self-perception theory has led to a variety of tactics based on
acquiring a small commitment from a person that will lead to a greater possibility that the person will
agree to larger requests from the seller/marketer. This is the basis behind the foot-in-the-door tactic, in
which a salesperson might ask a person for something relatively small, such as filling out a questionnaire,
which would make it easier to ask the person for a larger commitment, since the act of fulfilling the small
request would likely lead to the person altering their self-image to explain their decision (i.e. I filled out
the survey, therefore I must be the kind of person who likes their products).
Roy F. Baumeister and Brad J. Bushman's Social Psychology and Human Nature offers an excellent
broad overview of many topics under the branch of social psychology, including a primer on self-
perception.
References
1. Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. Advances in experimental social psychology, 6, 1-62.

2. Blascovich, J., Loomis, J., Beall, A. C., Swinth, K. R., Hoyt, C. L., & Bailenson, J. N. (2002).
Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology.
Psychological Inquiry, 13(2), 103-124.
3. Yee, N., & Bailenson, J. (2007). The Proteus effect: The effect of transformed self?representation on
behavior. Human communication research, 33(3), 271-290.
Self-Theories (Dweck)
https://www.learning-theories.com/self-theories-dweck.html
Summary: Carol Dweck and others have Identified two implicit theories of intelligence. Those learners
who have an "entity" theory view intelligence as being an unchangeable, fixed internal characteristic.
Those who have an "incremental" theory believe that their intelligence is malleable and can be increased
through effort.
Originators: Carol Dweck, based on over 30 years of research on belief systems, and their role in
motivation and achievement.
Key Terms: entity theory, incremental theory
Self-Theories (Dweck)
Carol Dweck (currently at Indiana University) describes a series of empirically-based studies that
investigate how people develop beliefs about themselves (i.e., self-theories) and how these self-theories
create their psychological worlds, shaping thoughts, feelings and behaviors[1]. The theories reveal why
some students are motivated to work harder, and why others fall into patterns of helplessness and are self-
defeating. Dweck's conclusions explore the implications for the concept of self-esteem, suggesting a
rethinking of its role in motivation, and the conditions that foster it. She demonstrated empirically that
students who hold an entity theory of intelligence are less likely to attempt challenging tasks and are at
risk for academic underachievement[1][2].
Students carry two types of views on ability/intelligence:
1. Entity View - This view (those who are called "Entity theorists") treats intelligence as fixed and
stable. These students have a high desire to prove themselves to others; to be seen as smart and
avoid looking unintelligent.
2. Incremental View - This view treats intelligence as malleable, fluid, and changeable. These
students see satisfaction coming from the process of learning and often see opportunities to get
better. They do not focus on what the outcome will say about them, but what they can attain from
taking part in the venture.
Entity theorists are susceptible to learned helplessness because they may feel that circumstances are
outside their control (i.e. there's nothing that could have been done to make things better), thus they may
give up easily. As a result, they may simply avoid situations or activities that they perceive to be
challenging (perhaps through procrastination, absenteeism, etc.). Alternatively, they may purposely
choose extremely difficult tasks so that they have an excuse for failure. Ultimately, they may stop trying
altogether. Because success (or failure) is often linked to what is perceived as a fixed amount of
intelligence rather than effort (e.g., the belief that "I did poorly because I'm not a smart person"), students
may think that failure implies a natural lack of intelligence. Dweck found that students with a long
history of success may be the most vulnerable for developing learned helplessness because they may buy
into the entity view of intelligence more readily than those with less frequent success[1].
Those with an incremental view ("Incremental theorists") when faced with failure, react differently: these
students desire to master challenges, and therefore adopt a mastery-oriented pattern. They immediately
began to consider various ways that they could approach the task differently, and they increase their
efforts. Unlike Entity theorists, Incremental theorists believe that effort, through increased learning and
strategy development, will actually increase their intelligence.
Carol Dweck's book: Self-theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality, and Development
(Essays in Social Psychology). An excellent book by one of the world's leading researchers in the
fields of personality, social psychology, and developmental psychology. Accessible and not overly
academic in tone. Recommended.
Carol Dweck's book: Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Dweck explains how to achieve
success -- and how approaching problems with a fixed vs. growth mindset makes a big difference.
Praising intelligence and ability doesn’t foster self-esteem and lead to accomplishment, but may
actually jeopardize success. This book is an excllent read for helping people motivate their
children and reach one's one personal and professional goals.
References
1. Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development.

Psychology Press.
2. Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.
Semiotics (de Saussure, Barthes, Bakhtin)

https://www.learning-theories.com/semiotics-de-saussure-barthes-bakhtin.html
Summary: Semiotics is the study of how people make meaning through both linguistic and non-linguistic
ways. It is a philosophical theory concerned with understanding how people use signs and symbols in
meaning-making.
Originators & Proponents: Ferdinand de Saussure[1], Roland Barthes, Mikhail Bakhtin
Keywords: communication, connotation, culture, denotation, icon, index, lexicon, linguistics, logic,
meaning, mode, rules, signifier, signs, sign systems, symbols
Semiotics (de Saussure, Barthes, Bakhtin)
Semiotics is the study of how people make meaning through both linguistic and non-linguistic ways. It is
a philosophical theory concerned with understanding how people use signs and symbols in meaning-
making[2].
Sign systems include words, images, numbers, and objects. These signs have meaning only because
people have agreed upon and use this shared meaning. For example, the word “house” refers to a
structure designed for people to live within only because a culture uses it in this way. How this meaning
of “house” came to be is what those who study and research semiotics are interested in.
There are different kinds of signs: icon (pictures), index (an item which refers to something else), and
symbols (words, body language). In every day communication, people use a combination of these to
express what they mean.
Chandler's book: Semiotics: The Basics.
Sean Hall's book: This Means This, This Means That: A User's Guide to Semiotics
References
1. De Saussure, F. (1916). Nature of the linguistic sign. Course in general linguistics, 65-70.
2. Barthes, R. (1994). The semiotic challenge. Univ of California Press.
Separation-Individuation Theory of Child Development (Mahler)

https://www.learning-theories.com/separation-individuation-theory-of-child-development-mahler.html
Summary: Mahler describes a series of stages occurring within the first three years of life aimed at the
developmental goal of Separation and Individuation.
Originator: Margaret Mahler (1897-1985), a Hungarian-born American psychiatrist
Keywords: Separation-Individuation, Ego psychology, Developmental stages, Object constancy, Mother-

infant interactions
Separation-Individuation Theory of Child Development (Mahler)
Mahler is regarded as one of the main contributors to the field of ‘ego psychology’, a school of thought
which evolved from Sigmund Freud’s Structural Model (id-ego-superego). Her aim was not to develop a
novel theory, but to broaden the scope of pre-existing theories. Her studies focus primarily on mother-
infant interactions within the first three years of life[1][2], thereby filling a void in psychodynamic stage
theories, such as Freud’s psychosexual stages of development, and Erikson’s psychosocial stages of
development. Although this article will refer to mother-infant relations, the theory holds true for any
primary caregiver.
According to Mahler, successful completion of the developmental stages in the first few years of life
results in separation and individuation. Separation refers to an internal process of mental separation from
the mother, while individuation refers to a developing self concept. Although interrelated, it is possible
for one to develop more than the other, largely depending on the mother’s attitude towards the child[3].
Stages of Development
1. Normal autistic stage: (0-1 month)
At the very beginning of life, the infant is primarily focused on himself/herself, uninterested in external
stimuli. The mother is viewed as an intrinsic part of the infant, devoid of a separate existence. The
primary goal at this point, is to achieve a state of equilibrium, while lacking the understanding that the
satisfaction of needs may come from an external source.
2. Normal symbiotic stage: (1-5 months)
At this phase, the infant vaguely acknowledges the mother’s existence, not as a unique entity, but as the
main source of need-satisfaction. The fulfilment of the infant’s physiological needs becomes intertwined
with psychological desires and thus serves as the basis upon which future relationships will be formed.
Crucial to successful progression through the next stages are the availability and the ability of the mother
to adapt successfully to the infant’s needs.
3. Separation-Individuation stage: (5-24 months) In this final stage a significant transition occurs
in two overlapping realms. In separation, the infant develops an understanding of boundaries of
the self, and thus the mother is increasingly viewed as an individual. Meanwhile, individuation
marks the development of a sense of self. This consists of four sub-stages:
3a: Differentiation/Hatching: (5-9 months) The infant’s primary focus begins to transform from
internally focused to externally focused, although the primary point of reference continues to be the
mother. This internal process is exemplified by milestones in motor development which physically allow
increased separation, such as crawling. The infant becomes increasingly interested in discovering his
mother (e.g. how she looks or smells) rather than trying to become symbiotically unified with her.
3b: Practicing: (9-14 months) Capacity for separation continues to develop with increased autonomous
functions, particularly walking. Although able to explore freely, the child still regards the mother as
unified with him/her and thus explores his/her surroundings while keeping within an optimal distance.
The child’s experience of the world he or she discovers is influenced by the mother’s reactions and by
her availability to sooth when experiences may be frightening or painful.
3c: Rapprochement: (14-24 months) At this point the child’s desire to achieve independence is marred by
a fear of abandonment. Therefore, the child seeks to maintain proximity to the caretaker while engaging
in exploration. This stage is essential to the development of a stable sense of self. This includes three sub-
stages:
Beginning: The child returns to the caretaker in order to share experiences and excitement. There
is an overarching felon of omnipotence and exuberance.
Crisis: The child recognizes his/her limitations versus the desire to be all powerful and self
sufficient. The child is torn in choosing between physical and emotional proximity to the caretaker
or independence. This stage is characterized by temper tantrums and helplessness and thus the
need for emotional availability of the mother increases.
Solution: The child reaches a healthy medium between the two extremes due to language and
superego development. If the crisis is not resolved well, there will be an increase in extreme
clinging or shunning behaviour.
3d: Object constancy: (24+ months) Successful completion of this phase marks the development of an
internalized mental model of the mother, which unconsciously accompanies and supports the child even
when they are physically separated. In addition, a sense of individuality begins to develop. The degree of
ambivalence in the internalized model implicates the formation of a healthy self concept and self-
confidence.
www.margaretmahler.org
References
1. Mahler, M. S. (1968). On Human Symbiosis and the Vicissitudes of Individuation. Infantile

Psychosis, Volume 1.
2. Mahler, M. S. (1952). On child psychosis and schizophrenia: autistic and symbiotic infantile
psychoses. The psychoanalytic study of the child.
3. Mahler, M. S., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (2008). The psychological birth of the human infant:
Symbiosis and individuation. Basic Books.
Situated Cognition (Brown, Collins, & Duguid)

https://www.learning-theories.com/situated-cognition-brown-collins-duguid.html
Summary: Situated cognition is the theory that people’s knowledge is embedded in the activity, context,
and culture in which it was learned. It is also referred to as "situated learning."
Originators & proponents: John Seely Brown, Allan Collins, Paul Duguid
Keywords: activity, authentic domain activity, authentic learning, cognitive apprenticeship, content-
specific learning, context, culture, everyday learning, knowledge, legitimate peripheral participation,
socio-cultural learning, social construction of knowledge, social interaction, teaching methods
Situated cognition (Brown, Collins, & Duguid)
Situated cognition is a theory which emphasizes that people’s knowledge is constructed within and linked
to the activity, context, and culture in which it was learned[1][2].
Learning is social and not isolated, as people learn while interacting with each other through shared
activities and through language, as they discuss, share knowledge, and problem-solve during these tasks.
For example, while language learners can study a dictionary to increase their vocabulary, this often
solitary work only teaches basic parts of learning a language; when language learners talk with someone
who is a native speaker of the language, they will learn important aspects of how these words are used in
the native speaker’s home culture and how the words are used in everyday social interactions.
Cognitive apprenticeship is an important aspect of situated cognition[3]. During this social interaction
between a novice learner and an expert, important skills, interactions, and experiences are shared. The
novice learns from the expert as an apprentice, and the expert often passes down methods and traditions
which the apprentice can learn only from the expert and which are authentic learning. This is a form of
socio-cultural learning. The expert is a practitioner of the skill and tradition, meaning that they use and
practice them regularly in the everyday life. The expert scaffolds the novice’s learning.
This theory has helped researchers understand more widely about how people learn because it has focused
on what people learn in their everyday lives, which are authentic contexts for a variety of skills. In
addition, it helps educators understand how to capitalize on knowledge and skills that their students may
already possess in order to help them learn new content and skills.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BnbmLHgQWqQ
References
1. Aydede, M., & Robbins, P. (Eds.). (2009). The Cambridge handbook of situated cognition. New
York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
2. Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning.
Educational researcher, 18(1), 32-42.

3. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1988). Cognitive apprenticeship.Thinking: The
Journal of Philosophy for Children, 8(1), 2-10.
Situated Learning Theory (Lave)

https://www.learning-theories.com/situated-learning-theory-lave.html
Summary: Situated Learning Theory posits that learning is unintentional and situated within authentic
activity, context, and culture.
Originator: Jean Lave[1]
Key Terms: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP), Cognitive Apprenticeship
Situated Learning Theory (Lave)
In contrast with most classroom learning activities that involve abstract knowledge which is and out of
context, Lave argues that learning is situated; that is, as it normally occurs, learning is embedded within
activity, context and culture. It is also usually unintentional rather than deliberate. Lave and Wenger call
this a process of "legitimate peripheral participation"[2].
Knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts -- settings and situations that would normally
involve that knowledge. Social interaction and collaboration are essential components of situated learning
-- learners become involved in a "community of practice" which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors
to be acquired. As the beginner or novice moves from the periphery of a community to its center, he or
she becomes more active and engaged within the culture and eventually assumes the role of an expert.
Other researchers have further developed Situated Learning theory. Brown, Collins & Duguid emphasize
the idea of cognitive apprenticeship[3]: "Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by
enabling students to acquire, develop and use cognitive tools in authentic domain activity. Learning, both
outside and inside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of
knowledge."
Situated learning is related to Vygotsky's notion of learning through social development.
References
1. Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in Practice: Mind, mathematics, and culture in everyday life.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
2. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1990). Situated Learning: Legitimate Periperal Participation. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
3. Brown, J.S., Collins, A. & Duguid, S. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning.
Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.
Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)

https://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html
Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and
cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
Key Concepts
Vygotsky's Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky
(1896-1934)[1][2]. Vygotsky's work was largely unkown to the West until it was published in 1962.
Vygotsky's theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes regarding
social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal development.
Social Interaction
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean
Piaget's understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning),
Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: "Every function in the child's cultural
development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between
people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)".[2]
The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with
respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher,
coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The ZPD is the distance between a student's ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with
peer collaboration and the student's ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky,
learning occurred in this zone.
Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and
interact in shared experiences[3]. According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture,
such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to
serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of
these tools led to higher thinking skills.
Applications of the Vygotsky's Social Development Theory
Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or lecturer
'transmits' information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky's theory promotes learning contexts in which
students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher
should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students.
Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.

Resources
Luis C. Moll: L.S. Vygotsky and Education (Routledge Key Ideas in Education): An accessible,
introductory volume that provides a good summary of Vygtoskian core concepts, including the
sociocultural genesis of human thinking, a developmental approach to studying human thinking,
and the power of cultural mediation in understanding and transforming educational practices. Well
written and worth a look.
References
1. Vygotsky, L. S. (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.

Harvard university press.
2. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development.Readings on the development
of children, 23(3), 34-41.
3. Crawford, K. (1996). Vygotskian approaches in human development in the information era. Educational
Studies in Mathematics, 31(1-2), 43-62.
Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, Turner)

https://www.learning-theories.com/social-identity-theory-tajfel-turner.html
Summary: Social identity theory proposes that a person’s sense of who they are depends on the groups
to which they belong.
Originators and Key Contributors: Social identity theory originated from British social psychologists
Henri Tajfel and John Turner in 1979.
Keywords: identity, ingroup, outgroup, social comparison, categorization, intergroup
Social Identity Theory
Tajfel and Turner’s social identity theory explains that part of a person’s concept of self comes from the
groups to which that person belongs. An individual does not just have a personal selfhood, but multiple
selves and identities associated with their affiliated groups. A person might act differently in varying
social contexts according to the groups they belong to, which might include a sports team they follow,
their family, their country of nationality, and the neighborhood they live in, among many other
possibilities[1].
When a person perceives themselves as part of a group, that is an ingroup for them. Other comparable
groups that person does not identify with are called outgroups. We have an “us” vs. “them” mentality
when it comes to our ingroups and their respective outgroups.
There are three processes that create this ingroup/outgroup mentality:
Social Categorization. First, we categorize people in order to understand and identify them.
Some examples of social categories include black, white, professor, student, Republican, and
Democrat. By knowing what categories we belong to, we can understand things about ourselves,
and we can define appropriate behavior according to the groups that we and others belong to. An
individual can belong to several groups at the same time.
Social Identification. We adopt the identity of the group that we belong to, and we act in ways
that we perceive members of that group act. For example, if you identify as a Democrat, you will
most likely behave within the norms of that group. As a consequence of your identification with
that group, you will develop emotional significance to that identification, and your self-esteem
will be dependent on it.
Social Comparison. After we categorize ourselves within a group and identify ourselves as being
members of that group, we tend to compare our group (the ingroup) against another group (an
outgroup). To maintain your self-esteem, you and your group members will compare your group
favorably against other ones. This helps explain prejudice and discrimination, since a group will
tend to view members of competing groups negatively to increase self-esteem.
Intergroup Comparisons
There are a couple things that tend to happen in the process of comparing an ingroup to an outgroup, as
mentioned above. Members of an ingroup will tend to:
1. favor the ingroup over the outgroup

2. maximize the differences between the ingroup and the outgroup (it is necessary to maintain that
the groups are distinct if a person is favoring their group over the other)
3. minimize the perception of differences between ingroup members (this increases ingroup
cohesion)
4. remember more positive information about the ingroup and more negative information about the
outgroup
The Interpersonal-Intergroup Continuum
Another main aspect of social identity theory is its explanation that social behavior falls on a continuum
that ranges from interpersonal behavior to intergroup behavior. Most social situations will call for a
compromise between these two ends of the spectrum. As an example, Henri Tajfel suggests that soldiers
fighting an opposing army represent behavior at the extreme intergroup end of the interpersonal-
intergroup spectrum.
In Difference Matters: Communicating Social Identity, Brenda J. Allen breaks down six social
identity categories: gender, race, social class, sexuality, ability, and age. This book provides an in-
depth and down-to-earth analysis of these social identity categories and includes guidance on how
to navigate difference more humanely.
Social Identity and Intergroup Relations is edited by, and contains contributions from, the
originators of social identity theory, John Turner and Henri Tajfel.
References
1. Turner, J. C., & Tajfel, H. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. Psychology of
intergroup relations, 7-24.
Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

https://www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html
Bandura's Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation,
imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and
cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Albert Bandura (1925 - Present)
Key Concepts
People learn through observing others' behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors[1]. "Most
human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of
how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action." (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal
interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
Necessary conditions for effective modeling

Attention -- various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness,
affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One's characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities,
arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention.
Retention -- remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive
organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
Reproduction -- reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of

reproduction.
Motivation -- having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism),
promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)
Reciprocal Determinism
Bandura believed in "reciprocal determinism", that is, the world and a person's behavior cause each other,
while behaviorism essentially states that one's environment causes one's behavior[2], Bandura, who was
studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior
causes environment as well[3]. Later, Bandura soon considered personality as an interaction between three
components: the environment, behavior, and one's psychological processes (one's ability to entertain
images in minds and language).
Social learning theory has sometimes been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning
theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. The theory is related to Vygotsky's
Social Development Theory and Lave's Situated Learning, which also emphasize the importance of social
learning.
Resources
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8&list=PLqr4-6jOSoOwT_E5WGkT23LR2GeyO3G6t
References
1. Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.
2. Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.
3. Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.
4. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
5. Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of Behavior Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Bandura, A. & Walters, R. (1963). Social Learning and Personality Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston.
Social Network Analysis (Scott, Prell)

https://www.learning-theories.com/social-network-analysis-scott-prell.html
Summary: Social Network Analysis looks at how people within social networks (for example: families,
clubs, Facebook groups) relate to each other and what these interactions say about both the individual
actors and the entire social network.
Originators & Proponents: John Scott, Christina Prell, Stephen P. Borgatti, Martin G. Everett, Jeffrey C.
Johnson
Keywords: actors, bonds, clustering, cohesion, communication, community, connection, interaction,

mapping, modeling, network theory, nodes, social network diagrams, social relationships, ties,
visualizations
Social Network Analysis (Scott, Prell)
Social network analysis looks at how people (actors) relate to each other across their social networks[1]. It
is based on network theory (from computer science), which explains that certain behaviors can be better
understood by diagramming or mapping how people or groups share information, talk, or interact in other
ways[2].
A social network can be a variety of sizes: from small (e.g., two-generational immediate family), to more
mid-sized (e.g., school class, sports team, or club), to quite large (e.g., Facebook group, college/university
alumni group).
Social network analysis can include looking at people's actions in online social networks (e.g., Facebook,
Google+, MySpace), in addition to the more traditional social networks that exist off of the Web, like
families, clubs, hobby groups, political parties, and friend/acquaintance groups[3].
Social network analysis is useful in any research field which looks at how people relate to each other.
These fields can span from anthropology to communications to sociology. There are mapping and
visualization software available which can help researchers understand social networks from a more
objective basis and explain their findings to others.
Borgatti, Everett, and Johnson's recent book: Analyzing Social Networks
Prell's book: Social Network Analysis: History, Theory and Methodology
Scott's book: Social Network Analysis: A Handbook

References
1. Scott, J. (2012). Social network analysis. Sage.

2. Prell, C. (2012). Social network analysis: History, theory and methodology. Sage.
3. Borgatti, S. P., Everett, M. G., & Johnson, J. C. (2013). Analyzing social networks. SAGE
Publications Limited.
Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)

https://www.learning-theories.com/piagets-stage-theory-of-cognitive-development.html
Piaget's Stage Theory of Cognitive Development is a description of cognitive development as four

distinct stages in children: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal.
Contributors
Key Concepts
Contributors
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Key Concepts
Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) observed his children (and their process of
making sense of the world around them) and eventually developed a four-stage model of how the mind
processes new information encountered[1][2][3]. He posited that children progress through 4 stages and that
they all do so in the same order. These four stages are:
Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 years old)
The infant builds an understanding of himself or herself and reality (and how things work) through
interactions with the environment. It is able to differentiate between itself and other objects. Learning
takes place via assimilation (the organization of information and absorbing it into existing schema) and
accommodation (when an object cannot be assimilated and the schemata have to be modified to include
the object.
Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 4)
The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations. Objects are
classified in simple ways, especially by important features.
Concrete operations (ages 7 to 11)
As physical experience accumulates, accomodation is increased. The child begins to think abstractly and
conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences.
Formal operations (beginning at ages 11 to 15)
Cognition reaches its final form. By this stage, the person no longer requires concrete objects to make
rational judgements. He or she is capable of deductive and hypothetical reasoning. His or her ability for
abstract thinking is very similar to an adult.

