DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

AND GRAPH THEORY

For
COMPUTER SCIENCE
 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
. AND GRAPH THEORY
SYLLABUS
Mathematical Logic: Propositional Logic; First Order Logic.
Set Theory & Algebra: Sets; Relations; Functions; Groups; Partial Orders; Lattice;
Boolean Algebra.
Combinatory: Permutations; Combinations; Counting; Summation; generating
functions; recurrence relations; asymptotic.
Graph Theory: Connectivity; spanning trees; Cut vertices & edges; covering; matching;
independent sets; Coloring; Planarity; Isomorphism.
ANALYSIS OF GATE PAPERS
Exam Year 1 Mark Ques. 2 Mark Ques. Total
2003 5 15 35
2004 5 11 27
2005 5 10 25
2006 3 10 23
2007 4 9 22
2008 4 10 24
2009 4 6 16
2010 6 8 24
2011 - 5 10
2012 6 5 16
2013 6 3 12
2014 Set-1 6 9 24
2014 Set-2 5 8 21
2014 Set-3 7 8 23
2015 Set-1 5 8 21
2015 Set-2 5 8 21
2015 Set-3 7 6 19
2016 Set-1 5 4 13
2016 Set-2 6 3 12
2017 Set-1 3 1 5
2017 Set-2 3 2 7

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 CONTENTS
Topics Page No
1. PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

1.1 Statement/Proposition 01
1.2 Logical Connectives and Compound Statements 01
1.3 Tautologies & Contradictions 02
1.4 Logical Equivalence 02
1.5 Predicates & Quantifiers 02
1.6 Some Basic Terms Related to Normal Form 03
1.7 Validity of Arguments Using Truth Tables 05
1.8 Rules of Inference 05
1.9 Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements 06
1.10 Practice Set 06
Gate Questions 16

2. SET THEORY, RELATIONS & FUNCTIONS

2.1 Set Theory 30

2.2 Operations on sets 31
2.3 Some Important Results 33
2.4 Partition 34
2.5 Relations 34
2.6 Types of Relations 35
2.7 Representation of a Relation 36
2.8 Composition of Relations 37
2.9 Connectivity Relation 37
2.10 Equivalence Class 39
2.11 Partial Order Relation and Poset 39
2.12 Hasse Diagram 39
2.13 Lattice 41
2.14 Functions 42
2.15 Composition of Function 45
2.16 Groups 48
2.17 Practice Set 49
Gate Questions 53

3. NUMBER THEORY & COUNTING

3.1 Division 72
3.2 Prime Numbers 72
3.3 Greatest Common Divisor 72
3.4 Least Common Multiples 73
3.5 Modular Arithmetic 73
3.6 Basic Counting Principles 73

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 3.7 Inclusion – Exclusion Principle 74
3.8 Permutations & Combinations 75
Gate Questions 77

4. GRAPH THEORY

4.1 Terminology of Graph Theory 86

4.2 Directed Graphs 88
4.3 Subgraph 90
4.4 Graph Isomorphism 91
4.5 Operations on a graph 93
4.6 Konigsberg Bridge Problem 94
4.7 Coloring Problem 95
4.8 Bipartite Graph 97
4.9 Trees 97
4.10 Planar & Dual Graphs 99
4.11 Minimum Spanning Tree 100
4.12 Practice Set 102
Gate Questions 106

5. ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS 119

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 1 PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

1.1 STATEMENT/ PROPOSITION Truth table of p  q

A statement (or Proposition) is a p Q p →q
declarative sentence that is either true or T T T
T F F
false, but not both. If the statement is true
F T T
then we assign a value T to it and if it is F F T
false then we assign a value F to it. These
values T and F are called the truth values Truth table of p  q
of the statement.
P Q p∨q
PROPOSITIONAL VARIABLES T T T
T F F
F T F
In logic, it is required to draw conclusions F F F
from the given statements. Now, instead of
writing the statements repeatedly, it is 1.2.2 CONDITIONAL STATEMENT (OR
convenient to denote each of the IMPLICATION), CONVERSE AND CONTRA
statements by a unique variable, called POSITIVE
propositional variable.
If p and q are statements, then “if p then q”
1.2 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES AND
is a compound statement, denoted as p 
COMPOUND STATEMENTS
q and referred as a conditional statements,
or implication. The implication p  q is
Statements or propositional variables can
false only when p is true and q is false;
be combined by means of logical
otherwise, it is always true. In this
connectives or operators to form a single
implication, p is called the hypothesis (or
statement called compound statements (or
antecedent or premise) & q is called the
compound propositions or molecular
conclusion (or consequent).
statement).
Truth table of p  q
1.2.1 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
p q p ∨q
Symbol Connective Name T T T
~ OR ¬ Not Negation T F T
∧ And Conjunction
∨ Or Disjunction F T T
⟶ Implies or if ….. Implication or F F F
then conditional
↔ If and only if Equivalence or If p  q is an implication, then
biconditional The converse of p →q is the implication
q→p,
Truth table of ~ p The contrapositive of p→q is the
implication ~ q→~p,
P ~p
T F And the inverse of p→q is the implication
F T ~p →~ q.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Truth table of q→p (converse) its truth table contains both T and F values
at least once in its last column.
p q p→q q→p
T T T T
1.4 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
T F F T
F T T F Two compound statements p and q are said
F F T T to be logically equivalent or simply
equivalent, if p  q is a tautology. If p is
Truth Table of ~q→~p (contrapositive) equivalent to q then we write p  q .
p q ~p ~q ~q→~p Operations for Propositions
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T A) Commutative Properties
F F T T T i) p  q  q  p
ii) p  q  q  p
Truth Table of ~p→~q (inverse) B) Associative Properties
i) p  (q  r)  (p  q)  r
p q ~p ~q ~p→~q
ii) p  (q  r)  (p  q)  r
T T F F T C) Distributive Properties
T F F T T i) p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
F T T F F ii) p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
F F T T T D) Idempotent Properties
i) p∨q  p
Bi-conditional Statement ii) p∧q  p
E) Properties of Negation
If p and q are statements, then “p if and i) ~(~p) ≡p (Double negation law)
only if q” is a compound statement, ii) ~(p∨q) ≡ (~p)∧(~q) (De Morgan’s
denoted as p  q and referred as a bi- law)
conditional statement or an equivalence. iii) ~(p∧q)≡(~p) ∨(~q)(De Morgan’s law)
The equivalence p  q is true only when
F) Identity Laws
both p and q are true or when both p and q
i) p  T  p
are false.
ii) p  F  p,
Where T denotes any proposition that
Truth Table of p↔q
is always true and F denotes any
proposition that is always false.
p Q p ↔q
G) Domination Laws
T T T i) p  T  T
T F F
F T F
ii) p  F  F
F F T H) Absorption Laws
i) p  (p  q)  p
1.3 TAUTOLOGIES & CONTRADICTIONS ii) p  (p  q)  p

A compound statement that is always true 1.5 PREDICATES & QUANTIFIERS

for all possible truth values of its
propositional variables, is called a
tautology or valid.
A statement that is neither a tautology nor
a contradiction is called a contingency. So,
Consider the statement
“x is a positive integer.”
This statement cannot have a truth value
unless the value of the variable x is
specified. The first part, i.e., the variable x,

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 is called the subject of the statement, while
the second part, i.e., “is a positive integer” –
refers to a property that the subject of the
statement can have, is called the predicate.
We can express the above statement by
P(x), where P denotes the predicate “is a
positive integer” and x is the variable. The
statement P(x) is also called a
Propositional function because once a
value has been assigned to x, it becomes a
proposition and has a truth value.
Propositional functions also occur in
computer programs. The logic based upon
the analysis of predicates in any statement
is called predicate logic or first order
logic.
1.5.1 QUANTIFIERS
Quantification is an another powerful
technique to create a statement from a
propositional function. There are two types
of quantification, namely, universal
quantification and existential quantification.
The universal quantification of a predicate
P(x) is the statement “P(x) is true for all
values of x in the universe of discourse”.
The universe of discourse is the domain
that specifies the possible values of the
variable x. The notation  xP(x) denotes
the universal quantification of P(x). Here
the symbol  is called the universal
quantifier. The statement  xP(x) can also
be stated as “for every xP(x)” or “for all
xP(x)”.
The existential quantification of a predicate
P(x) is the statement “There exists an
element x in the universe of discourse for
which P(x) is true”.
The notation  xP(x) denotes the existential
quantification of P(x). Here the symbol  is
called the existential quantifier. The
statement  xP(x) can also be stated as
“there is an x such that P(x)”, “there is at
least one x such that P(x)”, “for some
xP(x)”, or “there exists an x such that P(x)”.
1.5.2 PROPERTIES OF QUANTIFIERS
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
The negation of a quantified statement
changes the quantifier and also negates the
given statement as mentioned below:
i) ~ (  xP(x))   x~P(x)(De Morgan’s Law)
ii) ~(  xP(x))   x ~ P(x)(De Morgan’s Law)
iii)  x(P(x)  Q(x))   xP(x)   xQ(x)
iv)  xP(x)   xQ(x)   x(P(x)  Q(x))
v)  x(P(x)  Q(x))   xP(x)   xQ(x)
vi) ~(  x~P(x)   xP(x)
1.6 SOME BASIC TERMS RELATED TO
NORMAL FORM
i) Elementary Product: A product of the
variables and their negation is called an
elementary product.
ii) Elementary Sum: A sum of the
variables and their negation is called an
elementary sum.
iii) Factor: A factor of the given elementary
sum or product, is a part of it and is
itself an elementary sum or product.
iv) Minterms : Let p and q be two
propositional variables. All possible
formulas which consist of product of p
or its negation and product of q or its
negation, but should not contain both
the variable and its negation in any one
of the formula are called minterms of p
and q.
v) Maxterm:For given variables, the
maxtern consists of sums (disjunctions)
in which each variable or its negation,
but not both, appears only once. Thus
the maxterms are the duals of
minterms.
1.6.1 DISJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM
(DNF)
A statement which consists of a sum of
elementary products of propositional
variables and is equivalent to the given
compound statement is called a disjunctive
normal form of the given statement. This
form is not unique for the given statement.
 1.6.2 CONJUNCTIVE NORMAL
(CNF)
A statement which consists of a product of
elementary sums of propositional variables
and is equivalent to the given statement is
called a conjunctive normal form of the
given statement. This form is not unique
for the given statement.
1.6.3 PRINCIPAL DISJUNCTIVE NORMAL
FORM (PDNF)
For a given formula, an equivalent
statement consisting of disjunctions of the
minterms only is known as its principal
disjunctive normal form or sum-of-
products canonical form. The method for
obtaining the principal disjunctive normal
form of a given statement using truth table
is as follows:
For every truth value T in the truth table of
the given statement, select the minterm
which also has the value T for the same
combination of the truth values of the
variables involved in the statement. The
sum (disjunction) of these minterms will
then be equivalent to the given formula and
is also the required principal disjunctive
normal form for the given statement.
ALTERNATIVE METHOD TO OBTAIN
PDNF
The method for finding the principal
disjunctive normal form of a given
statement without using truth table is as
follows:
First replace the biconditionals and
conditional by their equivalent formulas
containing only the connectives  ,  and ~
. Next, the negations are applied to the
variables by using De Morgans’ laws
followed by distributive laws. Any
elementary product which is a (or conjunctive) normal form of S. Since S 
contradiction such as p  ~p, is dropped.
Minterms are obtained in the disjunction
by introducing the missing factors.
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
FORM Identical minterms, if appearing in the
disjunctions, must be deleted.
1.6.4 PRINCIPAL CONJUNCTIVE NORMAL
FORM (PCNF)
For a given formula, an equivalent
statement consisting of conjunctions of the
maxterms only is known as its principal
conjunctive normal form or product-of-
sums canonical form. The method for
obtaining the principal conjunctive normal
form of a given statement using truth table
is as follows:
For every truth value F in the truth table of
the given statement, select the maxterm
which also has the value F for the same
combination of the truth values of the
variables involved in the statement. The
product (conjunction) of these maxterms
will then be equivalent to the given formula
and is also the required principal
conjunctive normal form for the given
statement.
Alternative Method to Obtain PCNF
The method for finding the principal
conjunctive normal form of a given
statement without using truth table, is
similar to the one described previously for
the principal disjunctive normal form.
1.6.5 To Obtain PCNF from PDNF and
Vice – Versa
If the principal disjunctive (or conjunctive)
normal form of a given statement S,
containing n variables, is known then the
principal disjunctive (or conjunctive)
normal form of ~ S will consist of the
disjunction (or conjunction) of the
remaining minterms (or maxterms) which
are not present in the principal disjunctive
~ (~S), so we can obtain the principal
conjunctive (or disjunctive) normal form S
by applying De Morgan’s laws to the
 principal disjunctive (or conjunctive) only if the proposition (p1  p2  …  pn)  c
normal form of ~S. is a tautology. However, a valid argument
does not necessarily lead to a true
Example : Find PCNF of a statement S conclusion.
whose PDNF is (p  q  r)  (p  q  ~r)  An argument which is not valid is called
(~p  q  r)  (p  ~q  r). invalid or a fallacy.
Solution
First we obtain the principal disjunctive 1.7 VALIDITY OF ARGUMENTS USING
normal form of ~S, which is the sum TRUTH TABLES
(disjunction) of those minterms which are
not present in the given PDNF of S. Hence For a given set of premises and a
the PDNF of ~S is conclusion, it is possible to find whether
(~p  ~q  ~r)  (~p  ~q  r)  (p  ~q the conclusion logically follows from the
 ~r)  (~p  q  ~r) given premises by constructing truth
Thus, the PCNF of S  ~[PDNF of (~S)], i.e. tables. We assert that from a set of
 ~((~p  ~q  ~r)  premises {p1, p2… pn} a conclusion c follows
(~p  ~q  r)  (p  ~q  ~r)  (~p  q logically if
 ~r)) p1  p2  …  pn  c
 (p  q  r)  (p  q  ~r)  (~p  q  r)  First, for all possible combinations of truth
(p  ~q  r) values of the atomic variables, we enter the
truth values of p1, p2… pn and c in the table.
Example: Find PDNF of a statement S Next, we observe the rows in which all p1,
whose PCNF is (p  q  r)  (p  ~q  r)  (p p2…, pn have the value T. If, for every such
 ~q  ~r)  (~p  q  r)  (~p  q  ~r) row, c also has the value T, then (1) holds.
Solution Alternatively, we may observe the rows in
First we find the PCNF of ~S, which is the which c has the value F. If, in every such
product (conjunction) of those maxterms row, at least one of the values of p1, p2, …..,
which do not appear in the given PCNF of S. pn is F, then (1) also holds.
Hence the PCNF of ~S is (p  q  ~r)  (~p
 ~q  r)  (~p  ~q  ~r) 1.8 RULES OF INFERENCE
Thus, the PDNF of S  ~[PCNF of (~S)],
i.e.  ~((p  q  ~r)  (~p  ~q  r)  (~p  ~q  Rule of Tautological Name
~r)) Inference Form
 (~p  ~q  r)  (p  q  ~r)  (p  q  r). p p  (p  q) Addition
p  q
1.6.6 ARGUMENTS pq (p  q)  p Simplification
p
An argument is an assertion that a given set P [p  (p  q)]  q Modus
of statements (or propositions) p1, p2, …., pq ponens
pn, called premises (or hypotheses) implies q
a certain statement c, called the conclusion. ~q [~q  (p  q)]  Modus tollens
Such an argument is denoted by pq ~p
p1, p2, …., pn  c ~ q
So, we can say that c logically follows from pq [(p  q)  (q  r)] Hypothetical
p1, p2,…., pn. pq  (p  r) syllogism
An argument p1, p2, …, pn  c is said to be pr
valid if c is true whenever all the premises
p1, p2, …., pn are true. In other words, the
argument p1, p2, … , pn  c is valid if and

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 1.9 RULES OF INFERENCE FOR Fundamental Rule 4:
QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS Existential Generalization

In the previous section, we discussed rules It states, if P(c) is true for some element c
of inference for propositions. Now, we will in the universe of discourse (U), then  x
describe some additional rules of inference P(x) which is true. Symbolically, we have
for statements involving quantifiers. The P(c) for some c  U
following four rules describe when the  x P(x)
universal and existential quantifiers can be
added to or deleted from an assertion. We
continue our list to include the two rules of 1.10 PRACTICE SET
inference we have already discussed.
Q.1 Is the following sentence a
proposition? If it is a proposition,
Fundamental Rule 1.
determine whether it is true or
Universal Specification or Universal
false.
Instantiation:
a) “Can Allen come with you?”
This rule may be represented as
b)1 + 2 = 3 or 2 + 3 = 5.
xP(x)
c) “Take two aspirin.”
 P(c) for any c  U Solution
It states that if a statement of the form a) This is a question, and hence not
xP(x) is assumed to be true, then the a proposition.
universal quantifier can be dropped to b) This is a proposition, and it is
obtain P(c) which is true for an arbitrary true because 1 + 2 = 3 is true and
object c in the universe of discourse (U). 2 + 3 = 5 is true.
c) This is an imperative sentence. It
Fundamental Rule 2. is not a proposition.
Universal Generalization:
Q.2 Write the negation of the following:
It states, if a statement P(c) is true for each a) “George Washington was the
element c of the universe of discourse (U), first president of the United
then the universal quantifier may be States.”
prefixed to obtain xP(x) . Symbolically, b) “1 + 5 = 7.”
this rule is c) “It is hot today.”
P(c) for an arbitrary c U d) “6 is negative.”
xP(x) Solution
a) The negation is “It is not the case
that George Washington was the
Fundamental Rule 3.
first president of the U. S.” In
Existential Specification or Existential
more straightforward language
Instantiation
we say “George Washington
was not the first president of
It states, if  xP(x) which is assumed to be
the U. S.”
true, then there is an element c in the
b) The negation states that 1 + 5 is
universe of discourse (U) such that P(c) is
not equal to 7: “1 + 5 ≠ 7.”
true. This rule takes the form
c) The negation is “It is not that
xP(x)
case that it is hot today”, or
 P(c) for some c  U “It is not hot today.” Note that
the negation is not “It is cold
today,” because the

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 temperature could be neither
hot nor cold, making both
statements false. But a
statement and its negation
must have opposite truth
values.
d) The negation states that “It is
not the case that 6 is negative.”
This means that 6 is greater
than or equal to 0; we say “6 is
nonnegative.” Note that “6 is
positive” is not the negation of
the given statement. Saying
that a number is not negative
means that the number can
be either 0 or positive.
Q.3 The following proposition uses the
English connective “or”. Determine
from the context whether “or” is
intended to be used in the inclusive
or exclusive sense.
a) “Tonight I will stay home or go
out to a movie.”
b) “If you fail to make a payment
on time or fail to pay the
amount due, you will incur a
penalty.”
c) “If I can’t schedule the airline
flight or if I can’t get a hotel
room, then I can’t go on the trip.”
Solution
a) Because the one alternative
(staying home) precludes the
other (going out),“or” is used in
the exclusive sense.
b) You might both fail to make a
payment on time and your late
payment might be for an
incorrect amount. Hence the
inclusive “or” is used here.
c) If both events happen, you won’t
go on the trip. Hence the
inclusive “or” is used here.
Q.4 The following statement is
conditional proposition in one of
many alternate forms. Write it
English in the form “If . . . then . . .
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
c) “I go walking whenever it rains.”
d) “To pass the course it is sufficient
that you get a high grade on the
final exam.”
e) “To pass the course it is necessary
that you get a high grade on the
final exam.”
f) “I will buy the tickets only if you
call.”
Solution
c) The word “whenever” is
equivalent to “if”. Therefore we
have “If it rains, then I go
walking.”
d) Getting a high grade on the final
exam is a sufficient condition for
passing the course. That is,
getting a high grade on the final
exam will guarantee that you
pass the course. Hence we have
“If you get a high grade on the
final exam, then you will pass the
course.”
e) We first rephrase the statement
as “Getting a high grade on the
final exam is a necessary
condition for passing the course.”
The word “necessary” and the
word “sufficient” give rise to
converse implications: “p is
sufficient for q” is p→ q, while
“p is necessary for q” is q→p (or,
equivalently, ≦p→≦q). If the
given statement had the word
“sufficient” instead of
“necessary”, the statement
would be “If you get a high grade
on the final exam, then you will
pass the course.” The word
“necessary” yields the converse
of this statement; that is, “If you
will pass the course, then you get
a high grade on the final exam.”
The equivalent contra positive
sounds better in English: “If you
a do not get a high grade on the
its final exam, then you will not pass
in the course.”
.” f) “p if q” and “p only if q” are
 converses; “only” has the effect a) “It rains exactly when I plan a
of reversing the implication picnic.”
arrow. The proposition “p if q” is b) “I attend class when I have a quiz
equivalent to q→p; thus “p only if and I have a quiz when I attend
q” is equivalent to p→q. In class.”
English we have “If I buy the c) “I visit the library whenever I
tickets, then you call.” Using the have a paper to write, and
equivalent contra positive, this is conversely.”
“If you do not call, then I won’t Solution
buy the tickets.” a) The word “exactly” takes the
place of “if and only if. “The
Q.5 Write the contra positive, converse, statement says that “If it rains,
and inverse of the following then I plan a picnic” and “If I
proposition: plan a picnic, then it rains.”
= “If the number is positive, then its Putting these two together we
square is positive.” have “It rains if and only if I plan
= “I stay home whenever it is a picnic.”
stormy.” b) Using “if” in place of “when,” we
Solution have “I attend class if I have a
= The contra positive of p→ q is quiz” and “If I attend class, then I
≦q→≦p. Therefore the contra have a quiz.” Therefore we have
positive of “If the number is positive, “I attend class if and only if I
then its square is positive” is the have a quiz.”
equivalent statement “If the square c) Using v for “I visit the library”
of a number is not positive, then the and p for “I have a paper to
number is not positive.” write,” we have both p→ v and
The converse of p→q is q→p . Thus its converse v→p. Together,
the converse is “If the square of a these two statements give p↔v,
number is positive, then the number or “I visit the library if and only if
is positive.” I have a paper to write.”
The inverse of p →q is ≦p→≦q.
Therefore we have the inverse “If Q.7 Translate this system specification
the number is not positive, then the into symbols:
square is not positive.” a) “The online user is sent a
= Remember that the word notification of a link error if the
“whenever” is equivalent to “if”, so network link is down.”
the original proposition is “I stay b) “Whenever the file is locked or
home if it is stormy,” or, the system is in executive
equivalently “If it is stormy, then I clearance mode, the user cannot
stay home.” Therefore: make changes in the data.”
Contra positive: “If I do not stay Solution
home, then it is not stormy.” a) The statement is equivalent to
Converse:“If I stay home, then it is “If the network link is down,
stormy.” then the online user is sent a
Inverse: “If it is not stormy, then I do notification of a link error.”
not stay home.” Using d for “the network link is
down” and s for “the online user
Q.6 Write the following proposition in is sent a notification of a link
the form “. . .if and only if. . . .” error,” the statement becomes

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 d→s. Equivalences .
b) The statement is equivalent to Sol.
“If the file is locked or the
system is in executive clearance
mode, the user cannot make
changes in the data.” Using l for
“the file is locked,” e for “the
system is in executive clearance
mode,” and u for “the user can
make changes in the data,” the
statement is (l ∨e) →≦u.
Q.11 Write the statementp→(¬q∧r) using
Q.8 How would you do a Boolean search only the connectives¬and∧.
for the appropriate Web pages for Solution
each of these? p → (¬q ∧ r) ≡ ≦p ∨(¬q ∧ r) ≡ ≦(p
a) Hotels in New England. ∧¬(¬q ∧ r)).
b) Hotels in England.
c) Hotels in England or New Q.12 Let P(x) be the statementx2< x
England. where the universe for axis all real
Solution numbers.
a) We need to examine “hotels” and a) Determine the truth value of P
both “New” and “England”; that (0).
is, HOTELS AND (NEW AND b) Determine the truth value of P
ENGLAND). (1/3).
b) To avoid getting hotels in New c) Determine the truth value of P
England, we use ENGLAND NOT (2).
NEW. Therefore we have d) Determine the set of all real
HOTELS AND(ENGLAND NOT numbers for which P(x) is true.
NEW). Solution
c) The two key words here are a) The proposition P (0) states that
“hotels” and “England” (which 02< 0, which is false.
will include both the country and b) The proposition P (1/3) states
the part of the United States). that (1/3)2< 1/3, which is true.
Therefore we can search for c) The proposition P (2) states that
HOTELS AND ENGLAND. 4 < 2, which is false.
d) If x≥ 1, then x2≥x, so P(x) is false.
Q.9 Provethat¬[r∨(q∧(≦r→≦p))] ≡ ¬ r ∧ If x≤ 0, then x2≥ 0 and hence
(p ∨ ¬ q) by using a truth table. x2≥x, so P(x) is false. If 0 < x < 1,
then x2< x is true (because
Solution this inequality can be rewritten
as x2−x< 0, or x(x−1) <0, which
is true because the product is
negative — it is the product of a
positive and a negative number).
Therefore, P(x) is true if and
only if 0 < x < 1.
Q.13 Find all real numbers x and y
Q.10 Provethat¬[r∨(q∧(≦r→≦p))] ≡ ¬r ∧ such that R(x, y) is true, where
(p ∨ ¬ q) by using a series of logical R(x, y) is the predicate “x y = y.”

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Solution
The given predicate can be
rewritten as xy−y = 0, or y(x− 1) = 0.
This is true if and only if either y
= 0 or x− 1 = 0. That is, R(x, y) is true
if and only if y = 0 or x = 1.
Q.14 Find a universe for x such that
∀x(x2< x) is true.
Solution
We need to select numbers such
that the square of the number is less
than the number. We could take the
universe for x to consist of any
numbers greater that 0 but less
than 1. For example, one such
universe would consist of the single
number 1/2. Another universe is
{1/5, 2/3, 9/11}. The largest
universe we could choose is the
entire interval (0, 1).
Q.15 Determine whether ∃t (t2+ 12 = 7t)
is true, where the universe for t
consists of all real numbers.
Solution
The equation t2 + 12 = 7t can be
rewritten as t2− 7t + 12 = 0, which
factors as (t− 3)(t− 4) = 0. This is
true for the numbers 3 and 4.
Hence the given proposition is true.
Q.16 Negate “There is a person who
walked on the moon.”
Solution
We can always obtain the negation
of a statement by placing the phrase
“it is not the case that” in front of the
statement. Thus, the negation is “It
is not the case that there is a person
who walked on the moon”. That is,
“No person walked on the moon.
“(Incidentally, the original statement
is true because12 astronauts walked
on the moon between 1969 and
1972).
We can also work with symbols. Let
W(x) be the statement “x walked on
the moon” where the universe for x
consists of all people. The statement
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
claims that there is an x such that x
walked on the moon; that is,
∃xW(x). The negation is ¬∃xW(x),
which is equivalent to ∀x¬W( x).
Therefore, the negative states that
for every x that can be chosen, x did
not walk on the moon. That is, “No
person walked on the moon.”
Note:
The negation is not “There is a
person who did not walk on the
moon.” You cannot have a statement
and its negation both true, which
would be the case if we took this
statement as the negation of the
original statement.
Q.17 Write in symbols using predicates
and quantifiers: “Everyone who
visited France stayed in Paris”.
Solution
The solution depends on the
universe for the variable. If we take
as the universe all people who visited
France, we can write the proposition
as ∀xP(x), where P(x) is the
predicate “x stayed in Paris.”
However, if we take all people as the
universe, then we need to introduce
a second predicate F(x) for “x visited
France.” In this case, the proposition
can be written as ∀x (F(x) →P(x)).
Q.18 Express this statement in symbols,
using predicates and any needed
quantifiers: “Every freshman at the
College is taking some Computer
Science course.”
Solution
There are many solutions,
depending on the universes chosen
for people and for courses. If we
take as our universe for people all
freshmen at the College and our
universe for courses all Computer
Science courses, then we can use
the predicate T (x, y): “x is taking y”
and hence the statement can be
written as ∀x∃ y T(x, y).
 However, suppose we enlarge the
universe of people to include all
students at the College, not only
freshmen. Also, suppose we enlarge
the range of courses to include all
courses offered at the College. In
this case we need to introduce a
predicate to restrict the students
and a predicate to restrict the
courses:
F(x): “x is a freshman” C(y): “y is a
Computer Science course”.
We are making a conditional
statement: “If the student is a
freshman, then the student is taking
some Computer Science course;”
that is
∀x (F(x) → ∃y (C(y)∧ T (x, y))),
Which we can rewrite as
∀x ∃y (F(x) → C(y)∧ T (x, y))
Q.19 Write the following statements in
English, using the predicate S(x, y):
“x shops in y”, where x represents
people and y represents stores:
a) ∀y S(Margaret, y).
b) ∃x∀y S(x, y).
Solution
a) The predicate states that if y is a
store, then Margaret shops there.
That is, “Margaret shops in every
store.”
b) The predicate states that there is
a person x with the property that
x shops in every store y. That is,
“There is a person who shops in
every store.”
[Note that part (a) is obtained
from part (b) by taking a
particular value, Margaret, for
the variable x. If we do this, we
do not need to quantify x.]
Q.20 Write in symbols using predicates
and quantifiers: “Every Junior in
this class scored above 90 on the
first exam.”
Solution
The solution depends on what we
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
take for the universe for the
variable. If we take all juniors in this
class as the universe, we can write
the proposition a s∀x S(x) where
S(x) is the predicate “x scored above
90 on the first exam”. However, if
we take all students in this class as
the universe, then we can write the
proposition a s∀x (J(x) → S(x))
where J(x) is the predicate “x is a
junior.”
We can extend the universe still
further. Suppose we take all students
as the universe. Then we need to
introduce a third predicate C(x) to
mean “x is in this class.” In this case,
the proposition becomes ∀x ((C(x) ∧
J(x)) → S(x)).
We can also replace S(x) by S(x, y)
where S(x, y) means “x received a
score of y on the first exam” and the
universe for y is the set of all
possible exam scores. In this case
the proposition becomes ∀x∃y(C(x)
∧ J(x) → (y > 90) ∧ S(x, y)).
Note that we used a predicate, y >
90, without giving it a name.
Q.21 Write the following statement in
English, using the predicates S(x, y):
“x shops in y”
T (x): “x is a student”
Where x represents people and y
represents stores:∃y∀x (T (x)→≦S(x,
y))
Solution
The statement ∃y∀x (T (x) →≦S(x,
y)) says that “there is a store y with
a certain property, namely, if x is
any student whatever, then x does
not shop in y.”
We have “There is a store in which
no student shops.”
Q.22 Write the following statement in
English, using the predicates
S(x, y): “x shops in y”
T (x): “x is a student”
Where x represents people and y
 represents stores: following cases and false otherwise:
∀y∃x (T (x) ∧ S(x, y)). P(1, 4), P(2, 1), P(2, 2), P(3, 4), P(4,
Solution 1), P(4, 4).
The statement ∀ y∃x (T (x) ∧ S(x, y)) Determine whether each of the
asserts that for every store y that following is true or false:
can be chosen, there is a person x a) ∃y∀xP(x, y).
who is a student and who shops in y. b) ∀xP(x, x).
Therefore: “Every store has at least c) ∀x∃y (x≠y ∧ P(x, y)).
one student who shops in it.” Solution
a) False. If we take y = 1, not all
Q.23 Write the following statement in four statements P(x, 1) are true.
English, using the predicates C(x): “x (Take x = 1 for example.) If we
is a Computer Science major” take y= 2, not all four statements
M(y): “y is a Math course” T (x, y): “x P(x, 2) are true. (Take x=1 for
is taking y” example.) If we take y = 3, not all
Where x represents students and y four statements P(x, 3) are true.
represents courses: (Take x=1 for example.) If we
∀x ∃y (C(x) → M(y) ∧ T (x, y)). take y= 4, not all four statements
Solution P(x, 4) is true. (Take y = 2.)
The statement ∀x ∃y (C(x) → M(y) ∧ b) False. P (1, 1) is false.
T (x, y)) asserts that for every c) True. For every x we can find a
student x there is a course y such value y ≠ x such that P(x, y) is
that if x is a major in Computer true: P (1, 4), P (2, 1), P (3, 4),
Science then x is taking y and y is a and P (4, 1).
Math course. Therefore, “Every
Computer Science major is taking at Q.26 What are the truth values of each of
least one Math course.” these? Assume that in each case the
universe consists of all real numbers.
Q.24 Write the following statement using c) ∃x ∃y (xy = 2) d)∃x∀y(xy=2)
quantifiers and the predicates e) ∀x ∃y (xy = 2) f)∀x∀y(xy = 2)
S(x, y): “x shops in y” Solution
T (x): “x is a student” c) This statement asserts that there
Where the universe for x consists of are numbers x and y such that xy
people and the universe for y = 2. This is true because we can
consists of stores: “There is no store take x = 2 and y = 1, for example.
that has no students who shop d) This statement asserts that there
there.” is a number x such that when we
Solution multiply this particular x by
We can begin by stating that “It is every possible number y we
false that there exists a store y with obtain xy=2. There is no such
the property that no students shop number x. (If there were such a
in y.” Saying that “no students shop number x, then xy=2 for all y. If
in y” is ∀x (T(x)→¬S(x, y)). we take y = 0, the product xy
Completely written in symbols, we cannot equal 2.) Therefore the
have¬∃y ∀x (T (x) →≦S(x, y)). statement is false.
e) This statement asserts that for
Q.25 Suppose that the universe for x and every number x we choose, we
y is {1, 2, 3, 4}. Assume that P(x, y) is can find a number y such that
a predicate that is true in the the xy = 2. This is almost always

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 the case, except if we choose x = Q.28 Express the following statement
0. If we take x = 0, there is no using predicates & quantifiers: “The
number y such that xy = 2. product of two positive numbers is
Therefore the statement is false. positive.”
(Note that the statement would Solution
be true if the universe for x Using the universe consisting of all
consisted of all nonzero real real numbers for x and y, we are
numbers.) saying that “If x and y are greater
f) This statement claims that no than zero, then xy is greater than
matter what numbers x and y we zero. That is, ∀x ∀y [(x > 0 ∧ y > 0) →
choose, we obtain xy = 2. Clearly, (xy > 0)].
this is false, because we could If we use all positive real numbers
choose x = y = 1. as the universe for x and y, we can
write the statement more simply:
Q.27 Suppose P(x, y, z) is a predicate ∀x ∀y (xy > 0).
where the universe for x, y, and z is
{1, 2}. Also suppose that the Q.29 Write the following statement in
predicate is true in the following symbols using the predicates
cases P(1, 1, 1), P(1, 2, 1), P(1, 2, 2), S(x): “x is a perfect square”
P(2, 1, 1), P(2, 2, 2), and false P(x): “x is positive”
otherwise. Determine the truth Where the universe for x is the set of
value of each of the following all integers:
quantified statements: “Perfect squares are positive.”
c) ∀x ∃y ∃z P(x, y, z) Solution
d) ∀x ∀y ∃z P(x, y, z) Note that “for all” is implied. When
e) ∀y ∀z ∃x P(x, y, z) we say “Perfect squares are
f) ∀x ∃y ∀z P(x, y, z) positive” we are really saying that
Sol. “For all integers x we choose, if x is a
c) True. For every value of x (x = 1 perfect square, then x is positive.” In
and x = 2) there are y and z such symbols we have ∀x (S(x) → P(x)).
that P(x, y, z) is true. In both
cases we can choose both y = z = Q.30 Write the statement “There is a
2. largest number” using predicates
d) True. For each choice of values and quantifiers. Then give its negation
for x and y, we can find z such in symbols.
that P(x, y, z) is true. We need to Solution
consider four cases. Taking the universe for x and y to
x = y = 1: we take z = 1, consist of all real numbers, we are
x = 1 and y = 2: we can take z to stating that there is a number x such
be 1 or 2, that, no matter what number y is
x = 2, y = 1: we take z = 1, chosen, we have x ≥ y. Therefore.
x = y = 2: we take z = 2. ∃x ∀y (x ≥ y).
e) False. If we take y = 1 and z = 2, Its negation can be formed using
there is no value of x such that these steps:
P(x, 1, 2) is true. ¬ (∃x ∀ y (x ≥ y)) ≡ ∀x ∃y ≦(x ≥ y) ≡
f) False. Take x=2. There is no ∀x ∃y (x < y). (This says that there is
value of y such that ∀z P(2, y, z) no largest number.)
is true.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.31 The proposition (¬q∧(p→q))→≦pis a
tautology. It is the basis for the rule
of inference modus tollens:
¬q
p → q ∴¬p
Suppose we are given the
propositions: “If the class finishes
Chapter 1, then they have a quiz”
and “The class does not have a quiz.”
Find a conclusion that can be drawn
using modus tollens.
Dolution
Let p represent “The class finishes
Chapter 2” and q represent “The
class has a quiz.” According to
modus tollens, because we have ¬q In the fourth row the three
and p→q, we can conclude ¬p, or hypotheses (columns 5, 6, 7) are
“The class did not finish Chapter 1.” true and the conclusion is false.
Therefore, the argument is not valid.
Q.32 Suppose that “it is snowing” is true
and that “it is windy” is true. Using Q.34 Suppose we have the two
the conjunction rule, what propositions (with symbols to
conclusion can be drawn? represent them):
Solution “It is raining (r) or I work in the
Using s for “it is snowing” and w for yard (w)”
“it is windy,” we are given that s is “It is not raining (¬r) or I go to the
true and w is true. By the library (l).”
conjunction rule, we can conclude What conclusion can we draw from
s∧w, or “it is snowing and windy”. these propositions?
Solution
Q.33 Determine whether this argument is We can use the resolution rule of
valid by using a truth table:I play inference to draw a conclusion from
golf or tennis. these propositions. In symbols the
If it is not Sunday, I play golf and two given propositions are (r∨w) ∧
tennis. (¬r∨l). From resolution we have
If it is Saturday or Sunday, then I (r∨w) ∧ (¬r∨l) → ( w∨l). Therefore,
don’t play golf. Therefore, I don’t we can draw the conclusion “I work
play golf. in the yard or I go to the library.”
Solution
Using the variables: g: I Q.35 Suppose we have:
play golf t: I play tennis s: “Every student in this class is a
it is Saturday u: it is Sunday, junior.”
the argument can be written in “Every Junior in this class passed the
symbols as: g ∨ t final exam.”
≦u → (g ∧ t) “Allen is a student in this class.”
+(s∨u) →≦g∴¬g Explain why we can draw the
conclusion “Allen passed the final
Truth table: exam.”
Solution

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 We will use S(x) to mean “ x is a The universal quantifier “∀x”
student in this class”, J(x) to mean “x (where the universe for x consists of
is a Junior”, and P(x) to mean “x all integers) is understood, if we
passed the final exam”, where the read the statement as “for every x
universe for x consists of all people. we choose, x2 does not end in the
The proof is: digit 8”. That is, we have ∀x (x2 does
1. ∀x (S(x) →J(x)) premise not end in the digit 8).
2. ∀x(J(x) →P(x)) premise However, we can read the given
3. S(Allen)→J(Allen)universal statement equivalently as “there
instantiation on (1) [ to be does not exist an integer x such that
covered in next class] x2 ends in the digit 8”. If we do this,
4. J(Allen) →P(Allen) universal the existential quantifier is used:
instantiation on (2) ¬∃x (x2 ends in the digit 8).
5. S(Allen) →P(Allen) hypothetical Both statements are equivalent.
syllogism on (3) and (4)
6. S(Allen) premise
7. P(Allen) modus ponens on (5)
and (6)

Q.36 Sometimes quantifiers in statements

are understood, but do not actually
appear in the word so the statement.
Explain what quantifiers are
understood in the statement “The
product of two negative numbers is
positive.”
Solution
What is really meant is “For all pairs
of negative numbers, the product is
positive.” In symbols, ∀x ∀y [((x < 0)
∧ (y < 0)) → (xy > 0)].

