UNIT SEVEN

THE ETHIOPIAN REGION ANDTHE HORN OF AFRICA UP TO 1529

7.1 The “Restoration” of the Solomonic Dynastyand the Christian Highland Kingdom

 Founded by a local ruler in Amhara region/present-day Wollo and North Shoa/ called Yekuno-
Amlak in 1270.
 He claimed the name “Solomonic Dynasty” to justify his legitimacy by resorting the legend of Queen
Sheba and King Solomon of Israel.
 The legend states that Menelik I (son of Queen Sheba and King Solomon) and his descendants ruled as kings of
Ethiopia and that the rulers of Ethiopia had to be direct descendants of this line-Solomonic dynasty.
 Yekuno Amlak justify himself as legitimate ruler of Ethiopia by establishing a genealogy which linked
himwith the last Aksumite king, Dil Naod.
 Since then the all the Ethiopian kings assumed power over the central state and claimed their descent from the
Solomonic Dynasty until 1974.
 King Yekuno Amlak (1270-85)was, thus, successful indefeating the last Zagwe king, Yetbarek due to
the following reasons.
● The legendary claim
● Economic, political and military strength
 The newly established dynasty had the following basicfeatures
Internal political instability following the death of Yekuno-Amlak in 1285 up to 1299 due to problem of succession
to the throne.
All descendents of Yekuno-Amlak were detained at a royalprison of Amba Gishen.
Maintained good relations with all its neighbors duringthe reign of Yekuno-Amlak.
Large scale territorial expansion against the neighboring states during the reign of Amde Seyon (1314-44). He

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 wasthe most expansionist king of the medieval period.
Its economy was mainly depended on agriculture and later trade since the conquest of the Muslim Sultanates.
Further expansion of the Orthodox Church in Tigray, Wag, Lasta, Angot, Amhara, Shewa, Gojjam, etc
The consolidation of the feudal mode of production
through the creation of a feudal administration.
The Gult System- was the system in which the regional officials, administrative and military were given the rightto
collect tribute from the local people.
Gult Right- the right to levy tribute on the owners of restand produce of rest land.
Rest Right- hereditary right to land use by members offamilies clans.
The Bale-gult-responsible for the collection of tributes inkind, use the corvee or free labour of the people, maintained law
and order and gave an administrative justice, and raised a regional army.
 The Gult System had two major importance's.
Helped the kingdom to maintain large territorial army.
Simplified the task of administering the vast Christiankingdom.
 The existence of temporary royal capital / the mobilenature of royal capital in Wollo, Northern and
Eastern Shewa was also another basic features of the medievalperiod. This provided the following
advantages
Supply provision for the large number of camp followers.
Solved the shortage of firewood.
Controlled rebellions in different regions of the empire.
Maintained relative peace and stability.
Zara-Yacob (1434-68) was the first medieval king stayedfor a long period at one region since the foundation of
Debre Berhan in 1454.

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 7.2 Muslim States in the Ethiopian Region and theHorn of Africa up to 1529
 The Muslim Sultanates of the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa were emerged as a result of tradeand
Islam.
 Islam penetrated into the Ethiopian region and the Horn region through two gateways: the Dahlak Islandin the Red
Sea and port of Zeila in the Gulf of Aden.
 Islam was not successful in the direction of the RedSea.
 The port of Zeila was the most important gate for itsexpansion and marked the formation of several Muslim
Sultanates through the agent of Muslim merchants.
 The Muslim Sultanates had the ff commonfeatures
Their entire population were Muslims
Rulers exercised both political and religious power
Emerged as a result of trade and Islam
Located in the SE lowlands of the Ethiopian region
Their economy was primarily depend on tradesome practiced mixed farming
 Sources of information about these Muslim Sultanates were came from Arab and Christiansources.
The Sultanate of Shewa
 Located in the NE half of the present-day Shewa.
 The oldest Muslim state in Ethiopian regionemerged around 897 AD.
 Ruled by the Makhzumite Dynasty, descended from the Makhzumite clan of South Arabia withtheir title
Sultan.
 Had not good relations with its neighbors like theKingdom of Damot due to their campaign for hegemony.
 Came to an end in 1280s due to the attack fromIfat Sultanate.

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 The Sultanate of Dahlak
 Located in the Red Sea region
 Occupied by the Arabs following the destruction ofAdulis in 702.
 Emerged as a prosperous sultanate in the 10th C.
 Its economy was depend on trade and piracy (itsexceptional economic feature).
 A major out-let for the trade of the region beforeZeila.
 Its strategic importance attracted the interest of powerful states: The Mamluk Egypt, Yemen and theEthiopian
Christian Kingdom.
 Overcome the threat through diplomacy and alliance.
 Conquered by the Ottoman Turks in the Mid 16th C.
The Sultanate of Ifat
 Located in the lowlands east of the Shewanplateau.
 Founded by Umar Walasma in the mid-13th C andruled by the Walasma Dynasty.
 Under his reign, Ifat attained military and politicalprominence and incorporated the Sultanate of Shewa.
 Its strategic position enabled to monopolize theZeila trade route.
 Its hegemony came to an end due to king AmdeSeyon’s (1314-44) defeated is strongest sultan called
Sabredin in 1332.
The Sultanate of Hadya
 Mentioned for the first time when it became the tributary of the Christian kingdom under King AmdeSeyon.
 Occupied the most westerly territory of the Ethiopianregion.
 It is the ancestors of the present day Hadya (originalsettlers), Burji, Kambata, Timbaro and Alaba.
 Its economy was mixed farming, pastoral life andtrade.
 It was the main source of slave.

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 Its possession of rich natural resources (human resource) attract the interest of the Christian kings.
 Became the tributary state in the 1330s under KingAmde Seyon .
 The Garad (tile of Hadya’s ruler) who rebelled severaltimes against the Christian kings.
 The Christian kings made punitive measures and political marriage (to get the loyalty of the rulers).
 King Zar’a Ya’eqob (1434-68) married Queen Elleni
 She was the dauther of a well known Hadya garad andfamous women in the politics of the Christian Kingdom.
 This policy followed by the other kings: Baide Mariyam, Libne Dengel and Sarsa Dengel (1563-97).
 King Sarsa Dengel abandoned Hadya due to the increasing pressure from the Mecha Oromo and therebellion
of its rulers.
The Sultanate of Adal
 Shared a common history with Ifat.
 The Walasma ruling classes were divided into two
The Merchant Class: decided to recognize theauthority the Christian Kingdom over Ifat.
The Militant Wing: opposed Christian dominationand determined to regain the lost independence of Ifat.
Established a new base in the SE lowlands of Hararin 1380, named the Muslim Sultanates of Adal.
 The Walasma family consolidate its power andmade military offensive against the Christian kingdom
from the new center.
 Umar Walasma, Haqadin II and Saadadin rebelledagainst Sayfa Arad (1344-71) from their center in Adal.
 Sultan Ahmad Badlay was also led a military campaign against Zar’a Yae’qob but defeated andkilled in 1445.
 Adal sultanate recovered from its weakness andbecame the dominant power in the Ethiopian region and the
Horn of Africa in 1529.

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7.3. Omotic States in the Ethiopian Region and theHorn of Africa up to 1529
 Were located in and around the Omo River Valley
 Made up of the populations who followed traditionalreligion.
The Kingdom of Damot
 Oldest and strongest Omotic state and roughly occupied the western and SW part of the Ethiopianregion.
 Its history goes back to the Aksumite period in whichDamot’s gold reached the Market of Aksum and the Red
Sea Coast.
 Put strong challenge against the southward politicalshift of Aksum in the 9th and 10th centuries.
 Its dominance in the Ethiopian region continued untilthe Zagwe period.
 Had good trading patterns and maintained peaceful relations with the Christian and Muslim communitiesas well
as the foreigners like Arabia, Persia, India, Egypt and Greece.
 At the end of the 12th C, the Zagwe king made militaryexpedition towards Damot because the later interferein the
economic affairs of the former. But the former defeated.
 Motalami was its famous king and made fierce struggle with Yekuno Amlak for the control of Shewa.
 He was defeated and converted to Christianity which marked the beginning of Christian influence in Damot.
 Damot was finally annexed by King Amde Seyon in 1316 and became tributary of Christian Kingdom untilthe
Mecha Oromo expansion of the 16th C.
 Its population were fled to S. Gojjam and settled inthe district still called Damot.

The Kingdom of Kaffa

 Located south of the Gojjeb River and rise in the 14thC.
 Its people were called Kaficho.
 Ruled by the Minjo Dynasty and its ruler used thetitle called Tato.
 Its administration was divided into provinces with theking as the head the central government.

