Prediction of Percentage of Ferrite as a Function of Heat Input in Gas Metal Arc Welding of Duplex Stainless Steel

SAF2205 Weldments

(Predicción del Porcentaje de Ferrita en función de la variación del Calor Aportado utilizando el proceso de Gas Arco Metal
en las soldaduras de acero inoxidable Dúplex SAF 2205)

María Carolina Payares-Asprino1, Russell W. Evans2, Stephen Liu3

1
Universidad Simón Bolívar, Mechanical Department, Caracas, Edo. Miranda, Venezuela, mpayares@usb.ve
2
University of Wales, Swansea, Materials Engineering Department, Swansea, Wales, UK, r.w.evans@swansea.ac.uk
3
Colorado School of Mines, Metallurgical & Materials Engineering Department, Golden U.S.A., sliu@mines.edu

Abstract

Generally the quality of a weld joint is strongly influenced by parameters during welding process. To achieve high quality welds
mathematical models that can predict the bead geometry for obtaining the desired mechanical properties of the weldment has been
developed. This paper focuses on determining the percentage of ferrite in GMAW welds of duplex stainless steel SAF 2205. Previously
established models for the prediction of weld bead geometry were applied. The values of weld penetration and reinforcement were
calculated using statistical approach and applying the rule of mixture, and using the Schaeffler diagram. The amounts of ferrite
in the duplex stainless steel welds were determined and compared with experimentally-determined ones. The results show that the
developed models for predicting weld bead geometry can also be applied to estimate the percentage of ferrite in the duplex stainless
steel weldments.

Key-words: Duplex Stainless Steel Welding. GMAW Welding. Weld penetration. Weld reinforcement. Fused Base Material. Bead
Morphology. Statistical Model, Dilution. Rule of Mixture.

Resumen: Generalmente, los parámetros de soldadura tienen una gran influencia en la calidad de una junta soldada. Para lograr una
eficiencia elevada en la soldadura, se han desarrollado modelos matemáticos que puedan predecir la geometría del cordón para obtener
en forma apropiada las propiedades mecánicas del cordón de soldadura. Esta investigación se enfoca en determinar el porcentaje
de ferrita en soldaduras de acero inoxidable dúplex SAF 2205 utilizando el proceso de soldadura GMAW, aplicando los modelos
matemáticos establecidos para la predicción de la geometría del cordón. Los valores de penetración y altura del cordón calculados
a través de los modelos utilizados y mediante la aplicación de la regla de las mezclas y el Diagrama de Schaeffler, se determino la
cantidad de ferrita presente en las soldaduras y se compararon con los valores de porcentaje de ferrita obtenidos experimentalmente.
Los resultados evidenciaron que los modelos utilizados para predecir la geometría del cordón, también pueden ser aplicados para
estimar el porcentaje de ferrita el las soldaduras de DSS.

Palabras-Claves: Soldaduras de Acero Inoxidable Dúplex. Proceso GMAW. Zona de Fusión. Zona de Penetración. Morfología de
Cordón. Modelo Estatístico. Dilución. Regla de la Mezcla.

1. Introduction extremely important to study the effect of welding variables on

Effective weld design can produce physical and mechanical
properties within the weld metal that approach those of the base
metal. The mechanical properties of a welded material depend
on the microstructure, which in turn, depends on the phase
transformation characteristics as governed by the continuous-
cooling transformation (CCT) behavior. The heating and cooling
rate, determined by the welding conditions (welding process, arc
current, arc voltage, welding speed, and heat input), control the
temperature-time cycle at every point of a weldment. Hence, it is
(Received in 01/09/2007; Final Text in 04/11/2008).
the microstructures of the fusion zone and heat-affected zone in
order to optimize the weld mechanical properties.
Duplex stainless steels (DSS) are used in many engineering
applications such as those found in the petrochemical, pulp and
paper, oil and gas industries because they exhibit both good
mechanical properties and high corrosion resistance. These
properties result from the almost equal amount of ferrite (α)
phase and austenite (γ) phase present in the steel. However,
solidification of duplex stainless steel welds does not always
produce near equal amounts of α phase and γ phase as in the
parent metal, thus deteriorating the mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance of the weld joint. The microstructures
developed in the weld metal and the heat-affected zone (HAZ)
have a significant influence on the mechanical properties and