Resources
Mooney: Theories of Childhood, Second Edition: An Introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erikson,

Piaget & Vygotsky: Clear, straightforward introductions to foundational theories including Piaget,
Dewey and Vygotsky. Includes discussion questions and insights on how the theory impacts
teaching young children today.
References
1. Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children (Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 18-1952). New York:
International Universities Press.
2. Piaget, J. (1959). The language and thought of the child (Vol. 5). Psychology Press. Chicago
3. Piaget, J. (1976). Piaget’s theory. In Piaget and his school (pp. 11-23). Springer Berlin
Heidelberg.
Systems Thinking (Bertalanffy)

https://www.learning-theories.com/systems-thinking.html
Summary: Systems thinking can be described as the ability to think about a system as a whole, rather than
only thinking about its individual parts.
Originator and Proponents: Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Peter Checkland, Peter Senge, Donella Meadows
Keywords: systems thinking, stock and flows, interconnected relationships, interdependencies
Systems Thinking
Systems thinking is an important 21st century skill. It is the ability to think about a system as a whole,
rather than only thinking about its individual parts. The world is a complex system; there is a need to
promote the understanding of its interconnected pieces and relationships. Many other entities such as
organizations, schools, and cities -- or phenomena occurring in nature such as climate change, the Milky
Way galaxy, or systems in the human body like the digestive system -- should be viewed in terms of
systems[1].
Systems thinking and sustainability visionary Donella Meadows defines a system as "a set of elements or
parts that is coherently organized and interconnected in a pattern or structure that produces a
characteristic set of behaviors, often classified as its 'function' or 'purpose'[1].
Others have come up with similar definitions of systems, including:
A discipline for "seeing wholes"...a “framework for seeing interrelationship rather than things, for
seeing patterns of change rather than static snapshots”[2]
The “analysis, synthesis and understanding of interconnections, interactions, and
interdependencies that are technical, social, temporal and multi-level”[3]
“The ability to recognize, understand, and synthesize the interactions, and interdependencies in a
set of components designed for a specific purpose. This includes the ability to recognize patterns
and repetitions in interactions."[4]
Other important concepts include understanding indirect effects, feedback loops, cycles, time delays,
and stocks and flows.
History
Biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy is often credited as one of the first to propose systems theory in the
1930's and 40's[5][6]. Von Bertalanffy believed in not reducing an entity such as the human body into its
individual parts such as just the organs or cells. Importantly, he suggested that the coordination and
relationships of the individual parts, how they form a more complete whole, actually lead to new
properties.
References
1. Meadows, D. H. (2009). Thinking in Systems - A Primer. London: Earthscan.

2. P. Senge, The Fifth Discipline. New York: Doubleday: 1990.
3. H. Davidz, Enabling Systems Thinking to Accelerate the Development of Senior Systems
Engineers. Doctoral Dissertation: Massachusetts Institute of Technology; 2006.
4. S.M. Moore, M.A.Dolansky, M. Singh, P. Palmieri, P. Alemi, The Systems Thinking Scale.
Unpublished manuscript, 2010
5. Bertalanffy, L. von, (1934). Untersuchungen über die Gesetzlichkeit des Wachstums. I.
Allgemeine Grundlagen der Theorie; mathematische und physiologische Gesetzlichkeiten des
Wachstums bei Wassertieren. Arch. Entwicklungsmech., 131:613-652
6. Von Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General systems theory. New York, 41973, 40.
Theory of Mind, Empathy, Mindblindness (Premack, Woodruff,

Perner, Wimmer)
https://www.learning-theories.com/theory-of-mind-empathy-mindblindness-premack-woodruff-perner-
wimmer.html
Theory of Mind, Empathy, Mindblindness
Summary: Theory of mind refers to the ability to perceive the unique perspective of others and its
influence on their behavior – that is, other people have unique thoughts, plans, and points of view that are
different than yours.
Originators and key contributors:
Jean Piaget (1896- 1980), a Swiss psychologist, described the inability of young children to
perceive others’ points of view due to ‘egocentrism.’
David Premack and Guy Woodruff developed the term Theory of Mind (1978) as applied to their
studies on chimpanzees.[1]
Josef Perner and Heinz Wimmer (1983) extended Theory of Mind to the study of child
development.[2]
Keywords: Social cognition, child development, false-belief, Autism spectrum disorders, mindblindness
Theory of Mind
Theory of mind (ToM) is defined as an implicit understanding of the individual mental states of others,
and their influence upon behaviour[3]. It is the understanding that others thoughts and feelings are unique
and often different to one’s own personal thoughts and feelings, and that both may differ from actual
reality. The ability to gasp ToM implicates various aspects of social interaction such as cooperation,
lying, following directions, and feeling empathy. Lacking adequate ToM will cause difficulty in
understanding and predicting the behavior of others.
The False- Belief task
False-Belief tasks are the classic strategy used to test the presence of ToM. False- belief refers to the
recognition of the fact that people often make mistakes. Gaining an understanding that one may hold of
an incorrect belief is a crucial step in ToM development. One variation of this task utilizes a puppet that
places a piece of chocolate in a cupboard before leaving. The experimenter then hides the piece of
chocolate elsewhere. At this point, the child is asked where the puppet will look first for the chocolate
when he returns. A child who has not yet grasped ToM (usually children younger than four years of age)
will not be able to separate between his knowledge and the puppet’s knowledge, and therefore will
falsely conclude that the puppet will look in its new location. An older child with developed ToM will
correctly assume that the puppet will search for the object in its original position.
ToM Development
Infancy and early childhood are characterized by an inability to consider another’s point of view, a
feature which Piaget termed egocentrism. For example, when asked what to buy their mother for her
birthday, young children will enthusiastically respond with their own favourite toy. They are unable to
fathom that she might desire something different from that which they desire. This can also be seen in
aggressive behaviour towards others, as they falsely assume that what is fun for them is also fun for the
object of their aggression.
That being said, during infancy and early childhood various behavior are learned, which form the basis on
which future ToM will develop. Behaviors that begin to take into account others’ point of view include
mimicking, joint attention (6-12 months), and pointing (12-18 months). Toddlers become aware of
other’s emotions and are able to name those emotions even if they do not feel them. In addition, they
begin to comprehend the unique likes and dislikes of others, and separate to some degree between
imagination and reality, as seen in pretend play which appears at this point. The toddler additionally
understands the emotional consequences of actions, (i.e. if I throw my spoon, mother will be angry) and
discern between intentional behaviour and accidents. Although these skills exist by the age of three, the
child is still ambivalent regarding the exact nature of the other’s perception. According to Piaget, this is
due to the fact that at this point, thought processes are predominated by ‘egocentrism’.
The emergence of true ToM occurs at around 4-5 years, as executive functioning improves. At this point
more complex perception of the unique desires of others is expected (e.g. although I want the car, she
may want something else) alongside the possibility of hidden feelings. Children successfully complete
false-belief tasks, while grasping the existence of several truths regarding a single idea. They are more
adept at relating their own experiences to others, by taking into account that more information should be
given if the person was not there. ToM continues to develop, with elementary school age children
beginning to ponder what others think about themselves, and utilizing ToM based language, such as
deceit, sarcasm, and metaphors.
ToM Impairment
ToM impairment refers to the state in which ToM does not develop as expected. This state may result
from a neurological, cognitive, or emotional deficit. This impairment exists most prominently in Autism
spectrum disorders (ASD), and serves as one of the primary characteristics. Individuals with ASD who
present high cognitive abilities and verbal knowledge, still display difficulties in passing ToM tasks.
This impairment of ToM in ASD is also termed “mindblindness.” They are often unable to perceive
social cues and thus have difficulty ascertaining others’ motives and intentions. People often mistakenly
assume that these individuals do not care or empathize with others, when in reality there is a true lack of
understanding. Therefore, they often experience social difficulties. These difficulties cover a vast expanse
of social functioning, such as relaying a story to others, pretend play, explaining their behaviour to others,
comprehending emotions, engaging in conversations, predicting the behaviour and feelings of others,
understanding others’ points of view, and generally joining in on social conventions. Thus, children
presenting ToM impairment will need directed interventions in order to be more at ease during social
interactions.
For further information, please see:
Theory of Mind: How Children Understand Others' Thoughts and Feelings (International Texts in
Developmental Psychology)
References
1. Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?. Behavioral
and brain sciences, 1(04), 515-526.
2. Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function
of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception. Cognition, 13(1), 103-128.
3. Doherty, M. (2008). Theory of mind: How children understand others' thoughts and feelings.
Psychology Press.
Albert Bandura Biography

https://www.learning-theories.com/albert-bandura-biography.html
In 2014, Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura was ranked number one atop a list of the Top 100 Eminent
Psychologists of the Modern Era, published in the Archives of Scientific Psychology. [7] . Former president
of the American Psychological Association, winner of numerous awards and more than sixteen honorary
degrees and widely held as one of the most influential psychologists alive today, Albert Bandura is among
the most prolific psychologists in history.
Biography
Contributions
Transition from Behaviorism to Cognitive Psychology

Observational Learning
Enduring Legacy
Biography
Albert Bandura
Born: December 4, 1925
Mundare, Alberta, Canada
Albert Bandura was born into a family of modest means in a tiny hamlet in remote Alberta, Canada. His
father and mother emigrated from Eastern Europe as teenagers, and laboriously created a life for
themselves farming a homestead in Canada. In his autobiography, Albert describes his family once being
required to remove some of the straw from their thatched roof in order to feed the cattle during a time of
severe drought. [4] Despite the modest conditions, Albert had a happy childhood together with his parents
and five older sisters.
In order to supplement the limited educational resources of his local school, Albert took became a bit of
an autodidact. His parents encouraged him to spend summer vacations seeking out learning opportunities
outside of the hamlet, and his time spent during these periods amongst various different Canadian cultures
gave him a deep understanding of the impact of social context on development. [1]
After receiving his undergraduate degree from the University of British Columbia, Albert was given a life-
altering opportunity to pursue a PhD at the University of Iowa, which was at that time the world center
for research into learning and motivation. [1] At Iowa, Albert not only received the theoretical and
experimental training that would serve him for the rest of his career, but he also met his future wife,
Virginia Varns, while playing golf. [4] After receiving his PhD in 1953, Albert Bandura took a teaching
position at Stanford University, and has continued to work there for now over 60 years. [6]
Contributions
Transition from Behaviorism to Cognitive Psychology
Albert Bandura takes a special place in the history of psychology as one of the figures responsible for
ushering in a transition between one dominant theoretical school and the next. In the first half of the 20th
century, psychology was dominated by an approach known as Behaviorism. Pioneered by theorists
including John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner, the primary tenet of Behaviorism was that
mental phenomena were impossible to test experimentally, and only measurable behavioral stimuli should
be studied. Bandura and other theorists of his time helped usher in the new era of Cognitive Psychology
by introducing a theory of learning that focused more on social context than on rewards and punishment.
[8]
Observational Learning
Bandura’s first major stand against the Behaviorist establishment came with his most famous scientific
study, known as the Bobo doll experiment. [2] If the Behaviorist idea that all behavior is motivated by
seeking rewards is correct, then when a behavior provides no reward, it should prompt no response.
However, in Bandura’s study, young children, upon observing the physical aggression of an adult against
an inflated human-like doll, punched and kicked the doll themselves even though they were given no
specific instruction or reward for doing so. This experiment powerfully demonstrated that observation and
social modeling can motivate behavior even in the absence of a reward. This experiment was summarized
along with the subsequent 20 years of research on observational and social learning in the incredibly
influential 1986 work “Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.” [3] This
was one of Bandura’s first efforts at a broad theoretical integration.
Enduring Legacy
In a career spanning more than 60 years, the influence of Albert Bandura on the field of psychology is hard
to overstate. With 11 books, more than 400 research publications, thousands of students and millions of
readers, Bandura’s legacy is incalculable. As proof of his astonishing longevity, in December of 2015,
having just turned celebrated his 90th birthday, Albert Bandura published a 544-page book entitled “Moral
Disengagement: How Good People Can Act Inhumanly and Feel Good About It.” [5] Bandura dedicated the
book to his wife Virginia, who passed away in 2011. He wrote: “This book is dedicated to the memory of
my wife Virginia and the fulfilling life we enjoyed.” Albert Bandura has not only enjoyed a fulfilling life;
he has helped countless others do the same.