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 He was assisted by an advisory council of seven called Mikrecho.
 Best known for its defense system and oldtradition of digging trenches.
 Its economy was based on trade, agriculture andtaxes and customs
 Land was the property of the king
 Survived its independence due to its strong internal political organ, defense and economy.
 Later, incorporated by Menelik in 1897.
The Kingdom of Enarya
 Located immediately to the north of the Gojeb Riverand west of the Gibe River.
 Mentioned for the first time in the documents of theChristian kings towards the end of the Aksumite period.
 Became tributary state of the Christian Kingdomduring the reign of King Amde Seyon.
 Main sources of trade items (gold) of the region up tothe 16th C.
 Strongly resisted the Mecha Oromo’s expansion butlater defeated by the clan of Mecha called Limmu.
 Its population were assimilated with Mecha Oromoand its name became Limmu-Enarya.
The Kingdom of Bizamo
 Existed on the southern bend of the Abbay Riveropposite to present-day Wambarma.
 Its population were speakers of Omotic family-
Shinasha
 Constantly harassed by the Christian kings whichreduced its population.
 Its remaining population were fled to Gojjam following the arrival of Mecha Oromo in the 16th C
 Most of them were retreated to west lowlandsand while others assimilated by the Mecha Oromo.
The Kingdom of Welayita
 Located south of the Sultanate of Hadya and itsorigin was from the Kingdom of Damot.
 Mentioned for the first time in the Zagwe periodand became tributary state of the Christian Kingdom under

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 king Amde Seyon.
 Paid tribute in horses to King Yeshaq (1413-30)
 Invaded by Imam Ahmed in the 16th C but not fallunder Muslim control.
 It was a very fertile region and produced ensat, maize, wheat, barley, coffee, tobacco and cotton
 Kawo was the title used by its rulers.
 Ruled by three successive dynasties.
 the first dynasty founded by Motalami towardsthe end of the Zagwe Dynasty.
 The second dynasty came from Kucha and ruleduntil 1550.
 The third dynasty expanded its influence amongthe peoples of the Omo River Valley like Gamo, Kucha,
Boroda, and Dawro.
 This dynasty ruled Wolayita until 1894, when thekingdom became part of the Ethiopian territory.
7.4. Hegemony of the Christian Highland Kingdom inthe Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa up to
1529
 From 1270-1529, the CHK was in constant war, particularly with the Muslim states for the control ofthe trade
routes of the region which were monopolized by the Muslims.
The War of Expansion
 Initiated by King Amde Seyon. His first military campaign was against Damot, Falasha and Gojjam b/n1316 and
1317.
 His next war was with the Muslim Sultanates of Ifat, which extended its hegemony over the sultanates b/nthe
highland and the coast.
 Ifat also threatened the economic interest of theChristian Kingdom.
 The war with Ifat started because Sultan Haqqadin of Ifat arrested a commercial agent of King Amde Seyon in
1325.
 By king Amde Seyon’s surprise attack, Ifat wasdefeated.

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 Sultan Deradir of Ifat organized the Muslim communities and defeated the Christian army.
 But the Christian army recovered from its defeat andcaptured and killed Deradir.
 Another sultan of Ifat called Sabreddin launched an attack in 1332 but completely defeated by Amde Seyon and he
escaped to the neighboring sultanate ofDawaro.
 Sabreddin was captured and imprisoned and Ifat reduced to tributary status and lost its leading role ofthe Muslim
states of the region.
 Christian conquest over Hadya also started in 1317but no effective control was established.
 Amano, garad of Hadya, was with the support ofmerchants rebel and refuse to pay annual tributeto the Christian
King.
 King Amde Seyon led a strong army to Hadya, destroyed the country and imprisoned the peopleincluding,
Amano.
 Hadya became tributary state and main source ofmanpower for the Christian Kingdom.
 The economic interest of the Muslim merchantswho traded in slaves highly damaged.
 Until his death in 1344, Amde Seyon extending theChristian control over the Muslim Sultanates.
 Christian superiority over Ifat was not last long.
 The militant group moved further east to the lowlands of Harar Plateau and established AdalSultanate
around 1380.
 Haqqeddin II (1363/4-1373/4) opened a massiveoffensive against King Dawit (1382-1413).
 Beyond its initial victory, however, the Muslim forces was finally defeated in 1387 and Haqqaddinwas killed in the
battle.
 Sultan Sa’adaddin waged a guerrilla type ofresistance and later killed in Zeila in 1403.

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 The Sultanate of Adal again revived after 15 yearsunder one of the most powerful Sultan Ahmad Badlay.
 Badlay started guerrilla warfare against King Yishaq (1413-30), the later lost his life in 1430.
 He faced an equally strong Christian King Zar’aYae’qob (1434-68).
 With the support of Mahigo, garad of Hadya, Badlay scored initial victory but finally both weredefeated and
killed by Zar’a Yae’qob in 1445.
 The reign of Zar’a Yae’qob marked the peak of thedominance of the Christian Kingdom in the Ethiopian region
and the Horn of Africa.
 Ba’ida Mariyam (1468-78), was not powerful enough to suppressed the internal revolts of Hadya and the
growing military offensive of Adal.
 The army Christian kingdom faced its first seriousmilitary defeat during his reign.
 Eventually, the dominance of the of the ChristianKingdom over the Ethiopian region and the Hornof Africa
came to an end and replaced by the Muslim Sultanates of Adal in 1529, when Imam Ahmad defeated the
Christian army at the battleof Shimbra Kure.

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 UNIT NINE
THE ETHIOPIAN CHRISTIANHIGHLAND KINGDOM (1543-1855)
9.1. Attempts to Consolidate and Shift the PoliticalCenter of the Highland Christian Kingdom
th
 The second half of the 16 C was a period in whichthe Christian Highland kingdom of Ethiopia had
seriously weakened due to the following factors

* The effects of wars of Imam Ahmad

* The Oromo Population movement

* the encroachment of the Ottoman Turks, who controlled the Port of Massawa in
1557.
 Both events brought chaos and disorder in the Christian Highland Kingdom of Ethiopia and theKings
struggle to tackle these problems.
Emperor Gelawdewos (1540-59)
 The first Christian king who confront the raids ofAdal and the Oromo incursions.
 Consolidated his power in the northern part of thekingdom- Dembiya, Gojjam, Begemidir, Lasta,Semen and
Tigray and Waj (now Debre Ze’it) was his center.
 He successfully crushed the Muslim forces of Adaldue to a conventional war and the nature of the settled
community of the Muslims.
 He was failed to hinder the forward move of theOromo warriors because they used a war tactic called a hit-
and-run type, launched at night fall when the Christian army was eager to have rest.
 The strategy of the Oromo’s warfare was struck theenemy hard and quickly retreated to safe base areas.
The Battle of Good Friday: was the fatal campaign between Gelawdewos and Emir Nur Ibn Mujahid ofAdal in

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 1559.
 The Christian army was defeated, EmperorGelawdewos killed and beheaded.
 The Muslim forces taken his head to Harar as a war trophy and they returned back to Harar to defend the
Sultanate from falling to the Oromo forces.
 But they were defeated by the Oromo forces and forced to restricted to the walled city of Harar, built byEmir Nur
Mujahid to check Oromo expansion.
 The Oromo also defeated the powerful Christian army called Jan Amora in Fatagar, served as a base for their
next attack on the Christian kingdomand the neighboring provinces.
Emperor Minas (1559-63)
 Successor and brother of Gelawdewos.
 Decided to shift the center of the kingdom from Shewa to the north of the Abbay River due to his fear that the
victorious Adal force would take overthe kingdom.
 His new center was a place called Mengiste Semayat in eastern Gojjam later shifted to Guba’ein Enfranz near
Lake Tana.
 The evacuation of the Christian and Muslim forcesfrom Waj and Fatagar brought two consequences.
1. South of the Abbay region was opened to the Oromo and they settled without any hindrance.
2. The event abruptly changed the political geography of the Christian kingdom- restricted tothe old provinces of
Gojjam, Dembiya, Begemidir, Lasta, Semen and Tigray.
King Minas decided not to make any attempt to regain the lost territories south of the Abbay rather began to
maintain his kingdom by lootingand harassing the peasantry.
This brought to create a social disorder and anarchy in the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia.
9.2. Catholicization and Civil Wars
The rise of Susenyos solved the problem of power struggle but brought another period of disorder, religious
controversy b/n Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism in the Christian Kingdom ofEthiopia.
The Portuguese military support of 1541 was also followed by the coming of the Catholic missionariescalled

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 the Jesuits.
They were invited by the soldiers and sought toconvert the Orthodox Christian of Ethiopia to
Catholicism.
John Bermudez claimed the conversion of a third ofhis kingdom to Catholicism based on the promise given
by Lebne Dingil in return for military supportsince 1541.
Following the death of Lebne Dingil, Bermudez madehimself patriarch of the Christian kingdom but not ordained
by the Pope of Rome.
But he claimed that Lebne Dingil had nominated himpatriarch of the kingdom and later approved by the Pope.
Bermudez began to force Gelawdewos to fulfill thealleged promises of his father.
He knew how much Gelawdewos depended on thePortuguese army and required the emperor
• To convert to Catholicism.
• To recognize his position as a patriarch of thekingdom
• To assist in converting the subjects of the kingdom toCatholicism.
Gelawdewos, knew that Lebne Dingil did not makethe alleged promise and rejected the request of
Bermudez.
Bermudez tried to induce the Portuguese soldiers not to fight for Gelawdewos but they rejected his attempt and
continued to on the side of Gelawdewos.
King John III of Portugal also refused to recognizeBermudez as the patriarch of the kingdom.
Bermudez retired to Debarwa in 1553 and the officialappointment of patriarchs and bishops for the Christian
kingdom were from the Society of Jesus or the Jesuits.
The Jesuits took the responsibility of converting theChristian kingdom of Ethiopia to Catholicism.
Rodriguez met Bermudez on his way to the court and after his arrival, he began to criticized the Orthodox
Christian practices – circumcision, foodtaboos, fasting and the observance of Saturdaysas heresies.
Gelawdewos tolerated the priest because he neededthe Portuguese army and then rejected the demand for his
conversion.