Q.37 Consider the theorem “If x ends in

the digit 3, then x3 ends in the digit
7.” What quantifier is understood,
but not written?
Solution
The universal quantifier “∀x”
(where the universe for x consists of
all integers) is understood. That is,
we have ∀x ((x ends in the digit 3) →
(x3 ends in the digit 7)).

Q-38 Consider the theorem “No squares

of integers end in the digit 8.” What
quantifier is understood, but not
written?
Solution

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 What is the converse of the  : (x) Px   y  Qxy  Qyy  
following assertion?
I stay only if you go   x  Px 
a) I stay if you go I1 : Domain : the set of natural
b) If I stay then you go numbers
c) If you do not go then I do not stay Px = ‘x is a prime number’
d) If I do not stay then you go Qxy = ‘y divides x’
[GATE-2001] I2 : Same as I1 except that Px = ‘x is a
composite number.’
Q.2 Consider two well-formed formulas Which of the following statements is
in propositional logic true?
F1 : P  P a) I1 satisfies  , I2 does not
F2 : (P   P)   P  P  b) I2 satisfies  , I1 does not
c) Neither I2 nor I1 satisfies 
Which of the following statements is
d) Both I1 and I2 satisfy  .
correct?
[GATE-2003]
a) F1 is satisfiable, F2 is valid
b) F1 is unsatisfiable, F2 is satisfiable Q.6 The following resolution rule is used
c) F1 is unsatisfiable, F2 is valid in logic programming:
d) F1 and F2 are both satisfiable Derive clause (P  Q) from clauses (P
[GATE-2001]  R), (Q  R)
Which of the following statements
Q.3 If X then Y unless Z” is represented related to this rule is FALSE?
by which of the following formulas a) (P  R)  (Q  R)  (P  Q) is
in propositional logic? logically valid
(“  ”) is negation, “” is b) (P  Q)  (P  R)  (Q  R) is
conjunction, and 
“ ” is logically valid
implication) c) (P  Q) is satisfiable if and only if
a) (X Z)  Y b) (X Z)  Y (P  R)  (Q  R) is satisfiable
c) X   Y  Z d) (X  Y)  Z d) (P  Q)  FALSE if and only if
both P and Q are unsatisfiable
[GATE-2002]
[GATE-2003]
Q.4 Which of the following is a valid first
Q.7 Identify the correct translation into
order formula? (Here α and β are
logical notation of the following
first order formulae with x as their
assertion. Some boys in the class are
only free variable)
taller than all the girls
a) (x)    x     x     Note : Taller (x, y) is true if x is taller
b) (x)    x     than y.
c) x)      x    x   a)  x   boy(x)   y  girl(y)  taller(x, y)  

d) (x)       x     x   b)  x   boy(x)   y  girl(y)  taller(x, y)  

[GATE-2003] c)  x   boy(x)  y  girl(y)  taller(x, y)  

d)  x   boy(x)   y  girl(y)  taller(x, y)  
Q.5 Consider the following formula α
and its two interpretations I1 and I2. [GATE-2004]

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
  tiger(x)  lion(x)   
Q.8 The following proportional c) x  
statement is  attacks(x)  (hungry(x)   Threatened(x)
(P  (Q  R))  ((P  Q)  R)
 tiger(x)  lion(x)   
a) satisfiable but not valid d) x  
b) valid  hungry(x)  threatened(x)   attacks(x)
c) a contradistinction [GATE-2006]
d) None of the above
[GATE-2004] Q.12 Consider the following proportional
statements:
Q.9 Let P, Q and R be three atomic P1: ((A  B)→C)) = ((A→C)  (B→C))
propositional assertions. Let X P2: ((A  B)→C)) = ((A→C)  (B→C))
denote (P  Q) → R and Y denote Which one of the following is true?
(P→R)  (Q→R). Which one of the a) P1 is a tautology, but not P2
following is a tautology? b) P2 is a tautology, but not P1
a) X = Y b) X → Y c) P1 and P2 are both tautologies
c) Y → X d) Y  X d) Both P1 and P2 are not
[GATE-2005] tautologies
[GATE-2006]
Q.10 What is the first order predicate
calculus statements equivalent to Q.13 A logical binary relation ʘ, is
the following? Every teacher is liked defined as follows:
by some student A B A⊙B
 teacher(x)   TRUE TRUE TRUE
a) (x)  
(y) student(y)  likes(y, x)  TRUE FALSE TRUE

 teacher(x)   FALSE TRUE FALSE

b) (x)  
(y) student(y)  likes(y, x) 
FALSE FALSE TRUE

 teacher(x)   Let ~ be the unary negation (NOT)

c) (y)(x)   operator, with higher precedence,
student(y)  likes(y, x)  then ʘ. Which one of the following
 teacher(x)  (y)  is equivalent to A  B?
d) (x)   a) (~A ʘ B) b) ~ (A ʘ ~B)
student(y)  likes(y, x)  c) ~ (~A ʘ ~B) d) ~ (A ʘ B)
[GATE-2005] [GATE-2006]

Q.11 Which one of the first order Q.14 Let Graph(x) be a predicate which
predicate calculus statements given denotes that x is a graph. Let
below correctly expresses the Connected (x) be a predicate which
following English statement? Tigers denotes that x is connected. Which
and lions attack if they are hungry of the following first order logic
or threatened. sentences DOES NOT represent the
statement; “Not every graph is
 tiger(x)  lion(x)   
a) x   connected”?
 hungry(x)  threatened(x)   attacks(x) a) x(Graph(x)  Connected(x))
b)  x(Graph(x)   Connected(x))
 tiger(x)  lion(x)   
b) x   c)  x( Graph(x)  Connected(x))
 hungry(x)  threatened(x)   attacks(x) d)  x(Graph(x)  Connected(x))
[GATE-2007]

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.15 Which of the following is TRUE Q.18 Which one of the following is the
about formulae in Conjunctive most appropriate logical formula to
Normal Form? represent the statement:
a) For any formula, there is a truth “Gold and silver ornaments are
assignment for which at least previous”
half the clauses evaluate to true. The following notations are used:
b) For any formula, there is a truth G(x) : x is a gold ornament
assignment for a which all the S(x) : x is a silver ornament
clauses evaluate to true. P(x): x is precious
c) There is a formula such that for a) x  P(x)   G(x)  S(x)  
b) x  G(x)  S(x)  P(x)  
each truth assignment at most
one-fourth of the clauses
evaluate to true. c) x  G(x)  S(x)  P(x)  
d) None of the above d) x  G(x)  S(x)  P(x)  
[GATE-2007]
[GATE-2009]
Q.16 Let fsa and pda be two predicates
such that fsa(x) means x is a finite Q.19 The binary operation is defined as
state automaton, and pda(y) means, follows:
that y is a pushdown automaton. Let P Q PQ
equivalent be another predicate T T T
T F T
such that equivalent (a, b) means a
F T F
and b are equivalent. Which of the F F T
following first order logic statement Which one of the following is
represents the following : equivalent to P  Q ?
Each finite state automaton has an
a) QP b) PQ
equivalent pushdown automaton.
a) (∀xfsa(x))⇒(∃ypda(y)∧equivalent c) PQ d) PQ
(x, y)) [GATE-2009]
b) ~∀y(∃xfsa(x)⇒pda(y)∧equivalent
Q.20 Consider the following well –
(x, y))
formed formulae:
c) ∀x∃y(fsa(x) ∧ pda(y) ∧ equivalent
I. x(P(x))
(x, y))
d) ∀x∃y(fsa(y) ∧ pda(x)∧ equivalent II. x  P  x  
(x, y)) III. x  P  x  
[GATE-2008]
IV. x  P  x  
Q.17 P and Q are two propositions. Which Which of the above are equivalent?
of the following logical expression a) I and II b) I and IV
are equivalent? c) II and III d) II and IV
1. P ~ Q [GATE-2009]
2. ~ (~ P Q)
Q.21 Suppose the predicate F(x, y, t) is
3.  P  Q    P ~ Q    ~ P ~ Q  used to represent the statement that
4.  P  Q    P ~ Q    ~ P  Q  person x can fool person y at time t.
a) Only 1 and 2 Which one of the statements below
b) Only 1, 2 and 3 expresses best the meaning of the
c) Only 1,2 and 4 formula xyt  F  x, y, t   ?
d) All of 1,2,3 and 4 a) Everyone can fool some person
[GATE-2008] at some time

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 b) No one can fool everyone all the “Some real numbers are rational”
time a) x  real(x)  rational(x) 
c) Everyone cannot fool some
person all the time b) x  real(x)  rational(x) 
d) No one can fool some person at c) x  real(x)  rational(x) 
the time
d) x  rational(x)  real(x) 
[GATE-2010]
[GATE-2012]
Q.22 Which one of the following options Q.25 What is the logical translation of the
is CORRECT given below three following statements?
positive integers x, y and z, and a “None of my friends are perfect”.
predicate
a) x  F(x)  P(x) 
P  X     X  1 
b) x  F(x)  P(x) 
y  z  x  y  z    y  x    y  1 
c) x  F(x)  P(x) 
a) P(x) being true means that x is a
prime number d) x  F(x)  P(x) 
b) P(x) being true means that x is a [GATE-2013]
number other than 1
c) P(x) is always true irrespective of Q.26 Which one of the following is NOT
the value of x logically equivalent to
d) P(x) being true means that x has x  y()  z()  .
exactly two factors other than a) x  z    y    
1& x
[GATE-2011] b) x  z   y    

Q.23 Consider the following logical c) x  y     z    

interferences.
I1 : If it rains then the cricket match
will not be played.
Interference: There was no rain.
I2 : If it rains then the cricket match
will not be played.
It did not rain.
Interference: The cricket match was
played.
Which of the following is TRUE?
a) Both I1 and I2 are correct
interferences
b) I1 is correct but I2 is not a correct
interference
c) I1 is not correct but I2 is a correct
interference
d) Both I1 and I2 are not correct
interferences
[GATE-2012]
Q.24 What is the correct translation of
the following statements into
mathematical logic?
d) x  y     z    
[GATE-2013]
Q.27 Consider the statement
“Not all that glitters is gold”
Predicate glitter(x) is true if x
glitters and predicate gold(x) is true
if x is gold.
Which one of the following logical
formulae represents the above
statement?
a) x : glitters(x)  gold(x)
b) x : gold(x)  glitters(x)
c) x : gold(x)  glitters(x)
d) x : glitters(x)  gold(x)
[GATE-2014]
Q.28 Which one of the following
propositional logic formulas is TRUE
when exactly two of p, q and r are
TRUE?
a)   p  q   r    p  q ~ r 

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 b)  ~  p  q   r    p  q ~ r  p q p≠ q
0 0 0
c)   p  q   r    p  q ~ r  0 1 1
d)  ~  p  q   r    p  q ~ r 
1 0 1
1 1 0
[GATE-2014] Which one of the following is true
about the binary operator ≠?
Q.29 Which one of the following Boolean
a) Both commutative and associative
expressions is NOT a tautology?
b) Commutative but not associative
a)   a  b    b  c     a  c  c) Not commutative but associative
b)  a  c    ~ b   a  c   d)Neither commutative nor
associative
c)  a  b  c    c  a  [GATE-2015 (1)]
d) a   b  a 
[GATE-2014] Q.34 Consider the following two
statements.
Q.30 Consider the following statements: S1: If candidate is known to be
P : Good mobile phones are not corrupt, then he will not be elected.
cheap S2: If a candidate is kind, he will be
Q:Cheap mobile phones are not good elected.
L : P implies Q Which one of the following
M : Q implies P statements follows from S1 and S2
N : P is equivalent to Q as per sound inference rules of
Which one of the following about. L, logic?
M, and N is correct? a) If a person is known to be
a) Only L is TRUE. corrupt, he is kind
b) Only M is TRUE. b) If a person is not known to be
c) Only N is TRUE. corrupt, he is not kind
d) L, M and N are TRUE. c) If a person is kind, he is not
[GATE-2014] known to be corrupt
Q.31 The CORRECT formula for the d) If a person is not kind, he is not
sentence, “not all rainy days are known to be corrupt
cold” is [GATE-2015 (2)]
a) d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d))
Q.35 Which one of the following well
b) d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d))
formed formulae is a tautology?
c) d( Rainy(d)  Cold(d)) a) x y R(x, y)y x R(x, y)
d) d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d)) b) (x[y R(x, y) S(x, y)]) x y S(x, y)
[GATE-2014] [x y (P(x, y) R(x, y))]
c)
Q. 32 Which one of the following is nor [x y (P(x, y)R(x, y))]
equivalent to p ↔ q ? d) x y(x, y) x yP(y, x)
a) (p  q)  (p  q) [GATE-2015 (2)]
b) (p  q)  (p  q)
Q.36 In a room there are only two types
c) (p  q)  (p  q)
of people, namely Type 1 and Type
d) (p  q)  (p  q) 2. Type 1 people always tell the
[GATE-2014] truth and Type 2 people always lie.
Q.33 The binary operator ≠ is defined by You give a fair coin to a person in
the following truth table. that room, without knowing which

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 type he is from and tell him o toss it pleasant”, and it is pleasant, and it is
and hide the result from you ask for not pleasant only if it
it. Upon asking, the person replies is cold” is represented by
the following a)  p  r    r   p  q  
“The result of the toss is head if an
only if I am telling the truth.” b)  p  r     p  q   r 
Which of the following options is c)  p  r     p  q   r 
correct?
a) The result is head d)  p  r    r   p  q  
b) The result is tail [GATE-2017]
c) If the person is of Type 2, then
the result is tail Q.41 Consider the first-order logic
d) If the person is of Type 1 then sentence F : x  yR  x, y   .
the result is tail Assuming non-empty logical domains,
[GATE-2015] which of the sentences below are
implied by F?
I. y  xR  x, y  
Q.37 Let p,q,r,s represent the following
proposition
P:x {8,9,10,11,12} II. y  xR  x, y  
q:x is a composite number III. y  xR  x, y  
r:x is perfect square
s: x is a prime number IV. x  yR  x, y  
The integer x 2 which satisfies a) IV only b) I and IV only
(p q)(r s)) is ___. c) II only d) II and III only
[GATE-2016] [GATE-2017]

Q.38 Consider the following expressions: Q.42 The statement  p    q  is

(i) false (ii) Q
logically equivalent to which of the
(iii) true (iv) P Q
statements below?
(v) –Q P
I. p  q
The number of expressions given
above that are logically implied by P II. q  p
(P Q) is ______. III.  q  v p
[GATE-2016]
IV.  p  v q
Q.39 Which one of the following well – a) I only b) I and IV only
formed formulae in predicate c) II only d) II and III only
calculus is NOT valid? [GATE-2017]
a) (xp(x)xq(x))(xp(x)xq(x)) Q.43 Let p, q and r be propositions and
b) (xp(x)xq(x))x(p(x)q(x)) the expression  p  q   r be a
c) x(p(x)q(x))(xp(x)xq(x))
contradiction. Then, the expression
d) x(p(x)q(x))(xp(x)xq(xx))
 r  p   q is
[GATE-2016]
a) a tautology
Q.40 Let p, q, r denote the statements “It b) a contradiction
is raining”, “It is cold” , and “It is c) always TRUE when p is FALSE
pleasant”, respectively. Then the d) always TRUE when q is TRUE
statement “It is not raining and it is [GATE-2017]

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(a) (a) (a) (d) (d) (b) (d) (a) (b) (b) (d) (d) (d) (d)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
(d) (a) (b) (d) (b) (b) (b) (a) (b) (c) (d) (a,d) (d) (b)
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
(b) (d) (d) (c ) (a) (c ) (c ) (a) 11 4 (d) (a) (b) (d)
43
(d)

EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (a) a valid first order formula.
Let p : I say
q : you go Q.5 (d)
I stay only if you go Q yy  “y divides y” is always true
pq
 Qxx  Qyy is same as Qxx 
Converse of p  q is q  p
False Now α becomes
i.e., I stay if you go
 x  P  x    y   Qxy  false   x 
Q.2 (a)  ¬ P  x  
F1 : P ~ P
Now consider I1 : P(x) = “x is a prime
~ P ~ P number”.
~ P α becomes (∀ x x is a prime number
So, F1 is contingency. Hence, F1 is if and only if ∀ y (y does not divide x))
satisfiable but not valid.  ∀ x (x is not prime) Since, ∀ y
F2 :  P ~ P  ~ P  P  (y does not divide x) is always false
 ~ P ~ P    ~ (P)  P  (since x divides x always). α now
becomes
 ~ P   P  P ∀ x (x is a prime number  false)
~ PP  ∀ x (x is not a prime).
T Which is true.
So, F2 is tautology and therefore Now consider I2:P(x)= “x is a
valid. composite number”.
Now α becomes
Q.3 (a) (∀ x x is a composite number if and
If X then Y unless Z is represented only if ∀ y (y does not divide x)) 
by  X  Z  Y ∀ x (x is not a composite number)
By same reasoning used above, 
Q.4 (d) now becomes
(∀ x x is a composite number 
 x      x      x   false)  ∀ x (x is not composite) is
is a logical equivalence & therefore, also true.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Since if no number divides x, x =  P ' Q' + R    P ' + Q' + R 
cannot be a composite number, is
=  P'Q' + R  +P' + Q' +R
'
true.
 Both I1 & I2 satisfy α.
=  P'Q'  .R ' + P' + Q' + R
'

Q.6 (b)
  P + Q  .R ' + P' + Q' + R
Derive clause P  Q from clauses
P  R , Q  R means that =PR ' + QR ' + P' + Q' + R
=  PR ' + R  +  QR ' + Q'  + P'
 P  R    Q  R 
 PQ =  P + R  (R ' + R) +  Q' + Q  ×  R ' + Q'  + P'
 (a) is true.
=  P+R  +  R ' +Q'  +P'
Since, x  y does not imply that
yx = P + P ' + R + R ' + Q'
 P  Q   P  R    Q  ¬R  =1+1+ Q'
 may or may not be true. Hence (b) 1
is not true. X  Y is a tautology.

Q.7 (d) Q.10 (b)

The statement is “some boys in the “Every teacher is liked by some
class are taller than all the girls”. student : then the logical expression
So the notation for the given statements is
is (X)[teacher(x)  (y)[student(y)  likes(y,x]]

 x  boy  x    y   girl  y   taller  x,y    Where likes (y, x) means y likes x,
such that y represent the student
Q.8 (a) and x represents the teacher.
 P   Q  R    P  Q  R  Q.11 (d)
The given statement should be read
=  P  Q+R    PQ  R  as “If an animal is a tiger or a lion,
= P' +Q + R    PQ'  +R  then (if the animal is hungry or
threatened, then it will attack).
= P' +Q+R   P' +Q' +R  Therefore the correct translation is
=  P' + Q +R  +P' + Q' +R
'
 tiger  x   lion  x    
x  
= P Q'R ' +P' + Q' +R {hungry  x   threatened  x   attacks  x  }
= Q' + Q'PR ' +P' +R Which is choice (d).
= Q' + P' + R (by absorption law)
Q.12 (d)
P1:  A  B  C  =   A  C    B  C  
Which is a contingency

Q.9 (b) LHS:

X: P  Q   R  A  B  C
Y: P  R    Q  R   AB  C
=  AB + C
'
X : P + Q  R=  P + Q  +R = P'Q' +R
'

=A' + B' + C
Y: P' +R  +  Q' +R  = P' + Q' + R
RHS:
Clearly X  Y  A  B   B  C 
Consider X  Y

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 =  A' + C  B' + c  some graph which is not connected”
which is same as
=A'B' + C x{graph(x)  connected(x)}
= A' + B' + C Which is choice (b).
Clearly, LHS ≠ RHS Alternate solution
P1 is not a tautology We can translate the given
P2 :  A  B  C)  =   A  C    B  C   statement “NOT (every graph is
LHS   A+B  C  connected)” as
as (x graph (x) → connected (x))
=  A+B +C
'

=A'B' + C  x  graph(x)  connected(x) 

RHS =  A  C   B  C 
 x  graph(x)  connected(x) 
  A + C +  B + C
' '
 x  graph(x)  connected(x) 
' '
=A + B + C  x  graph(x)  connected(x) 
Clearly, LHS  RHS  P2 is also not
From the above option (a) = (b) =
a tautology
(c) (d) is
Therefore, both P1 and P2 are not
tautologies. Correct choice is (d).
x  graph(x)  connected(x) 
Q.13 (d) Which means all graphs are not
By using min terms we can define connected.
A⨀B = AB + AB’ + A’B’
= A + A’B’ Q.15 (d)
= (A + A’) . (A + B’) In conjunction normal form, for any
= A + B’ particular assignment of truth
a) ~ A ⊙ B = A’⊙ B = A’ + B’ values, all expect one clause, will
always evaluate to true. so (d) is
b) ~ (A⊙~B) = (A⊙B’)’ = (A + correct answer.
(B’)’)’ = (A + B)’ = A’B’
Q.16 (a)
c) ~ (~A⊙~B) = (A’⊙B’)’ = (A’ + “for x which is an fsa, there exists a
(B’)’)’ = (A’ + B)’ = A’B’ y which is a pda and which is
equivalent to x”.
d) ~ (A⊙~B) = (A⊙B’)’ = (A + xfsa  x    ypda  y  
(B’)’)’ = (A + B)’ = A’B’ equivalent (x,y)) is the logical
representation.
e) ~ (~A⊙B) = (A’⊙B)’ = (A’ + B’)’ =
A.B= A  B Q.17 (b)
 only, choice (d) = A  B
P~ Q = p + q'
Note: This problem can also be done
~  ~P  Q  =  p'q  = p + q '
'
by constructing truth table for each
i)
Choice and comparing with truth
table A  B. ii)
 P  Q   P~ Q   ~P~ Q
 pq  pq'  p'q'
 p  q  q '   p'q '
Q.14 (d)
The statement “Not every graph is
connected” is same as “There exists  p  p'q '

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
   p  p'   p  q   Q' P '  P  Q  Q ' 
 p  q'  Q' P '  P

iii)  P  Q    P ~ Q    ~ P  Q    Q'  P  .  P '  P 

 pq  pq '  p'q = Q' + P
 p  q  q '   p'q Choice (b) P  Q  P  Q'
 PQ'  P  Q'   P'  Q' 
' '
 p  p'q
  p  p'   p  q   PQ'  PQ  P'Q
 pq  P  Q'  Q   P ' Q
Clearly (i), (ii) and (iii) are
 P  P'Q
equivalent.
Correct choice is (b).   P  P'  .  P  Q 
 PQ
Q.18 (d) Choice (c) P  Q  P'  Q
The correct translation of “Gold and
 P ' Q  P ' Q'   P '  Q'
'
silver ornaments are previous” is
choice (d)  P'Q  P'Q'  PQ'

x  G  x   S  x    P  x    P'  Q  Q'   PQ'
Which is read as “if an ornaments is  P'  PQ'
  P '  P  .  P '  Q'   P '  Q'
gold or silver, then it is previous”.
Now since a given ornament cannot
be both gold and silver at the same Choice (d)
time. P  Q  P'  Q'
 P'Q'  P'  Q'    P'   Q' 
Choice(b) ' ' '


x  G  x   S  x    P  x  is   P'Q'  P'Q  PQ
incorrect.  P'  PQ

Q.19 (b)   P'  P  P'  Q 

The given table can be converted  P'  Q
into boolean function by adding As we can clearly see only choice (b)
minterms corresponding to true P  Q is equivalent to P + Q.
rows. Note: This problem can also be
P Q PQ solved by constructing the truth
T T T tables for each Choice & checking
T F T which one matches the truth table of
F T F P + Q.
F F T
 Translate P  Q  PQ  PQ'  P'Q' Q.20 (b)
using this we can check the choices I xP(x)  xP(x)
one by one to see which is And IV xP(x)
equivalent to P + Q. Clearly, choices I and IV are
Choice (a) Q  P  Q'  P' equivalent.
 Q' P'  Q'  P'    Q'  P'  II xP(x)  xP(x)
'

and
 Q' P'  Q' P  QP
III x P(x)  xP(x)

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Clearly II & III are not equivalent to Q.24 (c)
each other or to I& IV. Some real no’s are rational
 x  real(x)  rational(x)
Q.21 (b)
xytF  x, y, t  Q.25 (d)
None of my friends are perfect.
 xytF  x, y, t 
i.e. All of my friends are not perfect.
= it is not true that (someone can
fool all people at all time)

x  F  x   P  x   
= no one can fool everyone all the x  F  x   P  x  
time x  F  x   P  x  
Q.22 (a) Alternatively
If P(x) is true, then x  F  x   P  x   gives there exist
X ≠ 1 and also some of my friends who are perfect.
x is broken into two factors, only if, x  F  x   P  x  
one of the factors is x itself and the
There does not exists any friend
other
who is perfect
factor is 1, which is exactly the
i.e. none of my friends are perfect.
definition of a prime number.
So (d) is correct option.
So P(x) is true means x is a prime
number.
Q.26 (a, d)
Q.23 (b) Let y()  P, y()  Q
Let p : It rains Then y     P
q : cricket match will not be played.
and y     Q
I1 : p  q
~q Given x  y()  y() 

~p  x  P  Q 
Clearly I1 is correct since it is in the  x  PvQ 
form of Modus Tollens (rule of  x  P  Q 
contra positive)
a)
I2 : p  q
~p x  z    y      x  Q  P 
 b)
~q
x  z   y      x  Q  P 
Which corresponds
 x(P  Q)
 p  q ~ q ~ q c)
  p  q  p   q
' ' '
x  y     z      x  P  Q 
  p'  qp'   q' d)
x  y     z     x  P  Q 
 p'  q '
 (a) and (d) are not logically
  p'   q '
'

equivalent to x  P  Q 
 pq '

Which is not a tautology. Q.27 (d)

So I2 is incorrect interference. x glitters(x)   gold(x)
All glitters are not gold.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 a) x gold(x)  glitters(x)  (d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d)))
All golds are glitters  (d( Rainy(d)  Cold(d)))
b) x gold(x)  glitters(x)  d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d))
Not all that golds are glitters i.e., Alternative Method
there exist gold which is not glitter Not all rainy days are cold is same as
c) x glitters(x)  gold(x) some rainy days are not cold which
Not all that glitters is gold i.e., there is same as
exist glitter which is not gold. d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d))

Q.28 (b) Q.32 (c)

 ~  p  q   r    p  q ~ r  Here option (a) and (b) can be
reduced to (p →q) ∧ (q→ p) and
   
 ~  ~ p  q    pv ~ q   r   p  q ~ r 
hence ≡ p ↔ q
 Option (d) is p’ q’+ pq ≡ p ↔ q
   p ~ q    ~ p  q   r    p  q  ~ r   Option (c ) is p’ q+ pq’= p ⊕ q which
is not equivalent to p ↔ q.

 p ~ q  r    ~ p  q  r    p  q  ~ r  Q.33 (a)
If exactly two of p, q and r are true. The given truth table corresponds to
p’q’+ pq’ = p ⊕ q
 p ~ q  r    ~ p  q  r    p  q ~ r   TRUE ⊕ is known to be both commutative
and associative.
  
Q.34 (c )
If p = r = TIf q = r = T If p = q = T
C: person is corrupt
K: Person is kind
Q.29 (b)
E: Person is elected
 a  b   ~ b  a  c
S1 : C  E
  a  c c  a    b  ac  S2 : K  E
 ac  ca  b  ac S2  E  K
 a  ca  b So from S1 and S2 :
 a cb
 a  c  b is not a tautology (C  E)  (E  K)  (C  K)
We can conclude C  K which is
same as K  C , which is same as
Q.30 (d) option (c).
g : mobile is good
c : mobile is cheap Q.35 (c )
P : Good mobile phones are not Since P  R  P  R , and the
cheap g  c   gvc  quantifiers on both the sides are
Q : Cheap mobile phones are not same (xy) .
good Option ( c ) is clearly a tautology.
c  g   cvg 
 Both P and Q are equivalent. Q.36 (a)
Type 1 always tells truth
Q.31 (d) Type 2 always tells lies.
Not (all rainy days are cold):

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 The statement is “toss is head if and Now the only value of x which
only if I am telling the truth”. satisfies this is x=11. So correct
Case- 1: let the person be type 1. answer is x=11.
Case- 2: Let he person be type 2.
In each case we shall prove that Q.38
result is head. p  (p  q)p(p' q)  pq
Case-1: Let the person be type. 1 Take (i) false
Type 1 always tells truth. pq  false  pq  0
So the statement “toss is head if and  (pq) ' 0
only if I am telling the truth “is true.
 p' q ' 0
So toss head ⇔ telling truth . Since
type 1 is telling truth so toss head is  not valid
also true. So in case 1 result is that Take (ii)
toss is head. pq  q  (pq)' q
Case-2: Let the person be type 2.  (pq) ' q
Type 2 always tells lies. So the  p' 1  1  valid
statement “ toss is head if and only Take (iii)
if I am telling the truth “ is false. pq  true  pq  1
So toss head ⇔ telling truth is false.  (pq)' 1  1  valid
So toss head ⊕telling truth. So toss
Take (iv)
head and telling truth have opposite pq  p  q  (pq)' p  q
truth values Now, since type 2
telling truth is false, so toss head has  p' q ' p  q
to have opposite truth value which  1  1  1  valid
is true. So toss head is true. So in Take (v)
case 2 also, result is head. pq  q ' p  (pq)  q ' p
So in both cases we have proved  p' q ' q ' p
that the result is head.  1  valid
So option (a)is correct. So the number of expressions that
are logically implies by p  (p  q)
Q.37 is 4.
We wish to make
(p  q)  (r  s))  1 Q.39 (d)
 (p  q)  (r  s)  0 ∀x is only one way distribution over
 (p  q)  0 ….(1) “∨” so let us check (d)
Or r  s  0 …(2) x(p(x)  q(x))  (x(p(x)  x(q(x))
Now (1) is satisfies only when P = 1
and q = 0 Equation (2) r  s  0 Let LHS be true, so we have
,iff r  s  1 p1  q1 (true)
i.e. r =1 and s = 1 p2  q 2 (true)
i.e. x is perfect square and x is a
p3  q3 (true)
prime number. Which is not
possible so condition (2) cannot be ⋮
satisfied by any x. Now take p1 is true, q1 is false and
So condition (1) must be satisfies p 2 is false q 2 is true
which is p = 1 and q = 0 i.e. x Now LHS is true, but RHS, xp(x) is
ϵ{8,9,10,11,12} and x is not a
false (since is false) and xq(x) is
composite.
also false (since is false)

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 So LHS ⇏RHS
Q.43 (d)
Q.40 (a)
p: “It is raining” p  q  r  0
q : “It is cold” , and i.e.  p '  q  '  r  0
r : “It is pleasant”, i.e., pq ' r  0
so the correct representation of “ It
This is possible only if pq’=0 and r=0
is not raining and it is pleasant, and
Now, pq’ = 0 iff p = 0 or q’ = 0
it is not pleasant only if it is raining
So, final solution is r = 0
and it is cold” is
p  r  r only if p  q = and  p  0 or q '  0 

 p  r    r   p  q  Now let us see

 r  p  q
Q.41 (b)   r ' p  ' q
I. xyR  x, y   y  x R  x, y    rp ' q
is true, since y  x R  x, y   but we have previously shown that
r=0
 x  y R  x, y   So, rp '  0
II. xy R  x, y   y  x R  x, y   So  r  p   q  rp' q  0  q  q So,
is false truth value of  r  p   q is same
Since y when it is outside is
as that of q.
stronger then when it is inside.
So, it is true whenever q is true.
III. xy R  x, y   yx R  x, y  is So option (d) is correct.
False Note: Since we have shown that
IV.  p  0  or  q '  0 is true,
xy R  x, y     xyR  x, y   Option (c) is false because when p is
is true false i.e. when p = 0, q is free to be 0
Since or 1
  xyR  x, y    xy R  x, y 
So, IV will reduce to
xy R  x, y   xy R  x, y  which
is trivially true.
So correct answer is I and IV only
which is option (b).