150 Soldagem Insp. São Paulo, Vol. 13, No. 2, p.150-159, Abr/Jun 2008
 Asprino, M. C. P.; Evans, R. W.; Liu, S.

corrosion resistance of duplex stainless steels [1,2]. The α/γ phase conventional stainless steel compositions are in consideration
balance, partitioning of alloying elements and morphology of and when a high level of nitrogen is present.
phases are shown to be major parameters that control the above-
mentioned properties. 2.2 Weld Pool Shape and Columnar Grain Structures
Mathematical models of the gas metal arc (GMA) process
can be used to study the influence of welding parameters on Growth of the columnar grains always proceeds closely to
weld dimensions and to assist in the development of welding the direction of the maximum thermal gradient in the weld pool,
procedures and process control algorithms for automated i.e. normal to the fusion boundary. Consequently, columnar
applications. Some research has attempted to investigate grain morphology is dependent on weld pool geometry. By
the effects of welding parameters on weld geometry such as establishing relationships between welding parameters and weld
penetration. Pardo and Weckman [3] in 1989 formulated a pool geometry, weld metal microstructures can be predicted as
three dimensional (3-D) thermal model of the GMA welding described in the next paragraph.
process for a moving coordinate framework using the finite According to Figure 1, the general thick plate model
element method. Weld bead width and reinforcement height
were predicted for structural steels using a unique iterative
technique.
Research developed by Manufacturing Thermal Co. [4]
analyzed the influence of welding speed and arc current on weld
bead geometry for austenitic stainless steels. Ushio et al [5] also
carried out research in austenitic stainless steels studying the
influence of arc current and welding processes (gas tungsten arc
welding, GMA welding) on weld penetration and the surface
tension of the welding pool.
Researchers like Rosenthal, Grong and Christensen [6,7,8]
developed mathematical models that calculated weld pool
dimensions. Other researchers formulated empirical models
that predicted approximate weld bead contours of duplex
stainless steel welds from established ranges of welding
parameters [9,10]. Hemmer and Grong [11] in 1999 developed
a process model to describe the evolution of heat affected zone Figure 1. Moving point source on a semi-infinite slab [7].
microstructure during both thick-plate and thin-plate welding of
three commercial duplex stainless steel grades, 2205, 2304 and consists of an isotropic, semi-infinite body at an initial temperature
2507. To limited in one direction by a plane that is impermeable to heat.
This present work focused on the influence of heat input on the At time t=0, a point heat source of constant power qo starts on
percentage of ferrite in duplex stainless steel welds. The volume the surface at position O and moves in the positive x-direction at
(as represented by the cross-sectional area) of fused base metal a constant speed v. The temperature rise T-To in point P at time t
and deposited weld metal, and bead penetration were calculated will determine the thermal history as well as the microstructural
using mathematical models and also experimentally-determined evolution at that location. The governing equation of the system
values using the rule of mixture and Schaeffler Diagram [12]. [6] is:

2. Analytical Approach (1)

Several approaches used to predict the amounts of ferrite

and austenite in a weld, the thermal experience, and weld
characteristic dimensions are described below. where t "  t t ' , x  xo vt , y  yo , z  zo , ,

2.1 Austenite-Ferrite Phase Prediction and a is the thermal diffusivity. The quantities vt ' and vt " are
defined in Figure 1.
The amount of austenite and ferrite present in DSS weld The total temperature rise at P is obtained by integrating
microstructure can be predicted using the Schaeffler diagram, Equation 1. Hence, the general thick plate solution can be
which is an empirical description of the microstructures of steel written as [8]:
weld metals as function of their chemical composition. This
type of diagram has been used for many years to predict the
microstructures of weld metals of conventional austenitic and
other stainless steels. In many instances, Schaeffler diagram (2)
was used to formulate and optimize base metal and filler metal
compositions. However, its applicability is limited when less-