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 Rodriguez returned to Goa and asked the governorof Goa for an armed escort against Gelawdewos.
But the governor opposed the idea of using forceand instead sent again a bishop called Andre de Oviedo to
try to convince Gelawdewos in 1557.
The Confessions of Gelawdewos: a book written byking Gelawdewos in which he defended the practices of the
Orthodox faith of his kingdom against the criticisms of the Catholic priests.
 Oviedo retaliated by isolating the Portuguese armyfrom Gelawdewos resulted the defeat of Gelawdewos by the
Adal force in 1559.
 Oviedo moved the Portuguese army to Tigray andjoined Bahr Negash Yeshaq.
 Oviedo assured Yesahq that the arrival of Portuguese military assistance to depose Minas andappoint a puppet king
to their own choice.
 Yeshaq agreed to convert when the said military assistance arrive.

But Oviedo failed to convince the king.
 Oviedo was died in 1597 without any success inhis mission.
 Two bishops were ordained for the Christian kingdom: Pedro Paez (1603-22) and AlfonsoMendez
(1622-32).
 Paez was successful in converting many influentialdignitaries of the kingdom, including King Suseniyos (1607-32).
 Following the death of Sarsa Dingil, the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia faced political disorder due toacute power
struggle for the throne.
 The kings were also the support of the Orthodox leaders and were not depend on the loyalty of the army.
 To this end, the Christian Kings, including Suseniyosbegan to consider the advantage of converting to
Catholicism in order to getting military assistancefrom Portugal.
 Having good information about the situations, Paez attempted to convert king Ya’eqob by using Arabic
language but the king was deposed and replaced by ZaDingil.
 Za Dingil to get rid of the disloyal soldiers and their commanders, the clergy, whom he considered them

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 assources of the weakness of the monarchy.
 Paez advised Za Dingil to convert to Catholicism, to be cautious and not take hasty measures in order to
obtainedthe support of the Portuguese.
 Za Dingil had been suspected of being secretly converted and banned the observance of Saturdays.
 In 1604, Za Dingil was died due to the civil war andYa’eqob put on the throne again.
 Paez did the same dealing with Ya’eqob, agreed toaccept Catholicism but died in battle in 1607.
 Suseniyos came to power in 1607 and saw the successof the long effort of the Jesuit bishops.
 He leaned towards Catholicism to get Portuguese military assistance to maintain a strong and peaceful
monarchy.
 Suseniyos did not take the lead in converting to Catholicism rather his brother and powerful old generals, Si’ile
Kristos was the first converts in 1611.
 The palace clergy and other influential cousins of thetaking followed the example of Si’ile Kristos.
 Under the chairman of Suseniyos a public debate washeld about the principles of Catholicism in 1612.
 The Catholics were represented by Si’ile Kristos.
 The following Orthodox practices were condemned asheresies:
• Male circumcision.
• Fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays.
• The observance of Saturdays.
• Use of the Ark of the Covenant/Tabot
• Prohibition of eating pork
 In 1622, Suseniyos was officially converted and madeCatholicism the official state religion.
The Civil War (1622-32)
Fought b/n Suseniyos and Catholics in the one handthe peasants, the clergy and the nobility on the otherhand
to defend the Orthodox faith.

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 Caused by the hasty imposition of the new religion on the Orthodox peasants of the kingdom and the banningof old
established orthodox practices.
The first peasant rebellion against Suseniyos andCatholicism was started in 1617.
It witnessed one of the large scale peasant uprising inEthiopian history.
The Ethiopian Orthodox peasants were able to protecttheir religion by their active engagement in the issue of
their own affairs.
In the absence of the arrival of Portuguese militarysupport, Suseniyos defeated his last battle in Denqez in 1632
and decided to stop the Catholic experiment.
Consequences of the Civil War
Suseniyos abdicated power in favor of his son, Fasiladas (1632-67).
Many Catholic converts were publically hanged- Si’ile Kristos.
The religious controversies with in the OrthodoxChurch in the subsequent centuries.
Affected the foreign relations of Ethiopia, mainlywith the Europeans.
Measures Taken Emperor Fasiledes
The restoration of the Orthodox faith to itstraditional position.
Ordered the expulsion of the Jesuit missionariesfrom the country, including Alfonso Mendez.
Made an alliance with the hitherto traditionallyhostile Muslim neighbors- Yemen, Swakin andMassawa.
He signed treaties with them and agreed to preventor report the coming of any European to the Christian kingdom.
Adopted a close-door policy towards Europeans who were suspected as Catholics. This policy isolated the
kingdom the Christian Europe for twocenturies.
During this long period of isolation, only twoEuropeans were succeeded in reaching the Christian
court.
 Charles Jaques Poncet: a French physician invited by Iyasu I to cured the king form his skindisease in
1699.

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 James Bruce: a Scottish traveller who came to discover the source of the Blue Nile and reachedGondar in
1770.
9.3. The Gonderine Period (1636-1769)
The Christian kings ruled over the provinces froma mobile capital between 1270 to 1636.
Gondar was founded by King Fasiledes in 1636as the third permanent capital city and served as apolitical,
economic and cultural center of the Christian kingdom for two centuries.
The core provinces of the kingdom during theGonderine period were Gojjam, Begemdir, Semen
and Tigray.
th
Shewa became independent of the Gonderinekings towards the end of the 17 C.
The establishment of Gondar as a permanent capital city had the following advantages for theChristian
kingdom.
Promoted cultural revival. The kings embarked the construction of a large imperial quarter in the center of
Gondar- magnificent castles and palaces forkings, residences for the Abun and Echegge and builtchurches.
Construction of churches outside the imperialquarter and they became the main centers of education,
music ad poetry.
Attracted capable scholars of poetry, theology, lawand other religious subjects from all over the
kingdom.
Gondar served as a center of excellency in churchpaintings, cross making, calligraphy etc.
Gondar also became center of an active trade (dominated by Muslims)and trade routes. It had linked with the
trade route of the SW Ethiopian region, Massawa on the Red Sea coast in the northand Metemma on the Sudan
border in the west.
The daily and weekly markets also serve as a meeting point for foreign merchants, the dwellers of the city and the
rural population who exchangedtheir various products.
The Falashas were engaged in masonry, pottery,basketry and metal works.

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 Gondar also became center of urbanization with about 70,000 inhabitants who belonged to differentreligious and
cultural groups.
Addis Alem: was served as a separate living quarterfor the different communities who were not allowed to live in the
city: the Muslims, the Falashas, and expatriates such Armenian, Indianand Persian merchants.
Its wealth benefited the ruling class who led a luxurious life in the splendid palaces and castles.
Gondar experienced a period of glory and splendorduring the reign of the first 3 kings: Fasiledes (1632-67),
Yohannis I (1667-82) and Iyasu I (1682-1706)
The death of Ras Bitweded Welde Leul in 1767was further intense power struggle b/n the two opposing
factions- Mentewab and Bersabeh.
Mentewab invited the powerful Tigrean lord, RasMicheal Sehul to resolve the problem and to maintain her
position.
He arrived Gondar in 1768, suppressed the opposition with heavy hand and became ras bitweded and the
guardian of the Gonderine king,Iyoas.
Murdered Iyoas in 1769 and put on the throne a 70year old man, Yohannis II.
This event marked the advent of the Zemene
9.4. The Zemene Mesafint (the Era of the Lords)
It was a period in the history of Ethiopian which roughly started with the death of Iyoas in 1769 andlasted
until 1855.
It was characterized by a period of:
Collapse of central authority of the monarchy.
Growth of the power of the regional lords/mesafints
Ethiopia was divided within itself into several regionswith no effective central authority.
Feudal political disintegration and intense power struggle b/n the monarchy(wanted to exercise an absolute
power) and the nobility (contended to be autonomous by undermining the court) for politicalsupremacy.
the absence of the rule of law and unlimited power ofthe regional lords jeopardized the freedom of the people.