Q.42 (d)
Statement p'  q '  p  q '
I. p  q  p' q
II. q  p  q ' p
III.  q  p  =q'+ p
IV.  p  q   p ' q
So, clearly the given statement is
same as II and III only.
So option (d) is correct.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 2 SET THEORY, RELATIONS & FUNCTIONS

2.1 SET THEORY Set is described by a characteristics

property p(x) of its elements & the set is
2.1.1 DEFINITION: described by {x/p(x) holds}

A well-defined collection of objects is called Example

as a set. The set of all even natural numbers = {x/x
Exp. Collection of vowels in English  N and x = 2n, n  N}
alphabets is a set.
Exp. Collection of all states in the Indian Example
union is a set. The set of all real number greater than -1
Exp. Collection of good cricket players of and less than 1 is
India is not a set. = {x/x  R and -1 < x < 1}

2.1.2 SOME WELL-KNOWN SETS- 2.1.5TYPES OF SETS

1. N  {1, 2, 3…} 1. Empty set: - If a set has no element

then it is called as empty or null or void
2. W  {0, 1, 2…}
set and denoted by  .
3. I or Z  {0,  1,  2,  3…}
4. I+ or z+  {1, 2, 3 …}
5. Q  Set of Rational numbers 2. Singleton set: - A set containing a
6. R  Set of Real numbers single element is called as singleton set.
7. C  Set of Complex numbers
3. Finite set: - If the elements of a set can
2.1.3 ELEMENT be counted by natural numbers 1, 2, 3…
and this counting process end at a
Objects in the set are called as elements of certain natural number i.e. the set
the set. If a is any element of a set A then a contains finite number of elements.
 A. If a is not the element of A then a  A.
4. Infinite set: - The set contains Infinite
elements.
2.1.4 CONSTRUCTION OF SET
5. Equivalent sets: - Two finite sets A & B
(a) Roaster Method:- set is described or
are said to be equivalent, if number of
constructed by listing elements separated
elements are same in both sets. i.e. n(A)
by commas, within braces { }.
= n (B)
Where n (A) represent cardinality of A
Example
i.e. number of elements in A.
The set of vowels of English alphabets = {a,
6. Equal sets: - Two sets A and B are
e, i, o, u}
equal sets if every element of A is in B
and every element of B is in A
Example

Set of even natural numbers = {2, 4, 6, 8, Example

…..} A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Set Builder Form B = {2, 4}

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 C = {3, 4, 5}
D = {2, 4}
E = {a, b}
Then A  B, A  C, A  D
But B = D
Example
A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}
A & B are equivalent sets but are not equal
sets.
Example
If A = {x/x is a letter in “LOYAL”}
B= {x/x is a letter in “ALLOY”}, then A = B
7. Subset: - If A and B are two sets and
every element of A is in B then A is said
to be subset of B and it is denoted by A
 B. So if A  B then a  A  a  B
If A is not a subset of B then A  B
If B  A  B is a superset of A.
8. Proper subset: - Let A and B are two
sets such that A is a subset of B and A 
B then A is said to be proper subset of A
(A  B)
9. Improper subset: - The empty set and
the set itself are called improper
subsets of any set.
Some Results
1. Every set is a subset of itself.
2. Empty set is a subset of every set.
3. If a finite set of cardinality ‘n’ then
its total number of subsets are 2m.
4. A = B  A  B and B   A.
5. If A  B, B  C then A  C
6. A set has ‘n’ elements yields 2n-
1proper subsets
10. Disjoint sets: -Two sets are said to be
disjoint if they have no common
element (or mutually exclusive).
11. Class of sets: - If the elements of a set
are sets then such a set is said to be a
“class of sets” or “family of sets” and are
denoted by script letters etc.
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
12. Power set: - If S is any set, then the set
of all subsets of s is called power set of
S. It is denoted by P(S).
Example
Let S = {1, 2, 3} then
P(S) = {  , {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3} {2, 3}{1,
2, 3}}
If a finite set has ‘n’ element then its power
set has 2n elements.
13.Universal set: - A non empty set of
which, all sets under consideration are
subsets, is called the universal set. It is
denoted by  .
Example
All people in the world constitute the
universal set in any study of human
population.
Example
In plane geometry, the universal set
consists of all the points in the plane:
Example
If A = {1, 2, 3},
B= {2, 4, 5, 6} and C = {1, 3, 5, 7}
Then  = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} can be taken as
universal set.
Venn- Euler Diagram: -this diagram gives
picture representation of sets and their
operations. These consists of circle and
rectangular.
The universal set U is represented by a
large rectangle and its subsets are
represented by circles drawn in the
rectangular area.
2.2 OPERATIONS ON SETS
a) Union: - Let A and B are two sets then,
the union of A and B contain all those
elements that are in A or B both A & B.
It is denoted by  . i.e.
A  B = {x/x  A or x  B}
 Similarly B – A is the set of all
Example elements which are in B but not in A
If A={1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7} i.e.B – A = {x/x  B and x  A}
Then A  B= {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}
If A1, A2, ………An is a finite family of sets, d) Symmetric Difference: - The
then their union is denoted by A1  A2 symmetric Difference of two sets A and
n B is (A- B)  (B-A) or (A  B) – (A 
 …..  An or  Ai B) and is denoted by A  B. i.e.
i 1
A  B = (A-B)  (B-A)
b) Intersection: - Let A and B be two set,
the intersection of A and B is the set of
all those elements which are common in
A and B. It is denoted by  i.e.
A  B={x/x  A and x  B}
So if x  A  B  x  A and x  B.
n
 = A1  A2  ……An
i 1
e) Complement of a set: - The
complement of a set A with respect to
the universal set  is the difference U-
A. It is denoted by A or Ac.i.e.
AC =  -A = {x/x   and x  A}
( A) = A
 = 
Example
 = 
Let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {f, b, d, g}
So A  B = {b, d} If A  B =  then it is
Example
clear that the sets A and B are disjoint
Let N = {1, 2, 3, 4 …} be the universal set
sets.
and Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7 …} then
A’ = {2, 4, 6, 8…}
c) Difference of Two sets: - Let A and B
are two sets, the difference of A and B,
Laws of Algebra of Sets
A-B or A~B is the set of elements which
are in A but not in B. i.e.
1. A  A = A, A  A = A (Idempotent law)
A-B = {x/x  A and x  B}
2. AB = BA Commutative Law
3. A  B = B  A Commutative Law
4. A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C Associative
Law
5. A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C Associative
Law
6. A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
Distributive Law

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
Distributive Law
7. (A  B )  = A  B  Demorgan Law
(A  B )  = A  B  Demorgan Law
Example
Two finite sets have ‘m’ and ‘n’ elements.
The total number of subsets of the first set
is 56 more than the total number of subsets
of the second so find m and n.
Solutoion
2n(2m-n-1) = 23(23 – 1)  n = 3, m = 6
Example
Suppose A1, A2, …A30 are 30 sets each with
five elements and B1, B2, ….. Bn are n sets
30
each with three elements. Let  Ai =  Bj=
i 1
7. No. of elements inexactly one of the sets
A, B, C are
= n(A) + n(B) + n (c) – 2n(A  B) – 2n(B
 C) – 2n(C  A) +3n(A  B  C)
8. n(A’  B’) = n[(A  B)’] = n[  ] – n(A 
B)
9. n(A’  B’) = n[(A  B)’] = n(  ) – n(A 
B)
Example
If A and be two sets containing 3&6
elements respectively. What can be the
minimum & maximum no. of element in A
 B.
Sol.
 n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A  B)
n Case I n(A  B) is min
 n(A  B) = 0, Possible when A  B = 
j 1

S. Assume that each element of S belongs to So n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B) = 3 + 6 = 9

exactly 10 of Ai’s and 9 of Bj’s. Find n So max. n(A  B) = 9
Solution Case II When n(A  B) is max.
Since each Ai has 5 element and each  n(A  B) = 3
element of S belongs to exactly 10 of Ai’s. So n (A  B) = 3 + 6 – 3 = 6
 min n(A  B) = 3
30 1 30 150
 S    n( s)   n( Ai )   15
i 1 10 i 1 10 Example
 each of Bj has 3 elements and each A market research group conducts-a survey
element of S belongs to exactly 9 of Bj’s of 2000 consumer and reported that 1720
n 1 n 1 liked product P1 and 1450 liked P2. What is
S   B j  n(s)   n(B j )  15   3n n
i 1 9 j1 9 the least number that must have liked both
 n = 45 products?
Sol.
2.3 SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS Let  be the set of all consumers
So n(  ) = 2000, Let A be the set of all
If A, B and C are finite sets and  be the consumers who liked P1 and B be the set
finite universal set then. for P2.
1. n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A  B) So n(A) = 1720, n(B) = 1450.
2. n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B)  n(A  B) = n(A) + n (B) – n(A  B)
If A and B are disjoint nonvoid sets. = 1720 + 1450 – n(A  B)
3. n (A-B) = n(A) – n(A  B)  n(A  B) = 3170 – n(A  B)
4. n (A  B) = n(A) + n(B) – 2 n(A  B) A  B  
5. n(A  B  C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A  n(A  B)  n(  )
 B) – n (B  C) – n (C  A) + n(A  B  3170 – n(A  B)  n(  ) = 2000
 C)  n(A  B)  1170
6. No. of elements in exactly two of the So the least value is 1170
sets A, B, C are-
= n(A  B) + n(B  C) + n(C  A) – 3n(A Example
 B  C) In a survey of 25 students, it was found that
15 had taken maths, 12-physics, & 11 – chy

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 . 5 – maths + chy, 9 – Maths + Phsy., 4 – Phy coordinate and b is second coordinate of
+ chy and 3 – all. Find no. of students that the ordered pair (a, b).
had – If (a, b) & (c, d) are two ordered pairs,
i) Only chy then (a, b) =(c, d) f a = c & b = d.
ii) only Maths
iii) only Physics 2.4.2 CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF TWO
iv) phy & chy but not maths SETS
v) Maths & Phy but not chy.
vi) Only one of the subjects Let A and B are two sets (non empty) the
vii) atleast one of the subjects set of all distinct ordered pairs (a, b) such
viii) none of the subj. that a  A and b  B is called the Cartesian
Solution product of A and B (in that order) and is
denoted by A  B. i.e.
A  B = {(a, b)] / a  A, b  B}
Also B  A = {(x, y)/x  B, y  A}
Generally A  B  B  A

Example
Let A = {a, b} and B = {1, 2, 3}
Then A  B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b,
n(P) = a + b + d + e = 12
2), (b, 3)}
n (C) = b + c + e + f = 11
B  A = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}
n (M) = d + e + f + g = 15
A  A = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b)}
n (M  C) = c + f = 15
B  B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2,
n (M  P) = d + e = 9
3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
n (P  C  M) = e = 3
Obviously A  B  B  A
so b = 1, d = 6, f = 2, a = 2, c = 5, g = 4
2.4.3 RESULTS
2.4 PARTITION
1. If set A has m and B has n elements then
A set P = {A1, A2 … An} of nonvoid subsets of
the product set A  B has m n elements
a set A is called the partition of the set A if
n
2. If either A or B void set then A  B =  .
i)  Ai = A1  A2  ……..  An = A, & 3. If either A or B infinite and the other is
i 1
nonvoid, then A  B is infinite.
ii) Ai  Aj =  ; i  j; i = 1,2, …n, ; j =1, 2, .. n
2.5 RELATIONS
Example
Let us consider the sets Let A and B two non void sets, then a
A1 = {3, 6, 9, 12 …24}, A2 = {1, 4, 7, 10, ….. relation R from A to B is a subset of A × B
20}, A3 = {2, 5, 8, 11,…….23} i.e. R  A  B. If (x, y) is a member of R then
And A = {1, 2, 3, …..25}
it is denoted by xRy. Thus (x, y)  R  xRy.
Then  A1  A2 = A3 = A
And A1  A2 = A2  A3=A1  A3 = 
Example
So P = {A1, A2, A3} is a partition of A.
If A = {1, 2, 3,} and B = {a, b, c} then R = {(1,
b), (2, c), (1, a), (3, a)} is a subset of A  B
2.4.1 ORDERED PAIR:-
and a relation from A to B. As (1, b)  R 
1Rb but (2, a) is not these, so 2 R a
Let A and B two sets and a  A, b  B. then
(a, b) denotes ordered pair. ‘a’ is called first
Example

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 If A = {2, 3, 5, 6} and R means “divide” then.
2 R 2, 2R6, 3R3, 3R6, 5R5, 6R6 exists so
R = {(2, 2), (2, 6), (3, 3), (3, 6), (5, 5), (6, 6)}
2.5.1 Domain and Range
Example.
The relation R1 ={1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} is
an identity relation on A = {1, 2, 3} But
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 3)} is not an
identity relation on A

Let R is relation from A to B. Then the set of 4. Reflexive Relation: A relation R one
all first co-ordinates of the ordered pairs in set A is said to be reflexive if every
the relation R is the domain of R. i.e. element of A is related to itself. Thus R
Domain (R) = {x/ (x, y)  R} is reflexive  (a, a)  R.
And the set of all second co-ordinates of the A relation R on A is not reflexive if these
ordered pairs in ‘R’ is called Range exists and a  A such that (a, a)  R
Range (R) = {y /(x, y)  R}
Example
Example Let A = {1, 2, 3} then
It A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5} and a relation R1={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,2),(2,3)}is
R is defined from A to B as x R y  x < y reflexive
then R2={(1,1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)} is
R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), not reflexive
(3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5)} 5. Symmetric Relation: A relation R on a
Domain (R) = {1, 2, 3, 4} set A is symmetric iff
Range (R) = {3, 4, 5} (a, b)  R  (b, a)  Rfor a, b  A
a R b = b R a for a, b  A
2.5.2 INVERSE RELATION
Example
Let A and B are two sets and R is a relation Let A be a set of all lines in a plane and
from A to B, then the inverse of R, R-1 is a R is the relation defined on A as (x, y) 
relation from B to A and is defines
R  x  y. Then R is symmetric.
R-1 = = {(y, x) / (x, y)  R }
Also Dom (R-1) = Range (R) 6. Transitive: Let A be any set, R is a
& Range (R-1) = Dom (R) relation on A, be transitive if
(a, b)  R, (b, c)  R  a R c
2.6 TYPES OF RELATIONS for a, b, c  A.
1. Void Relation: -Let R be a relation from
Example
A to B then if R =  , is known as void
On the set of natural number the
relation. relation R, defined by x R y  x < y is
transitive.
2. Universal Relation: -Let A is a non
void set and R is a relation from A × A to Example
A then it is called Universal Relation Let L is a set of lines in a plane then the
relation R, define by x R y  x || y is
3. Identity Relation: Let A be a non void transitive
set, then the relation
R = IA = {(a, a) / a  A} is called an 7. Anti symmetric: R on A, is a anti
Identity relation on A. symmetric if
i.e. A relation IAon A is called identity (a, b)  R, and (b, a)  R
relation if every element of A is related a = b V a, b  A.
to itself only

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 i.e. it follows that if (a, b)  R and (b, a) and label it. These circles called vertices.
 R then also R is anti symmetric Connect these circles by an arrow if
xRy  x|y correspond elements has the relation
xRy  xy Connect the vertex to itself a looking arrow
this pictorial representation of is called
8. Equivalence Relation: A relation R one Digraph or Directed
a set A is equivalence if it is reflexive,
symmetric and transitive 2.7.2 IN DEGREE
x R y  x || y
x R y  x  y (x is conquerent to y ) Total no. of arrow at end at any vertex is
Let n(A) = m & n(B) = n and R is a caller it’s in degree
relation from A to B then the num of
different relation A to B is 2mn. 2.7.3 OUT DEGREE

2.7 REPRESENTATION OF A RELATION Total no. of arrows from any vertex is

called its degree
1. Graph of a Relation
Elements of any relation R is of type (x, Example
y) so R can be sketched as a co-ordinate Let A = {1, 2, 3,4} and
diagram of points. R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4),
(4, 1)}
2. Matrix of Relation 1 1 0 0 
1 1 1 1 
If A = {a1, a2…an} and B = {b1,
Then M R   
b2………..bn} are two finite sets 0 0 0 1 
containing m & n elements respectively.  
These the relent R from A to B is 1 0 0 0 
represented by a matrix as And the digraph
MR = [mij]maxsuch that
1 if (a i , b j )  R
mij  
0 if (a i , b j )  R
MR is called as the matrix of relation R
or adjacency matrix or Boolean matrix
of R.

Example
If we consider a matrix for the sets A = {a1,
a2, a3} and B = {b1, b2, b3, b4} Example
Let A = {a, b, c, d} and a relation
1 0 0 1 
R = {(a, b), (a, d), (b, d), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c),
M R  0 1 1 0  (d, d,), (d, b), (d, d)}
1 0 1 0  Then
Then R = {(a1, b1), (a1, b4), (a2, b2), (a2,b3), 0 1 0 1 
(a3, b1), (a3, b3)} 0 0 0 1 
MR   
1 1 1 0 
2.7.1 Digraph  
1 1 0 1 
If R is a relation on a non void set A, then and digraph
we can represent R pictorially for every

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 A relation R is transitive if M 2R  but the
converse is not true.

UNION AND INTERSECTION OF A

RELATION
Element In degree Out Degree
a 2 2 Let R1 and R2 are two relations on a set A
b 3 1 and their Boolean matrix are M R 1 and M R 2
c 1 3 then MR 1  R1  MR 1 VMR 2 ( join)
d 3 3
So the resultant matrix will have 1 in the
ASYMMETRIC RELATION position
A relation which is not symmetric is called where M R 1 or M R 2 has a 1.
as Asymmetric relation Example
1 0 1  1 0 0 
2.8 COMPOSITION OF RELATIONS
Let M R1  1 1 0 & M R 2  1 0 1 
 
   
Let R is a set and its Boolean matrix is as 0 0 1  1 1 1 
1 1 1 1 0 1
M R  0 0 1 Then M R1UR 2  1 1 1
 
0 0 1 1 1 1
MR1 R 2  MR1  MR 2 (Meet)
Then composition is as Boolean product of
So the resultant matrix will have 1 in the
matrices
i.e.1.1 = 1, 1.0 = 0.1 = 0, 1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 1, position where MR1 and MR 2 both have 1.
0+0=0 1 0 0 
1 1 1 1 1 1 M R1 R 2  1 0 0 
then M 2R  0 0 1 0 0 1
  0 0 1 
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 2.9 CONNECTIVITY RELATION
or M R ⊛ M R  M R2  0 0 1
  Let R be a relation on a set A. A path of
0 0 1 length n in R from a to b is a finite sequence
A relation R is Identity relation if all  : a, x1, x2, …., xn-1, b, beginning with a and
diagonal element of MR are 1 and other ending with b, such thata R x1, x1 R x2, ….,
elements are zero. xn-1 R b.
1 0 0 A path of length ‘n’ involves (n + 1)
0 1 0  elements of the set A, although they are not
  necessarily distinct.If n is a fixed positive
0 0 1 integer, we can define a relation Rn on A as
A relation R is symmetric if a Rn b it implies that there is a path of
aij = aji∀aij  R. length n from a to b in R.
1 0 1  We can also define a relation R  on A as a R
M R  0 1 0 

b it implies that there is some path in R
from a to b, whose length depends on a and
1 0 1 
b. The relation R  is called the connectivity

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 relation for R. If A has n elements then R 
= R  R2  R3  ……  Rn.
2.9.1 CLOSURES OF RELATIONS
Reflexive Closure: Let R be a relation on A,
then R  , reflexive closure of R, can be
formed by adding to R all those pairs of the
form (a, a), a  A, that are not present in R.
Symbolically, R  = R   , where  is the set
of pairs of diagonal elements in the set A. 
= [(a, a) |  a  A]
Symmetric Closure: A relation R  ,
symmetric closure of R, can be formed by
adding to R all those pairs of the form (b, a)
that are absent from R while (a, b) present
in R. Symbolically, R  = R  R-1,
Transitive Closure: A relation R  ,
transitive closure of relation R, is the
connectivity relation R  .Symbolically, R  =
R  R2  R3  ………  Rn.
Closure of Relations
Let R be a relation on a set A, R may or may
not have a property P (as reflexivity,
Symmetricity or transitivity). If there is a
relation S, with property P, containing R
such that S is a subset of every relation that
has property p and containing R, is called
closure of R with respect to property P.
(A) Reflexive closure: - The reflexive
closure R(r) of a relation R is the smallest
reflexive relation that contains R as a
subset. To find the reflexive closure of a
relation R, one has to found that what pair
(s) to be added to R so that it converts in to
a reflexive relation.
 R(r) = R  {(3, 3), (4, 4)}
Mc = MR VIn
2.9.2 SYMMETRIC CLOSURE
The symmetric closure R(S) of a relation R is
the smallest symmetric relation which
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
contains R as a subset. The symmetric
closure of a relation R can be obtained by
adding those pairs, those can make R
symmetric. or the Union of R and R-1 gives
Symmetric closure of R.
Example
If R = {(1, 2), (4, 3), (2, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1)} be a
relation on S = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Find symmetric
closure.
R(S) = R  {(3, 4), (1, 3)} = {(1, 2), (4, 3), (2,
2), (2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 4), (1, 3)}
Or R(S) = R  {(1, 2), (4, 3), (2, 2), (2, 1), (3,
1)}  {(2, 1), (3, 4), (2, 2), (1, 2), (1, 3)}
= {(1, 2), (4, 3), (2, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 4), (1,
3)}
Ms = MRVMRT
2.9.3 TRANSITIVE CLOSURE
The relation obtained by adding the least
number of ordered pairs to assure
transitivity is called the transitive closure
of a relation R. It is denoted by R+
R+ = R  R2  R3  …….  Rm
if R is defined on a set S and n(s) = m
MT = MRV M R2 V ………. V M Rm
Example
Let A ={1, 2, 3} and a relation R = {(1, 2), (2,
3), (3, 1)} defined on A. Find the reflexive,
Symmetric and transitive closure of R.
Sol. R(r) = R  IA = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1)}
 {(1,1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
R(S) = R  R-1
RT = R  R2  R3
 R2=R0R={(1,2),(2,3),(3,1)}0{(1,2),(2,3),
(3,1)}
= {(1, 3), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
R3=R20R={(1,3),(2,1),(3,2)}0{(1,2),(2,3),(3,
1)}
= {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
 RT = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3,
3), (1, 3), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
ADDITION MODULO ‘M’
If a & b are two positive integers and m is a
fixed positive integer then for modulo m
 a+mb = r (mod m); 0  r  m 2. As partial order Relation is reflexive, so
Where r is the least non negative every vertex of the poset has a cycle of
remainder when a + b divided by m. length one.
Example 3. As partial order relation is anti
2 +3 5= 1 symmetrical so if there is an edge from
3 +2 1 = 0 a to b then there is no edge from b to a.
3 +6 2 = 5 if b  a.
4. If there is an edge from a to b and b to c
Multiplication modulo ‘m’ then there must be an edge from a to c.
a ×m b = r (mod m); 0  r  m Hence it is clear that in digraph of a
partial order relation, there is no cycle
Example of length more than one.
4 ×3 5 = 2
4 ×3 3= 0 2.12 HASSE DIAGRAM

2.10 0EQUIVALENCE CLASS If in a digraph of a poset (A,  ) we will do

following-
Let X be a set and R is any – relation a) Delete all loops from the vertices as it is
defined on it and x  X , then the set of all y obvious in P.O.R. as it is reflexive.
 X such that x R y is called equivalence b) Delete all edges that must represent
transitivity.
class of x. and is given as
c) Denotes vertices by dots
[x] = {y|x R y, x, y  X} = [y]
d) Draw the diagraph with all edges
So y  [x]  xRy pointing upward in order to remove
The set of all equivalence classes of the set arrows from edges.
X This digraph of a poset is known as Hasse
X is represented by
R diagram of the poset.
Also it is known as Quotient set of X by R.
Example
2.11 PARTIAL ORDER RELATION AND Draw the diagraph and Hasse diagram of
POSET the poset (A, R). Where
A = {a, b, c}, R = (a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (a, b),
A relation R, defined on a set A is said to be (b, c), (a, c)}
partial order relation in A if R is
(i) Reflexive
(ii) Anti symmetric
(iii) Transitive and the set A is called as
Poset for the defined partial order Relation
and is denoted by (A, R). The elements a &
b of a poset (A,  ) are said to be
comparable if either a  b or b  a and
they are not comparable if neither a  b nor
b  a. Digraph Hasse Diagram

Example
1. In the Digraph of poset (Z+, /), element
3 and 6 are comparable as 3|6 but 2 and
5 are Non comparable as 2 | 5 or 5 | 2
Example
Let s = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and we defined  as
m  n if m divides n, i.e. n is an integer
multiple of m. Then the Hasse diagram for
the poset is

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 4 6 Least Upper Bound
An element l  Am (A,  ) Least upper
2 3 Bound (LUB) of a and b, a, b  A if
5 i) A  l, b  l i.e. l is Upper Bound of a &b.
1 ii) If any other upper bound, other than l,
is also an Upper Bound of l
Example
Draw the Hasse diagram for the poset Lower Bound
({2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 27, 48, 60, 72}, 1) Let (A,  ) be a poset and a, b  A then and
Where 1 represents divisibility element d  A is called. Lower bound of a &
b if d  b.

Greatest Lower Bound (GLB)

An element g  A is G.L.B. of a & b iff
a) g  a and g  b.
b) if an element g`  A such that it is also a
lower bound then g` must be a lower
bound of g.

Example
Consider the poset ({2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 27,
36, 45, 60, 72}, 1) where 1 denotes
divisibility then Find
Maximal Element i) Maximal & Minimal elements
An element a  A of the poset (A, <) is said ii) Greatest and least elements exists
to be maximal if there is no element b in A iii) LUB of {2, 9}, if exists
such that a < b. iv) GLB of {60, 72} if exists

Minimal Element
An element a of the poset (A,  ) is said to
be minimal if there is no element b in A
such that b < a

Greatest Element
An element a  A of the poset (A,  ) is said
to be greatest if b  a, b  A (uniquely)

Least Element
An element a  A of the poset (A,  ) is said i) Maximal elements are 27, 48, 60, 72
to be least if b  a , b  A (uniquely) Minimal elements are 2, 9
ii) Maximal & Minimal elements are not
unique so greatest and Least element
Upper and Lower Bounds does not exists
iii) Upper bound of {2, 9} are 18, 36, 72and
Upper Bound the least upper bound is 18.
Let (A,  ) be a poset and a, b  A, then an iv) Lower bounds of {60, 72} are 12, 6, 4 &
element c  A is called upper bound of a & b 2 and the GLB is 12.
if a  c and b  c.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 JOIN AND MEET IN A POSET 2. Associative
Let A be a poset under an ordering  or R. a  (b  b) = (a  b)  c
Let a, b  x, then we define. Join (a, b) = a a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c
 b = LUB of (a, b) (unique)Meet (a, b) = a  3. Idempotent
b = GLB of (a, b) (unique) a  a =a, a  a = a
Results 4. Commutative
1. Both join and meet operations are ab = ba & a b = b a
commutative 5. The Dual of a Lattice is also a Lattice
2. Jain & meet operation are associative
3. For every a in the poset (A, R) a  a =a 2.13.1 BOUNDED LATTICES
and a  a=a
4. For any a & b in (A, R) Let (L,  ) is a lattice. An element 1 will be
a  (a  b) = a used to denote the upper bound (UB) of the
a  (a  b) = a set L (i.e., for each a  L, we have a  1).
Obviously 1 is unique in the lattice, if it
2.13 LATTICE exists. Similarly 0, to denote lower bound
(LB) of the set L (i.e., for any a  1, we have
A Lattice is a poset (L,  R) in which every 0  a).
pair of elements (a, b)  L has a GLB and A lattice which has both elements 0 and 1 is
LUB. And is denoted by (L,  R, V,  ) called a bounded lattice.
LUB {a, b} = a  b Remark: - It is important to note here that
GLB {a, b} = a  b 0 and 1 are notation and not the numbers.

Example Example
Let N be the set of natural number. A The lattice (P(X),  ), where X is a finite set
relation R is defined by x Ry  x/y. show is bounded.
that (N, R) is a lattice where x  y = LCM {x, It’s UB is X and LB is 
y} and x  y = HCF {x, y} i.e. element 1 = X
Solution and element 0 = 
Let us show first that (N, R) is a poset Theorem: - Let (L, <) be a lattice with 0
i) Reflexive: - As every element of Nis and 1 as lower and upper bounds, then  a
divisor of itself, so R is reflexive. L
ii) Anti symmetric: - If xRy and yRx both i) a  1 = 1 and a  1 = a
are true then obviously x = y. So R is Ant ii) a  0 = a and a  0 = 0
symmetric.
iii) Transitive: - x|y and y|z then clearly x|z, 2.13.2 DISTRIBUTIVE LATTICES
so R is Transitive. Hence (N, R) is a
poset as R is partial order Relation. A lattice (L,  ,  ) is called a distributive
In N meet (  ) and join (  ) are HCF and lattice if for any a, b, c  L
LCM and every pair of elements has i) a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a  c)
their HCF & LCM in N itself i.e. ii) a  (b  c) = (a  b)  (a c) [Distributive
x  y = HCF {a, b} = LUB {a, b} over each other]
x  y = LCM {a, b} = GLB {a, b}
are in N. So N is a Lattice 2.13.3 COMPLEMENT OF AN ELEMENT
OF A LATTICES
Properties
1. Absorption Law Let lattice (L,  ) be a bounded lattice,
a  (a  b) = a whose UB and LB are 1 and 0 respectively.
a  (a  b) = a

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Then an element x  L is called a
complement of an element a  L if If f:A → B is a function, then A is called as
a  x = 1 and a  x = 0 Domain & B is called as Co-domain of f. All
The complement of a  L is denoted by a’ f-image of elements of A is called range of f
Thus, a  a’ = 1 and a  a’ = 0 and is denoted by f(A). obviously f(A)  B &
Theorem: -Let (L,  ) be a bounded f (A) = {f(x); x  A}
distributive lattice, if an element a  L, has a
complement then it is unique. TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

2.13.4 COMPLEMENTED LATTICE 1. Constant Function: -Let f: A→B is a

function such that f(x) = c  x  A where
A lattice (L,  ,  , 0 1) is said to be a C is a constant, is called as constant
complemented lattice if every element of L function.
has at least one complement.

Example
The lattice (P(X),  ) is a complemented
lattice in which the complement of any
subset A of X is the set X – A
 A  (X – A) = A  (X – A) = X (= 1)
and A  (X – A) = A  (X – A) =  (= 0) 2. Identity function: -f: A→A is an
identity function from A to A if f
Theorem:- If (L,  ) is a complemented associates every element x of A to x
distributive lattice, then  a, b  L. itself i.e.
i) (a  b)’ = a’  b’ F: A→A s.t.
ii) (a  b)’ = a’  b’ F(x) = x
[De-Morgan’s laws]
3. Equal Function: -Two function f and g
2.14 FUNCTIONS are said to be equal function if
a) Domain of f = domain of g
FUNCTIONS b) Co-domain of f = Co-domain of g
c) f(x) = g(x)  x  Domain
Let A and B are two non void sets and f is a
rule which associates each element of A to Example
a unique element of B, then f is called a Let A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 6} and f: A→B s.t.
function or a mapping from A to B and is f(X) =x2 + 2  x  A. and g: A  B such Then
denoted by f: A→B defined as f(x) = y  x f and g are two equal functions.
A .
CALCULATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS FOR
DOMAIN & RANGE OF A FUNCTION

Assuming f(x) to be real number in general,

then
1) f(x) does not tends to 
2) f(x) does not involve i =  1
3) f(x) does not become indeterminable

Example
DOMAIN AND CO-DOMAIN

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Find domain of of B is not the f-image of any element of
x A. i.e. f(A) is a proper subset of B. i.e.
i) f(x) = 2
x 1 f(A)  B
x
ii) f(x) =
x 5
iii) f(x) = x  4
iv) f(x) = logx
v) f(x) = 4  x2
x2
vi) f(x) =
x2 Example
Solution Let f: R→R defined byf(x) = x2  x  R
i) R Then f is in to because negative number
ii) R – {5} does not appear in range.
iii) R+ - {1, 2, 3}
iv) R+ (v) {  1,  2, 0} 2. On to or Surjection: If f: A→B is such
vi) (-2,  ) – {2} that each element of B is f-image of at
least
Example one element of A. In this case f(A) = B

Find Range of following

1
i) f(x) =
x5
ii) f(x) = x2
x
iii) f(x) =
1 x
iv) f(x) = 9  x2
Ans. Example
1 1  5y Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4, 9, 16}
i) Let y = x
x 5 y f:A→B, defined by f(x) =x2  x  A
So when y = 0, x =  Then f:A→B is On to.
 Range is R – {0}
3. One-One Mapping: -f: A→B is One-One
ii) y = x2 x  y
if different elements of A have different
 Range = [0,  ] f-images in B. Thus f: A→B is One-One
x y  f(a) =f(b)  a = b  a, b  A
iii) y  x
1 x 1 y  a  b  f (a)  f (b)
Range = R – {-1}

iv) y 9  x 2  x  9  y2
Range = [0, 3]

KINDS OF FUNCTION/MAPPING

1. In two or Injection: -If f: A→B is a Example

mapping such that at least one element

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Let I be the set of integers and B be the set
of all even integers then the mapping f: I→B Example
defined by f(x) = 2x is One-One. Show that f:Q→Q f(x) = 2x – 3
 x  Q is a Bijection
TO CHECK THE INFECTIVITY OF A
FUNCTION Solution
Let x, y  Q then
1. Take two arbitrary element x & y in f(x) = 2x – y & f(y) = 2y -3
Domain of f. If f(x) = f(y)
2. Put f(x) = f(y)  2x  3  2y  3  x  y
3. if x = y then f is One-One
 f is One  One.
Example On to
f: R→R; f(x) = x3 + 2  x  R Let y  Q then
Solution f(x) = y  2x – 3 = y
Let x, y  R then y3
x Q
f(x) = x3 + 2 & f(y) = y3 + 2 2
if f(x) = f(y) y3
 x3 + 2 = y3 + 2  x3 = y3  x = y Thus  y  Q,  an x  such
2
 f is One-One That f(x) = y
4. Many One Function: f: A→B is said to So f is On to
be many one function if two or more
elements of A has same image in B. HAMMING DISTANCE FUNCTION

This function is very useful in coding

theory. It gives a measure of difference
between two binary words that have the
same length and is defined by H(u, v) = the
number of positions in which u & v have
different bits, where u & v are two different
binary words of same length.
Example
f:Z→Z; f(x) = |x|  x  Z Example
Then f is many one function H (1010, 1111) = 2
H (1001, 1011) = 1
5. One-One On to or Bijection: f:A→B is a CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTION
Bijection if it is One-One as well as on
to. Or in other words f is a Bijection if Let A is a subset of Universal set U. The
a) it is One-One i.e. f(x) = f(y) characteristic function of A is defined as a
xy  x, y  A. function from U to {0, 1} as
b) It is on to i.e.  y  B ,  x  A such that fA(x) = 1 if x  A
f(x) = y. = 0 if x  A

Example
U = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A = {1, 2, 4} then
fA (1) = fA(2) = fA(4) = 1
and fA(3) = 0

ALGEBRA OF CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTION

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission

If A and B are two sets, then for all u
1. f A (u) = 1 – fA(u)
2. f AB (u)  f A (u).f B (u)
3. f AB (u)  f A (u)  f B (u)  f AB (u)
2.15 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTION
Let f:A→B and g:B→C then a function go
f:A→C is defined by (go f) (x) =g[f(x)]
x  A and called composition of g and f.
If f: B→C & g: A→B then a function (fog)
A→C is defined by (fog)(x) = f[g(x)] x  A
and called composition of f and g.
It is not necessary that
fog = gof
i.e. fog  gof
so for gof, Domain(g) = co – domain (f)
and for fog, Domain (f) = co –domain (g)
1. Composition of functions is not
necessarily commutative i.e. fog  gof.
2. Composition of functions is associative
i.e. (fog)oh = fo(goh) if exists.
3. Let f: A→B, g: B→C are mappings; and
a) If f and g are injections, the gof: A→C
is also an injection.
b) If f and g are surjections, then gof:
A→C is also a surjection.
c) If f & g are bijections the so is gof.
4. Composition of any function with the
identity function is the function itself.
5. If for two functions f: A→B and g: B→A
fog = IB (Identity function) then f is
called
inverse of g and denoted by – g-1 = f. If g
of = IA (Identity function) then g is
called as
inverse of f and denoted by f-1 = g.
6. (gof)-1 = f-1og-1

Example INVERSE OF AN ELEMENT

Let f: R→R ; f(x) = x2
g: R→R ; g(x) = sinx Let f: A→B and if a  A is associated to b  B
 fog: R→R ; (fog) (x) = f[g(x) = then we say that b is the f image of a i.e. b =
sinx f(a). Also it then a is said to be pre image of
gof: R→R ; (gof) (x) = g[f(x)] b or inverse element b under f and we
=sinx2x writes it as f-1(b) = a
Example
INVERSE OF A FUNCTION
f and g functions are given by
Let f:A→B is a Bijection or One-One On to
f = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 1)} and
function then a function f-1B→A. Which
g = {(2, 3), (5, 1), (1, 3)}, find range of f and
associate each y  B to a unique element x
g and write down fog and gof as sets of
ordered pairs.  A such that f(x) = y, then it is inverse of
f(x) = y  f-1(y) = x
ALGORITHM TO FIND INVERSE FUNCTION
Solution
Range of f = {1, 2, 5} Let f:A→B is a Bijection then
Range of g = {1, 3} i) Put f(x) = y, y  B and x  A
fog = {(2, 5), (5, 2), (1, 5)} ii) Obtain x in terms of y.
gof = {(1, 3), (3, 1), (4, 3)} iii) Replace x by f-1(y)

Example Example
f: R→R ; f(x) = x2 – 3x +2 f:R→R; f(x) =2x + 7,Find that inverse of f
(fof) (x) = f[f(x)] = (x2 – 3x + 2)2 – 3(x2 - Solution
3x+2)+2  f(x) = 2x + 7 = y
y7
PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS x  f 1 (y)
2

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 y7 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4 
f 1 : R  R; f 1 (y)  y  R. f   &g   
2  2 1 3 4 3 2 1 4
x 7
or f 1 (x)  x  R. Are two Permutations .
2
EQUALITY OF TWO PERMUTATION
PROPERTIES Two permutation f & gof degree ‘n’ are said
1. Inverse of a bijection is unique to be equal if we have
2. Inverse of a bijection is also a bijection f(a) = g(a)  a  S
3. If f:A→B is a Bijection and g: B→A is a For Example
inverse of f then (fog = IB& gof = I
1 2 3 4   2 4 3 1
4. (fog)-1 = g-1 o f-1 f   &g   
 2 3 4 1 3 1 4 2
GREATEST INTEGER FUNCTION are two permutation of degree 4 and are
equal.
f:R→Z is called greatest integer function if
f(x)=[x]= the largest integer less than or TOTAL NO. OF DISTINCT PERMUTATION
equal to x. OF DEGREE
Example
If S is a finite set having ‘n’ elements then
[7.3] = 7
we shall have n1 distinct permutation of
[5] = 5
degree ‘n’. If Pn will the set of all these
[8.1] = 8
permutations then it is called as the
[-7.4] = -7
symmetric set of permutations of degree
‘n’. i.e.
PERMUTATION FUNCTION
Pn = {f | f is a permutation of degree
Let S be a finite set having ‘n’ distinct
element. If f:S→S then it is called a Example
transformation. If f:S→S and it is a bisection
also then f is said to be a permutation of Let s = {1, 2, 3} is a set, having 3 elements
degree n. The number of elements in the then P3, Consists of 31 = 6 distinct
set is called the degree of permutation. permutation. They can be written as
1 2 3  1 2 3  1 2 3  
SYMBOL  , ,  ,
1 2 3  1 3 2   3 2 1 
Let S = {a1, a2,…….an} and f: S→S is a P3 =  
permutation. Let f(a1) = b1, f(a2) = b2, 1 2 3  , 1 2 3  , 1 2 3  
 2 1 3   3 2 1  2 3 1 
…….f(an) = bn where {b1, b2, ……..bn} are  
nothing but some arrangement of the
elements of S. i.e. {b1, b2,…bn} = {a1, IDENTITY PERMUTATION
a2,…….an} so to write this permutation in a
convenient way, we write it as If I is a permutation of degree ‘n’ such that I
 a a a 3 ......... a n 1 a n  replaces each element by the element itself
f  1 2  then I is called identity permutation.
 b1 b2 b3 ........ bn 1 bn 
1 2 3 4....... n 
i.e. each element in second row is the f- I 
image of the corresponding element in first 1 2 3 4....... n 
row.
PRODUCT OR COMPOSITE OF TWO
Example PERMUTATIONS
If S = {1, 2, 3, 4} then

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 The product or Composite of two 1 2 4 3 5 6 
permutation f and g of degree ‘n’ is denoted but g    is not cyclic
 2 1 3 4 5 6
by fg and obtained by carrying out firstly
If the cyclic permutation f = (1 3 4 2 6)
the operation defined by f and then by g.
represents a permutation of a degree on 9
symbols 1, 2, 3…9 then
Example
1 3 4 2 5 6 7 8 9 
 a a 2 a 3 ......... a n  f  
If f   1  3 4 2 6 5 1 7 8 9
 b1 b2 b3 ........ b n 
1 2 3 4   2 3 4 1
 b b2 b3 ........ b n 
and g   1    3 4 1 2    4 1 2 3
 c1 c2 c3 ........ cn 
are permutations from the set of TRANSPOSITION
Permutation Pn, of ‘n’ degree A cycle of length two is called a
 a a 2 a 3 ......... a n  transposition.
fg   1 
 c1 c2 c3 ........ cn  Example
1 3 
Example (1, 3) =  
 3 1
1 2 3  1 2 3 
f   g  DISJOINT CYCLES
1 3 2   2 3 1
1 2 3  Two cycles are said to be disjoint if they
fg    have no symbol in common.
 2 1 3
1 2 3  Example
gf   
 3 2 1
Obviously fg  gf (1 3 5) and (2 6 8 9) are disjoint