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 Prediction of Percentage of Ferrite as a Function of Heat Input in Gas Metal Arc Welding of Duplex Stainless Steel SAF2205 Weldments

2 By substituting these parameters into Equation 3, the

R vR
where u  , m , and L is the thermal conductivity. following equation that describes the thermal experience of a
4 at " 4a weld is obtained:

If u is small enough, i.e. when welding has been performed Q 1

over a sufficient period, the quasi-steady state temperature  
exp S 3 X
distribution is obtained: n3 S3 (11)

qo ¥ 1 ´ ¥ v R  x ´ Isothermal Zone widths

T To  ¦ µ exp ¦ µ (3)
2PL § R ¶ § 2a ¶ The maximum widths of an isothermal enclosure are
This equation is often referred to as the Rosenthal thick plate
solution [6,7]. ¥
u ln ¦ Q
´
µ
obtained by setting § n3 ¶ 0
. Partial differentiation of
The Rosenthal Equation gives, with the limitations inherent
uS 3
in the assumptions, full information on the thermal conditions for
the point sources on heavy slabs. Accordingly, to obtain a general the Rosenthal Equation gives:
survey of the pseudo-steady state temperature distribution, it is
convenient to present the different solutions in a dimensionless ¥Q ´
u ln ¦ µ
form. The following parameters are defined for this purpose ¦n µ
§ 3¶ 1 S 3m 
S 3m 2 (12)
[7]:  1  0, i.e. X m 
uS 3 S3 Xm S 3m  1
Dimensionless operating parameter ( H ):
and
q0 v q0 v
H3   P
2 2 ¥ S 3m ´

4P a R c Tc T0 4P a H c H 0 (4) Qp 1
 exp¦ µ
n3 S 3m ¦S  1µ (13)
Dimensionless x-coordinate ( X ): § 3m ¶
vx
X  (5)
2a where Q p is the dimensionless peak temperature and S 3m is
Dimensionless y-coordinate ( Y ): locus of peak temperature in the Q S 3 space.
vy
Y  (6) Equation 13 can be used for calculating the isothermal zone
2a widths Y m and cross sectional areas ,1 from Figure 2:
Dimensionless z-coordinate ( Z ):
S 3m
vz Ym  1  2S 3m
Z  (7) (14)
2a
S 3m  1
Dimensionless time ( T ):
2 and
v t (8)
T  2
2a ¥ S ´
P
,1  ¦ 3m µ 1  2S 3m (15)
Dimensionless radius vector ( S 3 ): 2¦ µ
§ S 3m  1 ¶
where:
(9)
( H c H o ) , change of enthalpy of a point “c” until the
•
Dimensionless temperature( Q ): room temperature.
• E is arc voltage, I is arc current, H is the process efficiency
and v is the welding speed.
Q
T T0 (10) • I is the Heat Input .
H
Tc T0 • a is the thermal diffusivity,

with Tc as the reference temperature. 2.3 Calculation of Deposit and Fused Metal using a

152 Soldagem Insp. São Paulo, Vol. 13, No. 2, p.150-159, Abr/Jun 2008
 Asprino, M. C. P.; Evans, R. W.; Liu, S.

Figure 2. Three-dimensional graphical representation of

Rosenthal’s thick plate solution [7].
Figure 3. Experimental model for the prediction of weld bead
Theoretical Model geometry [7].

The heat conduction theory presented earlier does not allow 3.1 Measurements of the Weld Bead Geometry and
for the presence of deposited metal. An alternate model must be Penetration
proposed for its calculation. The rate of deposition, , also
known as the coefficient of deposition, is roughly proportional Photomicrographs of each weld, together with transparency
to the welding current I and can be defined as: overlays, were used to define the “reinforcement” and
dM w “penetration” dimensions of each weld by defining the distances
from the weld center to various radial positions as illustrated in
¥ g ´ dt
k '¦ µ (16) Figure 4.
§ As ¶ I
Mathematical Expressions for the Prediction of Weld Bead
The average rates of volume deposition in GMAW welding Geometry
process is between 0.6-0.7 mm3/A.s, data obtained by N.
Christensen for steels [13].