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 Brought about arbitrariness, lawlessness, disorder, anddestruction of the country.
Worsened the economy and in general deteriorated theprogress of the country.
Conditions that led to Zemene Mesafint were:
Erosion of the traditional power and authority of theChristian monarchy resulted from humiliating defeatof its
king- Lebne Dengel and Gelawdewos.
The establishment of Gondar as a permanent capital also neglected the provinces and strengthened regionalpower
of lords.
Emperor Tekle Giyorgis (1779-1800) was the last king ofthe Christian kingdom.
He was nick-named as Fissame Mengist in the Christian tradition because he was enthroned and dethroned six
timesin 11 years (1789-1800).
The Gonderine kings in general were:
• Became mere puppets
• Did not military forces
• Their life secluded in the castle of Gondar
• Had income from customs duties and fines
• Lived in poverty without any power and authority
Eg. 1816- annual income of Ras Walde Sillassie of Tigray was75,000 MTT
1832- annual income of the Gonderine king was 300 MTT 1840- king Sahle Sillassie of Shewa had an annual
income of 85, 000 MTT
The actual rulers of the kingdom during the ZemeneMesafint were regional governors, rases and
dejjazmaches of the various provinces.
They maintained their own army and kept the tributeand revenues of their provinces.
They secured regional power for long and contend formore power through popularity with their troops and
support from powerful families in times of political difficulty.

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The main aim of the struggle among the regional lordswas to secure the title “Ras Bitweded”.
The Ras Bitwededs were:
Had strong military might.
Appointing and demoting kings.
King Makers.
Several regional lords struggle for the title Ras Bitweded but few were successful- Ras Walde Leuland Ras
Michael Sehul
The political power struggle was also further aggravated by the religious doctrinal disputes within the
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church.
Hence, the church was unable to play its traditionalrole of unifying diverse groups under one central government.
The Wara Sheh/ Yejju Dynasty (1786-1855)
Was the Yejju Oromo dynasty who monopolized theposition of Ras Bitweded centered at Debre Tabor.
Founded by Ras Ali Gwangul/Ali I/ Ali the Great in1786.
He was succeeded by Rases Aligaz (1788-1803), Gugsa (1803-25), Yemam (1825-28), Marye (1828-31), Ali
Alual/ Ali II (1831-55)
Established the hegemony of the Yejju Oromo over thecentral regions of the kingdom.
The political geography of the kingdom were the following units: Tigray in the north, Semen, Dembiya,Begemdir,
Lasta, Amhara, Yejju and Wallo in the center, and Gojjam and Shewa in the south.
All political units have different statues due to their resources and power of their regional lords.
Consequences of the Zemene Mesafint
Affected the foreign relations of Ethiopia. Powerfulregions made an independent foreign contact. Eg.
Tigray (via Massawa)and Shewa (via Awsa and Tajura).
Brought about a period of economic, political and religious crisis in the central Christian kingdom of
Ethiopia.

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 Foreign threat to the Christian kingdom mainly camefrom the west, mainly from Egypt under MohammedAli.
The responsibility of checking Egyptian expansion fellon the shoulders of regional chiefs and peoples – Dejazmach
Wube of Semen, Dejazmach Kinfu of Quara and Kassa Hailu of Quara.
It also affected the life of the peasantry who forced tofight the endless wars of the provincial lords.
Many people became shiftas/bandits because theirproducts plundered by the army and their farms
became battlefields.
Declined trade because the merchants were robbed bybandits and forced to pay taxes at several gates/ kelas.
Disrupted traditional handicrafts.
Seriously undermined nationalism
Undermined the security and rights of peasants due tothe prevalence of civil wars.
Declining of industriousness/hardworking that responsible for the subsequent backwardness ofEthiopia.
End of the Zemene Mesafint
Came to an end in 1855 by Kassa Hailu of Quara.
He initiated the process of restoring the power and theauthority of the monarchy.
He got rid of the powerful regional lords in battles oneafter the other.
The Battle of Gura Amba- defeated Dejjach GoshuZewde of Gojjam in November 1852.
The Battle of Gorgora Bichen: defeated the fourvassals of Ras Ali in April 1853.
The Battle of Ayshal: defeated Ras Ali II in June 1853.
The Battle of Deresge: defeated Dejjach Wube ofTigray and Simen in February 1855.
He was crowned as Emperor Tewodros II in 1855which marked the end of Zemene Mesafint.

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 UNIT TEN
CAPITALISM AND THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY
10.1. The English Revolution
Background
 The English Tudor dynasty came to an end in 1603with the death of unmarried Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603).
 The Scottish Stuart dynasty came to power ledby James I of England (James VI of Scotland).
 England and Scotland were protestants but the laterwere more Calvinist, Presbyterian Church.
The Act of Union of 1707- was the political unity ofEngland and Scotland with a single parliament andgovernment.
They became known as “Great Britain”.
 The English monarchy under the Tudor dynasty was strong but not absolute due to the ff reasons.
The king had no regular and professional army andonly a small bureaucracy of paid officials.
They needed the cooperation of the land owningnobles, gentry and bourgeoisie to govern the country
effectively.
English economy was not yet well advanced.
The existence of a representative nationalassembly- parliament.
The English Parliament
 Approved all laws and taxation but called by the king.
 Its meetings were at Westminster, outside London.
 Had two houses/ assemblies:
The House of Lords: not elected and consisted of the heads of noble families and archbishops and bishopsof the
Church of England.
The House of Commons: were elected and representedthe people.
M.P.s of the House of Commons were elected by adultmales undemocratically.

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Its elected members were from gentry, bourgeoisiemerchants and lawyers.
Charles I (1625-49)
Serious conflict b/n the king and parliament wasbegan.
Co-operation b/n the king and ruling class breakdown.
The disputes were about foreign policy, money andreligion.
Failed extensive and unsuccessful wars against Spainand France.
Faced Financial difficulties.
Collected money without parliament's approval.
Growing suspicion in England that Charles and his wife, Queen Henrietta Maria of French, were takingEngland
away from Protestantism and back to Catholicism.
But this was not true and Charles was not secretCatholic.
He ruled England without a parliament and continued to collect money illegally for elevenyears (1629-
40).
Beginning of the Revolution
Began in Scotland because Charles imposed the Church of England Prayer Book for Church services in
Scotland without consulting the Scotsin 1637.
The Scots opposed due to nationalist reason andthe Prayer Book really did look Catholic.
The Short Parliament
Called by Charles to obtain money and to suppress therebellion in Scotland.
Its meeting was very short/brief (April-May 1640).
Parliament refused to approve any taxation.
The king quickly dissolved the parliament
The king continued to suppress the rebellion withoutmoney but the government authority began to break down
in England and Scotland.

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 The Long Parliament
It met in November 1640 to 1653.
Its members were united against Charles and forcedhim to accept laws seriously limiting his powers.
The king and the opposition in the parliament furtherworsen following the Irish rebellion in which the former
wanted to suppress by the arm but refused bythe later.
The king attempted to arrest the leading members ofthe parliamentary opposition led to the civil war
The First Civil War (1642-46)
Fought between the king (supported by the Royalists)and the parliament (got support from Scotland).
The parliament also raised a centralized army calledthe New Model Army commanded by Thomas Fairfax
and Oliver Cromwell.
The parliament won victory because it has support ofthe middle classes, merchants and puritans.
Consequences of the Civil War
Firm political settlement set b/n the king, parliamentand the army.
The negotiation was not successful.
Radical political and religious ideas were emerged
th
The Leveller Movement: a mid 17 C English secularpolitical movement.
Issued the abolition of corruption within the parliament and judicial process, toleration of religious
differences, the transition of law into thecommon tongue, and electoral redistribution of seats.
Had strong support among small craftsmen, wage workers, ordinary soldiers and junior officials of NMA
The Putney Debates of 1647
Made among the army.
Decided to fight for political and religious freedomfor the ordinary people.
Forced the army leadership to hold a politicaldecision with their representatives.

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 Ended without conclusions or agreements.
The Second Civil War (1648-49)
An invasion of England by the Scottish army tosupport Charles.
It was also a Royalist insurrection in England.
The New Model Army quickly defeated the Scots and the English Royalists.
The army decided to put an end to Charles and themonarchy.
Excluded from parliament all members of the Houseof Commons who did not agree with the army’s
programme.
The Rump- were remnant or left-overs.
Members of the HC who remained.
The army and the Rump publically beheaded Charles Iin January 1649.
Consequences of the Civil War
Abolished the House of Lords.
England became a republic called the
Commonwealth (1649-60).
Cromwell smash the Leveller movement inside andoutside the army.
Cromwell showed little sympathy for the Levellers
Its leaders were imprisoned in the Tower of London by the Council of State namely: John Lilburne, William
Walwyn, Thomas Prince, and Richard Overton.
He also attacked the mutineers in the army and destroyed the Leveller’s support base in the NMA.
This marked the defeat of the first secular democraticmovement in modern Europe.
The Long Parliament
Ruled England from 1648-53 with the Rump.