CYCLIC PERMUTATION INVERSE OF A CYCLIC PERMUTATION

Let f is a permutation of degree n on a set S, If f = (1 2 3 4………n-1 n)

having n distinct element. Let it be possible Then f-1 = (n n-1………4 3 2 1)
to arrange m element of S in a row such (fg)-1 = g-1 f-1
that the f-image of each element in the row Every cyclic Permutation can be expressed
is the element which follows it, the f-image as a product of transpositions in infinitely
of last element is first element and f-image many ways
of first element is last element and the
remaining n-m elements remains Example
unchanged by f. Then f is called a cyclic (5 6 7 8) = (5 6) (5 7) (5 8)
permutation or a cycle of length m or m-
cycle. EVEN AND ODD PERMUTATION
By the length of cycle means the number of
objects permuted by the cycle. A permutation is even if it can be expressed
as a product of an even number of
Example transpositions; otherwise it is an odd
1 2 5 3 6 4  permutations. Or If the length of a cycle is
f    1 2 5 3 odd then permutation is even and if length
 2 5 3 1 6 4 is even then the permutation is odd.
i) Identity permutation is an even per m.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 ii) A transposition is an odd per m.
iii) Even. Even = Even
iv) Odd. Odd = Even
v) Odd. Even = Odd.
n! n!
vi)Or n symbols, are even & are odd .
2 2
2.16 Groups
Binary Operation: for every a, b ∈ Z
(Q,R,C), a + b, called the addition of a and b,
is an element of Z (Q,R,C);
Addition is Associative: for every a, b, c ∈
Z (Q,R,C), (a + b) + c = a + (b + c);
Additive Identity: the element zero,
denoted 0, is an element of Z (Q,R,C) and
has the property that for every a ∈ Z
(Q,R,C), a + 0 = a = 0 + a;
Additive Inverse: For every element a ∈ Z
(Q,R,C), there exists an element −a ∈ Z
(Q,R,C) such that a + (−a) = 0 = −a + a;
Addition is Commutative: We also have a +
b = b + a for every a, b ∈ Z (Q,R,C).
Now, let us look at the sets Z∗ = Z − {0},Q∗ =
Q − {0},R∗ = R − {0} and C∗ = C − {0}.
As in the previous case, we see that similar
statements hold true for the sets Z∗,Q∗,R∗
and C∗.Namely,
Binary Operation: for every a, b ∈ Z∗
(Q∗,R∗,C∗), a · b, called the multiplication of
a and b, is an element of Z∗ (Q∗,R∗,C∗);
Multiplication is Associative: for every a,
b, c ∈ Z∗ (Q∗,R∗,C∗), (a · b) · c = a · (b · c);
Multiplicative Identity: the element one,
denoted 1, is an element of Z∗ (Q∗,R∗,C∗)
and for all a ∈ Z∗ (Q∗,R∗,C∗), a · 1 = a = 1 · a;
Multiplication is Commutative: One also
has a·b = b · a for every a, b ∈ Z∗ (Q∗,R∗,C∗).
Observe that if we choose a ∈ Z∗ with a 6=
1,−1 then there does not exist an element b
∈ Z∗ such that a · b = 1 = b · a. Whereas, for
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
the sets Q∗,R∗ and C∗ one can always find a
b such that a · b = 1 = b · a.
Based on the above examples, an abstract
notion called groups is defined. Formally,
one defines a group as follows.
Definition(Group): A group G, usually
denoted (G, ∗), is a non-empty set together
with a binary operation, say ∗, such that the
elements of G satisfy the following:
1. for every a, b, c ∈ G, (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗
c) (Associativity Property) holds in G;
2. there is an element e ∈ G such that a ∗e
=a=e∗a, for all a ∈ G (Existence of
Identity);
3. for every element a ∈ G, there exists an
element b ∈ G such that a∗b = e = b∗a
(Existence of Inverse).
In addition, if the set G satisfies a∗b =
b∗a, for every a, b ∈ G, then G is said to
be an abelian.
NOTE: Let (G, ∗) be a group. Then the
following hold:
1. The identity element of G is unique.
Hence, the identity element is denoted
by e.
2. For each fixed a ∈ G, the element b ∈ G
such that a∗b = e = b∗a is also unique.
Therefore, for each a ∈ G, the element b
that satisfies a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a is denoted
by a-1.
3. Also, for each a ∈ G, (a-1)-1 = a.
4. If a∗b = a∗c, for some a, b, c ∈ G then b =
c. Similarly, if b∗d = c∗d, for some b, c, d
∈ G then b=c. That is, the cancelation
laws in G.
5. For each a, b ∈ G, (ab)-1 = b-1a-1.
6. By convention, we assume a0=e, for all
a ∈ G.
7. For each a ∈ G, (an)-1 = (a-1)n, for all n ∈ Z.
Definition (Subgroup): Let (G, ∗) be a
group. Then a non-empty subset H of G is
said to be a subgroup of G, if H itself forms
a group with respect to the binary
operation ⋆.
Example: 1. Let G be a group with identity
element e. Then G and {e} are themselves
groups and hence they are subgroups of G.
 These two subgroups are called trivial Order of an Element: Let G be a group and
subgroups. let g ∈ G. Then the smallest positive integer
m such that gm = e is called the order of g. If
Note: there is no such positive integer then g is
1. Let G be a group and let H be a non- said to have infinite order. The order of an
empty subset of G.Then H is a subgroup element is denoted by O(g).
of G if for each a, b ∈ H, ab-1∈ H. Note: For each a ∈ G, O(a) = O(a-1)
2. Let H be a non-empty subset of a group
G. Then H is a subgroup if the two 2.17 PRACTICE SET
conditions given below hold.
Q.1 Write the set {2, 3, 4} (given in list
A) For each a, b ∈ H, ab ∈ H (i.e., H is closed notation) in set builder notation.
with respect to the binary operation of Solution
G). Here are three ways of writing the
B) For each a ∈ H, a-1∈ H. set in set builder notation:
{x | x∈N,1 < x< 5 }, { x | x ∈N, 2≤ x≤ 4 },
3) Let G be an abelian group with identity Or
e. Consider the sets H = {x ∈ G : x2 = e} x | x ∈R, x3 − 9x2 + 26x − 24 = 0 }.
and (This last set was obtained by
K = {x2 : x ∈ G}. Then both H and K are taking the equation (x − 2) (x − 3)
subgroups of G. (x − 4) = 0 and multiplying out the
4) Let G be a group and let H be a non- left side.)
empty finite subset of G. If H is closed
with respect to the binary operation of Q.2 Write the set {x | x∈ R, x is a solution
G then H is a subgroup of G. to x2=−1} in list form.
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Solution
Suppose a, b ∈ G. Then the following The set is the empty set because x2
results hold for left cosets of H in G: = −1 has no real number solutions;
1. aH = H if and only if a ∈ H, we can write it as { }.
2. aH is a subgroup of G if and only if a ∈
H, Q.3 Write the set S = {x | x is an even
3. either aH = bH or aH ∩ bH = ∅, positive integer and x≤64} in list
4. aH = bH if and only if a-1b ∈ H. notation.
Similarly one obtains the following Solution
results for right cosets of H in G. The integers in S are the even
1. Ha = H if and only if a ∈ H, integers beginning with 2 and
2. Ha is a subgroup of G if and only if a ∈ H, ending with 64. We can write S =
3. either Ha = Hb or Ha ∩ Hb = ∅, {2, 4, 6, 8 . . . 64}, S = {2, 4, 6 . . . 64},
4. Ha = Hb if and only if ab-1∈ H. or S = {2, 4, 6 . . . 62, 64}, for
Furthermore, aH = Ha if and only if H = example. Note than writing S = {2,
aHa-1 = {aha-1 : h ∈ H} 4 . . . 64} would not be wise
Order of a Group: The number of elements because the pattern in the list is
in G, denoted |G|, is called the not obvious — it could be 2, 4, 8,
order of G. If |G|<∞, then G is called a group 16, 32, 64.
of finite order.
Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G. Q.4 Determine whether each set is finite
Then |H| divides |G|. Moreover, the or infinite:
number of distinct left (right) cosets of H in a) {1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000 . . .}.
G equals |G| / |H|. b) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9 . . . 599}.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 c) The set of all real number
solutions to x+ 3+2x = 3(x + 1).
d) The set of telephone numbers of
the form “(XXX) XXX-XXXX” in
the United States.
e) The set of real number solutions
to the equation x2 = −4.
f) {x | x an integer, x2 − 9x + 14 < 0}.
Solution
a) The ellipsis indicates that the
pattern continues forever, so the
set is infinite.
b) The set consists of the first 300
odd positive integers, stopping
at 599. Therefore the set is
finite.
c) The equation can be rewritten as
3x + 3 = 3x + 3; hence all real
numbers are solutions. The set is
therefore infinite.
d) The number is quite large, but
the number of possibilities is still
finite.
e) There are no real numbers that
are solutions to this equation.
Therefore the set is empty, that
is, it has size zero, and hence is
finite.
f) The polynomial factors as (x −
7)(x− 2). This product is positive
if x > 7 or x <2, and is negative if
2 < x < 7. Therefore, the set is
finite — it is equal to {3, 4, 5, 6}.
Q.5 Let S={∅, a, {a}}. Determine
whether each of these is an
element of S, a subset of S, neither,
or both.
a) {a} b) {{a}} c) ∅
d) {{∅}, a} e) {∅} f) {∅, a}
Solution
a) {a} is the third element in the
list of elements of S. Therefore
{a} ∈ S. The set {a} is also a
subset of S: {a} has one
element, a, which is also an
element of S.
b) {{a}} is not an element of S,
because it does not appear in the
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
list of elements of S. However
{{a}} ⊆ S because every element
of {{a}} belongs to S. (The only
element of {{a}} is {a}, which is
an element of S.)
c) ∅∈ S (it is the first element in the
list for S) and ∅⊆ S (the empty
set is a subset of all sets).
d) {{∅}, a} is neither a subset of S
nor an element of S. It is not a
subset of S because {∅} is not an
element of S; it is not an element
of S because it does not appear
in the list of elements of S.
e) {∅} ⊆ S. The set {∅} has one
element, ∅, which is the first
element in the list for S.
However, {∅} is not an element
of S.
f) {∅, a} ⊆ S. The set {∅, a} has
two elements, each of which is
an element of S. However {∅,
a} is not an element of S
because it is not one of the
three elements in the list for S.
Q.6 Prove that the following is true for
all sets A, B, and C: if A∩C⊆B∩C
and A∩C⊆ B ∩ C, then A ⊆ B.
Solution
Let x ∈ A. We need to show that x ∈
B. We will construct a proof by
cases, depending on whether x ∈ C
or x ∉ C.
Case 1: x ∈ C. If x ∈ C, then by the
original hypothesis (x ∈ A) we
know that x ∈ A ∩ C. But it is given
that A ∩ C ⊆ B ∩ C. Therefore x ∈ B
∩ C, and hence x ∈ B.
Case 2: x ∉ C. Then x ∈ C. Then by
the original hypothesis (x ∈ A) we
know that x ∈A ∩ C. But it is given
that A ∩ C ⊆ B ∩ C. Therefore x ∈ B
∩ C, and hence x ∈B. Therefore, in
either case, if x ∈ A, then x ∈ B.
Therefore A ⊆ B.
 Q.7 Prove: If A⊆B and C⊆D, then A∩C⊆B 1 1 0 0 
∩D. 1 1 1 0 
Solution  
We assume that A ⊆ B and C ⊆ D, 0 1 1 1 
 
and we must show that A ∩ C ⊆ B ∩ 0 0 1 1 
D. In terms of predicates and ii) R on {−2,−1,0,1,2,} where aRb
quantifiers, the statement we need means a2 = b2.
to prove has the form ∀x (x ∈ A ∩ C 1 0 0 0 1 
→ x ∈ B ∩ D) where the universe for 0 1 0 1 0 
x is the universal set U (any set  
containing A, B, C, and D). 0 0 1 0 0 
 
To show that this statement is true, 0 1 0 1 0 
suppose that x ∈ A ∩ C. (Note that 1 0 0 0 1 
the only thing we know about x is
iii) R on {1,2,4,8,16} where aRb
that it is an arbitrary element of A ∩
means a ≤ b.
C). Therefore, x ∈ A and x ∈ C, by
definition of intersection of sets. 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
Therefore, x ∈ B and x ∈ D (because  
A ⊆ B and C ⊆ D). This says that x ∈ 0 0 1 1 1
B ∩ D. Hence, if x is any element of A  
∩ C, then x is also an element of B ∩ 0 0 0 1 1
D. Therefore, A ∩ C ⊆ B ∩ D. We can 0 0 0 0 1
write the proof more briefly as:
Let x ∈ A ∩ C. ∴x ∈ A and x ∈ C. ∴x ∈ 1 0 1 0
B and x ∈ D. ∴x ∈ B ∩ D. 1 1 0 1 
Q.11 If M R  
1 1 1 0
Q.8 List all the binary relations on the  
set {0, 1}. 1 1 0 1
Solution Determine if R is:
There are 16 binary relations: (a) reflexive
{ } {(0, 0)}{(0, 1)} (b) symmetric
{(1,0)} {(1, 1)}{(0, 0), (1, 1)} (c) ant symmetric
{(0, 0), (1, 1)} {(0, 0), (1, 1)} (d) transitive
{(0, 1), (1, 0)} {(0, 1), (1, 1)} Solution
{(1, 0), (1, 1)} {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0)} (a) Yes.
{(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)}{(0, 0), (1, 0), (b) No.
(1,1)}{(0,1),(1,0), (1,1)} (c) No.
{(0,0),(0,1),(1,0),(1,1)} (d) No.

Q.9 In the questions below find the Q.12 Draw the directed graph for the
matrix that represents the given relation defined by the matrix
relation. Use elements in the order 1 1 1 1
given to determine rows and 0 1 1 1
columns of the matrix.  
Solution 0 0 1 1
 
i) R on {1,2,3,4} where aRb means 0 0 0 1
|a−b| ≤ 1. Solution

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.13 Suppose R is the relation on N
where a Rb means that a ends in the
same digit in which b ends.
Determine whether R is an
equivalence relation on N.
Solution
Yes.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 Consider the following relations on set A = {1 , 2, 3} is
R1 (a, b) if (a + b) is even over the a) Neither reflexive nor symmetric
set of integers b) Symmetric and reflexive
R2 (a , b) if (a + b) is odd over the c) Transitive and reflexive
set of integers d) Transitive and symmetric
R3 (a , b) if a .b > 0 over the set of [GATE-2002]
non-zero rational numbers
R4 (a , b) if |a – b| ≤ 2 over the set of Q.5 Consider the set  * of all strings
natural numbers over the alphabet   {0,1}.  * with
Which of the following statements is
the concatenation operator for strings
correct?
a) does not form a group
a) R1 and R2 are equivalence
b) forms a non-commutative group
relations, R3 and R4 are not
c) does not have a right identity
b) R1 and R3 are equivalence
element
relations, R2 and R4 are not
d) forms a group if the empty string
c) R1 and R4 are equivalence
relations, R2 and R3 are not is removed from  *
d) R1, R2, R3 and R4 are all [GATE-2003]
equivalence relations
[GATE-2001] Q.6 Let (S , ≤) be a partial order with two
minimal elements a and b, and a
Q.2 Consider the following statements: maximum element c. Let P : S → {True ,
S1: There exist infinite sets A, B, C False} be a predicate defined on S.
such that A ∩ (B ∩ C) Suppose that P(a) = True, P(b) = False
S2: There exist two irrational numbers and P(x)  P(y) for all x , y ∈ S
x and y such that (x + y) is rational. satisfying x ≤ y, where  stands for
Which of the following is true about logical implication. Which of the
S1 and S2? following statements CANNOT be true?
a) Only S1 is correct a) P(x)=True for all x∈S such that x ≠ b
b) Only S2 is correct b) P (x) = False for all x ∈ S such that
c) Both S1 and S2 are correct x ≠ a and x ≠ c
d) None of S1 and S2 is correct c) P (x) = False for all x ∈ S such that
[GATE-2001] b ≤ x such that x ≠ c
d) P (x) = False for all x ∈ S such that
Q.3 Let f : A → B be a function, and let E a ≤ x and b ≤ x
and F be subset of A. Consider the [GATE-2003]
following statements about images.
S1 : f (E ∪ F) = f(E) ∪ f(F) Q.7 Consider the set {a , b, c} with binary
S2 : f (E ∩ F) = f(E) ∩ f(F) operators + & × defined as follows:
a) Only S1 is correct. + a b c
b) Only S2 is correct. a b a c
b a b c
c) Both S1 and S2 are correct. c a c b
d) None of S1 and S2 is correct x a b c
[GATE-2001] a b a c
b b c a
Q.4 The binary relation S = f(empty set) c c c b

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 For Example a + c = c, c + a =a, c × b complete lattice under the partial
= c and b × c = a order defined by set containment?
Given the following set of equations: a) {1}
(a × x) + (a × y) = c b) {1}, {2, 3}
(b × x) + (c × y) = c c) {1}, {1, 3}
The number of solutions (s) (i.e., d) {1}, {1, 3}, {1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3, 5}
pair (s) (x , y) that satisfies the [GATE-2004]
equation) is
a) 0 b) 1 Q.12 Let A, B and C be non-empty sets
c) 2 d) 3 and let X = (A - B)–C and Y =(A -C) –
[GATE-2003] (B - C)
Which one of the following is TRUE?
Q.8 Consider the binary relation: a) X = Y b) X ⊂ Y
S=  x.y | y  x  1and x, y {0, 1, 2,} c) Y ⊂ X d) None of these
a) {(x , y) | y > x and x , y ∈ {0, 1, 2, [GATE-2005]
….}} Q.13 The following is the Hasse diagram
b) {(x , y) | y ≥ x and x , y ∈ {0, 1, 2, of the poset [{a, b, c, d, e}, ≤ ]
….}}
c) {(x , y) | y < x and x , y ∈ {0, 1, 2,
….}}
d) {(x , y) | y ≤ x and x , y ∈ {0, 1, 2,
….}}
[GATE-2004] The Poset is
Q.9 The numbers of different n × n a) not a lattice
symmetric matrices with each b) a lattice but not a distributive
element being either 0 or 1 is: (Note: lattice
power c) a distributive lattice but nor a
(2 , X) is same as 2x) Boolean algebra
a) power(2 , n) d) a Boolean algebra
b) power(2 , n2) [GATE-2005]
c) power (2 , (n2 + n)/2) Q.14 The set {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14} is a
d) power(2 , (n2 - n)/2) group under multiplications module
[GATE-2004] 15. The inverse of 4 and 7 are
Q.10 The following is the incomplete respectively
operation table of 4-element group a) 3 and 13 b) 2 and 11
* e a b c c) 4 and 13 d) 8 and 14
e e a b c [GATE-2005]
a a b c e
b Q.15 Let R and S be any two equivalent
c relations on a non-empty set A.
The last row of the table is Which one of the following
a) c a e b b) c b a e statements is TRUE?
c) c b e a d) c e a b a) R ∩ S, R ∪ S are both equivalence
[GATE-2004] relations
b) R ∪ S is an equivalence relations
Q.11 The inclusion of which of the c) R ∩ S is an equivalence relations
following sets into S = {{1, 2},{1, 2, d) Neither R ∪ S nor R ∩ S is an
3}, {1, 3, 5}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}} is equivalence relation
necessary and sufficient to make S a [GATE-2005]

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.16 Let f : B → C and g : A → B be two (x ,y)R(u , v) if x < u and y > v. Then
functions and let h = f o g. Given that R is
h is an onto function. Which one of a) Neither a Partial Order nor an
the following is TRUE? Equivalence Relations
a) f and g should both be onto b) A Partial Order but not a Total
functions Order
b) f should be onto but g need not c) A Total Order
be onto d) An Equivalence Relation
c) g should be onto but f not be [GATE-2006]
onto
d) both f and g need not be onto Q.21 Let E, F and G be finite sets.
[GATE-2005] Let X = (E ∩ F) – (F ∩ G) and
Y = (E – (E ∩ G)) – (E - F)
Q.17 Consider the set H of all 3 × 3 Which one of the following is true?
a f e  a) X ⊂ Y
matrices of the type 0 b d  b) X ⊃ Y
  c) X = Y
0 0 c  d) X – Y ≠ ∅ and Y – X ≠ ∅
Where a, b, c, d, e and f are real [GATE-2006]
numbers and abc ≠ 0. Under the Q.22 Let S = {1 , 2 , 3, …, m}, m > 3. Let X1,
matrix multiplication operation, the X2, …., Xn be subsets of S each of size
set H is 3.
a) a group Define a function f from S to the set
b) a monoid but not group of natural numbers as, f(i) is the
c) a semigroup but not a monoid number of sets X that contains the
d) neither a group nor a semigroup element i. That is f(i) = |{ j | i ∈ Xj }|.
[GATE-2005] m
Then is  f(i)
i=1
Q.18 Let X, Y, Z be sets of sizes x, y and z
respectively. Let W = X × Y and E be a) 3m b) 3n
the set of all subsets of W. The c) 2m + 1 d) 2n + 1
number of functions from Z to E is [GATE-2006]
a) z b) z × 2xy
c) 2z d) 2xyz Q.23 Let S be a set of n elements. The
[GATE-2006] number of ordered pairs in the
largest and the smallest equivalence
Q.19 The set {1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 8 ,9} under relations on S are
multiplication module 10 is not a a)n and n b) n2 and n
group. Given below are four possible c) n2 and 0 d) n and 1
reasons. [GATE-2007]
Given below are four possible Q.24 Consider the set S = {a , b , c , d}.
reasons. Which one of them is false? Consider the following 4 partitions
a) It is not closed π1, π2 ,π3 ,π4 on
b) 2 does not have an inverse
c) 3 does not have an inverse S : π1 ={ abcd},π2{ ab,cd
d) 8 does not have an inverse π3 ={ abc,d},π4 ={ a,b,c,d}
[GATE-2006] Let ∝ be the partial order on the set
Q.20 A relation R is defined on ordered of partitions S’ = { π1 , π2 ,π3 ,π4}
pairs of integers as follows defined as follow: πi ∝ πj if and only

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 if πi is refines πj. The post diagram Q.28 For the composition table of a cyclic
for (S’ , ∝) is group shown below:
a) b) * a b c d
a a b c d
b b a d c
c c d b a
d d c a b
Which of following choices is
correct?
c) d) a) a, b are generators
b) b, c are generators
c) c, d are generators
d) d, a are generators
[GATE-2009]

Q.29 What is the possible number of

[GATE-2007] reflexive relations on a set of 5
elements?
Q.25 If P , Q , R are subsets of the a) 210 b) 215
universal set U, then c) 220 d) 225
 
 P  Q  R   Pc  Q  R  Qc  R c is [GATE-2010]

a) Qc  R c b) P  Qc  R c Q.30 Consider the set S = {1, ω, ω2},

c) Pc  Qc  R c d) U where ω and ω2 are cube roots of
unity. If * denotes the multiplication
[GATE-2008]
operation, the structure {S, *} forms
a) a group
Q.26 Which one of the following is NOT
b) a rin
necessarily a property of a Group?
c) an integral domain
a) Commutativity
d) a field
b) Associativity
[GATE-2010]
c) Existence of inverse for every
element
d) Existence of identity Q.31 How many onto (or subjective)
[GATE-2009] functions are there from an n-
element (n ≥ 2) set to a 2-element
Q.27 Consider the binary relation set?
R = {(x , y), (x , z), (z , x), (z , y)} on a) 2n b) 2n - 1
the set {x , y , z}. which one of the c) 2 - 2
n d) 2(2n - 2)
following is TRUE? [GATE-2012]
a) R is symmetric but NOT
antisymmetric Q.32 A binary operation  on a set of
b) R is NOT symmetric but integers is defined as X  Y = x2 +
antisymmetric y2. Which one of the following
c) R is Both symmetric and statements is TRUE about  ?
antisymmetric
a) Commutative but not associative
d) R is neither symmetric
b)Both Commutative and associative
norantisymmetric
c) Associative but not commutative
[GATE-2009]
d)Neither commutative nor associative
[GATE-2013]

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 that f(f(i)) = I, for all 0 ≤ i ≤ 2014.
Q.33 Let S denote the set of all functions Consider the following statements.
f:{0 , 1}4 → {0, 1}. Denote by N the P : For each function it must be the
number of functions from S to the case that for every I, f(i) = i.
set {0,1}.The value of log 2 log 2 N is Q : For each such function it must be
_______. the case that some i, f(i) = i.
[GATE-2014] R : Each such function must be onto.
Which one of the following is
Q.34 Consider the following relation on
CORRECT?
subsets of the set S of integers
a) P, Q and R are true
between 1 and 2014. For two
b) Only Q and R are True
distinct subsets U and V of S we say
c) Only P and Q are True
U < V if the minimum element in the
d) Only R is true
symmetric difference of the two sets
[GATE-2014]
in U.
Consider the following two Q.38 There are two elements x, y in a
statements: group (G, *) such that every element
S1: There is a subset of S that is in the group can be written as a
larger than every other subset. product of some number of x’s and
S2: There is a subset of S that is y’s in some order. It is known that
smaller than every other subset. x * x=y * y = x * y *x * y = y * x * y * x
Which of the following is CORRECT? =e
a) Both S1 and S2 are true where e is the identity element. The
b) S1 is true and S2 are false maximum number of element in
c) S2 is true and S1 is false such a group is ________
d) Neither S1 nor S2 is true [GATE-2014]
[GATE-2014]
x
Q.35 Let X and Y be finite sets and f : X → Q.39 If g(x)=1-x & h(x)  ,then
x 1
Y be a function. Which one of the g(h(x))
following statements is TRUE? is
h(g(x))
a) For any subsets A and B of X,
|f(A ∪ B)| = f|f(A)| + |f(B)| h(x) 1
a) b)
b) For any subsets A and B of X, g(x) x
|f(A ∩ B)| = f(A) ∩ f(B) g(x) x
c) d)
c) For any subsets A and B of X, h(x) (1  x) 2
|f(A ∩ B)| = min{|f(A)| , |f(B)|} [GATE-2015]
d) For any subsets S and T of Y,
f 1 S  T  |  f 1 S  f 1  T  Q.40 For a set A, the power set of A is
denoted by 2A.If A{5,{6},{7}}, which
[GATE-2014] of the following options are True?
Q.36 Let G be a group with 15 elements. 1. ϕ ϵ 2A 2. Φ ⊆ 2A
Let L be a subgroup of G. It is known 3. {5{6}} ϵ 2A 4. {5{6}}⊆2A
that L # G and that size of L is at a) 1 and 3 only b) 2 and 3 only
least 4. The size of L is ___________ c) 1,2 and 3 only d)1,2 and 4 only
[GATE-2014] [GATE-2015]
Q.41 Suppose ℒ={p,q,r,s,t} is a lattice
Q.37 Consider the set of all functions f:{0, represented by the following Hasse
1,….., 2014} → {0, 1, ……, 2014} such diagram:

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Boolean variables Consider the
following two statements
S1: (P#Q) # R = P # (Q# R )
S2: Q#R =R#Q
Which of the following is/ are true
for the Boolean variables P,Q, and R?
For any xy ϵ ℒ, not necessarily
a) Only S1 is True
distinct, x ∨ y and x ∧ y are join and
b) S2 is True
meet of x, y respectively. Let ℒ3={(x,
c) Both S1 and S2 are True
y ,z): x, y, z ϵ ℒ} be the set of all
d) neither S1 nor S2 are True
ordered triplets of the elements of ℒ.
[GATE-2015]
Let pr be the probability that an
elements (x, y, z) ϵ ℒ3 chosen
Q.46 Suppose U is the power set of the set
equiprobably satisfies x ∨ (y ∧ z) =
S= {1,2,3,4,5,6} For any T∈ U , let |T|
(x ∨ y) ∧ (x ∨ z). Then
denote the number of elements in T
a) pr =0 b) pr =1
and T’ denote the complement of T.
c ) 0< pr ≤1/5 d ) 1/5< pr<1
For any T, R ∈ U, let T\R be the set of
[GATE-2015]
all element in T which are not in R.
Q.42 Let R be the relation on the set of Which one of the following is true?
positive integers such that a Rb if [GATE-2015]
and only if a and b are distinct and
Q.47 Let R be a relation on the set of
have a common divisor other that 1.
ordered pairs of positive integers
Which one of the following
such that
statements about R is True?
(p, q) (r, s)) ∈ R if and only id
a) R is symmetric and reflexive but
p-s = q.r .Which one of the following
not transitive ‘
is true about R?
b) R is reflex but not reflexive and
a) Both reflexive and symmetric
not transitive
b) Reflexive but not symmetric
c) R is transitive but not reflexive
c) Not reflexive but symmetric
and not symmetric
(d) Neither reflexive nor symmetric
d) R is symmetric but not reflexive
[GATE-2015]
and not transitive
[GATE-2015] Q.48 A function f : ℕ+ → ℕ+, defined on the
set of positive integers N+, satisfies
Q.43 The cardinality of the power set of
the following properties :
{0,1,2,..,10} is ___.
f(n) = f(n+2) if n is even
[GATE-2015]
f(n) = f(n+5) if n is odd
Q.44 Let X and Y denote the sets Let R={i|∃j:f(j) = i}be the set of
containing 2 and 20 distance objects distinct values that/takes .The
respectively and F denote the set of maximum possible size of R is ___.
all possible functions defined from X [GATE-2016]
and Y. Let f be randomly chosen from
F. The probability of f being one- to Q.49 A binary relation R on N×N is
one is __ defined as follows: (a, b) R(c, d) if a
[GATE-2015] ≤ c or b ≤ d. Consider the following
propositions.
Q.45 Let # be a binary operator defined P: R is reflexive Q: R is transitive
as X#Y=X’+Y’ where X and Y are Which one of the following
statements is TRUE?

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 a) Both p and Q are true Q.51 Consider the set x  a, b,c,d,e
b) P is true and Q are false
under the partial ordering
c ) P is false and Q are true
d) Both P and Q are false R   a,a  ,  a, b  a,c  a,d  ,  a,e  ,
[GATE-2016]  b, b  ,  b,c  ,  b,e  ,  c,c  ,  c,e,  ,
Q.50 Consider a set U of 23 different
 d,d  ,  d,e  ,  e,e .
compound in a Chemistry lab. There The Hase diagram of the partial
is a subset S of U of 9 compounds, order (X,R) is shown below:
each of which reacts with exactly 3
compounds of U. Consider the
following statements:
I. Each compound in U\S reacts with
an odd number of compounds.
II. At least one compound in U\S
reacts with an odd number of
compounds.
III. Each compound in U\S reacts with
an even number of compounds
Which one of the above statements is The minimum number of ordered
ALWAYS TRUE? pairs that need to be added to R to
a) Only I b) Only II make (X,R) a lattice is ___.
c ) Only III d) None [GATE-2017]
[GATE-2016]

ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(b) (c ) (a) (d) (a) (d) (c ) (b) (c ) (d) (a) (a) (b) (c)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
(c) (b) (a) (d) (d) (a) (a) (b) (b) (c ) (d) (a) (d) (c)
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
(c) (a) (c) (a) 16 (a) (d) 5 (b) 4 (c) (c) (d) (d)
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
2048 0.95 (b) (d) (c) (b) (b) 0

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (b) Since R4 is reflexive and symmetric
(I) Relation R1(a, b) (a + b) is even over not transitive, so R4 is not an
the set of integers. equivalence relation.
i) a + a = 2a which is even
So (a, a) belongs to R1 Q.2 (c)
R1 is reflexive relation S1 : Let A = set of integers
ii) If (a + b) is even, then B = set of odd integers
(b + a) is also even C = set of even integers
 R1 is symmetric relation A   B  C    and  is finite set.
iii) If (a + b) and (b + c) are even Therefore, S1 is true.
then a + c = (a + b) + (b + c) – 2b S2 : Let two irrational number x and
= even + even – even= even y are respectively
 R1 is transitive relation.
Since R1 is reflexive, symmetric  
1  2 and 1  2 .  
and transitive so R1 is an So x+y =1+ 2+1-2
equivalence relation.
= 2 which is rational number
(II)R2(a, b)(a + b) is odd over set of
Therefore., S2 is true. Since both S1
integers.
and S2 are true, option (C) is true.
i) a + a = 2a which is not odd
so (a, a) doesn’t belong to R2
 R2 is not reflexive relation. Q.3 (a)
Given a function f: x → y and
Since R2 is not reflexive, it is not
subsets E and F of A then we have
an equivalence relation.
f  E  F =f  E   f  F and
(III)R3(a, b) iff a.b > 0over set of non-
zero relational numbers. f  E  F   E   f  F
i) a.a > 0 for every non-zero Therefore S1 is correct and S2 is
relational number. false.
 R3 is reflexive relation.
ii) if a.b > 0 then b.a > 0 Q.4 (d)
 R3 is symmetric relation. The empty relation on any set is
iii) if a.b >0 and b.c > 0, then a.c > 0 always transitive and symmetric but
 R3 is transitive relation. not
So R3 is an equivalence relation. reflexive.
(IV)R4 (a, b) iff |a-b|≤ over the set of
natural number Q.5 (a)
i) |a – a|≤2   {0,1}
02 *  {0,1}*
 R4 is reflexive relation.
= {ε, 0, 1, 01, 10, 11, 000,…}
ii) If |a –b|≤2 then also |b – a|≤ 2
 R4 is symmetric relation  
So * ,  is an algebraic system,
iii) If |a –b|≤2 and |b – c|≤2 then it is where  (concatenation) is a binary
not necessary that |a – c|≤ 2 operation.
Ex. |3 – 5|≤2 and |5 – 7|≤2 but |3  
So  ,  is a group if and only if the
– 7|≤2
 R4 is not transitive. following conditions are satisfied.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 (Concatenation) is a closed (a × x) + (a × y) = c ---- (i)
operation. (b × x) + ( c × y) = c --- (ii)
is an associative operation. Substitute first (x, y) = (a, a)
There is an identity. LHS of equation (i) becomes
Every element of E* has a left (a × a) + (a × a) = a + a = b
inverse Now RHS of equation (i) = c
Condition 1: * is a closed operation Therefore LHS ≠ RHS. This means
because for any w1   * and that (a, a) is not a Q.ution pair.
w2   * , w1.w2   * Similarly try each of the remaining
seven possible Q.utions pairs.
Condition 2:* For any string x, y, z ∈ It will be found that only two pairs
Ʃ*, x.(y.z) = (x.y).z (b, c) and (c, b) will satisfy both
So it is associative for example let equation (i) & (ii) simultaneously.
X = 01, y = 11, z = 00 then Therefore choice (c) is correct.
L.H.S = x.(y.z)
 01 (11 00)  01 (1100)  011100 Q.8 (b)
R.H.S = (x.y).z S = {(x, y) | y = x+1, and x, y ∈ {0, 1,
 (0111)  00  (0111)  00  011100 2, …}}
Condition 3: the identify is  or = {(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4),…}
empty string because for any string Now let T1 be the reflexive closure
w  * , of S.
T1 = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)…}∪
εw = wε = w.
{(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)…}
Now, since ε  * , identify exists. = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2),
Condition 4: There is no inverse (2,3), (3, 3), (3, 4)…}
exist for Ʃ*because any string Let T2 be the transitive closure of S.
w  * , there (0, 1), (1, 2) ∈ S ⇒ (0, 2) ∈ T2
is no string w -1 such that w.w -1 =ε. (0, 2), (2, 3) ∈ S ⇒ (0, 3) ∈ T2
So Ʃ* with the concatenation (0, 3), (3, 4) ∈ S ⇒ (0, 4) ∈ T2
operator for strings doesn’t from a and so on….
group but it Also(1, 2), (2, 3) ∈ S ⇒ (1, 3) ∈ T2
does from a monoid. (1, 3), (3, 4) ∈ S ⇒ (1, 4) ∈ T2
(1, 4), (4, 5) ∈ S ⇒ (1, 5) ∈ T2
Q.6 (d) and so on….
If a ≤ x, since p(x) ⇒p(y) whenever  T2 = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3),…..(1, 2),
x≤y (1, 3), (1, 4),…}
 p(a) ⇒p(x) Now the reflexive, transitive closure
Now since p(a) = True, p(x) = cannot of S will be T3 = T1  T2 = {(0, 0), (0,
be false. 1), (0, 2),…., (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3),….(2,
 (d) cannot be true. 2),
(2, 3), (2, 4),…}
Q.7 (c ) Option (b) is correct.
The possible Q. equation pairs are
(a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), Q.9 (c)
(a, c), (c, b) and (c, c). Substitute In a symmetric matrix, the lower
them one by one in both equations triangle must be the mirror image of
and see which of them satisfies both upper triangle using the diagonal as
the equations. mirror. Diagonal elements may be
The given equations are: anything. Therefore, when we are

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 counting symmetric matrices we Step 3:
count how many ways are there to The blank in second column must be
fill the upper triangle and diagonal c (since in a cayley table, every row
elements. since the first row has n and every column is a unique
elements, second (n–1) permutation of the row and column
elements, third row (n – 2) elements headers).
soon up to last row, one element. Now the operation table looks like
Total number of elements in * e a b c
diagonal + upper triangle e e a b c
= n + (n – 1) + (n – 2) + … + 1 a a b c e
= n(n + 1)/2 b b c a e
Now, each one of these elements can c c e - -
be either 0 or 1. So total number of
ways we can fill these elements is Step 4:
n(n+1)
Now the blanks in third row can
2 2
= power (2, (n2 + n)/2) be filled as a, e or e, a.
Since there is no choice for lower Let us try each one in turn.
triangle elements the answer is power If we fill a, e in third row the
(2, (n2 + n)/2)Which is choice (c). operation table will look like
Q.10 (d)
* e a b c
Step 1:
e e a b c
By looking at the row for e, we see
a a b c e
that it is a copy of the column
b b - - -
headers.
c c e - -
So e must be the identify element.
Since right identify and left identify
Now the blank in fourth row and
element must both be same.
third column must be filled by e.
The column corresponding to e
However this is not possible since e
must be a copy of the row headers.
is already entered in fourth row and
We can now say that the operation
Second column. Therefore, filling a,
table is
e in third row blanks is wrong. So let
* e a b c
us filling the third row blanks with
e e a b c
e, a.
a a b c e
* e a b c
b b - - -
e e a b c
c c - - -
a a b c e
b b c e a
Step 2:
c c e - -
From table above we see that a*c = e
 c*a must also be = e (if a is the Now the blanks in fourth row has to
be filled with a, b
inverse of c, then c is the inverse of
The final operation table looks like
a)
* e a b c
Now the operation table looks like
e e a b c
* e a b c
a a b c e
e e a b c
b b c e a
a a b c e
c c e a b
b b c a e
c c e - -

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Which is consistent with all the = (A  C' )-  B  C' 
rules of a Cayley Table.
The last row of this table is e, e, a, b = (AC' )- (BC' )
Therefore the correct answer is (d). =(AC' )  (BC' )'
= (AC' )  (B' +C)
Q.11 (a)
The hasse diagram of the given = (AC' ).(B' +C)
poset is =AC'B' +AC'C
=AC'B'
(since C’C = 0)
 AB' C '
(commutative property)
X=Y

Q.13 (b)

In a complete lattive L, every non

empty subset of L, has both LUB and
GLB.
Now it is necessary to add {1} since
GLB of {1, 2} and {1, 3, 5} is {1}.
The hasse diagram now becomes
The poset [{a, b, c, d, e},  ] is a
lattice (since every pair of elements
has LUB and GLB) but it is not a
distributive lattice. Because
distributive lattice satisfy the
following conditions. For any x, y, z,
x   y  z =  x  y   x  z
x   y  z   x  y   x  z
Where  and  are meet and join
Now the above hasse diagram operations but for given poset
represents a complete lattice, since [{a, b, c, d, e}  ]
every non empty subset has both b  c  d = b  a = b
LUB and GLB. Therefore adding {1}
is not only necessary but it is also
 b  c   b  d  = e  e = e
sufficient to make the given lattice a So it is not distributive. (Also,
complete lattice. element b has 2 complements c and
Therefore the correct choice is (a). d, which is
not possible in a distributive lattice,
Q.12 (a) since, in a distributive lattice,
X=  A-B - C complement if it exists, is always
unique).
=(A  B' )- C
=(A  B' )  C' Q.14 (c)
=AB'C' The set S = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14} is
a group under multiplication
Y=  A-C  -  B-C 
modulo 15.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 The identify element for this group Note; A similar argument cannot be
is = 1 since x  S,1 x mod 15 = x made from R  S .
Now let the inverse of 4 be 4-1.
 