Since the area of deposited metal D is frequently required,

Equation 17 can be used for its calculation:

(17)

The area of penetration, B, can be obtained from Equations 14

and 15:

(18) Figure 4. Schematic drawing illustrating the determination of

the weld bead geometry.

where: The penetration, width and reinforcement height (dimensions

measured from the weld centre) as described in Figure 4 define
is the average rate of deposition volume during arc the geometry of the weld bead as a function of the operation
welding [8]. parameters. These values are examined statistically using
multiple linear regressions. These dimensions were measured
3. Prediction of Deposited Material and Fused Metal using from the middle of the weld at different intervals (0°, 10°, 25°,
the Experimental Model for GMAW Welds 45°, 65°, 90°, 190°, 205°, 225°, 245°, 260°, and 270°).

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 Prediction of Percentage of Ferrite as a Function of Heat Input in Gas Metal Arc Welding of Duplex Stainless Steel SAF2205 Weldments
The arc voltage, arc current and welding speed regulate and
control the complete geometry of the weld bead. The average
dimensions (distances measured from the bead center) for each
weld will also be for each set of welding parameters. Multiple
linear regression was then used to analyzed these measurements,
relating the bead characteristics with arc welding parameters.
A computer software Statgraphics 5.0 was used for the
multiple linear regression analyses. The twelve mathematical
expressions produced in this analysis are shown in Table 1
[9]. These equations define the weld bead geometry for any
combination of operational parameters of arc current, arc voltage
and welding speed.
Table 1. Mathematical Expressions for the
prediction of weld bead geometry.
By means of a programming language, an application set
to run on MS Windows® Operating System was developed.
Welding parameters within the range of values studied can be
Figure 5. Example of the contour of the weld bead geometry [9].
154
entered into the program to calculate the contour of the weld
bead geometry and the values of reinforcement (deposited
metal) area (DC) and penetration (fused base metal) area
(BC). An example of this is shown in Figure 5.
3. Methodology of the Prediction of Percentage of Ferrite
Content in DSS Weldments
3.1. Theoretical Model and the Rule of Mixture
The percentage of ferrite content in the fusion zone of GMAW
welds was obtained using the theoretical model described in the
Analytical Approach Section.
.
The rule of mixture is given by the following equation [7] :
(19)
where:
% X weld is element percentage content in the fusion zone.
•
• is element percentage content in the base metal.
• is element percentage content in the filler metal.
• B is the area of penetration or fused base metal.
• D is the area of deposited material.
3. 2. Dilution for GMAW Welds
Weld dilution was determined using metallographic methods
by measuring the individual cross-sectional areas of the deposited
filler metal and melted substrate. The ratio of the melted substrate
(B) to the total melted cross-sectional area from the filler metal
and substrate (B+D) describes the level of dilution:
B (20)
Dilution 
BD
Note that the area of the melted substrate (on a transverse cross-
section), B, represents the penetration of the weld and the area
of the deposited material, D, represents the reinforcement of the
weld.
3.3. Experimental Model for GMAW
The experimental model obtained for the prediction of weld
bead geometry [9] was used to calculate the percentage of ferrite
of GMAW welds and they were compared for the dilution and
theoretical results.
4. Experimental Procedure
Several bead-on-plate welds were deposited using GMA
welding on DSS plates of 6.35 mm thickness under different
welding conditions. As recommended by the ASTM 4815 and
A789 procedures for GMA welding process, an ER 2209 electrode
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 Asprino, M. C. P.; Evans, R. W.; Liu, S.

wire of 1.00-mm diameter was used [14]. The microstructure of

the weld metal was examined using optical microscopy (OM).
The Kalling # 2 etchant (5g CuCl2, 100ml H2O, 100ml HCl,
and 100ml ethanol) was used to produce contrast between the
primary phases (ferrite and austenite). Table 2 gives the chemical
composition of the steel and filler metal used.