References
1. American Psychological Foundation. (2006) Gold Medal Award for Life Achievement in the
Science of Psychology: Albert Bandura. American Psychologist, 61(5), 405-407. doi:
10.1037/0003-066X.61.5.405
2. Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Vicarious reinforcement and imitative learning. The
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(6), 601.
3. Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, US: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
4. Bandura, A. (2006). Albert Bandura. In A History of Psychology in Autobiography, Lindzey,
M.G. & Runyan W.M. (Eds.), (Vol. IX). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
doi: 10.1037/11571-002
5. Bandura, A. (2015). Moral Disengagement: How Good People Can Act Inhumanly and Feel Good
About It. New York, New York, USA: Worth Publishers.
6. Brown-Omar, S. H. (2008). Bandura, Albert (1902–1994). In International Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences. William A. Darity, Jr. (Ed.), Vol. 1, pp. 248-249. Detroit: Macmillan Reference
USA. Retrieved 21 September 2016 from Galegroup.com.
7. Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Park, J. (2014). An Incomplete List of Eminent Psychologists of the
Modern Era. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 2(1), 20-32. doi: 10.1037/arc0000006
8. Grusec, J. E. (1992). Social learning theory and developmental psychology: The legacies of Robert
Sears and Albert Bandura. Developmental psychology, 28(5), 776. doi: 10.1037/10155-016
Abraham Maslow Biography

https://www.learning-theories.com/abraham-maslow-biography.html
In his seminal work “Motivation and Personality, Abraham Maslow wrote: “The scientist who is also
something of a poet, philosopher, and even a dreamer, is almost certainly an improvement on his more
constricted colleagues.” [6] While he was not talking about himself, it is nonetheless true that Abraham
Maslow was not only the scientist known as the Father of Humanistic Psychology, [1] but he was also
something of a poet, philosopher, and dreamer. A glance through the life and life’s work of this acclaimed
figure reveals a man who spent his days urging his fellow human beings to thrive, and showing others how
to do the same.
Biography
Contributions
Humanistic Psychology
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Legacy of Positive Psychology
Biography
Abraham Maslow was born into a Jewish family who had recently immigrated to the United States from
Russia. He was the oldest of seven children. [1] Maslow had a difficult childhood, mostly because of the
poisonous influence of his mother, who he would later describe as an “anti-mother” who apparently felt
deep hatred towards her son. Her attacks on his physical appearance would later lead to his feelings of
being a “marginal man,” or outsider. [2]
In part to escape his mother’s sphere of influence, Maslow went on to spend his entire schooling career at
the University of Wisconsin, including a BA, MA, and PhD all in psychology. [1] His time in Wisconsin
was tantamount to a spiritual revival, with his study of psychology providing him the answers he was
looking for to the questions raised by his traumatic familial and religious history. [2] Upon receiving his
PhD, he held various academic appointments, but spent the majority of his career at Brandeis University. He
would spend the last 18 years of his life as the chair of the psychology department at Brandeis, writing,
researching, and lecturing until his life was ended by an unexpected heart attack while jogging at the age of
62. [1] He was survived by his wife and two children.
Contributions
Humanistic Psychology
One of the ideas that guided Maslow’s entire career was finding the individual amongst its behaviors. In
stark contrast to the entrenched Behaviorist orthodoxy of his time, Maslow believed that individuals
could not be defined by only their actions. With insight, Maslow even noticed how the very scientists
who looked at human behavior so objectively were themselves motivated to fulfill basic human needs.
Maslow wrote: “[Science’s] origins are in human motives, its goals are human goals, and it is created,
renewed, and maintained by human beings. Its laws, organization, and articulations rest not only on the
nature of the reality that it discovers, but also on the nature of the human nature that does the
discovering.” [6]
In consistently and resolutely returning the focus back to the individual and his or her human concerns,
Maslow pioneered an approach known as humanism, or humanistic psychology. This focus on the
individual was also exemplified in his research methods, which involved holistic phenomenological
studies of individuals, including case studies and interviews, rather than aggregating clinical data across
vast populations.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Described as “one of the most cognitively contagious ideas in the behavioral sciences,” [4] Abraham
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used as a motivational technique for innumerable individuals. First
proposed in a 1943 paper, Maslow’s original model hypothesized that all human actions, at their root,
aim to fulfill five basic categories of needs. [5] Generally represented graphically as a pyramid, the base
layer of needs is termed “physiological needs,” including air, food, water, shelter, sleep, and sex. The
layers then move up in complexity, to safety needs, love needs, esteem needs, and finally the need for self-
actualization.
The basic idea underlying the theory is that humans being are constantly motivated by the fulfillment of
some need. However, to say that any action is in pursuit of only a single goal is incomplete: Maslow
would go on to note that "in most persons, a single primary all-important motive is less often found than a
combination in varying amounts of all motivations working simultaneously." [6] The reason this theory
has retained such power for so many individuals is not that it instructs people on what exact needs they
need to fulfill, but rather that it orients them towards fulfilling all of their needs and provides them the
motivation to do so.
Legacy of Positive Psychology
One of the dominant schools of psychology, currently, is positive psychology. Positive psychology is the
study of human flourishing, and while it is a complicated relationship, its roots are undoubtedly in
Abraham Maslow’s humanistic psychology. The reason that current positive psychology researchers are
often loathe to claim their humanistic roots is because, generally speaking, positive psychologists are apt
to reject the phenomenological research methods of humanists such as Maslow, opting instead for
rigorous quantitative methods. [3] Notwithstanding, the two fields remain interrelated: in 2001 the
Journal of Humanistic Psychology released an entire issue specifically devoted to positive psychology.
[7]
But to say that Abraham Maslow had an impact on the creation of the field of positive psychology is not to
say that his ideas do not retain relevance beyond that field. Contemporary psychology researchers are still
actively engaging with his theories, attempting to revise them to incorporate the newest developments in
psychological science. [4] This continuing scholarly interest in Maslow’s theory, as well as its massive
popular appeal, demonstrates the enduring influence of psychological giant Abraham Maslow.

References
1. Dye, Kelly. (2008). Maslow, Abraham. In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed.
William A. Darity. (Ed. 2, Vol. 5, pp. 11-12). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. Retrieved
September 24, 2016 from Galegroup.com.
2. Encyclopedia.com Editors. (2008). Maslow, Abraham. In Complete Dictionary of Scientific
Biography. Retrieved September 24, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com.
3. Froh, J. J. (2004). The History of Positive Psychology: Truth Be Told. NYS Psychologist, 16(3),
18-20.
4. Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., & Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the Pyramid
of Needs: Contemporary Extensions Built Upon Ancient Foundations. Perspectives on
Psychological Science, 5(3), 292-314.
5. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370.
6. Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. Hoper & Row, EUA.
7. Rich, G. J. (2001). Positive Psychology: An Introduction. Journal of Humanistic Psychology,
41(1), 8-12.
Attachment Theory (Bowlby)

https://www.learning-theories.com/attachment-theory-bowlby.html
Summary: Attachment theory emphasizes the importance of a secure and trusting mother-infant bond on
development and well-being.
Originator and key contributors:
John Bowlby (1907-1990) British child psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, known for his theory on
attachment
Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999), American psychoanalyst known for the `strange situation`
Keywords: maternal deprivation, internal working model, strange situation, attachment styles
Attachment Theory (Bowlby)
Attachment is described as a long lasting psychological connection with a meaningful person that causes
pleasure while interacting and soothes in times of stress. The quality of attachment has a critical effect on
development, and has been linked to various aspects of positive functioning, such as psychological well-
being[1].
Maternal Deprivation
Bowlby began his journey to attachment theory through research he conducted on child delinquents and
hospitalized children. These studies led him to discuss the negative effects of maternal deprivation, the
situation in which the mother was either non responsive or absent for long spans of time within the
child’s first two years of life. Bowlby believed that children have an innate need to develop a close
relationship with one main figure, usually the mother. When this does not occur, it has negative
consequences on development, causing a decline in intelligence, depression, aggression, delinquency, and
affectionless psychopathy (a situation in which one is not concerned about the feelings of others)[2].
Bowlby’s theory on attachment
Following the above conclusions regarding maternal deprivation, Bowlby sought to develop a theory
which would support and explain his results. He felt that existing theories on attachment from
psychoanalytic and behavioral fields were detached from reality and not up to date, thus he began reading
into and corresponding with current researchers in the fields of biology and ethology. One study which
was particularly influential on attachment theory was conducted by Harlow & Zimmerman in 1959[3]. In
this study, monkeys were separated from their mothers and put into cages with “surrogate mothers”. One
“mother” was made out of wire with an attached bottle, while the other was coated with cloth. The
study’s results showed that monkeys chose the cloth mother over the wire mother, even though she did
not offer food. These results stand in contrast to classic approaches to attachment which believed that the
goal of attachment was the fulfillment of needs, particularly feeding. Bowlby developed his theory on the
basis of these results, claiming attachment to be an intrinsic need for an emotional bond with one’s
mother, extending beyond the need to be fed. He believed this to be an evolved need, where a strong
emotional bond with one’s mother increases chances of survival.
Stages of attachment
Preattachment (newborn-6 weeks): Newborn infants know to act in such a way that attracts adults, such
as crying, smiling, cooing, and making eye contact. Although not attached to their mothers yet, they are
soothed by the presence of others.
Attachment in making (6 weeks- 6 to 8 months): Infants begins to develop a sense of trust in their
mothers, in that they can depend on her in times of need. They are soothed more quickly by their mother,
and smile more often next to her.
Clear cut attachment (6 to 8 months- 18 months to 2 years): Attachment is established. The infant prefers
his mother over anyone else, and experiences separation anxiety when she leaves. The intensity of
separation anxiety is influenced by the infant’s temperament and the way in which caregivers respond
and soothe the infant.
Formation of reciprocal relationship (18 months- to years +): As language develops, separation anxiety
declines. The infant can now understand when his mother is leaving and when she will be coming back.
In addition, a sense of security has developed, in that even when his mother is not physically there, he
knows she is always there for him. Bowlby called this sense of security an internal working model.
Attachment styles
Bowlby’s attachment theory was tested using the `strange situation`. Children’s responses to their
mother’s presence and absence, and that of a stranger, were recorded[4]. These results served as the basis
for the formulation of attachment styles.
Secure attachment- Children who have developed secure attachment feel secure and happy, and are eager
to explore their surroundings. They know they could trust their mother to be there for them. Although
distressed at their mother’s absence, they are assured she will return. The mother’s behavior is consistent
and sensitive to the needs of her child.
Anxious avoidant insecure attachment: Children who have developed an anxious avoidant insecure
attachment do not trust their mother to fulfill their needs. They act indifferent to their mother’s presence
or absence, but are anxious inside. They are not explorative, and are emotionally distant. The mother’s
behavior is disengaged from her child and emotionally distant.
Anxious resistant insecure (ambivalent) attachment- Children who have developed anxious resistant
insecure attachment show a mixture of anger and helplessness towards their mother. They acts passively,
and feel insecure. Experience has taught them that they cannot rely on their mother. The mother’s
behavior is inconsistent. At times she is responsive and at times neglects her child.
Disorganized/disoriented attachment- Children who do not fit into the other categories are included in
this fourth form of attachment. These children could act depressed, angry, passive, or apathetical. Their
mothers could act in varying extremes, such as swaying between passivity and aggression or being scared
and actually being scary.
https://youtu.be/s14Q-_Bxc_U
An excerpt from the documentary on hospitalized children which served as the basis for Bowlby’s
ideas on maternal deprivation.
A Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development – one of the books
written by Bowlby
References
1. Bowlby, J. (2008). Attachment. Basic books.