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 But the army and its leaders became dissatisfied withthe Rump.
Cromwell dismissed the Rump and ended the LP in 1653.
Oliver Cromwell (1653-58)
Governed England as a Lord Protector
Conquered Scotland and Ireland and made Englanda feared military power in Europe.
Ruling classes wanted to the restoration of themonarchy, more acceptable to more people.
General Mock, commanded a strong army decidedto support the restoration of the monarchy.
The Restoration of the Monarchy
Charles II began to ruled England in May 1660.
Brought back the monarchy, the House of Lords,the state Church of England and the traditional constitution.
Charles II ruled with parliament and with thesupport of the nobility and gentry.
Had no legitimate children.
James II (1685-88)
He was Catholic but not interfere with theProtestant state Church of England.
People suspected him that intended to underminethe Church of England and establish an absolute rule.
The Glorious Revolution of 1688
The bloodless change in England with William III as King of England (1688 -1702).
William of Orange was the leader of the Dutch Republic and Mary’s (Jame’s Protestant daughter)husband.
He was invited by a small ruling class to come toEngland with an army.
He accepted this to bring England into his allianceagainst Louis XIV of France.
He arrived in England with a Dutch army inNovember 1688.
James II fled to France.
William became king of England in 1688.

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Consequences of the Glorious Revolution
The declaration of the Bill of Rights - assured thepeople certain basic civil rights.
The Bill of Rights:
Stands with Magna Carta and the Petition of Rights as the legal guarantees of English liberty.
Listed certain rights that were the true, ancient andindubitable rights and liberties of the people.
Settled the succession to the throne.
Made it illegal for the king to keep standing army,to levy taxes without parliament’s approval, or to be a Roman
Catholic.

10.2 The Enlightenment

th
The 18 C intellectual movement in Europe andNorth America.
Its center was France because it had intellectual and cultural center and Latin became the commonlanguage of
upper class people.
John Locke (1632-1704)
An English philosopher who believed that progresswas certain if men would use their minds and follow up reason.
Declared that men possessed certain natural rights-life, liberty and property.
Social Contract was an agreement b/n the people andthe government.
Accordingly, if a government did not protect their natural rights, the people had a right to establish a new
government.
It brought revolution against tyranny and theestablishment of government by the people.
Influenced the people in Europe and America and hisideas are found in the Declaration of Independence and the
US Constitution.

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 Philosophes
Were the intellectuals of the Enlightenment in France.
They were journalist, economists, political scientistsand propagandists.
Voltaire (1694-1778)
Remembered for his works in science and philosophy.
Criticized against injustice and despotic Frenchgovernment and the Catholic Church.
Wrote his book “Letters on the English” in 1733.
He expressed a deep admiration of English life- freedom of the press, political freedom and religious
toleration.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78)
His book entitled as “Social Contract” written in 1762.
Declared that “Man is born free, and everywhere heis in chains”.
Accordingly, people may create government andgrant it powers to serve them, and when dissatisfied, they
may change the government.
He was highly influenced by John Locke.
th
His work also influenced on the political andpolitical theory of the 19 C.
Believed that a Republic was the best form ofgovernment and believe in democracy.
The General Will means that what the people would really want if they really knew what was best for them. It
was used by the Jacobin in 1793-94.
Rousseau attacked wealth w/c was not earned by work and encouraged small independent peasants and
craftsmen- small petty bourgeoisie.
He said that democracy could not exist properly in societies with extreme wealth of a few and extremepoverty of
the many.

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 Charles de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Wrote a book entitled as “The Spirit of Laws” in1748.
Proposed to prevent despotism by reorganizing government among three branches- Legislative, Executive and
Judiciary- rather than one person orthe king.
Denis Diderot (1717-84)
Attacked the French old regime abuses- religiousintolerance, unjust taxation, and absolutism.
Editor of a monumental Encyclopedia publishedin 1751.
A kind of manifesto of the Enlightenment .
Gave full treatment to science, art, government,and politics and stress the need for reform.
It had wide influence among the French middleclass.
Outstanding Thinkers Outside FranceBeccaria (1738-94): an Italian criminologist who wanted criminal reforms.
His chief works was an Essay on Crimes andPunishments in 1764.
Wrote against the use of torture and death penalty.
Adam Smith (1723-90): Scottish philosopher andeconomist who was the founder of political economy.
His chief work the Wealth of Nations.
Advocated the production and distribution of wealth under conditions of governmental noninterference,
or laissez-faire, and free trade.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-90): an Americanphilosopher and scientist.
Worked in many fields and succeeded in all of them- aclassic autobiography, scientific theory, and devisedmany
practical inventions.
Closely involved in the American Struggle forindependence from Britain.
The Enlightenment thinkers
th
 Originated in the second half of the 17 C

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 Explained about the universe and society in humanreason rather than revelation (what God has shownus).
 Highly influenced by the Newton's discovery- the universe operated by natural laws and discovered by
human reason.
 They believed that laws could be discovered byreason in all spheres of human activity.
 Did not all have the same opinions.
 Believed in reason- human intelligence properlyand consistently used without bias and prejudice.
 Were optimistic- society could be improved andhuman happiness could be increased.
 Believed that progress was possible.
 Condemned religious persecution and intolerance.
 Some of them believed in Deism- the existence ofthe universe and its natural law needed the existence of a
Creator, not God of Christianity.
 Rejected all dogmas and make their religion a mattermainly of ethics.
 Atheists thought that religion was good for thecommon people- moral, hard working etc.
 Enlightenment was confined only with a minority, theordinary people were illiterate.
 Scholars regarded the ordinary people as too stupidand uneducated
 Wanted the reforms from below carried out by thepeople.
 Criticized despotism (absolute monarch) and favoredconstitutional government.
 Were moderate (not radical) and did not wantdemocracy except Rousseau.
10.3. The American War of IndependenceThe American Revolution
The 13 British settlement and plantation coloniesin North America were extended from Canada inthe North to
Florida in the South and from the Atlantic Ocean inland to the Appalachian Mountains.
There was fast growing population due to marriageat young age and immigration from Europe.
Its population were made up of
* Amerindian (Native American)

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 * European Settlers
 The conflicts b/n Britain under King George IIIand the 13 colonies (Americans) grew strong in1763 due
to
* strict control of the colonies by Britain
* various measures taken by Britain angered them(1763-65)
The Proclamation of 1763 declared that the land lying beyond the Appalachians and Great Lakes region
closed to the colonists.
The British parliament restricted the trade b/n thecolonists and other countries.
The Stamp Act imposed on news papers, wills,business contracts and playing cards.
The Quartering Act- a law passing that the colonists must provide housing for troops, sent todefend the
colonies.
Reaction of the Colonists
American patriots aroused public feelings against the British- James Otis, Patrick Hennery, & SamuelAdams
The Boston Tea Party- an event in which the BostonAmericans dumped into the Boston Harbor the British cargoes of tea
on which they were expectedto pay duty in 1773.
They also agreed not to buy English goods.
British responded to the colonists by adopt new measures to restrict or punish them.
The First Continental Congress
A body of delegates representing the colonists metat Philadelphia from September to the end of October 1774.
Debated the extent to which the colonies shouldcarry their resistance to Great Britain.
Passed a resolution on October 14 called theDeclaration of Rights and Grievances.
The stage was set for the outbreak of hostilities,which began on April 19, 1775, A battle began when the
British troops exchanged fire in Lexington.
The British soldiers and colonial militia fought at the battle of Concord, Lexington and Bunker Hill.

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 The colonist now came to believe in the necessityfor independence since 1775.
It was mainly encouraged by the work of an American Revolutionary and Patriot, Thomas Paine who wrote a
pamphlet entitled as “CommonSense, The Rights of Man and The Age of Reason”
The Second Continental Congress
Assemble in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775.
Adopted a democratic document called “the Declaration of Independence” on July 4, 1775.
Drafted by Thomas Jefferson (1743-1820),declared that the 13 colonies now became
independent and formed the USA
Britain refused and the patriots continued the waruntil 1783.
At the end the patriots were succeeded to gainvictory over Britain due to the ff factors.
 The Geographic advantages: the distant ocean made the moving and supplying of large British armies
difficult.
 The Role of George Washington: his firmness kept hope alive among his discourage officers andmen and his
military skill.
 French Aid: gave to the Patriots to embarrassed itsage-old enemy, England.
The Treaty of Alliance
 Signed b/n France and America following thevictory of Saratoga, New York in 1778.
 France provided money, weapons, soldiers andwarships.
 They were also aided by Spain and Holland.
The Battle of Yorktown, Virginia: fought b/n America forces (led by Lafayette and Washington ) and British forces
led by Cornwallis.
concluded by the surrender of British troops onOctober 19, 1781.
The Treaty of Paris
 Signed in 1783.