Table 2. Chemical composition of the DSS SAF 2205

plate and the ER 2209 electrode.
El C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo N
SAF 2205 0.045 0.32 1.41 0.030 0.020 22.32 5.31 3.34 0.08

ER 2209 0.015 0.54 1.87 0.023 0.006 23.31 9.81 3.77 0.14 Figure 7. Optical microstructure of as-received SAF 2205 plate.

The bead-on-plate (BOP) welds were produced using the

conditions shown in Table 3. The calculated heat input values

Figure 6 Schematic drawing of the test plate. (Measurements in

mm.)
were based on set current and voltage values dialed onto the
power source. The actual heat input values were computed using
the recorded arc current and voltage values during welding.
Figure 6 is a schematic drawing of the BOP welds.

Table 3. Welding parameters using to produce the

experimental DSS GMAW welds.
Shielding gas was 99.95% Argon. Welding position: Flat.
Calculated Arc Arc Welding Actual Heat
Heat Input Current Voltage speed Input
[kJ/mm] [A] [V] [mm/min] [kJ/mm]
230 27 532 0.69
0.7 240 27 555 0.71
250 27 578 0.70
210 26.5 371 0.9
0.9 220 26.5 388 0.89
230 26.5 406 0.91
250 27.7 258 1.58
1.6 260 27.5 273 1.60
270 27.5 288 1.61

5. Results and Discussion

5.1 Microstructures of Welds

Photomicrographs were taken using a LECO Olympus Figure 8. Representative micrographs of GMA DSS weld
metal. a) DSS weld Metal at HI: 0.72kJ/mm; %Ferrite: 50; b)
PMG3 field microscope, coupled to a PaxCAM camera. Area DSS Weld Metal at HI: 0.92kJ/mm; %Ferrite: 45; c) DSS Weld
fractions of austenite and ferrite were measured using point Metal at HI:1.6kJ/mm; %Ferrite: 39.

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 Prediction of Percentage of Ferrite as a Function of Heat Input in Gas Metal Arc Welding of Duplex Stainless Steel SAF2205 Weldments

counting technique. (fused base metal) (B) and reinforcement (deposited material) (D)
The optical microstructure of as-received 2205 DSS consists were estimated by approximation of the sums of the two areas.
of elongated α and γ grains, as shown in Figure 7, and the α/γ The percentage of ferrite were obtained by the rule of mixture
grain boundary appeared relatively flat and smooth. The measured (Equation 19) using the dilution values and the percentage of
volume fractions of α and γ are about 51% and 49%, respectively. ferrite of parent and filler metal, 39% and 84%, respectively.
The microstructures of the weld metals are shown in Figure 8.
Austenite is observed to form at the prior-ferrite grain boundaries, Table 4 shows the average dilution value for each welding
Figures 8a and 8b, growing as Widmanstätten plates into the condition used.
grains. Austenite is also observed in the form of intragranular
laths. Ferrite fraction in the weldments varied from 39% (1.6 kJ/ Table 4. Weld dilution and ferrite content for the
mm) to 50% ( 0.9 kJ/mm) because the ferrite – austenite ratio bead-on-plate welds.
depends on the energy input in welding, as the latter controls
Average Dilution
the cooling rates and hence the extent of the diffusion-based HI (kJ/mm) %Ferrite
(%)
ferrite-austenite transformation. Thus, nucleation of austenite is
easier with slow cooling (high heat input). Slow cooling also 0.7 0.35 68
affects the partitioning of alloying elements, shifting towards 0.9 0.40 66
the equilibrium values. Thermodynamic calculations reveal that
1.6 0.41 65
chromium and molybdenum concentrations in the ferrite increase
as the temperature decreases. This observation is significant
since high Cr and Mo levels in the ferrite are necessary to
. 5.2.2 Determination of B and D areas through Theoretical
provide good pitting and general corrosion resistance [16,17].
Model
Volume fraction of austenite in weld metal can be controlled
successfully with additions of alloying elements such as nickel
There are other solutions for the thick and thin plate heat
and nitrogen [18].
conduction models, but they are thickness dependent, therefore
dimensionless thickness dependent (δ). Figure 10 [7] allows for
5.2 Prediction of Ferrite Content
the validation of the models as a function of plate geometry and
operation parameters conditions.
5.2.1. Dilution and Ferrite Content of DSS welds
The chemical composition of the steel and filler metal
were used to calculate the chromium and nickel equivalent of
the weldments, which when plotted on the Schaeffler diagram
predicted the parent and filler metal microstructures as shown
in Figure 9.