Now 4  41 mod 15 = e = 1 Q.16 (b)
Consider the arrow diagram shown
Since  4  4  mod 15 = 1 below
 41 = 4 (This inverse is
unique)
Similarly let the inverse of 7 be 7 1 .
 
7  71 mod 15 = 1
putting each element of set as 7 1 by
trial and error we get  7  13 mod h(a) = f  g(a) = α
15 = 91 mod 15 = 1 h(b) = f  g(b) = β
 7 1 = 13 here f is onto but g is not onto, yet h
So 4-1 and 7 1 are respectively 4 and is onto.
As can be seen from diagram if f is
13.
not onto, h cannot be onto.
Correct choice is (C).
 f should be onto, but g need not
Q.15 (c) be onto.
 answer is (b).
R ∩ S is an equivalence relation as
can be seen from proof given below.
Q.17 (a)
Let x  A  x,x   R and (x, x) ∈ S
(i) The set H is closed, since
(since R and S are reflective) multiplication of upper triangular
 (x, x) ∈ R ∩ S also  R ∩ S is matrices will result only in upper
reflective. triangular matrix.
Now, (x, y) ∈ R ∩ S (ii) Matrix multiplication is
 (x,y)  R and  x,y   S associative, i.e.
 (y,x)  R and (y, x)  S A* B*C =  A*B *C.
(since R and S are symmetric) (iii) Identity element is
 (y, x)  R  S 1 0 0 
 (x, y)  R  S I  0 1 0 
 (y, x)  R  S 0 0 1
R  S is therefore symmetric
And this belongs to H as I is an
Now consider
upper triangular as will as lower
(x, y) and (y, z) ) ∈ R ∩ S
triangular matrix.
 (x,y) and (y,z)  R
(iv) If A ∈ H, then |A| = abc. Since it
and (x, y) and (y, z) ∈ S is given that abc ≠ 0, this
 (x,z)  R and (x,z)  R means that
(Since R and S are transitive) |A| ≠ 0
 (x,z)  R  S i.e. every matrix belonging to H is
 R  S is transitive also. Since non- singular and has a unique
R  S is reflective, symmetric and inverse.
transitive.  the set H along with matrix
 R  S is equivalence relation. multiplication is a group.

Q.18 (d)

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Given |X| = x, |Y| = y and |Z| = z
W = X ×Y
So |W| = xy
|E| = 2|W| = 2xy
So the number of function for Z to E
= |E||Z|
  2 xy   2 xyz
z

Q.19 (d) Y=  E-  E  G   -  E  F
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9}
Construct the table for any x, y ∈ A
such that
x * y = (x.y) mod 10

* 1 2 3 5 7 8 9
1 1 2 3 5 7 8 9
2 2 4 6 0 4 6 6
3 3 6 9 5 1 4 7
5 5 0 5 5 5 0 5 So X=Y
7 7 4 1 5 9 6 3 Or alternatively the Q.ution can be
8 8 6 4 0 6 4 2 obtained from boolean algebra as
9 9 8 7 5 3 2 1 follows:
We know that 0 ∉ A. So it is not X=  E  F -  F  G 
closed. =EF-FG
Therefore, (a) is true. =EF   FG 
'

The identity element = 1

1 =EF.  F' +G ' 
 (2  2 ) mod 10 = 1
From the table we see that 2-1 does = EFF' +EFG'
not exist. = EFG '
Since, (3.7) mod 10 = 1 Similarly, Y=  E-  E  G   -  E-F
 7 is the inverse of 3 and 7 ∈ A.
 (c) is false. =  E-EG  -  E.F' 
(d) is true since 8 does not have = E.  EG  -EF'
'

inverse.
=E.  E' +G '  -EF'
Q.20 (a) =EG' -EF'
(x, y) R (u, v) iff x < u and y > v
=EG ' .  EF' 
'
(x, x) R (x, x) since x  x and x ≯ x
So R is not reflexive,  EG ' .  E '  F 
 R is neither a partial order, nor
an equivalent relation. = EE'G' +EFG'
= EFG '
Q.21 (a) Therefore, X = Y
Consider the following Venn Q.22 (b)
diagram for The problem can be Q.ved by
X=  E  F -  F  G  considering the cases m = 4 and m =
5 etc.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 m
Let m = 4
S = {1, 2, 3, 4} Therefore  f (i) =3×
i=1
m
C2 =3n
n = number of 3 elements subsets
= 4C3  4C1  4 Q.23 (b)
Let S be a set of n elements say {1,2, 3,
∴n=4 ….,n}. Now the smallest equivalence
The 4 subsets are {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, relations on S must contain all the
{1, 3, 4} and {2, 3, 4} reflexive elements {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3,
f(1) = number of subsets having 1 as 3), …., (n, n)} and its cardinality is
an element = 3 therefore n.
f (2) = number of subsets having 2 The largest equivalence relation on S
as an element = 3 is S × S, which has cardinality of n × n
f (3) = 3 and f(4) = 3 = n2.
4
∴  f (i) = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12
i 1
∴ The largest and smallest
equivalence relations on S have
Both choice (a) and choice (b) are cardinalities of n2 and n respectively.
matching the answer since Correct choice is (b).
3m = 3n = 12
Now let us try m = 5 Q.24 (c)
∴ n = 10 A partition P1 is called refinement of
The 10 subsets are {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, the partition P2 if every set in P1, is a
{1, 2, 5},{1, 3, 4}, {1, 3, 5}, {1, 4, 5}, subset of one of the sets in P2.
{2, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 5}, {3, 4, 5} π4 is a refinement of π2, π3 and π1
f(1) = f(2) = f(3) = f(4) = f(5) = 6 π2 and π3 are refinements of π1
5 π2 and π3 are not comparable since
 f(i) = 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 = 30
i=1
neither is a refinement of the other.
So the poset diagram for (S’ , <)
Clearly 3 m = 3 × 5 = 15 {is not
would
matching  f (i) }
But 3n = 3  10 = 30 {is matching
 f (i) = 30}
∴ 3 n is the only correct answer.
Correct choice is (b).
The problem can also be Q.ved in a
more general ways as follows:
m

 f (i) = f (1) + f (2)+....+f (m)

i=1
Which is choice (c)

Since f(1) = f(2)= …=f(m) = m - 1 C2 Q.25 (d)

m The given set theory expression can
Therefore  f (i) = m ×
i=1
(m-1)
C2 be converted into equivalent
Boolean algebra expression as
m × (m -1)×(m - 2) follws:
=
2 (p ∩ q ∩ r) ∪ (pc ∩ q ∩ r) ∪ qc ∪ rc
3 × m × (m -1)×(m -2) = p.q.r + p’.q.r + q’ + r’
= =3× m C3
1×2×3 = qr (p + p’) + q’ + r’
Since n = Number of three elements = qr + q’ + r’
subsets of a set of m elements = (q + q’). (r + q’) + r’
 C3
m = r + q’ + r’

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 = r + r’ + q’= 1 + q’= 1 = U Let the set be S = {a, b, c, d, e}
There are totally 52 = 25 ordered
Q.26 (a) pairs in S × S.
Group properties are closure, Any relation on S must be a subset
associativity existence of identity of S × S.
and existence of inverse for every Since we want reflexive relation, the
element. Commutativity is not five or dered pairs, namely (a, a), (b,
required for a mathematical structure b), (c, c), (d, d) and (e, e) must be
to become a group. included. That is, there is no choice
as far as these five ordered pairs are
Q.27 (d)
concerned. Remaining 52 – 2 = 20
Given R = {(x, y), (x, z), (z, x), (z, y)}
ordered pairs may or may not be
on set {x, y, z},
include (i.e. 2 ways for each ordered
here (x, y) ∈ R and (y, x) ∉ R.
pair).
∴ R is not symmetric.
So total number of possible reflexive
Also (x, z) ∈ R and (z, x) ∈ R.
relations on S is 2×2×2 … 20 times
∴ R is not antisymmetric.
=220
R is neither symmetric nor anti-
symmentric. Q.30 (a)
The set ({1, w, w2}, *) forms a group,
Q.28 (c)
as can be seed by the fact that it
If an element is a generator, all
satisfies the four group properties.
elements must be obtained as
1. Closure
powers of that elements.Try a, b, c, d
one by one to see which are the
* 1 w w2
generators.
1 1 w w2
2 w 2
a=a w 1
w2 w2 1 w
a2 = a.a = a
a3 = a.a2 = a.a = a and so on. From above operation table, we can
∴ a is not the generator. see that given operation is closed,
b=b on the given set.
b2 = b.b = a 2. Associative: ‘*’ is an associative
b3 = b.b2 = b.a = b operation.
b4 = b.b3 = b.b = a and so on. 3. Identify : From operation table,
∴ b is not the generator we can see that the identity
c=c element, is “1”.
c2 = c.c = b 4. Inverse : From operation table
c3 = c.c2 = c.d = d we can see that inverse of 1 is 1,
c4 = c.c3 = c.d = a inverse of w is w2 and inverse of
Since all of a, b, c, d have been w2 is w.
generated as powers of c, So, ({1, w, w2}, *) is a group.
∴ c is a generator of this group. To be ring, integral domain or field,
Similarly we need two binary operations to be
d=d specified, whereas here we have
d2 = d.d = b only one operation given. So, choice
d3 = d.d2 =d.b = c (a) is correct.
d4 = d.d3 = d.c = a
∴ d is the generator. Q.31 (c)
Q.29 (c) Let n = 2. There are only 2 onto
functions as shown below.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.35 (d)
Example:

For n = 2
Options (a) 2n = 22 = 4
Options (b) 2n – 1 = 22 – 1 = 3
Options (c) 2n – 2 = 22 – 2 = 2 Let A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 4}
Options (d) 2(2n – 2) = 2(22 – 2) = 4 (a) |f(A ∪ B) = |f(A) + f(B)|
So only option (c) gives correct  3 = 2 + 2 is false
answer. (b) f(A ∩ B) = |f(A) ∩ f(B)|
 f = {a} is false
Q.32 (a) (c) |f(A ∩ B) = min {|f(A)| , |f(B)|}
x ⊕ y = x2 + y2  0 = 2 is false
y ⊕ x = x2 + y2 (d) Let S = {a, b}, T = {a, c}
As ‘+’ sign in commutative so x2 + y2 f-1(S ∩ T) = f-1(S) ∩ f-1(T)
is equal to y2 + x2 so x ⊕ y is  {1, 3} = {1, 2, 3} ∩ {1, 3, 4}
commutative. Now check  {1, 3} = {1, 3} is true
associativity
x ⊕ (y ⊕ z) = x ⊕ (y2 + z2) Q.36 (5)
= x2 + (y2 + z2)2 Order of subgroup divides order of
= x2 + y4 + z4 + 2y2z2 group (Lagrange’s theorem). 3, 5
(x ⊕ y) ⊕ z = (x2 + y2) ⊕ z and 15 be the order of subgroup. As
= (x2 + y2)2 + z2 subgroup has at least 4 elements
= x4 + y4 +2x2y2 + z2 and it is not equal to the given
x ⊕ (y ⊕ z) ≠ (x ⊕ y) ⊕ z group, also, order of subgroup can’t
So not associative. be 3 and 15.
Hence it is 5.
Q.33 (16)
f : {0 ,1}4 → {0 , 1}  f is 16 Q.37 (b)
elements set to 2 elements set. f (f (i)) = i
|S| = 216 = sell of all functions of f. Number of elements are odd
[ Q Number of functions from S to 2 ∴ ∃i, f(i) = i
16 For every i, f(i) need not be true
elements set {0 , 1} = 22 ]
16
Example: f(f(i)) = i
N = 22 Take i = 2, f(2) = 3 and f(3) = 2
16
∴ log log N=log log 22 =log 216 = 16
 f(f(2)) = 2
 f(3) = 2
 2=2

Q.34 (a) Q.38 (4)

S1 : S itself larger than every other G = {1, a, a-1, a*a-1}
subset.
S2 : ∅ is smaller than every other Q.39 (c)
subset. x
g(x) =1-x , h(x) 
∴ S1 and S2 are correct. x 1

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
  x  x ∴ P (satisfying distributive property)=
g  1 1- p (violate the distributive
g(h(x)) x 1 
   x 1
property)
h(g(x)) h(1  x) 1  x
6
1  x 1  1  3  0.952 which is between
x 1  x 1 5
1/5 and 1.
 x 1  x 1
1 x 1 x
x x Q.42 (d)
x x aRb iff a and b are distinct a and b
  have a common divisor other than 1.
(x  1)(1  x) (1  x) 2
(i) R is not reflexive since a and b
x are distinct i.e (a,a) ∉ R
h(x) x  1 x x (ii) R is symmetric
  
g(x) 1  x (1  x)(x  1) (1  x) 2 If a and b are distinct and have a
g(h(x)) h(x) common divisor other than 1, then b
  and a also are distinct and have a
h(g(x)) g(x)
common divisor other than 1.
(iii)R is not transitive
Q.40 (c)
If (a,b)∈ R and (b,c) )∈ R then (a,c )
A= {5,{6},{7}}
need be in R.
1.  2A is true. Any power set Example : (2,6) )∈ R and (6,2) ∈ R
contains an empty set. but (2,2) ∉ R
2.   2A is true. Empty set is subset ∴ R is symmetric but not reflexive
of any set. and not transitive .
3. {5,{6}  2A is true. Power set of A Q.43
contain {5){6}} as a 2 elements Let X={0,1,2…10}
subset of A. |X|=1
4. {5,{6}  2A is false. Power set of A |P(X)| =211 =2048
not contain 5 and {6} as elements.
So{5,{6}} can not be subset of 2A. Q.44

Q.41 (d)
ℒ has 5 elements ℒ3 has all ordered
triplets of ℒ
⇒ ℒ3 contains
Total possible functions = 202 = 400
5×5×5=53=125elements.
Number of one to one functions
 20P2  20 19
∴ Required probability
20 19
  0.95
20  20

Q.45 (b)
X#Y=X’+Y’
If q,r,s are chosen , then only it will This is the NAND operation. NAND is
violate the distributive property. known to be commutative but not
Number of ways to choose q,r,s in associative So only S2 is true.
any triplet order = 3!=3=3×2×1=6.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.46 (d) ((p,q),(r,s))  R  p  s  q  r
S={1,2,3,4,56} ((r,s),(p,q))  R  r  q  s  p
U is the power set of S ⇒ U=P(S) If p-s = q-r is true, then r-q = s-p is
U={{ } also true by rearranging the
{},{2},…{1,2},{1,3},…{1,2,3},… equation.
{1,2,3,4},,…{1,2,3,4,5}…{1,2,3,4,5,6}} ∴ R is symmetric.
|U| = 26 = 64 elements.
T∈ U ⇒ T’ ∈ U Q.48
R ∈ U,T\R =T-R n
f (n)  f   id n is even
(a) X  U(| X | = | X' |) means that 2
every subset of S has same size as its 
f : N  f (n  5) if n is odd
complements. Clearly this is False.
f : N  N
(For example, {1} ∈ U, and
2
complement of {1} = {2,3,4,5,6} Now f (2)  f    f (1)
(b) X  UY  U 2
(| X | 2,| Y | 5andX  Y  ) 8
f (3)  f (3  5)  f (8)     f (4)
Means that there are two 5 elements 2
subsets of S which have nothing in 4
common. This is clearly False.  f    f (2)  (1)
Since any two 5 elements subsets 2
will have at least 4 elements in So f (1)  f (2)  f (3)  f (4)  f (8)
common. Now let us find
(c ) X  UY  U  10 
f (5)  f (5  5)  f (10)  f  
(| X | 2,| Y | 3andX \ Y  )  2
Means that every 2 elements subset  f (5)f (5)  f (10)
X and every 3 element subset Y will Now let us find f (9)
have X-Y=ϕ i.e. X ⊆ Y.  14 
This is clearly False as can be seen f (9)  f (9  5)  f (14)  f    f (7)
 2
from the example X= {1,2},Y={3,4,5}
where  12 
 f (7  5)  f (12)  f    f (6)
X ⊈ Y-  2
(d X  U Y  U(X \ Y  Y'\ X') So. f (9)  f (7)  f (6)
means that for any two subsets X So the maximum no. of distinct
and Y,X\Y =Y’\X’ i.e. X-Y= Y’-X’. values / takes in only 3.
This is clearly True since by Boolean First is f (1) = f (2) = f (3) = f (4) = f (8)
algebra Second is f (5) = f (10)
LHS = X-Y=XY’ Third is f (6) = f (7)
RHS=Y’-X’=Y’X and therefore All other n value will given only one
LHS= RHS of these three values
For n >10 , it will be equal to one of
Q.47 (c) f(1) f(2) …. F(10)
R ={p, q},{r, s}|p-s = q-r} So the maximum no. of distinct
(i) Check reflexive property value f takes is only 3.
(p,q)  Z  Z ((p,q),(p,q)  R First is f (1) = f (2) = f (3) = f (4) = f (8)
Second is f (5) = f (10)
Is true iff p- q=q-p which is false. So
Third is f (6) = f (7) = f (9)
relation R is not reflexive
All other n values will give only one
(ii) Check symmetry property
of these three values.
If ((p,q),(r,s))  R((r,s),(p,q))  R

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.49 (b)
(a, b) R (c. d) if a ≤ c or b ≤d
P: R is reflexive
Q: R is transitive
Since (a, b) R (a, b) ⇒ a ≤ a or b ≤ b
⇒ t or t
Which is always True, R is reflexive.
Now let us check transitive property
Let (a, b) R (c, d) ⇒ a ≤ c or b ≤ d
And (c, d) R (e, f) ⇒ c ≤ e or d ≤ f
Now let us take a situation
a ≤ c (True) or b ≤ d(false)
and c ≤ e (False) or d ≤ f (True)
Now we can get neither a ≤ e nor b ≤ f
So, (a, b) R (c, d) and (c, d) R (e, f) ⇏
(a, b) R (e,f). So clearly R is not
transitive. So P is true and Q is false.
Choice (b) is correct.

Q.50 (b)
I. If there is a subset of 9 component
out of 23 component each of which
reacts with exactly 3 components, it
does not mean that every
component of U reacts with odd
number of components . So I is false.
II. Since there are 9 components in U
which react with exactly 3 (odd)
components, So II is true.
III. is false, since some of
components in U reacts with odd
number of components.
So only II is true.

Q.51 (0)
Since the given hasse diagram is
already a lattice, three is no need to
add any ordered pair, So answer is 0.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 3 NUMBER THEORY & COUNTING

Number theory is about integers and their This is easy to see: if n is a composite
properties. We will start with the basic integer, it must have at least two prime
principles of divisors. Let the largest two be p1and p2.
• divisibility, Then p1p2<= n.
• greatest common divisors, p1and p2cannot both be greater than,
• least common multiples, and because then p1p2> n.
• modular arithmetic Division Algorithm
Let a bean integer and d a positive integer.
3.1 DIVISION Then there are unique integers q and r,
with 0 r < d, such that a = dq + r. In the
If a and b are integers with a 0, we say that above equation,
a divides b if there is an integer c so that b • d is called the divisor,
= ac. • a is called the dividend,
When a divides b we say that is a factor of • q is called the quotient, and
b and that b is a multiple of a. • r is called the remainder.
The notation a | b means that a divides b.
We write a χ b when a does not divide b. 3.3 GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR
Divisibility Theorems
For integers a, b, and c it is true that Let a and b be integers, not both zero.
• if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c) The largest integer d such that d | a and d |
b is called the greatest common divisor of
Example: 3 | 6 and 3 | 9, so 3 | 15. a and b.The greatest common divisor of a
• if a | b, then a | bc for all integers c and b is denoted by gcd(a, b).
Example: 5 | 10, so 5 | 20, 5 | 30, 5 | 40 … Example 1:
• if a | b and b | c, then a | c What is gcd(48, 72) ?
The positive common divisors of 48 and 72
Example: 4 | 8 and 8 | 24, so 4 | 24. are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, and 24, so gcd(48,
72) = 24.
3.2 PRIME NUMBERS
Example 2:
A positive integer p greater than 1 is called
What is gcd(19, 72) ?
prime if the only positive factors of p are 1
The only positive common divisor of 19
and p.
and 72 is1, so gcd(19, 72) = 1.
Note: 1 is not a prime
USING PRIME FACTORIZATIONS:
A positive integer that is greater than 1 and
a = p1a1 p2a2 … pnan , b = p1b1 p2b2 … pnbn ,
is not prime is called composite. The
Where p1< p2< … < pn and ai, bi Nfor 1≤ i
fundamental theorem of arithmetic:
Every positive integer can be written ≤n
uniquely as the product of primes, where gcd(a, b) = p1min(a1, b1 )p2min(a2, b2 ).. pnmin(an, bn )
the prime factors are written in order of
increasing size. Examples:
If n is a composite integer, then n has a a = 60 = 223151
prime divisor less than or equal. B = 54 = 213350
Gcd(a,b) = 213150 = 6

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Relatively Prime Integers: Two integers a Theorem:
and b are relatively prime if gcd(a, b) = 1. a*b = gcd (a, b)*lcm(a, b)

Examples: 3.5 MODULAR ARITHMETIC

Are 15 and 28 relatively prime?
Yes, gcd(15, 28) = 1. Let a bean integer and m is a positive
Are 55 and 28 relatively prime? integer. We denote by a mod m the
Yes, gcd(55, 28) = 1. remainder when a is divided by m.
Are 35 and 28 relatively prime?
No, gcd(35, 28) = 7. Example:
Definition: The integers a1, a2, …, an area 9 mod 4 = 0
pair wise relatively prime if gcd(ai, aj) = 1 -13 mod 4 = 3
whenever 1≤ i < j≤ n.
Congruence:
Examples: Let a and b be integers and m be a positive
Are 15, 17, and 27 pairwise relatively prime? integer. We say that a is congruent to b
No, because gcd(15, 27) = 3. modulo m if m divides (a –b). We use the
Are 15, 17, and 28 pairwise relatively prime? notation a b (mod m) to indicate that a is
Yes, because gcd(15, 17)=1, gcd(15,28) = 1 congruent to b modulo m. In other words: a
and gcd(17, 28) = 1. b (mod m) if and only if a mod m = b
mod m.
THE EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
Example:
The Euclidean Algorithm finds the greatest
1. Is it true that 46 68 (mod 22)?
common divisor of two integers a and b.In
Yes, because 22 | (46 –68).
pseudo code, the algorithm can be
2. For which integers z is it true that z 12
implemented as follows:
(mod 10)?
Procedure gcd(a, b: positive integers)
It is true for any z{…,-28, -18, -8, 2, 12,
x := a
22, 32, …}
y := b
while y ≠ 0 Theorem:
begin Let m be a positive integer. The integers a
r := x mod y and b are congruent modulo m if and only if
x := y there is an integer k such that a = b + km.
y := r
end{x is gcd(a, b)} Theorem:
Let m be a positive integer. If a b (mod
3.4 LEAST COMMON MULTIPLES m) and c d (mod m), then a + c b + d
The least common multiple of the positive (mod m) and ac bd (mod m).
integers a and b is the smallest positive
integers that is divisible by both a and b. Theorem:
We denote the least common multiple of a Let m be a positive integer. a b (mod m)
and b by lcm(a,b). iff a mod m = b mod m.
Example: 3.6 BASIC COUNTING PRINCIPLES
l cm(3,7) = 21
l cm(4,6) = 12 Counting problems are of the following
l cm(5,10) = 10 kind:

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 “How many different 8-letter passwords
are there?”
“How many possible ways are there to pick
11 soccer players out of a 20-player team?”
Most importantly, counting is the basis for
computing probabilities of discrete
events.
(“What is the probability of winning the
lottery?”)
The sum rule:
If a task can be done in n1ways and a
second task in n2ways, and if these two
tasks cannot be done at the same time, then
there are n1+ n2ways to do either task.
Example:
The department will award a free computer
to either a CS student or a CS professor.
How many different choices are there, if
there are 530 students and 15 professors?
There are 530 + 15 = 545 choices.
GENERALIZED SUM RULE:
If we have tasks T1, T2, …, Tm that can be
done in n1, n2, …, nm ways, respectively, and
no two of these tasks can be done at the
same time, then there are n1+ n2+ … + nm
ways to do one of these tasks.
THE PRODUCT RULE:
Suppose that a procedure can be broken
down into two successive tasks. If there are
n1 ways to do the first task and n2 ways to
do the second task after the first task has
been done, then there are n1n2 ways to do
the procedure.
Example:
How many different license plates are there
that containing exactly three English
letters?
Solution:
There are 26 possibilities to pick the first
letter, then 26 possibilities for the second
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
one, and 26 for the last one. So there are
26*26*26 = 17576 different license plates.
GENERALIZED PRODUCT RULE:
If we have a procedure consisting of
sequential tasks T1, T2, …, Tm that can be
done in n1, n2, …, nm ways, respectively,
then there are n1*n2*…* nm ways to carry
out the procedure. The sum and product
rules can also be phrased in terms of set
theory.
SUM RULE:
Let A1, A2, …, Am be disjoint sets. Then the
number of ways to choose any element
from one of these sets is |A1 U A2U… UAm|
=|A1| + |A2| + … + |Am|.
PRODUCT RULE:
Let A1, A2, …, Am be finite sets. Then the
number of ways to choose one element
from each set in the order A1, A2, …, Am is
|A1xA2x… xAm| = |A1| |A2| … |Am|.
3.7 INCLUSION – EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
How many bit strings of length 8 either
start with a 1 or end with 00?
Task 1:
Construct a string of length 8 that starts
with a 1.
There is one way to pick the first bit (1),
two ways to pick the second bit (0 or 1),
two ways to pick the third bit (0 or 1),
.
.
two ways to pick the eighth bit (0 or 1).
can be done in 27= 128 ways.
Task 2:
Construct a string of length 8 that ends
with 00.
There are two ways to pick the first bit (0
or 1),
 two ways to pick the second bit (0 or 1),
two ways to pick the sixth bit (0 or 1),
one way to pick the seventh bit (0), and
one way to pick the eighth bit (0).
PRODUCT RULE:
Task 2
Can be done in 26= 64 ways.
Since there are 128 ways to do Task 1 and
64 ways to do Task 2, does this mean that
there are 192 bit strings either starting
with 1 or ending with 00?
No, because here Task 1 and Task 2 can be
done at the same time.
When we carry out Task 1 and create
strings starting with 1, some of these
strings end with 00.Therefore, we
sometimes do Tasks 1 and 2 at the same
time, so the sum rule does not apply. If
we want to use the sum rule in such a case,
we have to subtract the cases when Tasks 1
and 2 are done at the same time.
How many cases are there, that is, how
many strings start with 1 and end with 00?
There is one way to pick the first bit (1),
two ways for the second, …, sixth bit (0 or
1), one way for the seventh, eighth bit (0).
PRODUCT RULE:
In 25= 32 cases, Tasks 1 and 2 are carried
out at the same time.
Since there are 128 ways to complete Task
1 and 64 ways to complete Task 2, and in
32 of these cases Tasks 1 and 2 are
completed at the same time, there are 128
+ 64 –32 = 160 ways to does either task.
In set theory, this corresponds to sets
A1and A2 that are not disjoint.
Then we have:|A1UA2| = |A1| + |A2| -|A1∩A2|
This is called the principle of inclusion-
exclusion.
THE PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE
If (k + 1) or more objects are placed into k
boxes, then there is at least one box
containing two or more of the objects.
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
Example 1:
If there are 11 players in a soccer team that
wins 12-0, there must be at least one player
in the team who scored at least twice.
Example 2:
If you have 6 classes from Monday to
Friday, there must be at least one day on
which you have at least two classes.
The generalized pigeonhole principle: If
N objects are placed into k boxes, then
there is at least one box containing at least
 N / K  of the objects.
Example 1:
In our 60-student class, at least 12 students
will get the same letter grade (A, B, C, D, or F).
3.8 PERMUTATIONS & COMBINATIONS
How many ways are there to pick a set of 3
people from a group of 6?
There are 6 choices for the first person, 5
for the second one, and 4 for the third one,
so there are 6.5.4 = 120 ways to do this.
This is not the correct result!
For example, picking person C, then person
A, and then person E leads to the same
group as first picking E, then C, and then A.
However, these cases are counted
separately in the above equation.
So how can we compute how many
different subsets of people can be picked
(that is, we want to disregard the order of
picking)?
To find out about this, we need to look at
permutations.
A permutation of a set of distinct objects is
an ordered arrangement of these objects.
An ordered arrangement of r elements of a
set is called an r-permutation.
Example:
Let S = {1, 2, 3}.
The arrangement 3, 1, 2 is a permutation of S.
The arrangement 3, 2 is a 2-permutation of S.
 The number of r-permutations of a set with
n distinct elements is denoted by P(n,r).
We can calculate P (n, r) with the product
rule:
P (n, r) = n (n –1) (n –2) … (n –r + 1).
(n choices for the first element, (n –1) for
the second one, (n –2) for the third one…)
Example:
P(8, 3) = 8.7.6 = 336
= (8.7.6.5.4.3.2.1)/(5.4.3.2.1)
GENERAL FORMULA:
P(n, r) = n!/(n –r)!
Knowing this, we can return to our initial
question:
How many ways are there to pick a set of 3
people from a group of 6 (disregarding the
order of picking)?
An r-combination of elements of a set is an
unordered selection of r elements from the
set. Thus, an r-combination is simply a
subset of the set with r elements.
Example:
Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Then {1, 3, 4} is a 3-combination from S.
The number of r-combinations of a set with
n distinct elements is denoted by C(n, r).
Example:
C (4, 2) = 6, since, for example, the 2-
combinations of a set {1, 2, 3, 4} are {1, 2},
{1, 3}, {1, 4}, {2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}.
How can we calculate C (n, r)?
Consider that we can obtain the r-
permutation of a set in the following way:
First, we form all the r-combinations of the
set (there are C (n, r) such r-combinations).
Then, we generate all possible orderings in
each of these r-combinations (there are P(r,
r) such orderings in each case).
Therefore, we have:
P (n, r) = C (n, r)P(r, r)
C (n, r) = P (n, r)/P(r, r)
= n! / (n –r)! /(r! /(r –r)!)
= n! /(r! (n –r)!)
Now we can answer our initial question:
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
How many ways are there to pick a set of 3
people from a group of 6 (disregarding the
order of picking)?
C (6, 3)=6! / (3! 3!)=720/(6.6)=720/36= 20
There are 20 different ways, that is, 20
different groups to be picked.
COROLLARY:
Let n and r be nonnegative integers with r≤ n.
Then C (n, r) = C (n, n –r).
Note that “picking a group of r people
from a group of n people” is the same as
“splitting a group of n people into a
group of r people and another group of
(n –r) people”.
Example: A soccer club has 8 female and 7
male members. For today’s match, the
coach wants to have 6 female and 5 male
players on the grass. How many possible
configurations are there?
C (8, 6). C (7, 5) = 8! / (6! 2!). 7! / (5! 2!)
= 28.21
= 588
Pascal’s Identity:
Let n and k be positive integers with n ≥ k.
Then C(n + 1, k) = C(n, k –1) + C(n, k).
Expressions of the form C(n, k) are also
called binomial coefficients.
How come?
A binomial expression is the sum of two
terms, such as (a + b).
Now consider (a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b).
When expanding such expressions, we have
to form all possible products of a term in
the first factor and a term in the second
factor:
(a + b)2= a·a + a·b + b·a + b·b
Then we can sum identical terms:
(a + b)2= a2+ 2ab + b2
This leads us to the following formula:
Binomial Theorem:
n
(a  b)n   C(n, j).a n  jb j
j 0
 GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 How many 4 digits even numbers  2n 
have all 4 digits distinct? a)   * 2n b) 3n
n 
a) 2240 b) 2296
c) 2620 d) 4536 (2n)!  2n 
c) n d)  
[GATE-2001] 2 n 
[GATE-2003]
Q.2 The solution to the recurrence
equation T(2k )  3T(2k 1 )  1,T(1)  1 Q.6 Mala has a colouring book in which
is each English letter is drawn two
(3k 1  1) times. She wants to paint each of
a) 2k b) these 52 prints with one of k
2
log 2 k log3 k colours, such that the colour- pairs
c) 3 d) 2 used to colour any two letters are
[GATE-2002] different. Both prints of a letter can
also b coloured with the same
Q.3 The minimum number of colors colour. What is the minimum value
required to colour the vertices of a of k that satisfies this requirement?
cycle with n nodes in such a way a) 9 b) 8
that no two adjacent nodes have the c) 7 d) 6
same colour is [GATE-2004]
a) 2 b) 3
n  Q.7 What is the minimum number of
c) 4 d) n  2    2
2 ordered pairs on non- negative
[GATE-2002] numbers that should be chosen to
ensure that there are two pairs (a,
Q.4 Let A be a sequence of 8 distinct b)and (c, d) in the chosen set such
integers sorted in ascending order. that a ≡ c and b ≡ d mod 5
How many distinct pairs of a) 4 b) 6
sequences, B and C are there such c) 156 d) 24
that (i) each is sorted in ascending [GATE-2005]
order, (ii) B has 5 and C has 3

elements, and (iii) result of merging
B and C gives A? Q.8 Let G(x)  1/ (1  x) 2   g(i)x i
i 0
a) 2 b) 30 where |x|<1 What is g(i)?
c) 56 d) 256 a) i b) i+1
[GATE-2003]
c) 2i d) 2i
[GATE-2005]
Q.5 In couples are invited to a party
with the condition that every
Q.9 For each element in a set of size 2n,
husband should be accompanied by
an unbiased coin it’s tossed. The 2n
his wife. However, a wife need not
coins tossed are independent, an
be accompanied by her husband.
element is chosen if the
The number of different gatherings
corresponding coin toss were head.
possible at the party is

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 The probability that exactly n Q.13 The value of x 5 is
elements are chosen is a) 5 b) 7
2 2 c) 8 d) 13
a)   4n b)   2n
n n [GATE-2008]
2 1
c) 1   d) Q.14 In how many ways can be blue balls
n d
and r red balls be distributed in n
[GATE-2006] distinct boxes?
(n  b  1)!(n  r  1)!
Common Data for Q.10 & Q.11 a)
Suppose that a robot is placed on the (n  1)!b!(n  1)!r!
Cartesian plane. At each step it is allowed (n  (b  r)  1)!
b)
to move either one unit up or one unit (n  1)!(n  1)!(b  r)!
right, i.e. if it is at (I,j) then it can move to n!
either (i+1,j)or (i,j+1) c)
b!r!
d) (n  (b  r) 1)!/ n!(b  r 1)
Q.10 How many distinct paths are there
[GATE-2008]
for the robot to reach the point (10,
10) staring from the initial position
Q.15 A pennant is a sequence of number,
(0, 0)?
each number being 1 or 2. An n-
 20  pennant is a sequence of number
a)   b) 220
 10  with sum equal to n. For example (1,
c) 210 d) None of these 1, 2) s a 4 pennants. The set of all
[GATE-2007] possible 1 pennant is {(1)}, the set
of all possible 2-pennants is
Q.11 Suppose that the robot is not {(2),(1,1} and the set of all 3 –
allowed to traverse the line segment pennants is {2,1),(1,1,1),(1,2}. Note
from (4,4) constraint, to (5,4). With that the pennant (1, 2) is not the
this constraint, how many distinct same as the pennant (2,1) The
paths are there for the robot to number of 10 pennants is ____.
reach (10, 10) staring from (0, 0)? [GATE-2014]
a) 29 b) 219
Q.16 Each of the nine words in the
 8  11  20   8  11
c)      d)         sentence “The quick brown n for
 4 5  10   4   5  jumps over the lazy dog” is written
[GATE-2007] on a separated piece of paper .
These nine pieces of paper are kept
Common Data for Q.12 & Q.13 in a box. One of the pieces is drawn
Let x n denote the number of binary strings at random from the box. The
of length n that contain no consecutives 0s. expected length of the word drawn
is ____ (The answer should be
Q.12 Which of the following recurrences rounded to one decimal place.
does x n satisfy? [GATE-2014]
a) x n  2x n.1 b) x n  x|n/2]  1
Q.17 The Number of distinct positive
c) x n  x|n/2]  n d) x n  x n.1  x n.2 integral factors of 2014 is ___.
[GATE-2008] [GATE-2014]