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 USA gained control of the land from the Atlantic tothe Mississippi and Maine to Georgia.
 Spain ruled Florida and west Mississippi.
 Great Britain ruled Canada.
The new American nation faced the problem of
*heavy loss of trade
* business depression
* lack of strong national government
The Constitutional Convention of 1787
 Meeting during the summer of 1787 at which delegates from 12 states wrote the Constitution ofthe United
States.
 Established a strong central government with
George Washington as the first US president.
 Left many powers to the individual states butauthorized the new central government

* to levy and collect taxes

* to raise and maintain an army and navy.

* to declare war and make treaties.

* to regulate trade b/n states and with foreign nations

The major results of the American War ofIndependence were
It created a new nation state.

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 It was one of the immediate causes of the FrenchRevolution of 1789.
It helped the liberation of Latin America fromSpanish and Portuguese colonialism.
10.4 The French RevolutionThe Old Regime
From the mid-17th C to 1789.
Absolute monarch governmnt with no constitution
Divided the society into three estates/social groupsThe 1st Estate: Royal Family and Catholic clergey The 2nd
Estate: the nobility
The 3rd Estate: the bourgeiose, petty bourgeois,wage workers and peasants.
Provided rights for the clergy and the nobility- paidless taxes
Oppressed the peasants- paid more taxes- feudal dues to lords and Church tax/the tithe
The growing criticisms and discontents among the3rd estates led to the outbreak of the revolution.
Immediate Causes of the French Revolution
France’s participation in the American War ofIndependence from1778-83.
This brought about two developments
* introduction of the ideas of liberty among theFrench people
* It was very expensive war and resulted in financial crisis in France. By 1788, there was no more
money in the Treasury of France government.
The Estates-General
It was the national representative assembly ofFrance.
Consisted of representatives elected from the threeestates.
It had not meeting for 175 years (1614-1789).
Met in Versailles in 1789 because the states facedsevere economic crisis.
The poor peasants of France were suffered a lotdue to

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 * food scarcity
* high price and high unemployment
 King Louis XVI (1774-93) was weak andincompetent.
 Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis, was unpopularbecause she was:
* extravagant spending.
* A foreigner, Austrian princess.
The National Assembly
rd
 Formed by the representative of the 3 estates inthe meeting of May 1789.
 Decided to form a constitution alone.
 Its members took an oath to give a proper constitution for France was called The Tennis Court Oath.
The Storming of the Bastille
 Bastille was a royal prison, fortress andarsenal in the middle of Paris.
 It was considered as a symbol of tyranny andoppression.
 Destroyed by the ordinary people (peasants,wage workers and craftsmen) of Paris on 14July, 1789.
 Marked the end of absolute monarchy inFrance.
 Celebrated as a national holyday by the French people.
Reforms of the National Assembly
By the August Day of 1789:
Ended the old regime in France
Declared the abolition of feudal dues and the churchtax, the tithe.
Abolished special privileges- payment of feudal duesand church tithes by peasants, tax exemptions of the
privileged classes, all class distinctions and guild restrictions on trade and manufacturing.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizenstated that:

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 * Men are born free with rights to liberty, property,security.
* All citizens are entitled to a voice in making thenations laws.
* Expressed freedom of Speech, press and religion.
 By the Act of National Assembly in 1790,
All lands of the Catholic Church was nationalizedand sold to those who had financial capacity.
It also voted to put the Catholic Church in Franceunder the control of the state.
The Pope and the Clergy opposed this and this ledto the quarrel b/n the revolutionaries and the Church.
King Louis XVI and his family fled from Paris tojoin the counter-revolutionaries.
However, he was caught at Varennes and returnedto Paris.
The National Guard: was the bourgeoisie securityforce who suppressed a mass demonstration in Paris who favored
a republic.
The 1791 Constitution of France
Made France a constitutional monarchy.
Contradicted the principles of the Declaration ofRight of Man and Citizen in August1789
Women denied all political rights
Divided the French society as:
Active Citizens: had enough property, full politicalrights of voting and being elected.
Passive Citizens: did not have full political rights.
The Convention
 It was the new assembly which replaced theLegislative Assembly.
 Declared France as a republic in place of themonarchy in September 1792.
 Executed king Louis XVI in public by the guillotinein Jan. 1793 while Marie Antoinette in Oct. 1793.
 Two rival political parties were emerged in theconvention.

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 The Girondins: were moderates and represented the bigbourgeoisie.
The Jacobins: were radicals and represented the middle and petty bourgeoisie.
In 1793, the revolution and France faced the ffserious danger:
Economic problems due to war and internalstability.
Counter-revolutionaries in France
Invasion by the armies of the European monarchies
The Jacobins were minority in the convention butsupported by the people of Paris due to their radical idea to
save the country.
The Jacobins Rule (June 1793-July 1794)
Were led by Maximillien Robespierre.
Ruled France through a 12-man Committee of Public Safety.
Introduced a very democratic constitution in June1793.
Introduced food rationing
Enforced the Laws of the Maximum to controlprices and wages.
Raised mass armies by conscription to face theexternal invasions.
Marked as the height of the French Revolution andits bloodiest stage.
Launched the Reign of Terror aimed to crush counter-revolution i.e. the execution of individualsconvicted of
being “enemies of the people”.
The Directory (Oct. 1795-Nov. 1799)
 Established in 1795 in accordance with the constitution promulgated by the Convention -restricted
political rights than the 1791.
 Unable to give France a stable, conservativebourgeoisie republic.
 It was corrupt, weak and unpopular regime.
 Overthrow by Napoleon Bonaparte through amilitary coup d'état in 1799.

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 Significance of the French Revolution
 Introduced democratic ideals to France- Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
 Ended supreme rule by French kings andstrengthened the middle class.
 Abolished serfdom, slavery, inherited privileges andjudicial torture.
 Created a long-lasting foundation for a unified state,a strong central government, and free society.
 Intensified the spirit of Nationalism.
 Adopted a national anthem called Marseillaise.
 Proclaimed July 14, Bastille Day, as a nationalholyday.
 Expansion of state-controlled education for preserving the nation’s ideas.
 Set a precedence for future generation to struggle against all forms of domination and internal tyranny.
 Paved the way for the growth democraticgovernment in the world.
10.5. The Industrial Revolution
Although thee Industrial Revolution evolved overa long period of time, historians generally agree that it began in
Britain sometimes after 1750.
By 1850, the IR had made Great Britain thewealthiest country in the world.
It had also spread to the European continent andthe New World.
USA was the first industrialized non-Europeancountry.
Origins
A number of factors or conditions coalesced in Britain to produce the first Industrial Revolution.
th
The Agricultural Revolution of the 18 C- led toa significant increase in food production and feed more people
at lower prices giving them the potential to purchase manufactured goods.
The rapid population growth also provided a poolof surplus labor for the new factories of the emerging British
industry.

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 The Supply of Capital- Britain had a ready supply of capital for investment, possessed an effective central bank
and well-developed flexiblecredit facilities.
Early Industrial Entrepreneurs- Britain had a fair number of individuals who were interested in making
profits.
Mineral resources- Britain had ample supplies ofimportant mineral resources-coal and iron ore- needed in the
manufacturing process.
Britain was also made and relatively short distances made transportation nonproblematic.
Role of Government- Britain’s government alsocontributed to the favorable business climate by providing a
stable government and passing laws that protected private property.
Markets- a supply of markets gave British industrialists a ready outlet for their manufacturedgoods.
Britain was also possessed a well developed merchant marine that was able to transport goods anywhere in
theworld.
The colonies were also serve as a supply of raw materialsessential to industry.
Definitions of the term Industrial Revolution
It was widespread replacement of manual labor bymachines
It was the result of many fundamental, interrelated changes that transformed agricultural economies
intoindustrial ones.
The most immediate changes were in the nature of production: what was produced, as well as where and how.
Goods that had traditionally been made in the home or in small workshops began to be manufactured in the
factory.
Industrial Revolution was the result of industriousness-derived from “industry” meaningthe quality of
regularly working hard.
The skilled craftsmen who developed the neededmachines were called industrious-developed the habit of
working hard.
The Industrial Revolution is called a revolution because it changed society both significantly andrapidly.

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 The Industrial Revolution brought a shift from theagricultural societies created during the Neolithic Revolution
to modern industrial societies.
Technological Changes
The Cotton industry: the production of cheap cottongoods using the traditional methods of cottage industry.
James Hargreaves’s Spinning Jenny invented in1768 enabled spinners to produce yarn in greater quantities.
Richard Arkwright’s water frame spinning machine, powered by water or horse, and SamuelCrompton’s so-
called mule increased yarn production even more.
Edmund Cartwright's power loom, invented in1787, allowed the weaving of cloth to catch up with the
spinning of yarn.
At first, in the Industrial Revolution more waterpower was used and it was used better.
The Steam Engine: revolutionized the production ofcotton goods and allowed the factory system to spread to other areas
of production.
It ensured the triumph of the Industrial Revolution.
Steam power turned water into steam by burningcoal.
It was first invented by Thomas Savery (1698) andThomas Newcomer (1712)- used for pumping water, but could
only raise water about 6 m (20 ft)without using pressures.
James Watt (1736-1819): Scottish inventor andmechanical engineer, renowned for his improvements of the
steam engine.
Created an engine powered by steam that could pump water from mines three times as quickly asprevious
engines in 1782.
Steam power could now be applied to spinning andweaving cotton.
The development of steam engine also led to a radical transformation of transport- steam boat onrivers, steam
ship at sea and steam locomotive onland.
Richard Trevithick (1804) pioneered the first steam-powered locomotive on an industrial rail line in
southern Wales.