Weld dilution was calculated for each condition using the

formula given in Section 3.2. Values of the area of penetration

Figure 10. Heat flow mechanism map showing calculated field

Figure 9. Schaeffler diagram showing microstructures for
boundaries in transverse direction for lowest, intermediate and
base and filler metal (Nieq=%Ni+30%C+0.5%Mn; Creq=
high values of HI [7].
%Cr+%Mo+1.5%Si+0.5%Nb)

156 Soldagem Insp. São Paulo, Vol. 13, No. 2, p.150-159, Abr/Jun 2008
 Asprino, M. C. P.; Evans, R. W.; Liu, S.

Figure 10 shows the three different HI conditions. These values fused material obtained by the experimental model. The
are shown as point 3: 0.7 kJ/mm, point 2: 0.91 kJ/mm and point 1: weld bead calculated by Rykalin and Grong is represented
1.6 kJ/mm. Higher values of the quotient D and lower valuesof by the semi-circular trace with information labeled as WI
and BR.
Qp
the quotient were obtained for all welding conditions used.
n3
Therefore, the heat transfer conditions experienced by the
welds approach those described by the thick plate solution and
the heat flow is in 2-D condition. In this case, the theoretical
model employed is valid for these welding conditions. Table 5
shows the values of B and D obtained by both theoretical and
experimental model for each welding condition used.

Table 5. Values of fused base metal (penetration), B, and

deposited material (reinforcement), D, obtained by theoretical
and experimental model at different heat input used.

Figure 12. Example of the contours of the weld bead

Br BC Dr DC geometry [19].
HI (kJ/mm)
(mm2) (mm2) (mm2) (mm2)
0.7 18.18 13.16 18.85 17.91 In this figure, it can be seen that the weld bead penetration
contour given by the experimental model is similar to the
0.9 23.15 16.04 24.48 25.01
shape of a “hat” as shown by its macrophotograph in Figure
1.6 39.44 25.3 42.33 46.65 13. However, the weld bead penetration contour given by the
theoretical model is semi-circular as expected in conventional
To ensure the accuracy of the experimental model based weld bead penetration. Therefore, the experimental model is
on multiple regression method and to survey the spread of more accurate than the theoretical model in predicting the DSS
the values, the experimental and theoretical results using the weld bead penetration geometry.
developed equations were compared in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Comparison of fused base metal and deposited

metal using experimental and theoretical model. D represents
deposited metal (reinforcement) and B represents fused base
metal (penetration).
It is evident from these results that good agreement exists
between experimental and theoretical model for the deposited
material (reinforcement) and fused metal (base metal dilution).
In the case of penetration, much larger scatter was observed.
Figure 12 is a comparison of the weld bead contour geometry
calculated by both theoretical model [15,7] and by experimental
model [9] for the welding condition of 250 A, 20 V, and 667
mm/min. The micrograph of this weld is shown in Figure 12. In
this diagram, Dc and Bc represent the deposited material and
Figure 13. Macrophotograph of a weld made with 250 A, 29.3
V, 667 mm/min.
5.3 Comparison of Calculated and Measured Percentage of
Ferrite Content of DSS Welds
5.3.1. Percentages of Element Contents in the Weld Metal
The results of the percentages of element contents from the
spectrographic chemical analysis and calculated compositions
using the rule of mixture are shown in Table 6. Most of the
percentage of element results obtained by theoretical and
experimental model is similar to chemistry analysis results,
except the slight difference for the carbon content.