2. Bowlby, J. (1998). Attachment and loss (No. 3). Random House.
3. Harlow, H. F., & Zimmerman, R. R. (1959). Affectional Response in the Infant Monke'. Science,
130(3373), 421-431.
4. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. N. (2015). Patterns of attachment: A
psychological study of the strange situation. Psychology Press.
Dopamine, Games, and Motivation

https://www.learning-theories.com/dopamine-games-motivation.html
Summary: Dopamine plays a role in motivation, and this role is important to understand in the context of
game design. Understanding how dopamine motivates can help game designers produce games that are
interesting, effective, and ethical.
Originators and Key Contributors: Henry Chase and Luke Clark presented a study in 2010 that
suggested that dopamine was not linked to pleasure as previously understood. By studying groups of
gamblers, they found that release of dopamine occurred whether there was a stressful situation presented
or a rewarding one[1]. In 2012, a team of Vanderbilt researchers published a study with influential
repercussions on our understanding of dopamine and its relationship to motivation. They found a
difference in dopamine’s effects based on which areas of the brain expressed higher levels of it[2].
Keywords: dopamine, motivation, addiction, game, reward
Dopamine, Games, and Motivation
Our understanding of the role of dopamine in our brains has changed over the past few decades. Early
studies linked dopamine to pleasure, but we now recognize that the presence of dopamine in the brain is
not necessarily linked to our liking or not liking certain things. Common perception, however, still holds
that dopamine is linked to pleasure, and that increased levels of dopamine necessarily give way to
increased pleasure. We now know that instead of being linked to pleasure, dopamine plays a role in motor
control, arousal, motivation, and reinforcement, among other functions.
Our current scientific knowledge acknowledges the significant role that dopamine plays with
motivation[3]. Dopamine can have opposing effects in different areas of the brain--its effects rely greatly
on what neural pathway dopamine is operating in. The mesolimbic pathway in the brain is the most
important for predicting rewards, and is therefore crucial for motivation. One of the stops on the
mesolimbic pathway is the nucleus accumbens, which registers increased dopamine levels and helps the
brain recognize when something important is going to happen. Whether this important event is good or
bad does not matter -- whatever it is, the nucleus accumbens triggers motivation for us to do something
about it. It has this motivating effect on us whether we’re about to eat a delicious meal or we’re
undergoing a particularly stressful situation. Dopamine operating in the mesolimbic pathway compels us
to act either to avoid something bad or to work towards something good.
Motivation and Games
So we now know that just because something activates dopamine does not mean that it is something we
find pleasurable. We have found a more accurate portrayal of dopamine, in which it plays a central role in
regulating our motivations for pursuing rewards or avoiding consequences. What does this have to do
with games and motivation? Whereas before we might have understood game addiction with the
assumption that dopamine released during the course of playing a game gives the player pleasure, we now
understand that pleasure really may or may not involved. Dopamine does get released when, as we are
playing a game, we expect a reward or anything of consequence. The release of dopamine compels us to
play, whether we want to or not.
Studies have shown that dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens is the same whether roulette players
win or have a near-miss[1]. The release of dopamine every time the player wins or goes through the close-
stakes experience of nearly losing motivates the player to keep trying, to take another chance. This kind
of encouragement might be beneficial for a game that is based on skill, but it can be damaging when it
comes to games of chance. This is partly what’s in effect when drug addicts continue seeking highs, even
as they might report that they get little enjoyment from their abuse of drugs. They receive little pleasure,
and yet they are compelled to try and try again.
As we can see, dopamine plays a sometimes dangerous and significant role in motivating or compelling
someone to keep trying, despite the odds. Further evidence suggests that dopamine has even more
influence on those who are already stressed physically and/or mentally. This presents an additional ethical
complication for game designers, some of whom build games with a specific goal of capitalizing on
dopamine’s motivational effects in order to keep players in the game. Games that are designed this way
will likely be more captivating for those who are more vulnerable.
Is there a way to positively motivate people through games or game-centered learning and minimize any
adverse effects? Sometimes games compel us to play them even if we don’t like them, and sometimes,
when the game is extremely compelling, we might sink time and money into the game that we would
rather not, if we only didn’t feel highly motivated to do so. Perhaps game designers can build in natural
“breaks” to help break up gameplay and encourage players to do something other than play the game for
hours. In an educational setting where games are used for learning, the structure of the classroom might
help prevent students from being too obsessed with a game. There might be set lessons in levels within
games that are completed by the end of the day, with the next day’s game and lesson reserved for the next
day in school.
How can we use motivation in a positive way? It is true that games can be used to encourage learning and
promote desired behaviors. Even simply playing a game recreationally and achieving small successes,
and being motivated to continue on to achieve bigger and bigger successes incrementally, might boost
self-esteem and foster feelings of mastery and confidence. Because games tend to build successes
incrementally, a player might be surprised to find that what once seemed impossible gets easier and easier
as they build their skills and level up each time. Students can use games to help achieve certain goals,
such as learning another language or studying to get an “A” in math class. By understanding the role of
dopamine in motivation, a game designer can try to build a game with rewards and risks that make sense
and that motivates a student to continue on, level after level, getting closer to the ultimate goal-- perhaps
mastery of Spanish or French[4].
In Drugs, Addiction, and the Brain, the authors explore the systems in the brain that are
responsible for drug addiction. Molecular, cellular, and neurocircuitry systems are examined.
In Designing Games, Tynan Sylvester presents a nuts-and-bolts guide to creating emotional
experiences within games that will motivate players. This book presents a game designer’s
viewpoint to the conversation on games, motivation, and dopamine.
References
1. Chase, H. W., & Clark, L. (2010). Gambling severity predicts midbrain response to near-miss
outcomes. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30(18), 6180-6187.
2. Treadway, M. T., Buckholtz, J. W., Cowan, R. L., Woodward, N. D., Li, R., Ansari, M. S., ... &
Zald, D. H. (2012). Dopaminergic mechanisms of individual differences in human effort-based
decision-making. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(18), 6170-6176.
3. Koob, G. F., Arends, M. A., & Le Moal, M. (2014). Drugs, addiction, and the brain. Academic
Press.
4. Sylvester, T. (2013). Designing games: a guide to engineering experiences. " O'Reilly Media,
Inc.".
Educational Robotics and Constructionism (Papert)

https://www.learning-theories.com/educational-robotics-and-constructionism.html
Summary: Constructionism as a learning theory emphasizes student-centered discovery learning, and

educators are currently expanding its reach to the field of educational robotics in order to engage students.
Originators and Key Contributors: Seymour Papert took Piaget’s theory of constructivism and adapted it
into his theory of constructionism.
Keywords: constructivism, constructionism, learning theory, discovery learning, educational robotics,

technology
Educational Robotics and Constructionism (Papert)
Constructionism as an educational theory is student-centered and emphasizes discovery learning, where

students are encouraged to work with tangible objects in the real world and use what they already know to
gain more knowledge[1]. The point is to make the process of thinking and learning visible and to allow for
a more process-oriented engagement with an idea via construction and deconstruction. Under
constructionism, teachers take a backseat role as facilitators of student learning instead of giving lectures
or step-by-step instruction.
Seymour Papert, a leading constructionism advocate and researcher, is for bringing technology into
classrooms as much as possible. Constructionism can mostly be found being used as an educational tool
in science and math classrooms, though it is spreading to other subjects as well. Today, there is an
increasing popularity for robotic technologies used in the classroom. Specifically, there has been a focus
on “white-box” digital tools, which teach the user or builder about the structure of the technology itself,
in contrast to “black-box” software or technology, which conceals the method of its creation and is closed
to any modifications by the user or builder[2].
A black-box robot is a pre-programmed robot that might perform actions or complete tasks for the user,
but is not open to additional programming nor revealing of the way in which it was made. It performs a
pre-specified function and does not contribute to any learning on the part of the user in regards to how it
is built or how it works. A white-box robot, on the other hand, or a white-box set of robotic technologies,
might make the process of building robots transparent so that the user can build and program a robot for
themselves. Two examples of tools that allow for white-box educational robotics are the Lego
Mindstorms and Pico-Crickets kits. Lego Mindstorm kits come with software and hardware that builders
can use to create and program custom robots.
One drawback to this white-box approach of using educational robotics is that users tend to approach a
plateau, where it is difficult to advance beyond a certain point and create more complex robots. Starting
from scratch can mean more work up-front on the part of the user or learner to get anywhere substantial.
There may come to be more of an emphasis on manipulating and controlling robots and their
environments in the field of educational robotics rather than focusing on a completely white-box
approach. Learning to control robots using different devices may introduce important concepts as well. It
may not be strictly necessary to start with students building and programming robots from a blank slate to
introduce important ideas in robotics and technology.
Educational robotics can take two forms. The first is that robotics itself and other related topics (artificial
intelligence, robot mechanics, etc.) are the learning objects and the focus of study. The second is when
robotics is used as a learning tool for illustrating concepts (widely in math, science, and technology).
Beyond teaching students about technology and assisting with other school subjects, educational robotics
can also impart engineering skills and problem-solving skills. Students also exercise their creativity and
collaboration skills.
The iterative process that is typically involved in building and programming a robot allows students to
experiment and see the tangible effects of their experimentation. Papert argued that fear of being wrong
holds students back from learning. When building a robot, however, students must make mistakes and
become good at identifying them. The question becomes not whether something is right or wrong, but
rather if it is fixable. This encourages students to think critically about what they are building and to try
and try again until they have a working robot. Papert further states that children, even without being
taught, learn and develop their thinking. Constructionism in educational robotics, then, plays the role of
providing the rich toolkits and the environment needed for students to foster their own learning[2][3].
In Blocks to Robots, Marina Umaschi Bers illustrates constructionist methods for employing
educational robotics in the classroom. The book contains practical examples for an early
childhood classroom.
Constructionism in Practice: Designing, Thinking, and Learning in A Digital World presents
a well thought-out examination of constructionism and its impact on student learning. Yasmin
Kafai looks at a number of different aspects to constructionism as practiced in the classroom:
social and community impact, design thinking, systems thinking, and constructionism’s
intellectual background.
References
1. Papert, S., & Harel, I. (1991). Situating constructionism. Constructionism, 36, 1-11.
2. Alimisis, D., & Kynigos, C. (2009). Constructionism and Robotics in Education. In D. Alimisis
(Ed.), Teacher Education on Robotic-Enhanced Constructivist Pedagogical Methods (pp. 11-27).
School of Pedagogical and Technological Education.
Papert, Seymour. Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas. Basic Books, Inc., 1980.
Erik Erikson
https://www.learning-theories.com/?p=2663
Once described by a colleague as “Freud in sonnet form”, [5] psychological giant Erik Erikson blurred the
line between science and art. A prolific researcher best known for his model of human development as a
series of eight stages, Erikson’s long and abundantly rich life demonstrated a keen appreciation for the art of
living. A look into the life and life’s work of Erik Erikson reveals the lasting impact of this great thinker.
Biography
Contributions
Life Accomplishments
Erikson’s Stages of Development
Emphasis on Young Adulthood
Enduring Legacy
Biography
Erik Homburger was born into a tumultuous family situation. His mother, a Danish Jew, was not married
to Erik’s father, and moved from Copenhagen to Germany to protect the family from the stigma of
having a child out of wedlock. As Erik grew up, he quickly became aware of the conflict, finding himself
the only blonde and blue-eyed person in his family. His mother never revealed to Erik the identity of his
biological father, and Erik was given the surname of his stepfather: Homburger.[1]
Despite the feeling of abandonment at not knowing his real father, Erik received a classical education
from a proper German gymnasium, and had a happy childhood. After demonstrating talent as an artist in
childhood, he decided to make it his career, and spent the years of his Wander-schaft (period of
journeying) moving from city to city in Europe using only his drawings and sketches to support himself.
[1]
The turning point in his life came when he met Anna Freud. Freud took notice of Erik while he was
teaching in Vienna and invited him to train as a psychoanalyst. At the time, the Viennese school of
psychoanalysis begun by Sigmund Freud only accepted members upon invitation. It was here that he met,
fell in love with, and married fellow artist-analysand Joan Serson. Six years after he began his training,
the looming threats of Nazism in Germany forced Erik and his wife to emigrate to the United States,
where in short order they began long and illustrious careers. Upon arriving in the US, Erik decided to take
the surname Erikson, literally meaning “son of Erik”. [5] The change in name signified that Erik Erikson
had found a home, and found himself.
Contributions
Erikson was a prolific scientist whose career spanned nearly 60 years and included clinical practice as a
child psychotherapist, academic appointments at Harvard, Yale, and Berkeley, numerous academic
publications, and several long and protracted psychological case studies. Erikson also originated the term
identity crisis, [5] and won a Pulitzer prize for his book detailing the life of Mahatma Ghandi. [4]
Many of Erikson’s contributions were built around one consistent theoretical framework, a series of eight
psychosocial stages. This framework is usually referred to as “Erikson’s stages,” and forms the idea for
which Erikson is best known. The concept of the stages was first laid out in a work called “Identity and
the Life Cycle” that Erikson originally published as a collection of essays in 1959. In the work, Erikson
establishes a view of life as a progression of eight stages, each of which are framed as a dichotomy or
“crisis” between two competing ideas. For example, the sixth stage, Young Adulthood (roughly ages
18-25), is characterized by a crisis between intimacy and isolation, with a healthy synthesis lying in an
individual’s ability to enter into intimate relationships without significant anxiety. [2] Once the individual
resolves this conflict, they begin the transition into the next stage.
One of the primary sources of information Erikson drew from to establish his psychosocial stages was his
clinical experience as a child analyst. However, Erikson’s beliefs on childhood diverged greatly from
other Freudian psychoanalysts of his day in that it placed more emphasis on adolescence and young
adulthood than on early childhood. Erikson’s belief in the importance of identity formation in the late
teens and early twenties likely arose from his own wandering sojourns at this age. [4] Erik and his wife
Joan would go on to extend their 8-stage theory nearly 40 years later to include a 9th stage. [3] Though
the work was ultimately published after Erik’s death, his dedication to the project into his 90s serves as
another indication of how Erikson integrated his own life experience into his work.
Enduring Legacy
Many of Erikson’s theories were developed during the 1950s and 60s, in a much different cultural milieu
than we find in today’s world. It is a testament to the power of his theories that today’s psychologists
continue to make the effort to adapt and expand them. Furthermore, it is a testament to the gracefulness of
his character that this adaptation is something Erikson would have welcomed. [6] Erik Erikson will forever
be remembered not only for his ceaseless pursuit of the truths of how human beings develop, but also for
how he lived out these truths throughout the course of his long and meaningful life.