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 99
1 Q.23 The coefficient of x12 in
Q.18 
x 1 x(x  1)
 ______
(x3  x 4  x 5  x 6  ...)3
[GATE-2015] [GATE-2016]

Q.19 Let a n represent the number of bit Q.24 Consider the recurrence relation
strings of length n containing two a1  8,a n  6n 2  2n  a n 1
consecutive 1s. What is the Let a 99  K 104 The value of K is
recurrence relation for a n ? [GATE-2016]
a) a n 2  a n 1  2n 2
b) a n 2  2a n 1  2n 2 Q.25 The n-bit fixed-point representation
of an unsigned real number X uses f
c) 2a n 2  a n 1  2n 2 bits for the fraction part. Let i = n – f.
d) 2a n 2  2a n 1  2n 2 The range of decimal values for X in
[GATE-2015] this representation is
a) 2f to 2i b)
Q.20 The number of divisors of 2100 is f
2 to 2  2i

f

___
c) 0 to 2i d)
[GATE-2015]
0 to  2i  2f 
Q.21 The number of 4 digits numbers [GATE-2017]
having their digits in non-
decreasing order (from left to right Q.26 The number of integers between 1
) constructed by using the digits and 500 (both inclusive) that are
belonging to the set {1,2,3}is ____. divisible by 3 or 5 or 7 is _______.
[GATE-2015] [GATE-2017]
Q.27 Consider quadratic equation
Q.22 Let a n be the number of n- bit
x 13x  36  0 with coefficients in
2

strings that do NOT contain two a base `b’. The solution of this
consecutive 1s. Which one of the equation in the same base ‘b’ are x
following is the recurrence relation =5 and x= 6. Then b = ______.
for a n ? [GATE-2017]
a) a n  a n 1  2a n 2
b) a n  a n 1  a n 2
c) a n  2a n 1  a n 2
d) a n  2a n 1  2a n 2
[GATE-2016]

ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(b) (b) (d) (c) (b) (d) (c) (b) (a) (a) (d) (d) (d) (a)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
89 3.9 8 0.99 (a) 36 15 (b) (10 198 (d) 271 8

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (b) Therefore, the complete solution is
The digits are given to be distinct i.e. 1
T(2k )  C1 (3) k 
no repetition. 4 digit even numbers 2
cannot start with 0 and must end Given T(1)  1
with 0,2,4,6 or 8. 1
Since there is a condition for 0 in 1  C1 (3)0 
starting as well as ending we will 2
1
count the even number ending with 1  C1 
0 separately. 2
So the total number of 4 digit even 3
C1 
number =4 even numbers ending 2
with zero + 4 digit even numbers So the complete solution is
ending with 2,4,6,8 3 1
4 digit even numbers ending with 0 T(2k )  (3) k 
2 2
= k 1
3 1
T(2k ) 
2
4 digit even numbers ending with 2,
Q.3 (d)
4,
The minimum number of colours
required to colour the vertices of a
6, 8= cycle with n nodes
So the total number of 4 digit even =2, when n is even
numbers = 504 +1792 =2296 =3 when n is odd
n 
Q.2 (b) Therefore n  2    2 gives 2 when
2
T(2k )  3T(2k 1 )  1 n is even and 3 when n is odd.
Let T(2k )  x n
 x n  3x n 1  1 Q.4 (c)
This corresponds to an ordered
 x n  3x n 1  1
partition of 8 elements into two
So for Homogenous solution groups, the first with 5 elements and
x n  3x n 1  0 second with 3 elements. The
n 3  0 number of ways of doing this is
n 3 8!
Homogenous solution is P(8;5,3)   56
5!3!
x n  C1 (3)n
T(2k )  C1 (3)k Q.5 (b)
For each of the n couples invited to
For Particular solution
the party one of three thing is
Let d be the particular solution
d  3d  1
possible.
2d  1
1. both husband and wife attend the
party
1
d 2. wife only attends the party
2

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 
3. neither husband nor wife attends
the party Since there are n such   (r 1) C1x r
r 0
couples,total number of possibilities 
= 3n   (r  1)x r
r 0

Q.6 (d)   (i  1)x i
The problem reduces to finding how r 0
many distinct ordered colour pairs (Since r is a dummy variable, r can
(C1 , C2 ) are possible with k colors. be replaced by i)

Since the first color C1 can be any
  g(i)x i
one of the k colours and the second r 0

color C 2 also can be any one of the k  g(i)  i  1

colors ( both prints of a letter can be
colored with same color.) the total Q.9 (a)
no. of such order color pairs is equal The probability that exactly n
to k  k  k 2 elements are chosen = The
Since each pair of letters must be probability of getting n heads out of
colored with different color pairs, at 2n tosses
least 26 color Paris are required to 2n Cn (1/ 2)n (1/ 2)2n n (Binomial
do this. formula)
Therefore the requirement is 2n Cn (1/ 2)n (1/ 2)n
k 2  26 2n
Cn 2n Cn 2n Cn
The minimum value of k that   2 n  n
satisfies this equation is k = 6. 22n (2 ) 4

Q.7 (c) Q.10 (a)

The number of combinations of Consider the following diagram
pairs 9 a mod 2, b mod 5) is 3×5
=15 ( since a mod 3 can be 0,1 , or 2)
and b mod 5 can be 0,1,2,3,or 4)
∴ If 16 different ordered pairs are
chosen at least 2 of them must have
( a mod 3, b mod 5 ) as same ( basic
pigeon hole principle ).
Let such two pairs be (a, b) and (c,
d) then The robot can move only right or up
a mod 3 ≡ c mod 3⟹a ≡ c mod 3 as defined in problem Let us denote
and b mod 5 ≡ d mod 5⟹b ≡ d mod 5 right move by ‘R’ and up move by ‘U’
, Now to reach (3,3) from (0,)) the
Q.8 (b) robot has to make exactly 3‘R’
1  moves and 3’U’moves in any order.
(1  x) n
 
r 0
(n 1 r)
Cr x r Similarly to reach (10, 10) from (
0,0) the robot has to make 10 ‘R’
Put n = 2, moves and 10 ‘U’ moves in any

1
(1  x) n
 
r 0
(2 1 r)
Cr x r order. The number of was this can
be done is same as number of per
 mutations of a word consisting of 10
  (r 1) Cr x r ‘R’s and 10 U’s.
r 0

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Applying formula of permutation
with limited repetitions we get the
20! 20
answer as  C10 .
10!10!
Q.11 (d)
The robot can reach (4,4) from (0,0) x2=3
in ways as argued in previous Let
problem. Now after reaching (4,4), n =3
robot is not allowed to go to (5,4).
Let us count how many paths are
there from (0,0) to (10,10) if robot
goes from (4,4) to (5, 4) and then we
can subtract this from total number
of ways to get the answer.
Now there are 8C4 ways for robot to
reach (4,4) from (0,0) and then X3=5
robot takes the ‘U’ move from (4,4)
to (5,4). Now from (5,4) to (10,10)
the robot has to make 5’U’ moves Now substituting n = 3 in all of the
and 6’R’ moves in any order which answers only choice (d)
11! x n  x n 1  x n 2 satisfies the
can be done ways = 11 C5 ways. numbers obtained from the tree
5!6!
∴ The number of ways robot can counting.
move from (0,0) (10,10) via (4,4) –
(5,4) move is Q.13 (d)
 8  11 x1  2, x 2  3
8
C4 11 C5        x3  x1  x 2  2  3  5
 4 5 
∴ Number of ways robot can move  x 4  x 2  x3  3  5  8
(from (0,0) to(10,10) without using  x5  x3  x 4  5  8  13
(4,4) to (5,4) move is So option (d) correct .
 20   8  11
        ways .which is Q.14 (a)
10   4   5 
option (d) R red balls can be distributed into n
distinct boxes in C(n-1+r,r) = (n-1+
Q.12 (d) r)1 (n-1)!r! b blue balls can be
The √ represents those strings with distributed in C (n-1+ b, b) = n-1+b!/
no consecutive 0’s (n-1)!b!
Let Since they are independent, by
n =1 product rule,
Total ways – (n-1+b)! (n-1+r)! /
(n-1)!b!(n-1)!r!

Q.15 (89)
In a 10-pennant let there we x1
x1=2
ones and x 2 twos So we need to find
n =2
all the solutions of

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 x1  x 2  10 Factorizing 2014 in primes by
Put x1  0  x 2  10 / 2  5 successively dividing by primes, we
get
So, (0,5) is a solution i.e. a 10 –
pennant could have 0 ones and 5 2014  21 191  531
twos . The number of ordered Now we use the formula:
permutations of 0 ones and 5 twos If n  P1n1 .P2n2 ...Prnr is the prime
=5!/5!=1 factorization of n, then the number
Now x1 cannot be 1 since in that of distinct factors of n is given by
case 4.5 (is not an integer). (n1  1)  (n 2  1)...(n r  1)
Put x1  2  x 2  8 / 2  4 Now since the number of distant
So (2,4) is a solution i.e. is 10 – factors of 2014 = (1+1)(1+1)(1+1)
pennant could have 2 ones and 4 =2×2×2=8
twos./ The number of ordered
permutations of 2 ones and 4 twos Q.18 (0.99)
6! 99
1 99
1 1 
2!4!
 15 x 1 x(x  1)
  
x 1  x

x  1 
Similarly (4,3)(8,1) and (10,0) are 1 1   1 1 
the other four solutions and the          ...
1 2   2 3 
number of pennants for each is
respectively 1 1 1 1 1 1 
     
7! 8! 9! 10!  97 98   98 99   99 100 
 35,  28,  9, 1
4!3! 6!2! 8!1! 10!0! 1
 1 (all the terms in above
So the total number of 10-pennants 100
 1  15  35  28  9  1  89 series except the first and last terms
99
Q.16 (3.9) cancels out)   0.99
100
“The quick brown n for jumps over
the lazy dog” Q.19 (a)
(3) (5) (3) (5) (4)
a1  0 [no strings of length 1
(3) (4) (3)
Now let x be the number of letters in contain two consecutive 1’s]
the word that is randomly picked a 2  1 [∴ strings =11]
Now, we make a probability a 3  3 [∴ strings are : 011,110,111]
distribution table for x. a 4  8 [∴ strings are : 0011, 0110,
From this table we can easily find
x 3 4 5
the expected value of x .
P(x) 4/9 2/9 3/9
(after rounding to one decimal
accuracy)
0111,1011,1100,1101,1110,1111]
4 2 3
E(x)   xp(x)  3   4   5  Option (a)
9 9 9 a n  a n 2  a n 1  2n 2
35
  3.88  3.9  a 4  a 42  a 41  242
9
(after rounding to one decimal  a 2  a 3  22  1  3  4  8
accuracy.) which is True.
Option (b) :
Q.17 (8) a n  a n 2  2a n 1  2n 2
 a 4  a 2  2a 3  22

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
  1  2  3  4  11 which is False. = Number of tick marks =15
Option ( c ): Q.22 (b)
a n  2a n 2  a n 1  2n 2 Let a n be the number of n- bit
 a 4  2a 2  a 3  22 strings that do nor contain two
consecutive 1’s. we wish to develop
 2 1  3  4  9 which is False .
a recurrence relation for a n .
Option (d):
a n  2a n 2  a n 1  2n 2 Consider 2 bit strings 0, 1,
So a1  2
 a 4  2a 2  2a 3  22
Consider 2 bit strings 00,01,10,11
 2 1  2  3  4  12 Out of minimum only 00,01,10 do
which is False. not contain two consecutive 1’s
∴ Option (a) : a n  a n 2  a n 1  2n 2 So a1  3
is correct. Consider of minimum six stings
only000,001, 010 100 and 101 five
Q.20 (36) strings satisfy do not contain two
Dividing 2100 successively by consecutive 1’s
prime numbers, we get that, the So a1  5 Three numbers a1 , a 2 , a 3
prime factors of 2100 are
satisfy clearly only (b)
2×2×3×5×5×7
a n  a n 1  a n 2 is correct.
 22  31  52  71
If N  pk1  pk2  pk3 ..  pkn t
Q.23 (10)
then the number of factors of N are We wish to find coefficient of x12 in
(k1  1)(k 2  1)....(k n  1)
(x 3  x 4  x 5  ...)3
For 2100 we have
 (x3 (1  x  x 2 ...))3
(2+1)(1+1)(2+1)(1+1)= 36 factors
 x9 (1  x  x 2 ...)3

Q.21 (15) x9
The satisfy the non- decreasing 
(1  x) 3
 x 9

r 0
31 r
Cr X r
order condition allow 1,2,3 after 1, 
allow only 2,3 after 2 and allow only  x 9  r  2 Cr X r
3 after 3. The following tree r 0

diagram gives all the allowed Now to make x12 we needed to put r
numbers satisfying the given = 3 So coefficient of x12 is
condition. 3 2
C3 5 C3 5 C3 5 C2  10 .

Q.24 (198)
Given a n  6n 2  2n  a n 1 and a1  8
We wish to find a 99
Now a 2  6  2 2  2  2  a1
a 3  6  32  2  3  a 2
 6  32  2  3  6  22  2  2  a1...
a 99  6  992  2  99  6  982  2  98...
All the tick marked numbers satisfy ...  6  22  2  2  a1
the non-decreasing order condition. Since a1  8
 Number of 4- digit numbers

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 a 99  6  992  2  99  6  982  2  98... In base b 36  3  b1  6  b0
...  6  22  2  2  8  3b  6
So the equation becomes
 6  992  2  99  6  982  2  98...
x 2   b  3 x   3b  6   0
...  6  22  2  2  6 12  2 1
 6(12  22  32...992 )  2.(1  2  2...99) Now since it is given that x = 5 is a
solution, so
(99(99  1)(2  99  1))  99(99  1) 
 6.  2  52   b  3 5   3b  6   0
6  2 
 99 100 199  99 100
⟹ 2b  16  0
 100  99(199  1) ⟹b=8
Same can be obtained by putting x =
 100  99  200
6 also.
 2  99 104
 198 104
So if a 99  K 104 then K  198

Q.25 (d)
Let n = 5 bit
f = 2 bit
So I = 5-2 = 3 bit
Min value : 000.00
⟹ 0
Max value : 111.11
⟹ 7.75
 2i  2 f 
⟹  23  22 
⟹ 8-0.25 = 7.75

Q.26 (271)
Let A   by 3
B   by 5
C   by 7
n  A  B  C  n  A   n  B  n(C)
n  A  B 
n  A  C   n  B  C   n  A  B  C 
 500   500   500   500   500 
    
 3   5   7   15   21 
 500   500 
 
 35   105 
 166  100  71  33  23  14  4
= 271

Q.27 (8)
x 2 13x  36  0
In base b 13  1 b1  3  b0  b  3

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 4 GRAPH THEORY
DEFINITION:
A simple graph G = (V, E) consists of V, a
nonempty set of vertices, and E, a set of
unordered pairs of distinct elements of V
called edges.
For each eE, e = {u, v} where u, v  V.
An undirected graph may contain loops. An
edge e is a loop if e = {u, u} for some uV.
DEFINITION:
A directed graph G = (V, E) consists of a
set V of vertices and a set E of edges that
are ordered pairs of elements in V.
For each eE, e = (u, v) where u, v  V.
An edge e is a loop if e=(u, u) for some uV.
A simple graph is just like a directed graph,
but with no specified direction of its edges.
Finite& Infinite Graphs: A graph with a
finite number of vertices as well as finite
number of edges is called a finite graph:
otherwise, it is an infinite graph.
Portion of two infinite graphs
4.1 TERMINOLOGY OF GRAPH THEORY
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 A loop (or self-loop) is an edge joining
a vertex to itself.
 The endpoints of an edge are the
vertices that it joins. A loop has only
one endpoint.
 An incidence rule specifies the
endpoints of every edge.
 An edge e is incident with a vertex v if
v is an endpoint of e.
 A graph is a set V of vertices and a set E
of edges (both sets finite unless
declared otherwise) such that all the
endpoints of edges in E are contained in
V. It is often denoted G = (V, E), or (VG,
EG), or (V (G), E (G)). Sometimes, each
edge is regarded as a pair of vertices.
 An isolated point of a graph G = (V,E) is
a vertex in V that is not the endpoint of
any edge in E.
 Vertices u and v are adjacent if there is
an edge whose endpoints are u and v.
 Two edges are adjacent if they have a
common endpoint.
 A neighbor of a vertex is any vertex to
which it is adjacent.
 An attribute of the edge-set or vertex-
set is a feature such as length, cost, or
color sometimes attached to graphs.
 A graph model is a graph which (quite
frequently, in applications) may have
additional attributes on its edges
and/or vertices. The vertices and edges
of the model may represent arbitrary
objects and relationships from the
context of the application.
 A weighted graph is a graph model in
which each edge is assigned a number
called the weight or the cost.
 A node is sometimes a synonym for a
vertex and sometimes refers to
whatever is modeled by a vertex in a
graph model.
 A line is sometimes a synonym for an
edge and sometimes refers to whatever
is modeled by an edge in a graph model.
  A multi-edge in an undirected graph is
a set of more than one edge with the
same end points, and in a digraph a set
of more than one edge such that each
edge in the set has the same head and
each edge in the set has the same tail. A
graph with a multi-edge is also said to
have multiple edges or parallel edges.
 A multi-edge of multiplicity n is a set
of n edges with the same endpoints.
 A set of parallel edges is a set of edges
with the same end points, i.e., a multi-
edge. A pair of anti-parallel arcs is a
pair of oppositely directed arcs between
the same two endpoints.
 A multi-graph is another name for a
graph with multi-edges but no self-
loops, used for emphasis when the
context is largely restricted to simple
graphs.
 A pseudo-graph (or general graph) is
another name for a graph in which
loops and multi-edges are permitted,
used for emphasis when the context is
largely restricted to loop less graphs.
 A direction on an edge is an ordering
for its endpoints so that the edge goes
from one endpoint and to the other. Any
edge, including a self-loop, can be
directed by giving it a sense of forward
progression, e.g., in a graph drawing, by
placing an arrowhead to show which
way is forward, or by ordering the
endpoints.
 An arc is another name for a directed
edge.
 The tail of an arc is the vertex at which
the arc originates.
 The head of an arc is the vertex at
which the arc terminates.
 A directed graph or digraph is a graph
in which every edge is directed. (See
§8.3.)
 A strict digraph has no self-loops and
no pair of arcs with the same tail and
head.
 The degree of vertex v, deg(v),is the
number of proper edges plus twice the
number of loops incident with v. Thus,
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
in a drawing, it is the number of edge-
endings at v.
 The valence of a vertex is a synonym
for degree adapted from terminology in
chemistry.
 The degree sequence of a graph is the
sequence of the degrees of its vertices,
most often sorted into size order,
ascending or descending.
 A regular graph is a graph such that all
vertices have the same degree. It is
called k-regular if the vertices all have
degree k.
 A graphical sequence is a sequence of
nonnegative integers that is the degree
sequence of some simple graph.
 The number of vertices of a graph is
sometimes called the order.
 The number of edges of a graph is
sometimes called the size.
 The empty graph is the graph whose
vertex set and edge set are both empty.
 This is also called the null graph (and is
sometimes not considered to be a
graph).
 The trivial graph is the graph with one
vertex and no edges.
EXAMPLE TO ILLUSTRATE TERMINOLOGY:
Description
i) It is a connected graph with 5 nodes
and 7 edges.
ii) There are two simple paths of length 2
from B to E:
(B, A, E) and (B, C, E). There is only one
simple path of length 2 from B and D:
(B, C, and D).
1.
There are two 4- cycles in the graph [A, B,
C, E, A] and [A, C, D, E, A]
 iii) deg(A) = 3, since A belong to 3 edges
deg(C) = 4, deg(D) = 2
2.
I) It is not a graph but a multigraph
ii) It has multiple edges –e4 = [B, C] and e5
= [B, C] and it has a loop, e6 = [D, D]
(To definition of a graph usually does not
allow either multiple edges or loops)
3.
A tree graph with 6 nodes and 5 edges and
there is a unique simple path between any
two nodes of the tree graph.
4.
This graph is same as that of 1(Graph)
except that now the graph is weighted, P1 =
(B, C, D) and P2 = (B, A, E, D) are both path
from node B to node D. Although P2
contains more edges than P1, the weight W
(P2) = 9 is less than the weight W(P1) = 10.
5.
This graph has 3 cycles of lengths 3, 5,6
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
Cycles Length
1561 3
123451 5
1234561 6
6.
Distance denoted by d(u, v) between two
vertices u and v is defined as the length of
the shortest path joining u and v.
A path is said to be a directed path if all
arcs of the path are directed towards the
same direction.
7.
In this, v2e2v4e3v3 is a directed path but
v1e1v2e2v4 is not a directed path.Also v2 and
v4 are adjacent vertices but v2 and v3 are
not adjacent.
4.2 DIRECTED GRAPHS
Directed graph G, also called a diagraph or
graph, is the same as a multigraph except
that each edge e in G is assigned a direction
or in other way, each edge e is identified
with an ordered pair (u, v) of nodes in G
rather than an unordered pair [u, v]
 Suppose G is a directed graph with a
directed edge e = (u, v). Then e is also
called an arc and moreover the
following terminology is used.
a) e begins or initial point of e and v is the
destination or terminal point of e.
b) u is the origin or initial point of e and v
is the destination or terminal point of e.
c) u is predecessor of v and v is a
successor or neighbor of u.
d) u is adjacent to v and u is adjacent to u.
  The out degree of a node u in G(denoted
as outdeg (u)) the number of edges
beginning at u.
The in degree of u (denoted as indeg (u)), is
the number of edges ending at u.
A node u is called a source if it has a
positive out degree but zero in degree.
Similarly, u is called a sink if it has a
zero out degree but a positive in degree
 A node V is said to be reachable from a
node u if there is a (directed) path from
u to v.
A directed graph G is said to be connected
or strongly connected if for each pair u, v of
nodes in G there is a path from u to v and
there is also a path from v to u.A graph G is
said to be unilaterally connected if for any
pair u, v of nodes in G there is a path from u
to v or a path from v to u.
Example:
The above graph consists of:
1. 4 nodes and 7 (directed) edges
2. The edges e2 and e3 are said to be in
parallel, since each begins at B and ends
at A.
3. The edge e7 is a loop, since it begins and
ends at the same point B.
4. The sequence P1 = (B, C, B, A) is not a
path, since (C, B) is not an edge, i. e., the
direction of the edge e5 = (B, C) does not
agree with direction of the path P1 on
the other hand P2 = (D, B, A) is a path
from D to A, since (D, B) and (B, A) are
edges. Thus A is reachable from D.
5. There is no path from C to any other
node, so G is not strongly connected.
However, G is unilaterally connected.
Also, indeg (D) = 1 and outdeg (D) = 2
Node C is a sink, since indeg (C) = 2 but
outdeg (C) = 0.
No node in G is a source.
IMPORTANT ABOUT DIRECTED GRAPH:
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Let T be any nonempty tree graph.
Suppose we choose any node R in T.
Then T with this designated node R is
called a rooted tree and R is called its
root. This defines a direction to the
edges in T, so the rooted tree T may be
viewed as a directed graph.
 Suppose we also order the successors of
each node v in T. Then T is called an
ordered rooted tree. Ordered trees are
almost same as the general trees.
 A directed graph G is said to be simple if
G has no parallel edges. A simple graph
G may have loops, but it cannot have
more than one loop at a given node.
A non directed graph G may be viewed
as a simple directed graph by assuming
that each edge [u, v] in G represents two
directed edges (u, v) and (v, u)In
degrees and out degrees of vertices
of a digraph:
Consider the following graph :
Let us consider a vertex U of a digraph D.
The in degree of U is defined as the number
of area for which U is head and out degree
is the number of arcs of which u is the tail.
Note: indeg (U)  d D  (U)  in degree of
U in graph D
Outdeg(U)  d D (U)  out deg ree of U in
graph D
NULL GRAPH:
A graph is said to be null if all its vertices
are isolated.
For example:
In the figure above
 
d D (U)  0, d D (U)  3
FINITE GRAPHS:
 The sum of the degrees of edges of all the
A multigraph is said to be finite if it has a vertices of a graph G is twice the number of
finite number of vertices and a finite edges into
number of edges.
Theorem:
Note: The number of vertices of adds degree in a
A graph with a finite number of vertices graph is always even
must automatically have a finite number of
edges and so must be finite. ORDER OF A GRAPH:
TRIVIAL GRAPH: The number of vertices of a graph G, is
called its order
The finite graph with one vertex and no
edges i. e. a single point is called the trivial SIZE OF A GRAPH:
graph.
The number of edges of a graph G is called
4.3 SUBGRAPH its size. In calculating the size of a graph, a
Consider a graph G = G (V, E). A graph H = H self loop is treated to be of size 2.
(V`, E`) is called a subgraph of G if the
vertices and edges of H are contained in the n-graph:
vertices and edges of G, i. e.
If V` Vand E` E. A multigraph is called an n-graph if no edge
has multiplicity greater than n.
Important about subgraph
Degree sequence of a graph:
i) A subgraph H(V`, E`) of G(V, E) is called If we find the degree of each vertex of a
the subgraph induced by its vertices V` graph and write the degrees of all the
if its edges set E` contains all edges in G vertices in an ascending order, the sequence
whose endpoints belong to vertices in H. so obtained is called the degree sequence of
ii) If v is vertex in G, then G–v is the the graph.
subgraph of G obtained deleting v from Special Graphs
G and deleting all edges in G which
contain v. 1. Complete Graph kn:
iii) If e is an edge in G, then G–e is the
subgraph of G obtained by simply A simple graph G on n vertices is called a
deleting the edge e from G. full graph or a complete graph if every
vertex is adjacent with all the remaining (n-
REGULAR GRAPH: 1) vertices.
A graph in which all vertices one of equal is In the complete graph kn, the size i.e. no of
called a regular graph n(n  1)
its edges = nC2=
2

Regular graph of degree three (regular 2. The CycleGraph Cn, n  3, consists of n

graph) vertices v1, v2, …, vn and edges {v1, v2},
Theorem: {v2, v3}, …, {vn-1, vn}, {vn, v1}.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission

3. Wheel: We obtain the wheel Wn when
we add an additional vertex to the cycle
Cn, for n  3, and connect this new
vertex to each of the n vertices in Cn by
adding new edges.
COMPLIMENT OF A GRAPH:
Let G be a loop free undirected graph on n
vertices. The complement of G, denoted by
G is the subgraph of kn consisting of all n
vertices of G and all edges which are not in
G, but are in kn.
4.4 GRAPH ISOMORPHISM
Two graphs G and G` are said to be
isomorphic to each other if these is a one-
to-one correspondence between their
vertices and between their edges such that
the incidence relationship is preserved
Or
Two graphs G1(V1E1) and G2(V2, E2) are said
to be isomorphic to each other if these
exists a bijection f from V1 to V2 i.e.
f: V1  V2
s. t. for each of the vertices vi, vj of V1, (vi, vj)
 E1 iff (f(vi,) f(vj))  E 2
The function f is called an isomorphism
from G1 to G2
Isomorphic graphs have-
i) equal no. of vertices
ii) equal no. of edges
iii) an equal no. of vertices with a given
degree i. e. same degree sequence.
These conditions are necessary but not
sufficient
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
These graphs are not isomorphic as in (a)
vertex (4) of degree 3 is connected to the
vertices 5 k 6 of degree 1 and 3 of degree 2.
But in (b), vertex (c) of degree 3 is connected
to the vertices b, d of degree 2 and f of
degree1. This, incidence relationship is not
preserved.
The sufficient conditions are the conditions
of adjacency and non-adjacency of vertices
in the graphs under the mapping  defined
between the two graphs.
Show that the graphs G1 and G2 are
isomorphic to each other.
Solution:
No. of vertices in G1= 4 = No. of vertices in G2
-------edges-------=3=---------edges-------------
Let us define a mapping
(1)  a, (2)  b, (3)  c & (4)  d
and ((1), (2))  (a, b)  e11  E(G 2 )
Now, We haveedge(1, 2)  1 E(G1
(2,3)  e2  E(G1 ) and ((2), (3))  (b,c)  e12  E(G 2 )
(3, 4)  e3  E(G1 ) and ((3), (4))  (c,d)  e13  E(G 2 )
further,(1, 4)  E(G1 ) and ((1), (4)  (a,d) also E(G 2 )
(1,3)  E(G1 ) and ((1), (3))  (a,c)
(2, 4)  E(G1 ) and ((2), (4))  (b,d)
Thus  is one-one, and preserves adjacency
as well as non-adjacency. Hence  is an
isomorphism from G1 to G2.
SUB GRAPHS:
A graph H = H (V1, E1) is called a sub graph
of G = G (V, E) if V1  E. and E1  E In
particular.
i) If V is a vertex in G, then G-V is the
subgraph obtained by deleting V from G
and deleting all edges in G which
contains V.
 ii) If e is an edge in G, then G-e = Ge is a
subgraph of G obtained by simply
deleting edge e from G.
SPANNING SUBGRAPH:
A graph H is called spanning subgraph of
the given graph G if H contains all vertices
of G.
DISJOINT GRAPHS:
Let G(V1 E) be a graph and S1 (V1, E1), S2
(V2, E2) be two subgraph of G. Then,
S1& S2 are called, (i) vertex disjoint if
V1  V2  . (ii) edge----------- E1  E2  
The vertex disjoint graph are always edge
disjoint.
LINEAR GRAPH:
A graph with n vertices {V1, V2,……….,Vn}
and edges (Vi, Vi+1) for 1  i  n denotes by
Ln is known as linear graph on n vertices
CONNECTED GRAPHS AND DISCONNECTED
GRAPHS:
A graph is said to be connected if these
exists at least one path between every pair
of its vertices, otherwise it is disconnected.
A disconnected graph consists of two or
more connected graphs. Each of these
connected subgraphs is called a component
DISTANCE AND DIAMETER:
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
In a connected graph G the distance
between its vertices u and V is the length of
the shortest path and is denoted by d(u, V).
In a connected graph G the maximum
distance between any two vertices is called
diameter and is denoted by diam (G).
Eg: In G, diam (G) = 2
THEOREM:
If a graph (connected or disconnected) has
exactly two vertices of odd degree, these
must be a path joining these two vertices.
CUT-SET:
In a connected graph G, a cut-set is a set of
edges whose removal from G leaves G
Disconnected, provided removal of no
proper subset of these edges disconnects G
In G, the cut-set are →{k}, {a, c, d, b}, {a, b,
g) etc. While the set {a, c, h, d} is not a cut
set, because one of its proper subset {a, c,
h} is a cut-set.
BRIDGE:
Whenever a cutest consists of any one
edge, that edge is called a bridge for the
graph. In the above graph {k} is a bridge.
EDGE CONNECTIVITY:
The number of edges in the smallest cut-set
(i. e. cut-set with fewest no. of edges)
is defined as the edge connectivity of G.
VERTEX CONNECTIVITY:
The vertex connectivity (or simply
connectivity) of a connected graph G is
defined as the minimum number of vertices
whose removal from G leaves the
remaining graph disconnected. In the
above graph G, the vertex connecting is one
as the deletion & the vertex V4 leaves the
graph G disconnected.
 SEPARABLE GRAPH:
A connected graph is said to be separable if
its vertex connectivity is one.
CUT-VERTEX:
In a separable graph a vertex whose
removal disconnects the graph is called a
cut-vertex, a cut-node or an articulation point
 The edge connectivity & a graph will
never be more than the degree of the
vertex with the smallest degree in G.
 The vertex connectivity of any graph G
will never be more than the edge
connectivity of G.
 The maximum vertex connectivity in
graph G, with n vertices and (e  n  1)
edges is the integral part of the number
2e  2e 
i.e.   
n n
INTERSECTION:
The ring sum of two graphs G1 and G2 is a
graph G consisting only of those vertices
and edges that are in both G1 and G2.
RING SUM:
The ring sum of two graphs G1 and G2
writer as G1  G 2 , is a graph consisting of
the vertex set V1  V2 and of edges that are
either in G1 or G2, but not in both.
DIFFERENCE OF TWO GRAPHS:
The difference of two graphs G1& G2, writer
as G1 – G2, is a graph consisting of all the
edges which are in G1 but not in G2. G1-G2 is
also called the complement of G2 in G1.
DECOMPOSITION OF A GRAPH:

A graph G is said to have been decomposed

into subgraph g1 and g2 i
g1  g2  G and g1  g 2  a nullgraph

 Vertex is the maximum vertex

(G) (g1) (g2)
connectivity and the edge connectivity
for the graph.
FUSION:
Theorem:
A pair of vertices a, b in a graph are said to
Prove that a simple graph with n vertices
be fused (merged or identified) if the two
and k components can have at most
vertices are replaced by a single new vertex
(n  k)(n  k  1)
edges. such that every edge that was incident on
2 either a or b or on both is incident on the
4.5 OPERATIONS ON A GRAPH new vertex. Thus fusion of two vertices
does not alter the number of edges, but it
UNION OF TWO GRAPHS: reduces the number of vertices by one.
The union of two graphs G1 = (V1, E1) and
G2 = (V2, E2) is another graph G3 (G1  G2)
whose vertex set V3 = V1  V2 and the edge
set E3 = E1 E 2 .