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 George Stephenson improved the locomotives forthe first modern railways in Britain.
The first railways were built b/n Stockton andDarlington in 1825 and the Liverpool and Manchester
in 1830.
Railways in Britain
Connected major places and provided fast, reliable,cheap transport for people by 1850.
Owned by big share companies not by individualsbecause it was expensive to build and equip.
Consequences of the Industrial Revolution
Growth of population due to declining mortality.
Growth of cities- became place for manufacturing and industry and home for large number of people.
Miserable living conditions for urban inhabitants-housing problem, poor sanitation,
Harsh working conditions for women's and children in the factories and coal mines for logworking
hour
The formation of new social classes: the Bourgeoisie (owners of the factory) and theworking
classes who worked in the factory.

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 UNIT ELEVEN
PEOPLES AND STATES IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA (1000-1884)
11.1. North Africa
A. Mamluk Egypt
The Mamluks
th
Originated from a white Turkish slaves and cameto Egypt as mercenaries in the late 12 C.
It is an Arabic term meaning “owned”/ “slaves”.
A self-preserving military aristocracy that ruledEgypt from 1250 to 1517 as virtual ruler while from 1517
to 1805 as nominal ruler.
Before they became Egyptian ruler, they trained assoldiers and rose to high army and government posts.
Came to power by overthrowing the Ayyubid Muslim
ruling dynasty (1171-1250) in 1250.
Causes for the rise of the Mamluks to Power
The prevalence of an acute power struggle within theAyyubid family.
The Sultan of the Ayyubid family (al-Malik al-Salih)began to employed the Mamluk mercenary with payment
for their military service.
The Mongol invasion of the Middle East during theCrusade.
The Mamluks able to saved Egypt from this destruction and took political power after assassinatedTuran Shah,
the last Ayyubid ruler in 1250.
Came to power by overthrowing the Ayyubid Muslim
ruling dynasty (1171-1250) in 1250.
Causes for the rise of the Mamluks to Power
The prevalence of an acute power struggle within theAyyubid family.

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 The Sultan of the Ayyubid family (al-Malik al-Salih)began to employed the Mamluk mercenary with payment
for their military service.
The Mongol invasion of the Middle East during theCrusade.
The Mamluks able to saved Egypt from this destruction and took political power after assassinatedTuran Shah,
the last Ayyubid ruler in 1250.
Major Contributions of the Mamluks to Egypt
Saved Egypt from repeated Mongol invasion ledby Tamerlane.
Launched a military expansion to the south and annexed the Christian kingdom of Nubia in 1275.
Egypt attained greatness and economic prosperitydue to
Its active participation in the Trans-Saharan Trade.
Its gold trade in the pilgrimage to the Islamic HolyLand.
The spice trade route that passed through Egypt toEurope.
Reasons for the end of the Mamluk Rule
th
The revival of the Ottoman power in the 16 C.
The Ottomans invaded Egypt in 1516 and occupied itin 1517.
The rise of Mohammed Ali in Egypt in 1805
The Funj Sultanate
Emerged in 1504 in Nubia, center of two Christiankingdoms- Alwa and Makuria- annexed by the
Mamluks in 1275.
Since 1317, Islam was spread and the Arabsestablished their supremacy in Nubia.
The Funj were a nomadic/cattle breading people withtraditional religion ended the Arabs supremacy.
Different hypothesis were held about the origin of theFunj

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 * the Shilluk People

* The State of Bornu around Lake Chad

* The people in the Northern part of Ethiopia

Its political center was at Sennar.
Their was rivalry b/n Funj and the Arab state of Abdallabi for grazing rights in Southern Gezira andpolitical
supremacy in Nubia.
Amara Dunqas was the known Funj chief foughtagainst the Abdallabi and finally the latter got
subordinate position in Nubia.
The Funj ruled Nubia in partnership with AbdallabiArabs.
Nubia established its hegemony over the NiloticSudan, Kordofan and Darfur and became effectively
Islamized state due to Arab presence.
Subjected to attacks from the neighboring peoplesincluding the Christian Highland Kingdom- Susenyos (1620)
and Iyasu II (1730s).
Conquered by Mohammed Ali of Egypt in 1821.
The Almoravids
th
Was an Islamic revival movement in the Maghribregion in the 11 C.
Its capital city was at Marrakesh.
It was organized by the Sanhaja Berbers led byAbdallah Ibn Yasin.
It was a reaction against the Arabs who destroyedfarms and towns of the Berbers of North WesternAfrica.
Almoravid was corrupted from Arabic, al-Murabitun, meaning hermitage.
Launched a Jihad through two directions.

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 th
Abdallah: invaded the city of Sijilmasa (1056),Morocco and part of Spain in the 11 C.
Abu Bakr: made alliance with Tekrur and invaded Ghana- Audaghust (1054) and Kumbi Saleh (1076)
The Almoravids dynasty was overthrown by theAlmohads in 1147.
The Almohads
A religious reform movement antagonistic to theAlmoravids.
It had also political (building an Islamic Empire)and economic (desire to control the great Trans- Saharan
trade routes).
Led by Ibn Tumart, born in Morocco in 1075 aMasmuda Berber family.
He was good a well-experience administrator andcommunity leader and attracted to people.
He also introduced reforms- morality, theologicaldogma and law.
He criticized the Almoravids for their religiouslaxity and instigated rebellion against the Almoravids at
Marrakesh.
When the Almoravids attempted to detain him, hefled to a near by village called, Aghmat.
He officially began to establish and organized theAlmohad movement aimed to overthrow of the Almoravid
regime.
It was corrupted from the Arabic, al-Muwahhidun
“those who proclaim the unity of God”.
Ibn Tumart was successful in gaining acceptancefrom among the Berbers due to the following reasons.
Preached in the Berber language.
His religious teaching
His political principles of kingship organization and tribal membership based on Berber traditions.
His propaganda tactics about his movement
he scored his first military victory in 1122 andbesieged Marrakesh in 1128.

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 However, the Almoravids successfully defendedtheir capital by their cavalry.
Ibn Tumart was died in 1130 and succeeded by Abd al-Mumin (1133-63) and became Caliph in 1133.
Al-Mumin established the Muminid Dynasty and builda strong empire.
He overthrow the Almoravids and conquered theMaghrib region.
Reasons for the Collapse of the Almohads
Administrative difficulty due to vast territory.
Constant war which affected its economy.
Heavy taxation which brought popular dissatisfaction.
Military weakness due to heterogeneous its army-Arabs and Christian mercenaries.
Defeated by the Spanish Christian kingdom in 1212 and lost its territory- Muslim Spain, Ifriqiya (Libya),and
Maghrib.
The last Caliph of the Muminid Dynasty, al- Warthiq (1266-69) overthrown by a rival familycalled Marinid
in 1269.
11.2. Western Africa (Western Sudan)
Was the region south of the Sahara and the Arabs called it “Bila d al-Sudan” , meaning the country of the
Blacks.
Several important states were emerged in theregion due to Trans-Saharan Trade.

Ancient Ghana
It was the oldest kingdom got its name fro the titleof its king, Ghana, meaning “War Chiefs”.
Ibn Hawkals (Spanish writer) called the area as Aoukar while the North Africans named the region asGhana
th
since 8 C.
th
Founded by the Soninke people in the 4 C andreached its zenith in 1000 AD.

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 Kumbi Saleh was its capital city.
Trans-Saharan trade was the main source of its prosperity and greatness w/c enabled the rulers to
maintains strong central government, peace and security, strong army, and build a vast empire.
Iron working technology was also skilled by theGhanaian craftsmen.
th
Ghana was declined due to the invasion of theAlmoravids in the 11 C.
Mali Kingdom
It was founded by the Kangaba people (Mandinka clan), best known traders in gold from Wnagara toGhana.
Sumanguru
Controlled Kumbi Saleh and the trade of the region
Conducted business with Kangaba merchantssettled in some parts of Ghana
Unable to maintain peace and security which laterforced him to defeat by the Kangaba led by Sundiata (1230-
55).
Ruled Mali, meaning “where the king resides”
Succeeded by Mansa Uli (1255-70).
Mali controlled the gold-bearing regions of Wangara andBambak.
Mansa Kankan Musa (1312-37): commonly known as MansaMusa.
Made Mali the largest and powerful empire
Mali visited by the Arabs and Egyptians and made amagnificent pilgrimage to Mecca.
Ibn Battutah admired Mansa Musa as “the most powerful, the richest, the most fortunate, the most feared by
enemiesand able to do good”.
Mali was declined in 1550 due to
Administrative difficulty
Lack of defense system.