Resources
References
1. Encyclopedia.com Editors. (2008). Erikson, Erik Homburger. In Complete Dictionary of

Scientific Biography. Retrieved September 20, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com.
2. Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle: Selected papers. Psychological Issues.
3. Erikson, E. H., & Erikson, J. M. (1998). The life cycle completed (extended version). WW
Norton & Company.
4. Gredler, Margaret. (2002). Erikson, Erik (1902–1994). In Encyclopedia of Education. Ed. James W.
Guthrie. (Ed. 2, Vol. 2, pp. 751-752). New York: Macmillan Reference USA. Retrieved 20
September 2016 from Galegroup.com.
5. Hopkins, J. R. (1995). Erik Homburger Erikson (1902–1994): Obituary. American
Psychologist, 50(9), 796-797. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.796
6. Robinson, O. (2016). Emerging adulthood, early adulthood and quarter-life crisis: Updating
Erikson for the 21st Century. In Emerging adulthood in a European context, Žukauskien?, R.
(Ed.). London: Routledge.
Erik Erikson biography

https://www.learning-theories.com/erik-erikson-biography.html
Once described by a colleague as “Freud in sonnet form”, [5] psychological giant Erik Erikson blurred the
line between science and art. A prolific researcher best known for his model of human development as a
series of eight stages, Erikson’s long and abundantly rich life demonstrated a keen appreciation for the art of
living. A look into the life and life’s work of Erik Erikson reveals the lasting impact of this great thinker.
Biography
Contributions
Enduring Legacy
Biography
Erik Homburger was born into a tumultuous family situation. His mother, a Danish Jew, was not married
to Erik’s father, and moved from Copenhagen to Germany to protect the family from the stigma of
having a child out of wedlock. As Erik grew up, he quickly became aware of the conflict, finding himself
the only blonde and blue-eyed person in his family. His mother never revealed to Erik the identity of his
biological father, and Erik was given the surname of his stepfather: Homburger.[1]
Despite the feeling of abandonment at not knowing his real father, Erik received a classical education from
a proper German gymnasium, and had a happy childhood. After demonstrating talent as an artist in
childhood, he decided to make it his career, and spent the years of his Wander-schaft (period of
journeying) moving from city to city in Europe using only his drawings and sketches to support himself.
[1]
The turning point in his life came when he met Anna Freud. Freud took notice of Erik while he was
teaching in Vienna and invited him to train as a psychoanalyst. At the time, the Viennese school of
psychoanalysis begun by Sigmund Freud only accepted members upon invitation. It was here that he met,
fell in love with, and married fellow artist-analysand Joan Serson. Six years after he began his training, the
looming threats of Nazism in Germany forced Erik and his wife to emigrate to the United States, where in
short order they began long and illustrious careers. Upon arriving in the US, Erik decided to take the
surname Erikson, literally meaning “son of Erik”. [5] The change in name signified that Erik Erikson had
found a home, and found himself.
Contributions
Erikson was a prolific scientist whose career spanned nearly 60 years and included clinical practice as a
child psychotherapist, academic appointments at Harvard, Yale, and Berkeley, numerous academic
publications, and several long and protracted psychological case studies. Erikson also originated the term
identity crisis, [5] and won a Pulitzer prize for his book detailing the life of Mahatma Ghandi. [4]
Many of Erikson’s contributions were built around one consistent theoretical framework, a series of eight
psychosocial stages. This framework is usually referred to as “Erikson’s stages,” and forms the idea for
which Erikson is best known. The concept of the stages was first laid out in a work called “Identity and
the Life Cycle” that Erikson originally published as a collection of essays in 1959. In the work, Erikson
establishes a view of life as a progression of eight stages, each of which are framed as a dichotomy or
“crisis” between two competing ideas. For example, the sixth stage, Young Adulthood (roughly ages
18-25), is characterized by a crisis between intimacy and isolation, with a healthy synthesis lying in an
individual’s ability to enter into intimate relationships without significant anxiety. [2] Once the individual
resolves this conflict, they begin the transition into the next stage.
One of the primary sources of information Erikson drew from to establish his psychosocial stages was his
clinical experience as a child analyst. However, Erikson’s beliefs on childhood diverged greatly from
other Freudian psychoanalysts of his day in that it placed more emphasis on adolescence and young
adulthood than on early childhood. Erikson’s belief in the importance of identity formation in the late
teens and early twenties likely arose from his own wandering sojourns at this age. [4] Erik and his wife
Joan would go on to extend their 8-stage theory nearly 40 years later to include a 9th stage. [3] Though the
work was ultimately published after Erik’s death, his dedication to the project into his 90s serves as
another indication of how Erikson integrated his own life experience into his work.
Enduring Legacy
Many of Erikson’s theories were developed during the 1950s and 60s, in a much different cultural milieu
than we find in today’s world. It is a testament to the power of his theories that today’s psychologists
continue to make the effort to adapt and expand them. Furthermore, it is a testament to the gracefulness of
his character that this adaptation is something Erikson would have welcomed. [6] Erik Erikson will forever
be remembered not only for his ceaseless pursuit of the truths of how human beings develop, but also for
how he lived out these truths throughout the course of his long and meaningful life.

References
1. Encyclopedia.com Editors. (2008). Erikson, Erik Homburger. In Complete Dictionary of

Scientific Biography. Retrieved September 20, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com.
2. Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle: Selected papers. Psychological Issues.
3. Erikson, E. H., & Erikson, J. M. (1998). The life cycle completed (extended version). WW Norton
& Company.
4. Gredler, Margaret. (2002). Erikson, Erik (1902–1994). In Encyclopedia of Education. Ed. James
W. Guthrie. (Ed. 2, Vol. 2, pp. 751-752). New York: Macmillan Reference USA. Retrieved 20
September 2016 from Galegroup.com.
5. Hopkins, J. R. (1995). Erik Homburger Erikson (1902–1994): Obituary. American Psychologist,
50(9), 796-797. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.796
6. Robinson, O. (2016). Emerging adulthood, early adulthood and quarter-life crisis: Updating Erikson for
the 21st Century. In Emerging adulthood in a European context, Žukauskien?, R. (Ed.). London:
Routledge.
Gamification in Education
https://www.learning-theories.com/gamification-in-education.html
Summary: Gamification describes the process of applying game-related principles -- particularly those
relating to user experience and engagement -- to non-game contexts such as education.
Originators and Key Contributors: In 1980, Thomas Malone published the study “What Makes Things
to Learn: A Study of Intrinsically Motivating Computer Games.”[1] Later, in 2002, the Woodrow Wilson
International Center for Scholars, based in Washington D.C., established the Serious Games Initiative to
explore the application of game principles to public policy issues. From that initiative, gamification for
education emerged and gradually evolved into a field of study. The term gamification was coined in 2003
by Nick Pelling[2][3]. Today, many game researchers including Katie Salen, founder of the Quest to Learn
public school, Jane McGonigal, Director of Game Research and Development at the Institute for the
Future, and Joey J. Lee, Director of the Games Research Lab at Teachers College, Columbia University,
have extended serious advancements in the application of gamification (or "gameful thinking") to
educational contexts.
Keywords: gamification, education, learning, classroom, engagement, motivation
Gamification in Education
Gamification in education, or gamification in learning, is sometimes described using other terms: gameful
thinking, game principles for education, motivation design, engagement design, etc. It is different from
game-based learning in that it does not involve students making their own games or playing commercially-
made video games. It operates under the assumption that the kind of engagement that gamers experience
with games can be translated to an educational context towards the goals of facilitating learning and
influencing student behavior. Since gamers voluntarily spend countless hours playing games and problem-
solving, researchers and educators have been exploring ways to harness videogames’ power for
motivation and apply it to the classroom.
Game Elements
Gamification in learning involves incorporating game elements to motivate learners. Some of these
elements include the following:
Narrative
Immediate feedback
Fun
“Scaffolded learning” with challenges that increase
Mastery (for example, in the form of leveling up)
Progress indicators (for example, through points/badges/leaderboards, also called PBLs)
Social connection
Player control
A classroom that contains some or all of these elements can be considered a “gamified” classroom. The
best combinations, the ones that create sustained engagement, consider the unique needs of the learners
and do more than just use points and levels to motivate players. The most effective gamification systems
make use of other elements such as narrative and connection with fellow players/learners to really capture
the learner’s interest.
Benefits to Gamification in Education
Gamification in education offers many possible benefits, including the following:
Students feel ownership over their learning