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 WALK:
A walk is a finite alternating sequence of
vertices and edges, begins with a vertex
and ends in a vertex. If the terminal
vertices (i. e. the first and the last vertex)
are same, then walk is called closed
otherwise called an open walk.
Walk may repeat both vertices and edges.
TRAIL:
A trail is an open walk in which neither on
edge is repeated.
PATH:
A path is an open walk in which neither on
edge nor a vertex is repeated.
CIRCUIT:
A closed walk in which no edge is repeated
is called a circuit.
CYCLE:
A closed path is called a cycle. So in a closed
path the terminal vertices are same. Eg-
EULER LINE OR EULER CIRCUIT (CHAIN):
An Euler line in a graph G is a circuit
consisting of all the edges of G exactly once.
EULERIAN GRAPH:
A graph which has an Euler line is called
Eulerian graph.
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
UNICURSAL GRAPH:
An open Euler line i.e. an open walk that
includes all edges of a graph exactly once is
called a unicursal line and a graph that has
a unicursal line is called a unicursal graph.
THEOREM:
A given connected graph G is an Euler
graph iff all vertices of G are of even degree.
4.6 KONIGSBERG BRIDGE PROBLEM
This problem is perhaps the best known
example in graph theory. It was a long
standing problem until solved by Euler in
1736 by means of a graph. The problem is
depicted in the following figure. Two
islands, C and D, formed by the Pregal River
in Kongsberg (in west soviet Russia) were
connected to the banks A and B with 7
bridges, as shown in the above figure.
The problem was to start at any of the four
land areas of the city A, B, C, or D, walk over
each of the server point (without
swimming across the river).
Euler proved that a solution for this
problem does not exist.
The graph of the problem is as follows
In this graph, not all of its vertices are of
ever degrees.
Thus it is not on Euler graph. Thus it is not
an Euler graph.
Thus it is not possible to walk over each of
the seven bridges exactly once and return
to the starting point.
 IMPORTANT RESULTS:
1) If a graph G has a vertex of odd degree,
then these can be no Euler line in G.
2) If a graph G is connected and each
vertex has even degree, then G is an Euler
graph
3) If a graph G has more than two vertices
of odd degree, then there can be no
Euler path in G.
4) If a graph G is connected and has
exactly two vertices of odd degree, then
there is an Euler path in G. Any Euler
path in G must begin at one vertex of
odd degree and end at the other.
HAMILTONIAN PATH:
In a connected graph G, if a path uses each
vertex of the graph exactly once, then such
a path is called Hamiltonian path.
HAMILTONIAN (CIRCUIT):
A circuit in a graph G is called a Hamilton
cycle circuit if it includes every vertex of G.
Eulerian circuit uses every edge exactly
once but may repeat vertices, while
Hamiltonian circuit uses each vertex
exactly once (except for the first & the last)
but may slip edges.
IMPORTANT RESULTS
HAMILTONIAN GRAPH:
1. If G is a (p, q) graph p > 3, and for every
pair of non adjustment vertices u and v,
deg(u)+deg(v)  p, then G is Hamiltonian.
2. A simple ( ,q) graph G is
Hamiltonian if P  3 and
P
(G)  ; (G) 
2
deg ree of a vertex with thesmallest deg ree.
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
3. If G is a simple connected (p, q) graph
where P≥3 and q≥(P-1)+2, then G is
Hamiltonian.
4. If G is a simple (p, q) graph where P  2
and for every pairs of non-adjacent
vertices u and vdeg (u) + deg (v)  p-1,
then G has a Hamiltonian path.
5. The number of edge –disjoint
Hamiltonian cycles in a complete graph
kn, where n is an odd number n  3, is
(n  1)
.
2
IMPORTANT RESULTS:
1) The connected graph G has a
Hamiltonian circuit if each vertex has a
n
 ; n is number of vertices.
degree 2
2) The connected graph G has a
Hamiltonian circuit if no. of edges,
1
m   n 2  3n  6  ,
2
n is the no. of vertices
3) In a complete graph G with n vertices
(n  1)
these are edges disjoint
2
Hamilton cycle, if n is an old number  3.
4.7 COLORING PROBLEM
Painting vertices of a graph with color’s
such that no two adjacent vertices have the
same color is called vertex coloring of a
graph. The coloring in which the adjacent
ABOUT vertices are colored with different colors is
called the propercoloring.
CHROMATIC NUMBER:
The minimum number of colours required
for proper colouring of a graph G is called
the chromatic number of G and is denoted
 by x(G). If x(G)=k the graph is called a k- P(G,λ)= (  1)(  2)    (n  1)
chromatic graph.
&P(G, )  0 when min  n
In colouring a graph we do not have to
consider:- (G)  n
3) If the graph G is linear with n vertices
1) Disconnected graphs, as colouring of then- P(G, )  (  1)n 1
vertices in one component do not have &P(G, )  o when min  2
any effect on colouring of vertices in
other. THEOREM:
2) Multiple graphs, as all parallel edges
between 2 vertices can be replaced by The degree of a vertex in a simple graph G
0- single edge without affecting on n-vertices cannot be greater than n-1.
adjacency of vertices. Self loops must be THEOREM:
disregarded. Thus for colouring
problems we need to consider only The chromatic number of a graph will not
simple, connected graphs. A Complete exceed by more than one, the maximum
graph of n-vertices is n-chromatic. degree of the vertices in a graph.
Or
WELCH-POWELL ALGORITHM:
Let  (G) be the vertices in a graph is
denoted by V. If V=1,
It is an algorithm developed by Welch and
then (G)  o and x(G)  1+(G)
Powell for finding minimum colours
needed to paint graph steps-
1) Arrange vertices in a sequence COMPLETE DIGRAPH:
according to the descending order of
their degrees. i) Complete Symmetric digraph:
2) Assign colour C1 to the first vertex of It is a simple digraph in which these is
the sequence and then assign C1 in the exactly one edge directed from every
sequential order to each vertex which is vertex to every other vertex.
not adjustment to previous vertex
assigned with colour C1.
3) Assign next colour C2 to the next
coloured vertex in the sequence and
repeat the process pointing for
previously unpainted vertices.
4) Repeat the procedure until all vertices
have been painted. ii) Complete Asymmetric digraph:
A complete asymmetric diagraph of is one
CHROMATIC POLYNOMIAL: that has exactly one edge between every
pair of vertices
Let G be an undirected graph and let λ be
the number of colours available for
properly coloring the vertices of G. A
polynomial function P(G, λ), in the variable
λ is called the chromatic polynomial of G.
1) If G has n isolated vertices then P(G,λ)
THEOREM:
 n  ofor   1 ∴X (G)  1
2) If G = kn then The complete digraph with n nodes has the
maximum no. of edges i.e. n(n-1) edges.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Assuming these are no loops.
4.8 BIPARTITE GRAPH
A bipartite graph is one whose vertices can
be partitioned into two disjoint sets V1and
V2, called bipartition set, in such a way that
every edge of G has one end in V1 and one
end in V2.
In particular these are no edges within V1or
within V2.
A Complete Bipartite Graph is a bipartite
graph in which every vertex in V1 joined to
every vertex in V2.The complete bipartite
graph on bipartition sets with n vertices
and m vertices, respectively is denoted by
kn,m.
G1 Bipartite graph
G2 Complete bipartite graph
PLANAR GRAPHS:
A graph G is said to be planar if these exists
some geometric representation of G which
can be drawn on a plane such that no two
of its edges interact each other.
Region:
A plane representation of a graph divides
the plane into region also called windows
or faces.
4.9 TREES
A tree is a connected graph without any
circuits.
 There is one and only one path between
every pair of vertices in a tree, T.
 If in a graph G there is one and only one
path between every pair of vertices, G is
a tree.
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 A tree with n vertices has n–1 edges.
 Any connected graph with n vertices
and n–1 edges is a tree.
 A graph is a tree if and only if it is
minimally connected.
 A graph G with n vertices, n–1 edges,
and no circuits is connected.
A graph G with n vertices is called a tree if
1. G is connected and is circuit less, or
2. G is connected and has n–1 edges, or
3. G is circuit less and has n – 1 edges, or
4. There is exactly one path between
every pair of vertices in G, or
5. G is a minimally connected graph.
 In any tree (with two or more vertices),
there are at least two pendant vertices.
 The distance between vertices of a
connected graph is a metric.
 Every tree has either one or two
centers.
ROOTED AND BINARY TREES
A tree in which one vertex (called the root)
is distinguished from all the others is called
a rooted tree.
 The number of labelled trees with n
vertices (n≥2) is nn-2.
 An edge in a spanning tree T is called a
branch of T. An edge of G that is not in a
given spanning tree T is called a chord.
 Then k, the number of components G
has. rank r = n – k, nullity μ = e – n + k.
rank of G = number of branches in any
spanning tree (or forest) of G, nullity of
G = number of chords in G, rank +
nullity = number of edges in G.The
nullity of a graph is also referred to as
its cyclomatic number.
 This generation of one spanning tree
from another, through addition of a
chord and deletion of an appropriate
branch, is called a cyclic interchange or
elementary tree transformation.
In a connected graph G, a cut-set of
edges whose removal from G leaves G
disconnected, provided removal of no
 proper subset of these edges
disconnects G. Sometimes a cut-set is
also called a co cycle.
 Every cut-set in a connected graph G
must contain at least one branch of
every spanning tree of G.
 In a connected graph G, any minimal set
of edges containing at least one branch
of every spanning tree of G is a cut-set.
 Every circuit has an even number of
edges in common with any cut-set.
EDGE CONNECTIVITY
Each cut-set of a connected graph G
consists of a certain number of edges. The
number of edges in the smallest cut-set
(i.e., cut-set with fewest number of edges)
is defined as the edge connectivity of G.
Equivalently, the edge connectivity of a
connected graph can be defined as the
minimum number of edges whose removal
(i.e., deletion) reduces the rank of the graph
by one. The edge connectivity of a tree, for
instance, is one. The edge connectivity of
the graphs in two and three, respectively.
VERTEX CONNECTIVITY
On examining the graph, we find that
although removal of no single edge (or
even a pair of edges) disconnects the graph,
the removal of the single vertex v does.
Therefore, we define another analogous
term called vertex connectivity. The vertex
connectivity (or simply connectivity) of a
connected graph G is defined as the
minimum number of vertices whose
removal from G leaves the remaining graph
disconnected. Again, the vertex
connectivity of a tree is one. The vertex
connectivity’s of the graphs, respectively.
Note that from the way we have defined it
vertex connectivity is meaningful only for
graphs that have three or more vertices
and are not complete.
 A vertex v in a connected graph G is a
cut-vertex if and only if there exist two
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
vertices x and y in G such that every
path between x and y passes through v.
 The edge connectivity of a graph G
cannot exceed the degree of the vertex
with the smallest degree in G.
 The vertex connectivity of any graph G
can never exceed the edge connectivity
of G.
COROLLARY
Vertex connectivity ≤ edge connectivity
2e

n
 A connected graph G is k- connected if
and only if every pair of vertices in G is
joined by k or more paths that do not
intersect, and at least one pair of
vertices is joined by exactly k
nonintersecting paths.
 The edge connectivity of graph G is k if
and only if every pair of vertices in G is
joined by k or more edge-disjoint paths
(i.e., paths that may intersect, but have
no edges in common), and at least one
pair of vertices is joined by exactly k
edge disjoint paths.
 The maximum flow possible between
two vertices a and b in a network is
equal to the minimum of the capacities
of all cut-set with respect to a and b.
1 – ISOMORPHISM
Two graphs G1 and G2 are said to be 1-
isomorphic if they become isomorphic to
each other under repeated application of
the following operation.
Operation 1:
“Split” a cut-vertex into two vertices to
produce two disjoint subgraphs.
 If G1 and G2 are two 1-isomorphic
graphs, the rank of G1 equals the rank of
G2 and the nullity of G1 equals the
nullity of G2.
2 – ISOMORPHISM
 Operation 2: “Split” the vertex x into x1 and
x2 and the vertex y into y1 and y2 such that
G is split into g1and g1 . Let vertices x1 go
with g1 and x2 and y2with g1 . Two graphs
are said to be 2 – isomorphic if they
become isomorphic after undergoing
operation 1 or operation 2, both operations
any number of times.
Two graphs are 2-isomorphic if and only if
they have circuit correspondence.
4.10 PLANAR & DUAL GRAPHS
A graph G is said to be planar if there exists
some geometric representation of G which
can be drawn on a plane such that no two
of its edges intersect. A graph that cannot
be drawn on a plane without a crossover
between its edges is called nonplanar.
 The complete graph of five vertices is
nonplanar.A complete graph with five
vertices is the first of the two graphs or
Kuratowski. The second graph of
Kuratowski is a regular connected
graph with six vertices and nine edges,
 Recall that a graph in which all vertices
are of equal degree is called a regular
graph.
 Region: A region is characterized by the
set of edges (or the set of vertices)
forming its boundary. Infinite Region:
the infinite, unbounded, outer, or
exterior region.
 A graph can be embedded in the surface
of a sphere if and only if it can be
embedded in a plane.
 A planar graph may be embedded in a
plane such that any specified region
(i.e., specified by the edges forming it)
can be made the infinite region.
 A connected planar graph with n
vertices and e edges has e–n+ 2 regions.
COROLLARY
f regions, n vertices, and e edges
3
e  f,
2 pendant edge in G*.
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
e  3n  6
DETECTION OF PLANARITY
Step 1:
Since a disconnected graph is planar if and
only if each of its components is planar, we
need consider only one component at a
time. Also, a separable graph is planar if
and only if each of its blocks is planar.
Therefore, for the given arbitrary graph G,
determine the set
G = {G1, G2…Gk}
Where each Gi is a nonseparable block of
G. Then we have to test each Gi for
planarity.
Step 2:
Since addition or removal of self-loops does
not affect planarity, remove all self-loops.
Step 3:
Since parallel edges also do not affect
planarity, eliminate edge in parallel by
removing all but one edge between every
pair of vertices.
Step 4:
Elimination of a vertex of degree two by
merging two edges in series does not affect
planarity. Therefore, eliminate all edges in
series. Repeated application of steps 3 and
4 will usually reduce a graph drastically.
Let the nonseparable connected graph Gi be
reduced to a new graph Hi after the
repeated application of steps 3 and 4. What
will graph Hi look like?
 Graph Hi is
1. A single edge, or
2. A complete graph vertices
3. A nonseparable, graph with n ≥ 5 and
e ≥7.
 A necessary and sufficient condition for
a graph G to be planar is that G does not
contain either of Kuratowski’s two
graphs or any graph homeomorphic to
either of them.
GEOMETRIC DUAL
1. An edge forming a self-loop in G yields a
 2. A pendant edge in G yields a self-loop in
G*.
3. Edges that are in series in G produce
parallel edges in G*.
4. Parallel edges in G produce edges in
series in G*.
5. Remarks 1-4 are the result of the
general observation that the number of
edges constitution the boundary of a
region Fi in G is equal to the degree of
the corresponding vertex pi in G*, and
vice versa.
6. Graph G* is also embedded in the plane
and is therefore planar.
7. Considering the process of drawing a
dual G* from G, it is evident that G is a
dual of G*. Therefore, instead of calling
G* a dual of G, we usually say that G and
G* aredual graphs.
8. If n, e, f, r, and u denote as usual the
numbers of vertices, edges, regions,
rank, andnullity of a connected planar
graph G, and if n*, e*, f*, r*, and u* are
the corresponding number in dual
graph G*, then
n* = f,
e* = e,
f* = n
r* = u
u* = r
 All duals of a planar graph G are 2-
isomorphic; and every graph 2-
isomorphic to a dual of G is also a dual
of G.
 A graph has a dual if an only if it is
planar.
CHROMATRIC NUMBER
Painting all the vertices of a graph with
colors such that no two adjacent vertices
have the same color is called the proper
coloring (or sometimes simply coloring) of
a graph. A graph G that requires k different
colors for its proper coloring, and no less,
k-chromatic.
1. A graph consisting of only isolated
vertices is 1-chromatic.
2. 2-chromatic (also called bichromatic)
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
3. A complete graph of n vertices is n –
chromatic
4. A graph consisting of circuit with n  3
vertices is 2-chromatic if n is even and
3-chromatic if n is odd.
 Two or more vertices is 2-chromatic
 A graph with at least one edge is 2-
chromatic if and only if it has no circuits
of odd length.
 Chromatic number of G  1 + dmax.
4.11 MINIMUM SPANNING TREE
A spanning tree of a graph G is a subgraph
of G that is a tree and contains every vertex
of G. Spanning trees are very useful in
searching the vertices of a graph and in
communicating from any given node to the
other nodes.
An undirected network is a weighted
graph G=(V,E), where V is the set of
vertices, E is the set of undirected edges,
and each edge (i, j)∈E has an associated
cost (or weight, length) cij . Let n= |V | and
m = |E|.
If T=(V,F) is a spanning tree of G=(V,E),
then every edge in F⊆E is a tree edge and
every edge in E − F is a nontree edge (or
chord).
A minimum spanning tree (MST) of G is a
spanning tree of G for which the sum of the
edge costs is minimum.
A maximum spanning tree of G is a
spanning tree of G for which the sum of the
edge costs is maximum.
A cut of G= (V, E) is a partition of the vertex
set V into two parts, S and S= V −S. Each cut
defines the set of edges [S, S]⊆E having one
endpoint in S and the other endpoint in S.
FACTS:
1. Every spanning tree T of a network G
with n vertices contains exactly n−1
edges, and every two vertices of T are
connected by a unique path.
2. Adding an edge to a spanning tree of G
produces a unique cycle, called a
fundamental cycle.
3. Every cut [S, S] is a disconnecting set of
edges. However, not every disconnecting
 set of edges can be represented as a cut other nontree edges, namely (2, 3), (4,
[S, S]. 5), and (5, 6), satisfy the path optimality
4. Removing an edge from a spanning tree conditions, establishing by Fact 5 that
of G produces two subtrees, on vertex T∗is a minimum spanning tree. By Fact
sets S and S, respectively. The 7 this is the unique minimum spanning
associated cut [S, S] is called a tree.
fundamental cut.
5. Path optimality conditions: A spanning
tree T∗is a minimum spanning tree of G
if and only if for each nontree edge (k, l)
of G, cij ≤ ckl holds for all tree edges (i,j)
in the fundamental cycle determined by
edge (k, l).
6. Cut optimality conditions: A spanning
tree T∗is a minimum spanning tree of G
if and only if for each tree edge (i, j)
∈T∗, cij ≤ ckl holds for all nontree edges
(k, l) in the fundamental cut determined
by edge (i, j).
7. If all edge costs are different, then the
minimum spanning tree is unique.
8. The minimum spanning tree can be
unique even if some of the edge costs
are equal;
9. Adding a constant to all edge costs of an
undirected network does not change
the minimum spanning tree(s) of the
network. Thus, it is sufficient to have an
algorithm that works when all edge
costs are positive.
10. Multiplying each edge cost of an
undirected network by −1 converts a
maximum spanning tree into a minimum
spanning tree, and vice versa. Thus, it is
sufficient to have algorithms to find a
minimum spanning tree.

EXAMPLES: Algorithm 1: Kruskal’s algorithm.

1. Part (a) of the following figure shows an input: connected undirected network G
undirected network G, with costs output: minimum spanning tree T∗
indicated on each edge. Part (b) shows a Order the edges (i1, j1), (i2, j2), . . . , (im, jm) so
spanning tree T∗of G. Adding the that ci1j1 ≤ ci2j2≤ ・・・ ≤ cimjm T∗:= ∅
nontree edge (3, 5) to T∗produces the for k : = 1to m do
fundamental cycle [3, 1, 2, 5, 3]; see part if T∗∪ {(ik, jk)} does not contain a cycle
(c). Since each tree edge in this cycle then T∗:= T∗∪ {(ik, jk)}
has cost no more than that of the Algorithm 2: Prim’s algorithm.
nontree edge (3, 5), the path optimality input: connected undirected network G,
condition is satisfied by edge (3, 5). vertex i0
Similarly, it can be verified that the output: minimum spanning tree T∗

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 T∗:= the tree consisting of vertex i0
while |T∗| < n− 1 do
(i, j) : =nearest neighbor(T∗)
T∗:= T∗∪ {(i, j)}
Examples:
1. For the network shown in part (a) of
the following figure, ordering edges by
nondecreasing cost produces the
following sequence of edges:(2 , 4), (3,
5), (3, 4), (2, 3), (4, 5) (1, 2), (1, 3).
Kruskal’s algorithm adds the edges (2,
4), (3, 5), (3, 4) to T∗; discards the edges
(2, 3) and (4, 5); then adds the edge (1,
2) to T∗and terminates. Part (b) of the
figure shows the resulting minimum
spanning tree, having total cost 80.
a) A simple graph with 6 vertices,
whosedegrees are 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4.
Solution
None. It is not possible to have one
vertex of odd degree.
b) A simple graph with 8 vertices,
whose degrees are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
Solution
None. It is not possible to have a
vertex of degree 7 and a vertex of
degree 0 in this graph.
c) A simple graph with degrees 1,2,2,3.
Solution

d) A simple graph with degrees 2,

3,4,4,4.
Solution
None. It is not possible to have a
graph with one vertex of odd
degree.

e) A simple graph with degrees 1,1,2,4.

Solution
None. In a simple graph with 4
2. Prim’s algorithm (Algorithm 2) is vertices, the largest degree a vertex
applied to the network of part (a) of the can have is 3.
figure of Example 1, starting with the
initial vertex i0= 3. The minimum cost f) A simple digraph with in degrees
edge out of vertex 3 is (3, 5), so T∗= {(3, 0,1,2,4,5 and out degrees 0, 3,3,3,3.
5)}. Next, the minimum cost edge Solution
emanating from T∗is (3, 4), giving T∗= None. In a simple graph with five
{(3, 5), (3, 4)}. Subsequent iterations add vertices, there cannot be a vertex
the edges (2, 4) and (1, 2), producing the with in degree 5.
minimum spanning tree T∗= {(3, 5), (3, 4),
(2, 4), (1, 2)}. Starting from any other g) A simple digraph with in degrees
initial vertex i0would give the same 0,1,1,2 and out degrees 0,1,1,1.
result. Solution
4.12 PRACTICE SET None. The sum of the out degrees
must equal the sum of the in
Q.1 In the questions below either give degrees.
an example or prove that there are
none. h) A simple digraph with in degrees:

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 0,1,2,2,3,4 and out degrees: Q.6 A graph with 4 vertices that is not
1,1,2,2,3,4. planar.
Solution Solution
None. The sum of the out degrees None. The largest such graph, K4, is
must equal the sum of the in planar.
degrees.
Q7 A planar graph with 10 vertices.
i) A simple graph with 6 vertices and Solution
16 edges. C10.
Solution Q.8 A graph with vertex-chromatic
None. The largest number of edges number equal to 6.
in a simple graph with six vertices is Solution
15. K6.

j) A graph with 7 vertices that has a Q.9 A graph with 9 vertices with edge-
Hamilton circuit but no Euler circuit. chromatic number equal to 2.
Solution Solution
W6. C9 with one edge removed.

Q.2 A graph with 6 vertices that has an Q.10 A graph with region-chromatic
Euler circuit but no Hamilton number equal to 6.
circuit. Solution
Solution None. The 4-color theorem rules
this out.

Q.11 A planar graph with 8 vertices, 12

edges, and 6 regions.
Solution
Q3.

Q.3 A graph with a Hamilton path but no Q.12 A bipartite graph with an odd
Hamilton circuit. number of vertices that has a
Solution Hamilton circuit.
K1,1. Solution
None. Any bipartite Hamilton graph
Q.4 A graph with a Hamilton circuit but must have an even number of
no Hamilton path. vertices.
Solution
None. Every Hamilton circuit is a Q.13 Are these two graphs isomorphic?
Hamilton path. Solution
The graph are isomorphic
Q-5 A connected simple planar graph A-7, B-4, C-3, D-6, E-5, F-2, G-1
with 5 regions and 8 vertices, each
of degree 3.
Solution
None. The graph would have 12
edges, and hence v – e + r = 8 – 12 +
5 = 1, which is not possible.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 graph indicate the multiplicities of
the edges.

Q.14 Are these two graphs isomorphic?

Solution
The graphs are not isomorphic: the
graph on the left is planar, but the Q-18 Suppose G is a graph with vertices
graph on the right is isomorphic to a,b,c,d,e,and f with adjacency matrix
K3,3

Q.15 Are these two digraphs isomorphic? Find

Solution a) the number of vertices in G.
The digraphs are isomorphic: label b) the number of edges in G.
the center vertex 4, the top vertex 2, c) the degree of each vertex.
the left vertex 1 and the right vertex d) the number of loops.
3. e) the length of the longest simple
path in G.
f) the number of components in G.
g) the distance between vertex a
and vertex c.
Solution
a) 6.
Q.16 If a simple graph G has v vertices 9.
and e edges, how many edges does 2,4,2,3,4,3.
G have? 0.
Solution 9 (G has an Euler circuit).
v (v-1)/2 – e 1.
3.
Q.17 Draw the undirected graph with
0 1 3 0 4 Q.19 Draw a cubic graph with 8 edges, or
1 2 1 3 0  else prove that there are none.
  Solution
adjacency matrix  3 1 1 0 1  None. If e = 8, then 3v = 2e = 16,
  which is not possible.
0 3 0 0 2
 4 0 1 2 3 
Q.20 In K5 find the number of paths of
Solution length 2 between every pair of
The numbers on the edges of the vertices.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Solution
3.

Q.21 In K5 find the number of paths of

length 3 between every pair of
vertices.
Solution
13.

Q.22 In K5 find the number of paths of

length 6 between every pair of
vertices.
Solution
819.

Q.23 In K3,3 let a and b be any two

adjacent vertices. Find the number
of paths between a and b of length 3.
Solution
9.

Q.24 In K3,3 let a and b be any two

adjacent vertices. Find the number
of paths between a and b of length 4.
Solution
0.

Q.25 In K3,3 let a and b be any two

adjacent vertices. Find the number
of paths between a and b of length 5.
Solution
81.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 How many undirected graphs (not

necessary connected) can be
constructed out of a given set V =
{v1, v2,…. Vn} of n vertices?
n(n-1)
a) b) 2n a) 2 b) 3
2 c) 4 d) 5
n(n-1)
c) n! (d) 2 2 [GATE-2004]
[GATE-2001]
Q.7 How many graphs on n labeled
Q.2 Maximum number of edges in a n- vertices exist which have at least (n2
node undirected graph without self – 3n)/2 edges?
loops is  n -n /2
2

a) n2 b) n(n – 1)/2 a) C n2 -3n /2

c) n - 1 d) (n + 1) (n)/2 n 2

-3n /2
[GATE-2002] b)  n
k=0
2
-3n  /2
Q.3 Let G be an arbitrary graph with n
 n -n /2
2

nodes and k components. if a vertex c) Cn

is removed from G, the number of n  n -n 
3

components in the resultant graph

must necessarily lie between.
d) k=0
2
Ck

a) k and n b) k-1 and k+1 [GATE-2004]

c) k - 1 and n - 1 d) k+1 and n– k
[GATE-2003] Q.8 Let G be a simple connected planar
graph with 13 vertices and 19 edges.
Q.4 How many perfect matchings are Then, the number of faces in the
there in a complete graph of 6 planar embedding of the graph is
vertices? a) 0 b) 8
a) 15 b) 24 c) 9 d) 13
c) 30 d) 60 [GATE-2005]
[GATE-2003]
Q.5 A Graph G = (V, E) satisfies |E| ≤3 Q.9 Which one of the following graphs is
|V| - 6. The min-degree of G is NOT planar?
defined as min {degree(v)}. a) b)
vV

Therefore, min-degree of G cannot

be
a) 3 b) 4
c) 5 d) 6 c) d)
[GATE-2003]
Q.6 The minimum number of colours
required to colour the following
graph, such that no two adjacent
vertices are assigned the same
[GATE-2005]
colour, is

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Common Data for Q.10, Q.11 & Q.12 Q.15 which of the following graphs has an
The 2n vertices of graph G correspond to all Eulerian circuit?
subsets of a set of size n, for n ≥ 6. Two a) Any k-regular graph where k is
Vertices of G are adjacent if and only if the an even number
corresponding sets intersect in exactly Two b) A complete graph on 90 vertices
elements. c) The complement of a cycle on 25
vertices
Q.10 The number of connected d) None of the above
components in G is [GATE-2007]
a) n b) n + 2
2n Q.16 What is the chromatic number of an
c) 2n/2 d)
n n-vertex simple connected graph
[GATE-2006] which does not contain any odd
length cycle? Assume n≥2.
Q.11 The maximum degree of a vertex in
a) 2 b) 3
G is
c) n – 1 d) n
a)  2  2n/2
n/2
b) 2n - 2 [GATE-2009]
 
c) 2n – 3 × 3 d) 2n Q.17 Which one of the following is TRUE
[GATE-2006] for any simple connected undirected
graph with more than 2 vertices?
Q.12 The number of vertices of degree
a) No two vertices have the same
zero in G is
degree
a) 1 b) n
b) At least two vertices have the
c) n + 1 d) 2n
same degree
[GATE-2006]
c) At least three vertices have the
Q.13 Let G be the non-planar graph with same degree
the minimum possible number of d) All vertices have the same degree
edges. Then G has [GATE-2009]
a) 9 edges and 5 vertices
b) 9 edges and 6 vertices Q.18 Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Define
c) 10 edges and 5 vertices ξ  G  = i d ×d , where id is the
d) 10 edges and 6 vertices d

[GATE-2007] number of vertices of degree d in G.

Q.14 Consider the DAG with V= {1, 2, 3, 4, If S and T are two different trees
5, 6}, shown below with ξ S = ξ  T  , then
a) |S| = 2|T| b) |S| = |T| - 1
c) |S| = |T| d) |S| = |T| + 1
[GATE-2010]
Q.19 In a binary tree with n nodes, every
node has an odd number of descen-
dants. Every node is considered to
Which of the following is NOT a be its own descendant. What is the
topological ordering? number of nodes in the tree that
a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 b) 1 2 3 4 5 6 have exactly one child?
c) 1 3 2 4 5 6 d) 3 2 4 1 6 5 a)0 b) 1
[GATE-2007] c) ( n-1 )/2 d) n – 1
[GATE-2010]

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.20 The degree sequences of a simple
graph is the sequence of the degrees
of the nodes in the graph in
c) d)
decreasing order. Which of the
[GATE-2012]
following sequences cannot be the
degree sequence of any graph? Q.24 Let G be a complete undirected
I. I.7, 6, 5, 4, 4, 3, 2, 1 graph on 6 vertices. If vertices of G
II. 6, 6, 6, 6, 3, 3, 2, 2 are labeled, then the number of
III. 7, 6, 6, 4, 4, 3, 2, 2 distinct cycles of length 4 in G is
IV. 8, 7, 7, 6, 4, 2, 1, 1 equal to
a)I and II b) III and IV a) 15 b) 30
c) IV only d) II and IV c) 90 d) 360
[GATE-2010] [GATE-2012]

Q.21 K4 and Q3 are graphs with the Q.25 Consider an undirected random
following structures: graph of eight vertices the probability
that there is an edge between a pair
of vertices is ½. What is the expected
numbers of unordered cycles of
length three?
a) 1/8 b) 1
c) 7 d) 8
Which one of the following [GATE-2013]
statements is TRUE in relation to
these graphs? Q.26 Which of the following statements
a) K4 is planar while Q3 is not is/are TRUE for undirected graph?
b) Both K4 and Q3 are planar P:Number of odd degree vertices is
c) Q3 is planar while K3 is not even.
d) Neither K4 not Q3 is planar Q:Sum of degrees of all vertices is
[GATE-2010] even.
a) P only b) Q only
Q.22 Let G be a simple undirected c) Both P and Q d)Neither P nor Q
planner graph on 10 vertices. With [GATE-2013]
15 edges. If G is a connected graph, Q.27 Let G=(V,E) be a directed graph
then the number of bounded faces in where V is the set of vertices and E
any embedding of G on the plane is the set of edges. Then which one of
equal to the following graphs has the same
a) 3 b) 4 strongly connected components as G?
c) 5 d) 6 a) G1=(V, E1) where E1 = {(u,
[GATE-2012] v)|(u,v)∉E}
Q.23 Which one of the following graphs is b) G2=(V,E2) where E2 = {(u,
isomorphic to v)|(u,v)∉E}
c) G3 = (V, E3) where E3 = {(u, v)|
there is a path of length ≤ 2 from
u to v in E}
d) G4 = (V4, E) where V4 is the set of
vertices in G which are not
isolated
[GATE-2014]
a) b)

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.28 Consider an undirected graph G n
number of faces is at least+2 .
where self- loops are not allowed. 2
The vertex set of G is {(i, j): 1 ≤ i ≤ b) In any planner embedding, the
12, 1 ≤ j ≤ 12). There is an edge n
between (a, b) and (c, d) if |a –c|1 ≤ number of faces is less than +2
2
1. and |b-d|≤ 1. The number of edges
c) There is a planner embedding in
in this graph is__.
which the number of faces is less
[GATE-2014]
n
than +2 .
Q.29 An ordered n-tuple (d1,d2...dn) with 2
d1 ≥ d2 ≥…dn is called graphic if there d) There is a planner embedding in
exists a simple undirected graph which the number of faces is at
with n vertices having degrees n
d1,d2…dn respectively. Which of the most
δ+1
following 6-tuples is NOT graphic? [GATE-2014]
a) (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) b)(2,2,2,2, 2, 2)
c) (3, 3, 3, 1, 0, 0) d) (3,2,1,1, 1,0) Q.35 Let G be a connected planar graph
[GATE-2014] with 10 vertices . if the number of
edges on each face is three, then
Q.30 The maximum number of edges in a the number of edges in G is ____.
bipartite graph on 12 vertices is____. [GATE-2015]
[GATE-2014]
Q.36 A Graph is self- complementary if it
Q.31 A cycle on n vertices is isomorphic is isomorphic to its complement. For
to its component. The value of n is__. all self – complementary graphs on
[GATE-2014] n vertices, n is
Q.32 The number of distinct minimum a) A multiple of 4
spanning trees for the weighted b) Even
graph below is______ c) Odd
d)Congruent to 0 mod 4, or 1 mod 4
[GATE-2015]
Q.37 In a connected graph, bridge is an
edge whose removal disconnects a
graph. Which one of the following
statements is True?
[GATE-2014] a) A tree has no bridges
b) A bridge cannot be part of a
Q.33 If G is a forest with n-vertices and k simple cycle
connected components, how many c) Every edge of a clique with size ≥
edges done G have? 3 is a bridge (A clique is any
a)  nfk  b)  nfk  compete sub graph of a graph)
c) n – k d) n – k + 1 d) A graph with bridges cannot
[GATE-2014] have a cycle
[GATE-2015]
Q.34 Let δ denote the minimum degree of
a vertex in a graph. For all planer Q.38 Consider a binary tree T that has
graphs on n vertices with d ≥3 200 leaf modes Then, the number of
which one of the following is TRUE? nodes in T that have exactly two
a) In any planner embedding the children are___.
[GATE-2015]

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.39 Let G be connected undirected Q.40 The minimum number of colours
graph of 100 vertices and 300 edges. that is sufficient to vertex- colour
The weight of a minimum spanning any planar graph is ________.
tree of G is 500. When the weight of [GATE-2016]
each edge of G is increased by five,
the weight of a minimum spanning
tree becomes ____.
[GATE-2015]

ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(d) (b) (c) (a) (d) (c ) (d) (b) (a) (b) (c ) (c) (b) (d)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
(c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (d) (b) (d) (b) (c) (c) (c ) (b) 506
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
(c) 36 5 6 (c) (a) 24 (d) (b) 199 995 -

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 EXPLANATIONS
Q. 1 (d) components will result if the node
In a graph G with n vertices, being removed is a lone vertex in
maximum number of edges possible which case, the number of
n(n-1) components will be k – 1.
= .  The number of components must
2
There are two ways for a edge, (the necessarily lie between k–1 and n–1.
edge may appear in graph or may
absent in graph). So there are two Q. 4 (a)
options for each edge. The number of perfect matchings in
Total number of graphs with n a complete graph of n vertices,
n(n-1) where n is even, reduces to the
vertices =2 2
. problem of finding unordered
partitions of the vertex set of the
Q. 2 (b) type p(2n; 2, 2, 2, …n times)
The graph containing maximum
=
 2n !
number of edge in a n-node
 2! n!
n
undirected graph without self loops
is complete graph.The number of For n = 3, 2n = 6, i.e. complete graph
edges in complete graph with n- K6, we have Number of perfect
n(n-1) 6!
node, kn is . matchings =
 2! n!
3
2
6  5  4  3  2 1
Q. 3 (c)   15
2 2 2 6
Maximum components will result
after removal of a node if graph G is
Q. 5 (d)
a star graph as shown below
Given |E| ≤ 3|V| - 6 ----- (i)
Let δ cannot exceed the average
degree of the graph.
Now δ cannot exceed the average
degree of the graph.
2|E|
Or a null graph of n vertices as So, δ  ------ (ii)
shown below: |V|
Substitute eq. (i) in eq. (ii) and get
2
δ   3|V|-6 
|V|
 δ  6 - 12
|V|
in either case, if node v is removed, Clearly the minimum degree has to
the number of components will be n be less than 6 always and hence
– 1, where n is the total number of cannot be equal to 6.
nodes in the star graph.
 n – 1 is the maximum number of Q. 6 (c)
components possible. Minimum

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 An assignment of the colors 1, 2, 3 n
n 2 -n
and 4 to the vertices of the graph is = Ck
k=0 2
shown below such that the graph is
property colored.
Q. 8 (b)
Given V = 13, E = 19
Let R be the number of regions.
R=E–V+2
 R = 19 – 13 + 2 = 8

Q. 9 (a)
So 4 colours are required. G1 is same as K3,3 which is known to
be non planar. G2 ,G3 and G4 can be
Q. 7 (d) redrawn as follows so that they are
Take number of edges available in n planar.
labelled vertices is
2
n(n-1) n -n
nC2 = = edges
2 2
Now from this we need to choose
n 2 -3n
Edges or more up to a
2
n 2 -n
maximum of edges. Each such Q. 10 (b)
2
choice of edges represents a distinct The number of connected
graph on n labelled vertices. component of G is determined by
Total number of such graphs the degree and edges of vertices
there are n + 1 vertices whose
n2  n n2  n n2  n
 C n2 3n  C n 2 3n ...  C n 2 n degree is zero, so they canform n + 1
2 2
2 2
1 2 2 connected component. The
Now since n Cr n Cn  r remaining vertices of the graph G
are all connected as a single
n 2 -n n 2 -n
= 2 = C n 2 -n   n 2 -3n  component. So total number of
2 n 2-3n 2 
2
 -
2

connected component is n + 2.
   