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 Weakness of its ruler
Secession of the former tributaries- Tekrur and Wolof.
Songhai
th th
An empire centered on the Niger River and reached itszenith in the 15 and 16 C.
Its people were fishers and traders and establishedtheir capital, Gao in 800.
Accepted Islam from the North and overshadowing byMali.
Sunni Dynasty: founded by Sunni Ali
th
Gained its independence from Mali in the 13 C.
Incorporated the eastern part of Mali and subjugated
Djenne in 1471.
Askia Dynasty: founded by Askia Mohammed Ture
Made Timbuktu a thriving cultural center.
Songhai was declined because of
Dynastic rivalry
Moroccan invasion and defeat of Songhai at the Battleof Tondibi in 1591.
Kanem –Bornu Empire
th th
An state in the Lake Chad region and ruled by the Mais/Sultan Saifuwa Dynasty from 9 to 19 C witha
capital Njimi.
Founded by the Kanuri people- mixed Negroid andBerber.
Its economy was based on Trans-Saharan trade.
Had contact with Nubia, Egypt, and other neighbors.

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 th
Accepted Islam in the 11 C.
Expanded its territory as far as Niger River, Wadai andFezzan.
Reestablished the empire at Bornu centered at thecapital of Ngazargamu under Ali Ghaji due to
th
influence by the Bulala people in the 14 C.
th
Mai Idris Alooma made another expansion by firearmsacquired from North Africa Turks in the 16 C.
Reasons for the collapse of Kanem Bornu
th
The infiltration by the Fulani in the West in the 18 C.
Barley withstanding an onslaught by Usman danFodio in 1808-9.
Finally absorbed by Wadai in the east in 1846.
The Hausa City-States
Originally located in the southern edge of Sahara desert and expanded further due to migrations and
assimilations with non-Hausa people- Tuareg andFulani.
Different people with different ethnic identity wereassimilated into Hausa culture and language and formed
the present-day Nigeria.
The territory occupied by the Hausa language speakerscalled “Kasar Hausa”, meaning the country of the Hausa
language.
The Europeans called the region “Hausa Land”.
Most important City-states: Kano, Katsina, Zazzu(Zaria), Gobir, Kebbi, Rano and Zamfara.
The Hausa City-States were prosperous due to
Had rich deposits of iron ore.
Endowed with rich and fertile soil.
Trade intermediaries b/n the Sahel and the Sahara.

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 They had closer relations with Kanem-Bornu
Kanem-Bornu spread Islam and introduced a model of administrative system organized into hierarchy- rural
chief→ village chief → country chief
The Hausa City-State’s threat to their sovereignty firstcame from Kanem-Bornu.
Their final blow was due to jihad by the Fulani in1811.
11.3. Equatorial, Eastern and South Eastern AfricaThe kingdom of Kongo
th
Founded by the Bakongo people in the 14 C. andruled by Manikongo.
Its capital was Mbanzakongo later San Salvador.
The Bakongo people were clever smiths, hunters, warriors and successful in build a powerful kingdom.
The kingdom was densely populated with strongadministration and provincial governors.
They collected taxes and tributes to the king andassisted by an administrative body.
Its economy based on trade and agriculture.
Diogo Cam was the first Portuguese navigator reachedin Kongo in 1482 and claimed the Congo River as
Portuguese territory.
A Kongolese embassy sent to Portugal in 1489.
Portuguese missionaries and crafts men visited Kongoin 1891.
Manikongo and his family converted to Christianity but not accepted by the subject people (it was a royal
religious cult than a religion of the masses).
King Afonso came to power in 1507, modeled his government on the Portuguese system, built many
churches and participated in slave raids.
th
Kongo was declined due to the invasions of Jagapeople in the 16 C.

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 Zimbabwe
Center of ruins of stone buildings w/c retained theremains of the civilization of the Great Zimbabwe.
Founded by the Bantu speaking people called Shona-
migrated from the north center there in 1000.
They introduced mining techniques and cults built shrines- Dzimbadzemabwe built on Mbanwa hill.
The great stone walls were built from granite carvedwithout mortar.
Had maintained trading contacts with other countries including the East African coastal ports of Sofala and
Kilwa.
Its greatness was ended due to over exploitation of theenvironment and replaced by Mwene Mutapa in at theend of
th
the 15 C.
Mwene Mutapa
It was the title the Rozwi kings.
Founded by the powerful Rozwi clan of the Shona peopleled by Mutota.
Mutope, son of Mutota, expanded the territory in thenorthern direction.
The succession of its southern kingdom under the Changamire dynasty in 1490 brought about
politicaldisorder.
Its territory limited to Zambezi River and Indian Ocean.
Dominated the gold trade with Swahili trading posts- Senaand Tete.
th
Declined in 17 C due to Portuguese influence.
Changamire (Shona military ruler) established the RozwiEmpire (Changamire) in 1693.

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 11.4. Southern AfricaThe Khoi Khoi
A pastoral people who inhabited now S and W SouthAfrica.
Also called by the Europeans as “Hottentots”.
Khoi Khoi means “Men of men”
Closely resembled the San and similarity with Bantu
Their economic life was first hunting, and then cattleraising.
Under strong pressure from the Dutch settlers and theBantu people, they abandoned Botswana and now settled
in the Kalahari desert.
The San
Were called Bushmen by the Europeans.
Lived in South Africa in a nomadic hunter-gathererway of life.
Lived in caves or thatched shelters and wore shortaprons and sandals made of skins.
Have short height, yellow and copper skin colorand kinky hair.
The Khoi Khoi and San people spoke a Khoisanlanguage – characterized by click sounds.
The Bantus
Were lived in equatorial and southern Africa, nowCameroon and eastern Nigeria.
The Bantu Expansion/the Bantu Migration
It was a millennia-long series of migrations of the speakers of the original proto-Bantu language group
Beginning in about 2000 BC and ending about 1000AD, the Bantu migration was one of the largest in
human history.
It was caused by population increase, the developmentof agriculture, the making of ceramics and the use of iron.

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 The Zulu Kingdom
One of the Bantu states emerged in Southern Africa
Shaka Zulu (1818-28) was successfully defended the empire from the neighboring Bantu clan and the Dutch
farmers.
He realized that the white man posed a threat to localpopulations.
He planned to begin an intensive program of education to enable the Nguni people to catch up withthe Europeans.
However, he was murdered by his half brotherDingane in 1818.
Britain conquered the Zulu kingdom and other Bantuclans in the 1860s.
11.5. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
Developed after Europeans began exploring and establishing trading posts on the west Atlantic coast orAfrica in
th
the 15 C.
As the European colonial powers demand grew for plantation products in the New World, the need for
plantation labor increased. They used
Native Americans (Red/American Indians): extremely susceptible to Old World diseases broughtby
Europeans and harsh treatment.
The White European Slaves: unable to resist theharsh tropical diseases.
African Slaves: were seen by the Europeans as inexpensive and eventually the only source of the NewWorld
plantation labor.
th th th th
Portugal and then Spain in the 15 and 16 C and followed by French and British in the 17 and 18 C,began
to export West African slaves across the Atlantic Ocean to the American continent.

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 The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade conducted in Africafor 300 years through 3 distinct phases.
th
1. The Piratic Slave Trade (15 -1580s): slaves in West Africa were hunted by individual merchants,
adventures, navigators or sea robbers.
th
2. Monopolistic Slave Trade (1580s-17 C): trade wasconducted by a monopolistic slave trade companies with
the support of their respective governments.
It was characterized by widening slave huntingground, increase the volume of trade and the
companies accumulated enormous profit.
The price of slave in Africa was 100-200 francs while inAmerica 1000-2000 prices.
The second phase also called the Triangular Trade becauseit connected three continents (Africa, America and
Europe)
th
3. Free Trade (Since 17 C): the British government allowedthe participation of individual traders in 1689
Incited a fierce competition b/n the companies andindividual traders.
The Horrors of the Slave Trade
African slaves suffered a lot: captured like beasts, underwenta bitter hardship, long life torture and toiled daily from
dawnto dusk.
The Abolition of the slave trade
The Abolitionist movement started in Europe by the Religious people and Humanitarians.
The European government began to take part to servetheir economic interest.
Great Britain was the leading European power put pressure on other nations to end slavery in 1807 due to
industrialization.
Its economic interest was shifted from slave trade to the search for cheap labor, raw materials and marketsfor
industrial products.
African man power had to remain in Africa to be usedby the Europeans to extract raw materials inside Africa for

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 the European industries.
th
Finally, the Atlantic Slave Trade came to an end in themiddle of the 19 C.
Consequences of the Slave Trade
 Depopulated Africa- exported more than 15million Africans
 Economic backwardness of Africa
 Industrialized Europe and America
 Intensified wars and conflicts in Africa
 Sever divisions of Africans and weakened theirunited resistance against European colonial conquest.
 Opened the way for the colonization of Africa.

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