More relaxed atmosphere in regard to failure, since learners can simply try again
More fun in the classroom
Learning becomes visible through progress indicators
Students may uncover intrinsic motivation for learning
Students can explore different identities through different avatars/characters
Students often are more comfortable in gaming environments
Application
There are three main ways that gamification can be applied to a learning environment. These include
adapting grades, changing the classroom language, and modifying the structure of the class. Instead of
solely using letter grades, there might be a ladder of experience points (XP) that the student climbs. These
XP might then translate to letter grades that are assigned based on how many XP each student has
accrued. With respect to changing the language that is used in the classroom, completing an assignment
might be referred to as “embarking on a quest.” To gamify the structure of the classroom, a teacher might
organize students into “guilds” or “leagues” that work together to complete quests and rack up points. A
structural narrative can also function as a strong motivator and as reinforcement for the learning material,
especially if the narrative fits the learning content. A unit on world geography, for example, might divide
students into teams of explorers that are each assigned a country to “explore” and report on.
Examples
There are now numerous examples of gamification applied to learning environments, both offline and
online. Quest to Learn (Q2L), a public school based in New York City, opened in 2009 to offer its first
class of sixth graders a gamified curriculum in which learning happens through the motivation of play. As
an example, through the school’s unified math and science track called “The Way Things Work,” one
game has students help a shrunken scientist navigate throughout the human body. Another example of
gamification in learning is the Khan Academy, which is an online gamified learning platform that features
instructional videos and exercises on a variety of topics. In 2010, Khan Academy introduced badges as
motivation for learning. There are hundreds of badges organized into different types, which include moon
badges given for significant investment in learning and sun badges given for dedication.
For more information, please see: (a couple links to additional reading).
In The Gamification of Learning and Instruction, Karl Kapp defines and elucidates the concept of
gamification and introduces various examples of gamification at work in education. This book is an
excellent nuts-and-bolts guide that is grounded in solid research and would serve educators interested in
this topic well.
Rules of Play is a book written by Katie Salen, designer of the gamified NY public school Quest to Learn,
and Eric Zimmerman. Presenting games through a series of eighteen “game design schemas,” this book is
an excellent primer for anyone interested in principles of game design that would undoubtedly prove
valuable for non-game contexts.
Gamification Research Network - A community of gamification researchers, featuring news, papers and
other resources.
Gamification in Education: What, How, Why Bother? by Joey J. Lee and Jessica Hammer. A nice
summary of issues surrounding gamification in education.
References
1. Malone, T. W. (1981). What makes things fun to learn? A study of intrinsically motivating
computer games. Pipeline, 6(2), 50.
2. Yang, Y. (2014). Three Questions to Ask Before You Embark on Gamification.eLearn, 2014(11),
4.
Leaning, M. (2015). A study of the use of games and gamification to enhance student engagement,
experience and achievement on a theory-based course of an undergraduate media degree. Journal of Media
Practice, 16(2), 155-170.
Montessori Method (Montessori)

https://www.learning-theories.com/montessori-method-montessori.html
Summary: The Montessori Method is an approach to learning which emphasizes active learning,
independence, cooperation, and learning in harmony with each child’s unique pace of development.
Originator: Maria Montessori (1870-1952), Italian teacher and physician
Keywords: absorbent mind, sensitive period, prepared environment, autoeducation, planes of

development
The Montessori Method is an approach to education which emphasizes individuality and independence in
learning[1]. Children are seen as inherently curious and learning driven. Thus, education is viewed as a
process which should occur in harmony with the child’s individual developmental pace. It is a holistic
approach emphasizing all aspects of development, rather than on attaining specific pieces of information.
Montessori Method
Key components
Maria Montessori developed her educational method based on a few main premises:
Respect for the child- Montessori believed that adults seldom truly respect children. Adults expect
children to be disciplined and force information on them from above. The Montessori approach allows
children choices, thus preparing them to become independent learners. Children discover the world
around them through a hands on approach, rather than the information being landed upon them from
above. This promotes enthusiasm and curiosity driven learning.
The Absorbent Mind- Children are constantly learning in an inherent process of their everyday life. What
the child absorbs depends largely on what types of information and experiences cross their paths[2].
Montessori classrooms allow free exploration and learning in uninterrupted blocks of time, in order to get
the most out of their learning experiences.
Sensitive periods- Children become ripe to learn different types of skills at specific points in their
development[3]. The age at which each sensitive period occurs varies from one child to another. Teachers
must be acutely aware of when the right time is to introduce concepts to each individual child.
The prepared environment- A major factor which sets apart Montessori classrooms are their physical
organization. Montessori believed that classrooms should be filled with readily available and well
organized learning materials. The environment should be aesthetically pleasing, and only include things
that the teacher wants the child to experience. This environment should contain materials that children
from different ages, characteristics, and interests could all engage in.
Autoeducation-Montessori believed that children should educate themselves, thus developing skills
necessary for life. This can occur once the teachers has prepared an appropriate learning environment and
gives choices. Autoeducation can be seen as the goal of this method. Children often learn in multi-age
groups, thus able to assist each other in their learning processes.
Planes of development
Montessori incorporated these premises into a child development theory. Throughout development
children progress through four planes, each with unique physical and psychological developments. Thus,
each plane necessitates their environment to change accordingly and offer appropriate learning
experiences. The Montessori Method is differentially applied according to where the child is situated in
the planes of development.
Infancy (birth-6 years) This stage is characterized by the Absorbent Mind and Sensitive Periods. These
two aspects work together and cause an unparalleled ability for learning. Learning is intense and
enlightening. During the first three years of life infants learn through their senses, in what is called an
unconscious Absorbent Mind. During the second three years children learn consciously through active
hands on experience. Learning will take place when they are allowed to do things on their own.
Childhood (6-12 years) This stage is characterized by stability, having acquired most of the basic skills he
will need. Children grow out of their Absorbent Mind, and learn through cognitive reasoning and
imagination. Children are driven to understand the world around them, how things work, and why. This is
the time to learn most factual information, as adolescence brings a decline in this learning drive. The
sensitive period of this age group centers on social acceptance, and the development of a value system.
Adolescence (12-18 years) At this point, adolescents present a decline in energy, and do not want to be
bombarded with learning information. Thus, learning should be connected to every-day living skills.
Although Montessori never developed this stage into a practical learning system, she dreamed to create
schools which were actually self sustaining communities, where through working on activities, such as
growing their own food, planning meals, building houses and designing clothing, learning would occur
naturally. In this way, adolescents would come better prepared to adapt to the adult world, by becoming
independent and learning to live in harmony with others.
Transition to adulthood (18-24 years) This stage is characterized by career exploration and beginnings
stages of careers. If the individual acquired the necessary cognitive and social skills in the previous stages
then he will be able to make exact and satisfying careers choices.
Montessori teachers
Montessori teachers have quite a different role than those of classic educational methods. The teacher is
less prominent. She is there to be an aid in the child’s independent learning process. The teacher decides
which learning materials will be available and how they will be organized. She then takes a step back,
allows free exploration, and is there to give guidance and a helping hand. Simultaneously, she is an active
observer, assessing when children have reached sensitive periods where new concepts may be introduced.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iOZlQ-43oX0&sns=em
The Absorbent Mind, a book by Maria Montessori that featured her most in-depth work on her
educational theory, as a result of several years observing children
References
1. Montessori, M. (2013). The montessori method. Transaction publishers.

2. Montessori, M. (1949). The absorbent mind (Vol. 1). Lulu. com.
3. Montessori, M. (1936). The secret of childhood. B. B. Carter (Ed.). Calcutta: Orient Longmans.
Psychological Behaviorism (Staats)

https://www.learning-theories.com/psychological-behaviorism-staats.html
Summary: Psychological behaviorism (PB) holds that a person’s psychology can be explained through
observable behavior.
Originators and Key Contributors: Watson first developed behaviorism, the umbrella theory that
includes psychological behaviorism, in 1912. Skinner further extended the theory with his formulation of
radical behaviorism. Staats has argued recently for a psychological behaviorism that emphasizes a
person’s psychology and personality.
Keywords: personality, psychology, behavior, behaviorism, language, learning, cumulative learning
Psychological Behaviorism (Staats)
Psychological behaviorism (PB) extends behaviorism to the realm of psychology, positing that a person’s
psychology can be explained through observable behaviors[1]. The components of a person’s psychology
include personality, learning, and emotion. Arthur W. Staats was the first to propose that personality
consists of a collection of learned behaviors that arise from the interplay of a person’s environment,
biology, cognition, and emotions. This theory of personality is a main component of psychological
behaviorism that separates it from theories of behaviorism that preceded it. Behaviorism as a whole
describes the theory that positive and negative reinforcements determine behavior.
PB and Personality
According to Staats’ personality theory, there are three behavioral repertoires that contribute to a theory
of personality[2]. The first of these is sensory-motor repertoire, which includes sensory-motor skills and
attentional and social skills. The second is language-cognitive repertoire, and the third is emotional-
motivational repertoire. When an infant is born, it lacks these repertoires and only later acquires them
through complex learning and becomes able to deal with various situations. An individual experiences
life according to their repertoires, and as they grow, they develop a basic behavioral repertoire (BBR). An
individual’s BBR and their life situation will inform their behavior, which constitutes their personality.
According to this model, biology interacts with environment and learning to create an individual’s
personality.
PB considers the study of personality, including how it is affected and how it affects behavior, to be
important. Personality tests are seen as significant for how they might be able to predict what behaviors
people will exhibit. Tests also help identify behaviors and the contexts that produce them, helping to
make it possible to create those environments that produce desired behaviors and prevent undesired
behaviors from developing. One example is of a study where children learning the letters of the alphabet
were found to be learning repertoires that promoted intelligence.
PB and Education
PB argues that as children develop, they learn basic repertoires upon which other and more complex
repertoires are built. This is called cumulative learning, which PB states is a kind of learning unique to
humans. According to this cumulative learning model, when children learn a repertoire such as language,
they can then build upon that repertoire with other ones such as reading and grammar. From there,
learning those repertoires of reading and grammar lead to the acquisition of further complex repertoires.
Staats’ research with his own children and in his studies emphasized the importance of parenting to a
child’s development. He showed that early training of children in language and cognitive development led
to more advanced language development and demonstration of higher intelligence on intelligence tests.
There have been many studies of this topic in the field of behavior analysis that support his findings.
PB and Language
Staats indicated that many words carry a positive or negative connotation, and they transfer that
association to anything to which they are paired. Such “emotional words” have the purpose of 1) acting
as rewards or punishments for behaviors, and 2) encouraging either approach or avoidance behaviors.
This can be seen in the case of a compliment paid to a person for a certain behavior, who will be more
likely to repeat that behavior. This demonstrates emotional words creating an emotional response.
PB and Behavior Disorders
Instead of accepting the concept of mental illness, psychological behaviorism argues that behavior
disorders are simply learned repertoires of behaviors that are abnormal or a lack of learned repertoires
that allow the individual to manage life events. PB suggests a clinical approach for treating behavior
disorders through behavior analysis and also suggests prevention of the conditions that create them. The
DSM provides descriptions of abnormal repertoires and lack of normal repertoires that PB uses in its
theories of behavior disorders.
For more information, please see the following recommended books:
In the book Behaviorism by John Watson, Watson presents his development of behaviorism here as an
objective methodology as opposed to a dominant approach at the time that emphasized introspective
psychology.
In Behavior and Personality, Arthur Staats explains his research in this book on children’s learning,
intelligence, and personality.
References
1. Staats, W. W. (1996). Behavior and personality: Psychological behaviorism. Springer Publishing