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 Prediction of Percentage of Ferrite as a Function of Heat Input in Gas Metal Arc Welding of Duplex Stainless Steel SAF2205 Weldments

Table 6. Percentages of element contents in the weld metal for each welding condition used.
HI (kJ/mm) Method %C %Si %Mn %Cr %Mo %Ni %Nb
Chemical Analysis 0.043 0.449 1.690 21.96 3.486 7.03 0.008
Theoretical Model 0.027 0.415 1.677 22.31 3.566 7.96 0.062
0.71
Experimental Model 0.030 0.427 1.634 22.36 3.527 7.53 0.010
Chemical Analysis. 0.046 0.446 1.709 21.84 3.466 7.32 0.008
Theoretical Model 0.030 0.428 1.634 22.36 3.527 7.50 0.011
0.92
Experimental Model 0.041 0.465 1.684 22.06 3.412 7.50 0.012
Chemical Analysis. 0.043 0.431 1.698 21.99 3.482 7.77 0.008
Theoretical Model 0.029 0.433 1.646 22.31 3.539 7.67 0.011
1.6
Experimental Model 0.025 0.047 1.711 22.31 3.594 8.29 0.008

The results in Table 6 were used to calculate the chromium Additionally, the effect of nitrogen is not considered in the
and the nickel equivalents, which when plotted on the Schaeffler Schaeffler Diagram.
diagram, predicted the percentage of ferrite in the welds. The
ferrite contents are plotted in Figure 14 as function of HI. 6. Conclusions

As can be seen in Figure 14, the results of percentage of ferrite
predicted by experimental model and obtained by dilution and
chemical analysis are similar. However, the percentage of ferrite
obtained by the theoretical model is approximately 10% higher
than that determined by these methods. This difference can be
attributed to the semi-circular weld bead geometry predicted by
the theoretical model (Figure 11).
The major conclusions of this research are summarized below.
1) The rule of mixture gave very reliable results in obtaining
the percentage content of elements in DSS weld fusion.
2) The experimental model described in this work is capable
of predicting more accurate weld bead penetration than the
theoretical model for DSS welds.
3) The experimental model developed in this research better
predicts the percentage of ferrite content of DSS welds than
the classical Thick Plate Solution Model.
4) The ferrite content in the fusion zone decreased with
increasing heat input for DSS GMA welds for all the
methods studied.

7. Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thanks the Venezuelan Science and

Technology Research Foundation (FONACIT) for funding and
the Universidad Simón Bolívar, University of Wales Swansea
and Colorado School of Mines for the provision of laboratory
facilities.

8. References

Figure 14. Comparison between the predicted of percentage of
ferrite in fusion zone obtained by experimental and theoretical
model and measured values obtained by dilution, chemical
analysis, and experimental measurement as function of heat
input.
However, the experimental ferrite fraction obtained using
point counting technique is lower than the reported from all
method used. This discrepancy can be attributed mainly to
errors incurred from this technique and the presence of a small
amount of nitrogen in the weld metal. GMA welds typically
contain a small amount of nitrogen, at the order of tens of ppm.
[1] N. SRIHAR, L.H. FLASHE and J. KOLTS, in New
Developments in Stainless Steel Technology, Symp. Proc., pp.
341-350. ASM, Metal Park, Ohio, 1985.
[2] J. NOWACKI and A. LUKOJĆ, Structure and Properties of
the Heat-Affected Zone of Duplex Steels Welded Joints. Journal
of Materials Processing Technology, v. 164-165, pp. 1074-1081,
2005.
[3] E. PARDO and WECKMAN, Prediction of Weld Pool and
Reinforcement Dimensions of GMA Welds Using a Finite
Element Model, Metall. Trans. B, v. 20B, pp. 937-947, 1989.
[4] Manufacturing Thermal Co, “Preparing for an Experimental
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