Company.
2. Staats, A. W. (1993). Personality Theory, Abnormal Psychology, and Psychological Measurement
A Psychological Behaviorism. Behavior modification, 17(1), 8-42.
Tools to Teach Coding and Computer Science

https://www.learning-theories.com/tools-to-teach-coding-and-computer-science
Computer Science is described as a “new basic skill” necessary for economic opportunity and social
mobility. [1] Computer Science for All (CS4All), President Obama’s new initiative to empower all
American students to learn computational thinking and computer science skills -- aims to prepare students
to be creators in the digital economy -- not just consumers.
Some estimates predict that 23000+ computer science educators are needed by 2025. This is a daunting
challenge. How will we rise to this challenge?
The good news is that there are many excellent (and in many cases, free) resources and materials for
teaching various computer science skills. Specifically, it is easier than ever to learn coding fundamentals.
This page will organize various types of tools and resources for educators and students.
Tools for Teaching Coding
Here are our recommended tools for teaching and learning coding skills.
Free Game Creation Tools
GameSalad Edu - A drag-and-drop (no programming required) game creation tool to teach
computer science fundamentals.
Drag and Drop Editors
Scratch - A simple drag-and-drop interface to allow kids to program their own interactive stories,
games, and animations.
MOOCs and Resources

Udacity's Introduction to Computer Science - A free Python course.
--
References:
1. https://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2016/01/30/computer-science-all
Uses and Gratification Theory

https://www.learning-theories.com/uses-and-gratification-theory.html
Summary: Uses and gratification theory (UGT) is an audience-centered approach that focuses on what
people do with media, as opposed to what media does to people.
Originators and Key Contributors: Uses and gratification theory builds off of a history of communication
theories and research. Jay Blumler and Denis McQuail laid the primary groundwork in 1969 with their
categorization of audience motivations for watching political programs during the time of the 1964
election in the United Kingdom[1]. This eventually led them to develop UGT later on with their
colleagues[2][3][4].
Keywords: gratification, media, audience, entertainment, mass media, communication
Uses and Gratification Theory
Uses and gratification theory seeks to understand why people seek out the media that they do and what
they use it for. UGT differs from other media effect theories in that it assumes that individuals have
power over their media usage, rather than positioning individuals as passive consumers of media. UGT
explores how individuals deliberately seek out media to fulfill certain needs or goals such as
entertainment, relaxation, or socializing.
USG History
Uses and gratification theory builds off of a history of communication theories and research. Its
beginnings lie in researchers’ studies of radio listeners in the 1940s. Other research at that time looked
into children’s comics and the absence of newspapers during a newspaper strike. USG history can be
described as falling within a series of stages:
Stage 1
In 1944 Herta Hertzog interviewed people who listened to soap operas and determined that they sought
three different types of gratification from this form of entertainment. These three types of gratification
were emotional, wishful thinking, and learning.
In 1954 Wilbur Schramm developed a formula for determining which media an individual might select all
contribute to the foundation for modern developments of this theory. This formula took into account the
amount of gratification an individual expected to get out of a certain form of media and the amount of
effort the individual would have to exert to get it.
In 1970 Abraham Maslow posited that USG was an extension of the needs he had himself organized into
his Hierarchy of Needs.
Stage 2
In 1969 Jay Blumler and Denis McQuail studied the United Kingdom 1964 election and categorized
people’s motives for watching certain political programs on television. These audience motivations
formed the foundation for their research in 1972 and led to USG later on.
In 1972 Jay Blumler, Joseph Brown, and Denis McQuail proposed four uses of media: diversion, personal
relationships, personal identity, and surveillance.
In 1973-74 Blumler, Brown, and McQuail were joined by colleagues Michael Gurevitch, Hadassah Haas,
and Elihu Katz. The six conducted collaborative research on how people viewed mass media.
Stage 3
UGT researchers today are exploring predictive and explanatory possibilities of the theory by connecting
media usage with individual factors. There is particular interest in the link between why media is used
and the gratification received. Overall, UGT has been crucial to a shift that focuses on the media user and
their agency in the field of mass media studies.
Modern-Day Applications
Today, UGT has more relevance than ever as a tool for understanding how we as individuals connect with
the technologies around us. These technologies span everything from the Internet to video gaming to
mobile phones. UGT research into mobile phone usage has found that people seek a number of
gratifications from their phones, including affection/sociability, entertainment, and mobility, among
others. As another example of a contemporary technology, when using social media, users can be
motivated by factors like a need to vent negative feelings, recognition, and cognitive needs. Animated
news and entertainment media are just two other examples of media technologies that UGT researchers
continue to explore.
Theory Criticism
UGT has been plagued almost from its inception by criticisms that it does not meet the standards
necessary to be a theory. Common criticisms include the fact that gratifications are more dependent on
researchers’ input than on the subjects’, that audiences of different ages will have different motivations
for watching the same media, and that much of the information collected in studies is self-reported, and as
such, difficult to measure. Despite the criticism, UGT may be more relevant and useful today as media
users now have hundreds of TV channels, the internet, and a whole array of other media entertainment
options that help solidify the argument that the individual has agency over their media consumption.
What's the News?: A Study of Senior Citizens' Television News Uses and Gratifications, authored by
Jonathan J. Lloyd and Steven McClung, is a study inspired by the expansion of TV programming as well
as of US senior citizens. The study explores the uses and gratifications seniors get from watching TV
news.
In Understanding the Misunderstanding, Meng Zhao studies the gratifications that Chinese audiences
receive when watching American films. The book also explores misperceptions that Chinese audiences
might have of American culture and its relationship to American films.
References
1. Blumler, J. G., & McQuail, D. (1969). Television in politics: Its uses and influence. University of
Chicago Press.
2. Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1973). Uses and gratifications research. The Public
Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509-523.
3. Blumler, J. G., & Katz, E. (1974). The Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on
Gratifications Research. Sage Annual Reviews of Communication Research Volume III.
4. Blumler, J. G., & Katz, E. (1974). The Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on
Gratifications Research. Sage Annual Reviews of Communication Research Volume III.
Using Mind Maps (Concept Maps) in the Classroom

https://www.learning-theories.com/using-mind-maps-concept-maps-classroom.html
A concept map (or mind map) is a visual tool to help a learner organize and represent what he or she
knows. They include concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes of some type, and relationships
between these concepts indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts. Words on or between the
line, referred to as the linking words/phrases, explain the relationship between the two concepts.
There are many kinds of concept maps. Perhaps the most common are: hierarchical concept maps, spider
concept map, and flow charts.
Hierarchical concept maps demonstrate the hierarchy between concepts. They start with the most
important topic at the top that will be used to organize all the other content (e.g. "Presidents," "Science
Games," or "Environmental Policy"). Then additional concepts are written, connected with lines (often
with arrows to show directionality of the relationship). For instance, relationships like A causes B ("sugar
causes cavities") or A includes B ("Presidents include Abraham Lincoln") can be visualized with a
concept with an arrow pointing to another concept, and a relational word in between.
An example concept map (Source: http://cmap.ihmc.us/ )
Spider concept maps have the keyword in the middle as a central concept, with various sub-topics that
branch out. These sub-topics also have additional sub-topics, and so on.
Flowcharts are diagrams that lead the viewer down various branching paths based upon conditions. For
example, a flowchart to diagnose the root cause of a technical problem may ask: "Is the warning light
flashing?" Yes / No. The flowchart can then branch two or more different directions based upon whether
something is true or false. By following the path of a flowchart to beginning to end, the viewer can reach
a certain conclusion.
Theory
Concept maps are closely related to constructivist learning theory, which posits that learners actively
construct new knowledge; discovery learning theory and David Ausubel's theory of meaningful learning.
Joseph D. Novak developed concept mapping in 1970s at Cornell University to capture
students' emerging science knowledge. His work is based on Ausubel, who underscored the importance of
prior knowledge for learning.
Concept Mapping Ideas for the Classroom

Concept maps are an excellent way to improve common ground between people. For example, a teacher
can ask students to create various concept maps to demonstrate their current understanding of various
topics.
Learners can create Personal Learning Network Maps (based upon connectivist learning theory)
that can demonstrate all the various sources of knowledge that they use to learn.
Students can create concept maps while working on a research project to help keep track of their
knowledge of a research topic or to help outline a research paper.
Students of English or foreign language courses can create vocabulary word maps to demonstrate
the relationship between various words, definitions, word roots and affixes.
Useful concept mapping tools include:
• Poplet - an excellent mind map creation tool that also allows images, hand drawn sketches, and
YouTube video clips. Also supports collaboration, making it useful for group work or for teacher
support.
CMap Tools - a popular mind map tool developed by the Institute for Human and Machine
Cognition.
References
Nesbit, J., & Adesope, O. (2006). Learning With Concept and Knowledge Maps: A Meta-
Analysis Review of Educational Research, 76 (3), 413-448 DOI: 10.3102/00346543076003413
Redford, J., Thiede, K., Wiley, J., & Griffin, T. (2012).
Concept mapping improves metacomprehension accuracy among 7th graders. Learning and
Instruction, 22 (4), 262-270 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.10.007

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21st Century Skills (P21 and others)

Keywords: collaboration, digital literacy, innovation, technology, work-life skills, readiness,

For more information, see:

Partnership for 21st Century Skills -- The P21 Framework

Originator: Vygotsky, Leont'ev, Luria, and others starting in the 1920s.

Key terms: Activity, action, operation, object-orientedness, internalization/externalization, mediation,

Three levels of activity:

1. Object-orientedness. (this is not to be confused with object-oriented programming) People live in

For more information, see:

Acting with Technology: Activity Theory and Interaction Design

Actor-Network Theory (ANT)

Key Terms: actor, network, generalized symmetry, equal agency

Actor-Network Theory (ANT)

1. Callon, M. (1986). Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of the Scallops

The five phases of ADDIE are as follows:

Additional Resources and References

Affordance Theory (Gibson)

Originators: J. J. Gibson (1904-1979)

Keywords: Affordances, direct perception, ecological

Affordance Theory (J. J. Gibson)

For more information, see:

1. Gibson, J. J. (1966). The senses considered as perceptual systems.

Anchored Instruction (Bransford, Cognition & Technology Group

Anchored instruction (Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt, Bransford)

ARCS Model of Motivational Design Theories (Keller)

Originator: John Keller

Key terms: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS)

ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)

Variability - To better reinforce materials and account for individual differences in

Specific examples - Use a visual stimuli, story, or biography.

Present Worth - What will the subject matter do for me today?

Future Usefulness - What will the subject matter do for me tomorrow?

For more information, we recommend:

Attribution Theory (Weiner)

Originator: Bernard Weiner (1935- )

Key terms: Attribution, locus of control, stability, controllability

Attribution Theory (Weiner)

1. behavior must be observed/perceived

1. locus of control (two poles: internal vs. external)

Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of "stimulus-response." All behavior caused

1. Skinner, B. F. (2011). About behaviorism. Vintage.

Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom)

Additional Resources and References

1. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

John B. Watson: Early Classical Conditioning with Humans

Cognitive Apprenticeship (Collins et al.)

Originator: Collins, Brown and Newman

Key Terms: Modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection

Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)

Originator: Leon Festinger (1919-1989), American social psychologist

Keywords: social psychology, forced compliance, decision-making, error justification

Cognitive dissonance experiments (1950s)

Implications of cognitive dissonance

Cognitive Load Theory of Multimedia Learning (Sweller)

Originators and proponents: John Sweller (1946-)

Keywords: cognitive load theory, working memory, multimedia learning

Cognitive Load Theory of Multimedia Learning (Sweller)

Sweller discusses, in his view, three types of cognitive load:

extraneous cognitive load