2
n -n
= Cn Q. 11 (c)
2 Let the set be S = {1, 2, 3, 4, …n}
Similarly, Consider a subset containing 2
n 2 -n n 2 -n elements of the from {1,2}. Now
C n 2 -3n  Cn-1
2 
2
+1 2 {1,2} will be adjacent to any subset
 
2 2 with which it has exactly 2 elements
n -n n -n in common.
C n 2 -n C0
2 2
2 These sets can be formed by adding
So the required summation reduced zero or more elements from
n 2 -n n 2 -n n 2 -n remaining n – 2 elements, to the set
Cn + Cn-1 +...+ C0 {1, 2}. Since each of these elements
2 2 2
may be eitheradded or not added,
n 2 -n n 2 -n n 2 -n number of ways of making such sets
 C0 + C1 +...+ Cn
2 2 2 containing 1 and 2is 2n-2.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
  Vertices with 2 elements will
have 2n-2 degrees.
Now consider subsets of 3 elements
say {1, 2, 3}. Since we want exactly 2
elements in common, we choose
these in 3C2 ways and then we can
add or not add remaining n-3
elements. This can be done in 2n-3
ways.
 Total number of subsets with at
least 2 elements common with {1, 2,
3} is given by 3C2  2n 3 .
Similarly, we can argue that the
number of degrees of 4 element
subsets is 4 C2 ×2n-4 and for 5 element
subsets is 5 C2 ×2n-5 and so on.
Out of these 2n  2  2.2n 3 is less than
3
C2 ×2n-3 =3×2n-3 .
Then 3C2  2n 3  3  2n 3 is same as
4
C2 ×2n-4 =6×2n-4 =3×2n-3 and
4
C2 ×2n-4 =3×2n-3 is greater than
5 which means that 3 2 4 1 6 5 is not a
C2 ×2n-5 =10×2n-5 =2.5×2n-3
 maximum degree in this graph is
occurring for 3 element and 4
element Subsets both of which have
3×2n-3 degree.
Q. 12 (c)
Let S contain n elements then S have
2n subsets. Graph G contains 2n
vertices.
Let S = {v1, v2,…vn}. Two vertices of
G are adjacent if and only if the
corresponding sets intersect in
exactly two elements.
So |{Vi}  {Vj}| = 2
For this to happen, the subset must
have at least 2 elements.
There are n sets which contains
single elements for V1 to Vn who
doesn’t intersect another set such
that it contains two elements.
Therefore the degree of all these n
vertices is zero. G also contains a
vertex φ whose degree is zero. So
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
the number of vertices whose
degree is zero is n + 1.
Q. 13 (b)
K5 and K3,3 are the smallest non
planar graphs. K3 has 5 vertices and
5
C2  10
edges and K3,3 has 6 vertices and 3 ×
3 = 9 edges. So, the non planar graph
with minimum number of edges is
K3,3 with 9 edges and 6 vertices.
Note: K3 is the non planar graphs
with minimum number of vertices.
Q. 14 (d)
In topological sorting the partial
ordering of the DAG, must be
preserved i.e., a ≤ b in the DAG, then
in the topological order, b must
come after a, not before. Consider
the ordering 3 2 4 1 6 5.
1≤4 in the given DAG but 4 is
coming before 1 in 3 2 4 1 6 5 order
topological order of the given DAG.
Q. 15 (c)
Whenever in a graph all vertices
have been degrees, it will surely
have an Euler circuit.
(a) Since in a k-regular graph, every
vertex has exactly k degrees and
if k iseven, every vertex in the
graph has even degrees, k-
regular graph need not be
connected, hence k-regular may
not contain Euler circuit.
(b) Complete graph on 90 vertices
not contains an Euler circuit,
because every vertex degree is
odd (89)
(c) The complement of a cycle on 25
vertices must contains Euler
circuit, where each vertex degree
is even (22)
Q. 16 (a)
If a n-vertex simple connected graph
contains no cycle of odd length, then
 its chromatic number is two, since
the vertices can be alternatively
colored with the first color, then the
second color, then the first color
& then the second color and so on.
Alternatively, since a simple
connected graph with no cycles of
odd lengthmust be bipartite, and
since the chromatic number of a
biparatite graph is always 2(in a
biparatite graph each partition
requires one color( there are no
edges within a partition of a
bipartite graph) and there are only
two partitions).
Q. 17 (b)
In a simple connected undirected
graph(with more than two vertices),
atleast 2 vertices must have same
degree, since if this is not true, then
all vertices would have different
degrees. A graph with all vertices
having different degrees is not
possible to construct. Notice that it
is possible to construct graphs
satisfying choices a, c and d.
Q. 18 (c)
Given, ξ(G)= id ×d =
d
degrees
By handshaking theorem,
 (G)  2 EG where, |EG| is the
number of edges in G.
If S and T are two trees with
ξ(G)=ξ(T) .
 2 ES =2 ET
 ES = E T
In a tree,  ES = S -1
ET = T -1
Where |S| is number of vertices of
tree S and |T| is number of vertices
of tree T.
 S -1= T -1  S = T
Q. 19 (a)
© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
A tree with 1 not possible, since it is
given that every node has exactly 1
child.
Now consider a tree with 2 nodes (a
is the root)
Now a has exactly one child.
Number of descendents of a = 2. But
this contradicts the given fact that
every node has an odd number of
descondents.
Now consider a tree with 3 ndes,
since, every-node has exactly one
child, it must be of the form,
Here a has 3 descendents, b has 2
descendents and c has one. Again we
have Contradiction in that b does
not have odd number of
descendents.
Similarly can show that for tree has
0 nodes, i.e., choice (a).
Sum of
Q. 20 (d)
Havell-Hakimi algorithm can be
used to check whether a given degree
sequence is a graph or not.
The algorithm is
1. remove top node of the
sequence.
2. subtract “1” from as many nodes
in remaining sequences as the
degree of top node that was
and removed.
3. rearrange this sequence is non
increasing order.
4. Check if resulting sequences is a
graph.
5. processed again to step 1.
If the given sequences is not a
graph we will see a violation in
step 4, such as presence of
 negative degrees in the II is cannot be the degree sequences
sequence. Otherwise the of any graph.
algorithm will bottom out with a Similarly we can show that III is
degree sequences consisting of degree sequences of some graph
only even number of 1’s and any and IV is not a degree sequence of
number of 0’s.Now applying the any graph.
algorithm to the degree
sequence I, II, III and IV, one by Q.21 (b)
one: The planar embedding of K4 and Q3
I. 7, 6, 5, 4, 4, 3, 2, 1 is shown below:
6, 5, 4, 4, 3, 2, 1 (Step 1)
5, 4, 3, 3, 2, 1, 0 (Step 2)
5, 4, 3, 3, 2, 1, 0 (Step 3)
Sequence is a graph (Step 4)
4, 3, 3, 2, 1, 0 (Step 1)
3, 2, 2, 1, 0 ,0 (Step 2) So both graphs are planar.
3, 2, 2, 1, 0, 0 (Step 3)
Sequence is a graph (Step 4) Q. 22 (d)
Now, the algorithm ends, since the n = 10
sequences has only 0’s and even e = 15
number of 1’s.the final sequences In a simple connected planar graph,
corresponds to following valid graph Euler’s formula gives the total
number
of regions as e – n + 2 = 15 – 10 + 2 =
7.
Similiarly for seqeunce II. Out of this, one region is unbounded
II. 6, 6, 6, 6, 3, 3, 2, 2 and the other 6 are bounded.
6, 6, 6, 3, 3, 2, 2 (Step 1) So correct answer is 6, which is
5, 5, 5, 2, 2, 1, 2 (Step 2) option(d).
5, 5, 5, 2, 2, 2, 1 (Step 3)
Sequence is a graph (Step 4) Q. 23 (b)
5, 5, 2, 2, 2, 1 (Step 1) Check invariants are one by one.
4, 4, 1, 1, 1, 1 (Step 2) Step 1: All 4 choice have same
4, 4, 1, 1, 1, 1 (Step 3) number of vertices and edges as
Sequence is a graph (Step 4) given graph.
4, 1, 1, 1, 1 (Step 1) Step 2: So we find degree sequence
3, 0, 0, 0, 1 (Step 2) of given graph which is
3, 1, 0, 0, 0 (Step 3) (1,1,2,2,2,2,2,4).
Sequence is a graph (Step 4) Degree sequence of graph in option
1, 0, 0, 0 (Step 1) (a) is ( 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4).
0, -1, -1, 0 (Step 2) Degree sequence of graph in option
0, 0, -1, -1 (Step 3) (b) is (1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 4).
Degree sequence of graph in option
The sequences is not a graph (Step (c) is(1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3).
4), since negative degrees not Degree sequence of graph in option
possible in a Valid graph. So, (d) is (1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 4).
algorithm ends. So only options (a) and (c) are not
isomorphic to given graph, since

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 degree sequence of these graphs is handshaking theorem lets suppose
not same as given graph. we take contradiction of P and Q.
Step 3: Now to decide between P’: There are odd vertices of odd
options (b) and (d), which one is degree. Then total sum will be odd
isomorphic to given graph, we so it will Contradict handshaking
check the number of cycles. In given theorem so odd vertices of odd
Graph there isone cycle of length 5 degree is not possible.
but in Graph(d), there is no cycle of Q’: Sum of degree is not even. It will
length 5.Graph(b) has one cycle of also contradict the handshaking
length 5. theorem because total sum should
So only graph(b) can be isomorphic be even.
to given Graph.
Q. 27 (b)
Q. 24 (c) G = (V, E) is directed graph
The graph given is K6. G2 = (V, E2) where
In K6, every cycle of length 4 E2 = {(u, v) |(v, u)∈ E}
corresponds to selecting 4 vertices G and G2 has same strongly
out of 6 Vertices, which can be done connected components only the
in 6C4 ways and then ordering the 4 difference in G2 is that all edges of G
vertices in Circular permutation in have been reversed the direction.
3! Ways (since vertices are labeled).
Q. 28 506
So final answer is C3  3!  90 .
6

Q. 25 (c)
We need to find unordered cycle of
length 3 so we choose any 3 vertices
from 8 vertices. This can be done in
8
C3 ways To make cycle we need to
choose edge between the selected (i) E1={{(a,b),(c,d)}|a=c and d = b + 1}
vertices probability of choosing any ⟹ | E1 | = 11*12 = 132
edge is 1/2.
1 1 1 Example:
So for three edges =   (1, 1)----(1, 2)------(1, 3)----- ...(1, 12)
2 2 2 (2, 1)----(2, 2)------(2, 3)----- (2, 12)
Expected no of cycle = ƩxP(x)
8
C3 (ii) E2 = {{(a, b),(c, d)}}|c = a + 1 and
7
8 b = d}
⟹ | E2 | = 11 × 12 = 132
Q. 26 (c)
Handshaking theorem: Example:
In a simple graph with e edges and n (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 12)
vertices where vi be the ith vertices | | |
n
of the graph we have v
i 1
i  2e (2, 1)
|
(2, 2)
|
(2, 12)
|
i.e., sum of degrees of all vertices (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 12)
will be twice of the number of edges. | | |
Statements P and Q both are true. (12, 1) (12, 2) (12, 12)
This can be proved with the help of

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 (iii) E3 = {{(a, b),(c, d)}|c = a + 1 and Q. 30 (36)
d= b+1} Bipartite graph {u, v} where u and
⟹ | E3 | 121 v are partition on vertices:
Example: (a) {1, 11} ⟹ 1 × 11 ⟹ 11 edges
(1, 1) (1, 2) ------- (1, 12) maximum
(b) {2, 10} ⟹ 2 × 10 ⟹ 20 edges
(2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 12) maximum
(c) {3, 9} ⟹ 3 × 9 ⟹ 27 edges
(3, 3) (3, 4) -------(3, 12) maximum
(d) {4, 8} ⟹ 4 × 8 ⟹ 32 edges
(12, 1) (12, 2) (12, 12) maximum
(e) {5, 7} ⟹ 5 × 7 ⟹ 35 edges
(iv) E4 = {{(a, b),(c, d)|a = c + 1 and maximum
d= b+1} (f) {6, 6} ⟹ 26 × 6 ⟹ 36 edges
 | E4 | = 121 maximum
(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1,4)  Maximum number of edges in
a biparatite graph on 12 vertices
(2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3)  = 36 edges.
Q. 31 (5)
(3, 1) (3, 2) 

(4, 1) 

From (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv):

Total edges = 132 + 132 + 121 + 121
= 506 edges G and G’ are complement and
isomorphic to each other when G
Q. 29 (c) has five vertices.

(1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) is simple graph

Q. 32 (6)
(2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2) is simple graph
(2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2) ⟹ (0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2)
⟹ (2, 2, 2, 1, 1, 0)

⟹ (0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0)
⟹ (1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0) is
simple graph
(3, 3, 3, 1, 0, 0) is not graphic
(3, 3, 3, 1, 0, 0) ⟹ (0, 2, 2, 0, 0, 0)
⟹ (2, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0) cannot be a
graph
(3, 2, 1, 1, 1, 0) is simple graph
(3, 2, 1, 1, 1, 0) ⟹ (0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0)
⟹ (1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0) is simple graph
3 with n vertices and k connected
Total there are six possible
minimum spanning trees. [3 × 2 = 6]
Q. 33 (c)
Assume that there are k connected
components where each is having
n1 , n 2 , n 3 .n k vertices respectively.
Total number of edges in a forest
Components:

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 = (n1 – 1) + (n2 –1)+ (n3 – 1) +…(nk – 1) so removal of an edge from a cycle
=(n1+n2 +… + nk) – (1 + 1 +…k times) does not disconnect the cycle, So a
=n–k bridge cannot be part of a simple
cycle.
Q. 34 (a)
Ʃdeg = 2e Q.38
Given d ≥ 3 ⇒ 3n ≤ 2e ……..(1) n 0 : Number of leaf nodes (degree 0)
For planar graph: n+r=2+ e………(2) n1 : Number of nodes with degree 1
3n n 2 :Number of nodes with degree 2
From (1) and (2): n + r ≥ 2 + We have following two equations
2
3n n for binary tree n  n 0  n1  n 2
 r  2+ -n  r  2+ (where n is the total number of
2 2
nodes in the tree) …(1)
 Number of faces is at least n+2 . Accounting for total nodes as sum of
2 those nodes which are children and
the rot which is not a child of any
Q.35 Ans: node,
Number of vertices (n) =10 We get n  n1 1  n 2  2  1
d(r1 )  3
 n1  2n 2  1
Number of edge (0) = ?
R = e –v + 2 (euler’s formula for Combining equation (1) and (2) we
connected planar graphs) get
R = e – 10 + 2=e – 8 … (1) n 0  n1  n 2 = n1  2n 2  1
Since every region is bounded by  n 2  n0 1
exactly 3 edges and since every edge Therefore the number of nodes of
is exactly double counted, we have degree two in any binary tree =
the equation number of leaf nodes -1
E=3r/2 ⇒ r = 2e/3 n 2  200  1  199
Substituting this in equation (1) we
get, Q.39
2e/3=3- 8 G has |V=100 vertices and |E| =300
2e = 3e - 24 ⇒ e =24 edges
The weight of MST of G = 500
Q.36 (d) In MST:
An n-vertex self – complementary Number of vertices = 100
graph has exactly half number of Number of edges =99
edges of the complete graph i.e. If each edge of G is increased by 5
n(n-1)/4 edges. then MST weight also increased .
Since n(n-1) must be divisible by 4, For each edge of old MST increased
n must be congruent to 0 mod 4 or with 5.
1 mod 4. Total 99 edges, So 99×5=445 is
increased Total weight of new MST
Q.37 (b) =500 + 445 =995
An edge is called bridge iff it’s Q.40
removal will disconnect the graph Four color theorem says that every
into components. planar graph can color with 4 colors
In a cycle there are two paths i.e. four colors are sufficient to
between every pair of vertices and properly color any planar graph

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
Q.1 The recurrence relation capturing Q.7 Consider an undirected random
the optimal execution time of the graph of eight vertices. The
Towers of Hanoi problem with n Probability that there is an edge
discs is between a pair of vertices is ½.
a) T(n)=2T(n-2)+2 What is the expected number of
b) T(n)=2T(n-1)+n unordered cycles of length three?
c) T(n)=2T(n/2)+1 a) 1/8 b) 1
d) T(n)=2T(n-1)+1 c) 7 d) 8
Q.2 In a class of 200 students, 125 Q.8 What is the chromatic number off an
students passed physics,85 students n-vertex simple connected graph
passed chemistry,65 students passed which does not contain any odd
maths. 50 students passed both length cycle? Assume n≥2
physics and chemistry, 35 students a) 2 b) 3
passed both physics and maths, 30 c) n-1 d) n
students passed both chemistry and
maths. 15students passed 3 subjects. Q.9 Let G be a simple connected planner
How many students have not passed graph with 13 vertices and 19 edges.
any of the three subjects? Then, the number of faces in the
a) 15 b)20 planner embedding of the graph is:
c) 25 d) 35 a) 6 b) 8
c) 9 d) 13
Q.3 The solution to the recurrence
equation T(2k)= 3T(2k-1)+1; T(1)=1 Q.10 Which of the following statements
is: are TRUE for Undirected Graphs?
a) 2k b) (3k+1-1)/2 P: Number of Odd degree vertices is
c) 3logk2 d) 2logk3 even
Q: Sum of degrees of all vertices is
Q.4 Maximum number of edges in a n- even.
node undirected graph without self a) P only b) Q only
loops is c) Both P and Q d)Neither P nor Q
a) n2 b) n(n-1)/2
Q.11 Let G= (V, E) be a directed graph
c) n-1 d) (n+1)(n)/2
where V is the set of Vertices and E
Q.5 If all the edge weights of an the set of Edges. Then which one of
undirected graph are positive, then the following graphs has the same
any subset of edges that connects all strongly connected components as G?
the vertices and has minimum total a) G1=(V,E1) where
weight is E1={(u,v)|(u,v)∉E}
a) Hamiltonian cycle b) Grid b) G2=(V,E2) where E2={(u,v)|(u,v)ϵ
c) Hypercube d) Tree E}
c) G3=(V,E2) where E3={(u,v)|there
Q.6 What is the size of the smallest MIS is a path of length≤ 2 from u to v
(Maximal Independent Set) of a in E}
chain of nine nodes? d) G4= (V4, E) where V4 is the set of
a) 5 b) 4 vertices in G which are not
c) 3 d) 2 isolated.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.12 A non-planner graph with minimum
number of vertices has
a) 9 edges, 6 vertices
b) 6 edges, 4 vertices
c) 10 edges, 5 vertices
d) 9 edges, 5 vertices
Q.13 How many undirected graphs(not
necessary connected) can be
constructed out of a given set
V={v1,v2,....,vn} of n vertices?
n(n  1)
a) b) 2n
2 b) A Partial Order but not a Total
c) n!
Q.14 The number of elements in the
power set P(S) of the Set
S={{Φ},1,{2,3}} is
a) 2
c) 8
Q.15 The number of binary relations on a
set with n elements is:
a) n2 b) 2n
c) 2n2 d)None of the above
Q.16 A binary operation ⊕ on a set of
integers is defined as x ⊕ y = x2 + y2.
Which one of the following
statements is TRUE about ⊕?
a) Commutative but not associative
b) Both commutative &associative
c) Associative but not commutative
d) Neither commutative nor
associative
Q.17 What is the possible number of
reflexive relations on a set of 5
elements?
a) 210 b) 215
c) 220 d) 225
Q.18 The set {1,2,4,7,8,11,13,14} is a
group under multiplication modulo
15. The inverse of 4 and 7 are
respectively:
a) 03 and 13 b) 2 and 11
c) 4 and 13 d) 8 and 14
Q.19 Let S be a set of n elements. The
number of ordered pairs in the
largest and the smallest equivalence
relations on S are:
a) n and n b) n2 and n
c) n and 0
2 d) n and 1
Q.20 A relation R is defined on ordered
pairs of integers as follows:
(x,y)R(u,v) if x<u and y>v, Then R is
a) Neither a Partial Order nor an
equivalence relation
n (n 1)
order
d) 2 2
c) A total order
d) An equivalence relation
Q.21 Let X and Y be finite sets and f: X ⇢
b) 4
Y be a function. Which one of the
d) None following statements is TRUE?
a) For any subsets A and B of X,|f(A
∪ B)| = | f(A)| + | f(B) |
b) For any subsets A and B of X, |f(A
∩ B)| = f(A) ∩ f(B)
c) For any subsets A and B of X, |f(A
∩ B)| = min{ | f(A)|, | f(B)|}
d) For any subsets S and T of Y, f -
1(S ∩ T) = f -1(S) ∩ f -1(T)
Q.22 Which one of the following is NOT
necessarily a property of a Group?
a) Commutativity
b) Associativity
c) Existence of inverse for every
element
d) Existence of Identity
Q.23 The number of different m × m
symmetric matrices with each
element being either 0 or 1 is(Note:
power(2, x) is same as 2x)
a) Power(2,n)
b) Power(2,n2)
c) Power(2,(n2+n)/2)
d) Power(2,(n2-n)/2)
Q.24 Which one of the following is TRUE
for any simple connected undirected
graph with more than 2 vertices?

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 a) No two vertices have the same denotes the multiplication operation,
degree the structure { S, *} forms
b) At least two vertices have the a) A group b) A ring
same degree c) An integral domain d) A field
c) At least three vertices have the
same degree Q.31 The set of all real numbers under
d) All vertices have the same the usual multiplication operation is
degree not a group since
a) multiplication is not a binary
Q.25 Let G be the non-plannar graph with operation
minimum possible number of edges. b) multiplication is not associative
Then G has c) identity element does not exist
a) 9 edges and 5 vertices d) zero has no inverse
b) 9 edges and 6 vertices
c) 10 edges and 5 vertices Q.32 Let A and B be any two sets. The
d) 10 edges and 6 vertices symmetric difference of A and B is
the set A + B is defined by
Q.26 Let G be a simple graph with 25 a) (A-B) ∪ (B- A) b) (A-B)∩(B-A)
vertices and 100 edges. The size of c) A – B d) B – A
the minimum vertex cover of G is 10.
Then the size of the maximum Q.33 A Graph has 3 even vertices and 2
independent set of G is: odd vertices. Does that graph has?
a) 12 b) 15 a) An Euler Path but not an Euler
c) Less than 15 d) None circuit
b) An Euler circuit
Q.27 What is the maximum number of c) Neither an Euler path nor an
edges in an acyclic undirected graph Euler circuit
with n vertices? d) None of the above.
a) n-1 b) n
c) n+1 d) 2n-2 Q.34 The number of simple digraphs with
|V| =3 is
Q.28 Suppose X and Y are sets and |X| and a) 29 b) 28
|Y| are their respective cardinalities. c) 27 d) 26
It is given that there are exactly 80
functions from Y to X. From this one Q.35 The minimum number of spanning
can conclude that trees in a connected graph with “n”
a) |X|= 80 and |Y|= 1 nodes is…..
b) |X|= 1 and |Y|=80 a) n-1 b) n/2
c) |X|=80 and |Y|=80 c) 2 d) 1
d) None
Q.36 A complete graph has 6 vertices.
Q.29 Let A, B and C be non-empty sets How many Hamilton circuits does it
and let X=(A-B)-C and Y=(A-C)-(B-C). have
Which one of the following is TRUE? a) 60 b) 120
a) X=Y b) X ⊂ Y c) 80 d) 100
c) Y ⊂ X d) None of these
Q.37 The maximum number of edges in a
Q.30 Consider the set S={1,ω,ω2}, where simple graph with n vertices
ω and ω2 are cube roots of unity. If * a) n(n-1) b) n(n-1)/2
c) n(n+1) d) None of these

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.38 A vertex having no Incident edge Q.45 How many onto (or subjective)
is.............. functions are there from an n-
a) End vertex b)Isolated vertex element (n≥2) set to a 2-element
c) Pendent vertex d) None of these set?
a) 2n b) 2n-1
Q.39 How many vertices are needed to c) 2 -2
n d) 2(2n-2)
construct a graph with 6 edges in
which each vertex is of degree 2. Q.46 Consider the set of all functions
a) 8 b) 4 f:{0,1,.......2014} ⇢ {0,1,.2014} such
c) 2 d) 6 that f(f(i)) = i,for all 0≤i≤2014.
Consider the following statements:
Q.40 It is possible to draw a simple graph P: For each such function it must be
with 4 vertices and 7 edges? the case that for every i,f(i) = i.
a) Yes b) No Q: For each such function it must be
c) May be d) None the case that for some i, f(i)=i.
R: Each such function must be onto.
Q.41 What is the chromatic number of the Which one of the following is
following graph? CORRECT?
a) 2 b) 3 a) P,Q and R are TRUE
c) 4 d) 5 b) Only Q and R are TRUE
c) Only P and Q are TRUE
d) Only R is TRUE

Q.47 How many perfect matching are

there in a complete graph of 6
vertices?
a) 15 b) 24
c) 30 d) 60
Q.42 A relation R on a set A is called an
Equivalence Relation, iff it is Q.48 In a binary tree with n nodes, every
a) Reflexive, transitive but not node has an odd number of
symmetric descendants. Every node is
b) Reflexive, not transitive , considered to be its own descendant.
symmetric What is the number of nodes in the
c) Reflexive, transitive, symmetric tree that have exactly one child?
d) Symmetric. Not reflexive, a) 0 b) 1
transitive c) (n-1)/2 d) n-1

Q.43 The number of equivalence relations Q.49 In a multigraph, loops are allowed
on the set {1,2,3,4} is are not?
a) 15 b) 16 a) Allows
c) 24 d) 4 b) Not allows
c) Allows for starting vertex
Q.44 Which of the following relation on set d) Sometimes allows
{1,2,3,4} satisfies antisymmetric
relation? Q.50 The minimum number of colours
a) {(1,1),(2,3),(3,4),(2,2),(3,2)} required to colour the vertices of a
b) {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,3),(3,4)} cycle with n nodes in such a way
c) {(1,1),(2,3),(3,4),(1,3)} that no two adjacent nodes have the
d) {(1,2),(2,1),(1,3),(3,3)} same colour is

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 a) 2 b) 3 a) Reflexive b) Irreflexive
c) 4 d) n-2[n/2]+2 c) Symmetric d)Anti-symmetric

Q.51 Let A be a finite set of size ‘n’. The Q.58 For a function to be inveritible, it
number of elements in the power has to be
set of A × A is a) One-one
a) 22n b) 2n2 b) Onto
c) (2 )
n 2 d) n2 c) Both one-one and onto
d) None
Q.52 Let S={1,2,3,4}. A Relation R defined
in S as, Q.59 T is a graph with ‘n’ vertices. If T is
R={(1,2),(4,3),(2,2,),(2,1),(3,1)}is connected and has exactly n-1
a) Transitive edges, then
b) Symmetric a) T is a tree
c)Anti-symmetric b) T contains no cycles
d) None of the above c) Every pair of vertices in T is
connected by exactly one path
Q.53 Choose the correct statements
d) All of the above
a) If two graphs G1 and G2 are
isomorphic, then they should Q.60 Manoj has 4 pairs of black shoes and
have the same number of 5 pairs of green shoes in a box. With
vertices and edges. his eyes closed, he took them out
b) If two graphs have the same one by one. How many shoes should
number of nodes and edges, they he take out before he has a matching
have to be Isomorphic. pair?(assume that what is taken out
c) Loop’s can’t be present in an is not put back)
Isomorphic graph. a) 5 b) 6
d) None of the above c) 10 d) 14
Q.54 The sum of degree of n vertices of a Q.61 The number of substrings that can
tree is equal to be formed from a character string of
a) n-1 b) 2n-1 length n is
c) 2n-2 d) 2n a) N b) n2
c) n(n-1)/2 d) n(n+1)/2
Q.55 The maximum number of trees that
can be formed with 3 unlabeled Q.62 Solve the Recurrence equations
nodes is T(n)=T(n-1)+n
a) 1 b) 5 T(1)=1
c) 4 d) 3 What is the generating function G(z)
for the sequence of Fibonacci
Q.56 Which of the following graphs has numbers?
an Eulerian circuit? a) n b) n+1
a) Any k- regular graph where k is c) n(n+1) d) n(n+1)/2
even number
b) A complete graph on 90 vertices Q.63 The exponent of 11 in the prime
c) The complement of a cycle on 25 factorization of 300! Is
vertices a) 27 b) 28
d) None of the above c) 29 d) 30
Q.57 In the set of integers, a relation R is Q.64 Let G1 = (V, E1) and G2=(V, E2) be
defined asaRb, iff b=|a|. This connected graphs on the same
relation is vertex set V with more than two

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 vertices. If G1 ∩ G2 = (V, E1 ∩ E2) is b) X ⊃ Y
not a connected graph, then the c) X = Y
graph G1∪ G2 = (V, E1 ∪ E2) d) X –Y ≠ ∅ and Y – X ≠ ∅
a) Cannot have a cut vertex
b) Must have a cycle Q.71 The minimum number of colours
c) Must have a cut-edge (bridge) required to colour the following
d) Has chromatic number strictly graph, such that no two adjacent
greater than those of G1 and G2 vertices are assigned the same
colour is,
Q.65 If (G, .) is a group such that (ab)- 1 =
a-1b-1, ∀ a, b ∈ G, then G is a/an
a) commutative semi group
b) abelian group
c) non-abelian group a) 2 b) 3
d) None of these c) 4 d) 5
Q.66 The minimum number of colours Q.72 Which of the following statement is
required to colour the vertices of a TRUE for every planar graph on n
cycle with “n” nodes in such a way vertices?
that no two adjacent nodes have a) The graph is connected
the same colour is…....... b) The graph is Eulerian
a) n-2[n/2]+2 b) 4 c) The graph has a vertex-cover of
c) 3 d)2 size at most 3n/4
d) The graph has an independent
Q.67 Let P(S) denote the power set of a
set of size at least n/3
set S. Which of the following is
always TRUE?
Q.73 A graph is plannar if and only if,
a) P(P(S) = P(S) a) It contain subgraphs
b) P(S) ∩ P(P(S)) ={∅}
homeomorphic to K5 and K3,3
c) P(S) ∩ S = P(S)
b) It does not contain subgraphs
d) S∉ P(S)
homeomorphic to K5 and K3,3
Q.68 Find the reflexive relation on the set c) It does not contain subgraphs
A if A={a,b,c} isomorphic to K5 and K3,3
a) R1={{a,b},{b,c},{a,a},{c,c}} d) It contain subgraphs isomorphic
b) R2={{a,a},{b,c},{c,c}} to K5 and K3,3
c) R3= {{a,a},{a,c},{c,a},{b,b},{c,c}}
d) R4={{a,a},{c,c},{a,c},{c,a}} Q.74 How many Perfect matching’s are
there in a complete graph of 6
Q.69 A graph which allows more than one vertices?
edge to join a pair of vertices is a) 15 b) 24
called c) 30 d) 60
a) Simple graph b) Multigraph Q.75 Consider the undirected graph G
c) null graph d)weighted graph defined as follows. The vertices of G
are bit strings of length n. We have
Q.70 Let A,B and C be finite sets. Let X= (A an edge between vertex u and
∩ B)-(B ∩ C) and Y= (A-(A ∩ C))- (A vertex v if u and v differ in exactly
–B). Which one of the following is one bit position. The ratio of the
TRUE? chromatic number of G to the
a) X ⊂ Y diameter of G is

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 a) 1/2n-1 b) 1/n
c) 2/n d) 3/n

Q.76 The number of elements in the

power set of set {{{}},1,{6,3}} is
a) 2 b) 4
c) 8 d) 3

Q.77 Given the relation R={(1,2),(2,3)}.

The minimum number of ordered
pairs that must be added to this set
so that the enlarged relation is
Reflexive, symmetric and transitive is
a) 4 b) 5 a) i and iv only b)ii and iii only
c) 6 d) 7 c) iii only d)i, ii and iv only
Q.78 A relation R is defined in N × N, such
Q.83 Let R be a Reflexive and symmetric
that (a,b)R(c,d) if a+d=b+c. The
relation defined on a set D. A new
relation R is
relation E is defined on set D such
a) Reflexive but not transitive
that E = {(a,b) | (a,b) ∈ R and (b,a)
b) Reflexive and transitive but not
∈ R} A relation ≤ is defined on the
symmetric
equivalent classes of E such that E1 ≤
c) An equivalence relation
E2 if there exists a,b such that a ∈ E1,
d) A partial order
b ∈ E2 and (a,b) ∈ R. This relation is
Q.79 A relation R is defined as xRy, if x ≠ a) A partial order
y, This Relation R is b) A total order
a) Symmetric but not Reflexive c) An equivalence relation
b) Symmetric andtransitive but not d) None of the above
Reflexive
c) not Symmetric not transitive and Q.84 How many different non-isomorphic
not Reflexive Abelian groups of order 4 are there?
d) an Equivalence relation a) 2 b) 3
c) 4 d) 5
Q.80 Cube roots of unity form a cyclic
Group under multiplication. For this
Q.85 Let R be a non-empty relation on a
group,
a) ω is the only generator collection of sets defined by A R B iff
b) ω,ω2 are the only generators A ∩ B = ∅. Then, which is correct?
c) ω2 is the only generator a) R is reflexive and transitive
d) none of the above b) R is symmetric and not transitive
c) R is an Equivalence relation
Q.81 (G, *) is an abelian group. Then d) R is not Reflexive and not
a) x=x-1, for any x belonging to G symmetric
b) x= x2, for any x belonging to G
c) (x*y)2=x2*y2, for any x,y Q.86 The recurrence relation
belonging to G T(1) =1
d) G is of finite order T(n) = 2T(n-1) + n,n≥2
Evaluates to
Q.82 Consider the following Hasse a) 2 n+1 – n-2 b) 2 n – n
diagrams c) 2 n+1 -2n-2 d) 2 n + n

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.87 How many 4 digit even numbers vertices of G are adjacent iff the
have all digits distinct? corresponding sets intersect in exactly two
a) 2240 b) 2296 elements.
c) 2620 d) 4536
Q.93 The number of vertices of degree
Q.88 G is a simple undirected graph. zero in G is
Some vertices of G are of odd a) 1 b) n
degree. Add a node v to G and make c) n+1 d) 2n
it adjacent to each odd degree
vertex of G. The resultant graph is Q.94 The maximum degree of a vertex in
sure to be G is
a) Regular b) Complete a) (2 n/2) 2 n/2 b) 2 n-2
c) Hamiltonian d)Euler c) 2 n-3×3 d) 2 n-1

Q.89 The binary relation R = Q.95 Let f: B ⇢ C and g: A ⇢ B be two

{(1,1),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,1),(3, functions and let h=fog. Given that h
2),(3,3),(3,4)} on the set A = is an onto function which one of the
{1,2,3,4} is following is TRUE?
a) Reflexive, symmetric and a) f and g should both be onto
transitive functions
b) Neither reflexive, nor irreflexive b) f should be onto but g need not
but transitive be into
c) Irreflexive, symmetric and c) g should be onto but f need not
transitive be onto
d) Irreflexive and antisymmettric d) Both f and g need not be onto

Q.90 The binary relation S = ∅(empty set) Q.96 Let R and S be an two equivalence
on set A = {1,2,3} is relations on a non-empty set A.
a) Neither reflexive nor symmetric Which one of the following
b) Symmetric and reflexive statements is TRUE?
c) Transitive and reflexive a) R ∪ S, R ∩ S are both equivalence
d) Transitive and symmetric relations
b) R ∪ S is an equivalence relation
Statement for linked answer questions c) R ∩ S is an equivalence relation
91 and 92. d) Neither R ∪ S nor R ∩ S is an
Let xn denote the number of binary strings equivalence relation
of length n that contain no consecutive 0s.
Q.97 Let A be the set of all non-singular
Q.91 Which of the following recurrences matrices over real numbers and let *
does xn satisfy? be the matrix multiplication
a) xn= 2xn-1 b) xn= x[n/2] +1 operator. Then
c) xn= x[n/2] +2 d) xn= xn-1 +x n-2 a) A is closed under * but <A, *> is
not a semi group.
Q.92 The value of x5 is b) <A,*> is a semigroup but not a
a) 5 b) 7 monoid.
c) 8 d) 13 c) <A, *> is a monoid but not a
Common data for Questions 93 and 94 group.
The 2n vertices of a graph G correspond to d) <A, *> is a group but not an
all subsets of a set of size n, for n≥6. Two abelian group.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.98 What is the number of vertices in an a) 15 b) 30
undirected connected graph with 27 c) 90 d) 360
edges, 6 vertices of degree 2, 3
vertices of degree 4 and remaining Q.100 In how many ways can we
of degree 3? distribute 5 distinct balls, b1, b2, b3,
a) 10 b) 11 b4, b5 in 5 distinct cells, c1, c2, c3,
c) 18 d) 19 c4, c5, such that ball bi is not in cell
ci, ∀ i=1,2,.5 and each cell contains
Q.99 Let G be a complete undirected exactly one ball?
graph on 6 vertices. If vertices of G a) 44 b) 96
are labelled, then the number of c) 120 d) 125
distinct cycles of length 4 in G is
equal to

ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(d) (c) (b) (b) (d) (c) (c) (a) (b) (c) (b) (c) (d) (c)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
(c) (a) (c) (c) (b) (a) (d) (a) (c) (b) (b) (b) (a) (a)
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
(a) (a) (d) (a) (a) (a) (a) (b) (b) (b) (d) (b) (b) (c)
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
(a) (c) (c) (b) (a) (a) (b) (d) (b) (d) (a) (c) (a) (a)
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
(d) (c) (d) (c) (d) (d) (c) (b) (b) (a) (b) (c) (b) (c)
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84
(c) (c) (b) (a) (c) (c) (d) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (a) (c)
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
(b) (a) (b) (d) (b) (d) (d) (d) (c) (c) (b) (c) (d) (d)
99 100
(a) (a)

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (d) Q.7 (c)
Recurrence equation of Towers of We will find the unordered cycle of
Hanoi T(n)=2T(n-1)+1 length 3. So we choose 3 vertices
from 8 vertices. This can be done in
Q.2 (c) 8c3 ways.
APPLY principle of mutual inclusion The probability that any three
and exclusion. vertices form cycle is 1/2 * 1/2 *
Number of students who passed 1/2 = 1/8
atleast one of 3 subjects=125+85+65- Expected number of Cycles=∑x P(x)
50-35-30+15 =175 1
= 8c3 * = 7
Students have not passed any 8
subject= Total no of students –
students who passed atleast one Q.8 (a)
subject In a simple connected graph, if all
=200-175 =25 the cycles are of even length ( no
cycles of odd length), then it is a
Q.3 (b) bipartite graph. Chromatic number
Let T(2k)=Xk of a bipartite graph is 2. There are
The recurrence relation reduces to no edges within a partition of a
Xk-3Xk-1=1 where X0=1. bipartite graph and there are only
Complementary function= C1.3k two partitions.
Particular solution =
1 1k 1k 1 Q.9 (b)
  
E  3 E  3 1 3 2 By using Euler’s Formula

Q.4 (b) Q.10 (c)

The graph containing maximum By sum of degrees of vertices
number of edges in a n-node theorem, both the statements are
undirected graph without selfloops true.
is complete graph.
Each edge corresponds to a pair of Q.11 (b)
distinct vertices. So, Maximum G= (V, E) is directed graph
number of edges in complete graph G2=(V,E2) where E2={(u,v)|(u,v)ϵ E}
n(n  1) G and G2 have same strongly
with n-node, kn is =C(n,2)=
2 connected components. Only the
difference in G2 is that all edges of G
Q.5 (d) have been reversed the direction.

Q.12 (c)
K5 is the smallest non-planner graph
in terms of number of vertices. So,
number of vertices in k5 is 5 and
number of edges in k5is n(n-1)/2 =
Q.6 (c) 5* 4
The smallest MIS= {b, e, h}  10 , where n=5.
2

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.13 (d) Q.23 (c)
In a graph G with n vertices, In a symmetric matrix aij = aji (i ≠ j)
maximum number of edges possible Each element we can choose in two
n(n  1) ways we can choose the elements in
=
2 the diagonal and above the diagonal.
There are two ways for a edge,(the Number of elements in the diagonal
edge may appear in graph or may and above the diagonal =
absent in graph). So there are two  n2  n)  n(n  1)
n 
options for each edge.  2  2
Total number of graphswith n ∴ required number of matrices =
n(n  1) power(2, n(n+1)/2)
vertices= 2
2
Q.24 (b)
Q.14 (c) In a simple non directed graph, if all
If a set has n elements the its power the vertices are of different degrees
set has 2n elements. then the degree sequence is of the
form {0,1,2,....,n-1}. This degree
Q.15 (c) sequence cannot represent a simple
Number of elements in A × A=n2 non directed graph ,because is there
Every subset of A × A is a relation on exists a vertex of degree n-1 then a
A. vertex with degree 0 does not exist.

Q.16 (a) Q.25 (b)

x⊕ y = (x2 + y2) A non planar graph with minimum
y⊕ x = (y2 + x2) number of edges is the complete
∴x⊕ y = y ⊕ x. bipartite graph K 3,3.
Hence ⊕ is commutative. K 3,3 has 6 vertices and 9 edges.
x⊕( y⊕ z)=x⊕(y2+z2)= x2+(y2+ z2)2
(x⊕y)⊕ z=(x2+ y2)⊕z =(x2+y2)2+ z2 Q.26 (b)
∴x⊕ (y ⊕ z) ≠(x ⊕ y) ⊕ z. The size of minimum vertex cover+
i.e., ⊕ is not associative. the size of maximum independent
vertex set= number of vertices.
Q.17 (c) ∴The size of maximum independent
Number of reflexive relations on a vertex set= 25-10 = 15
set with n elements = 2 n(n-1) = 2 5(5-1)
= 2 20 Q.27 (a)
An acyclic undirected graph with
Q.19 (b) maximum number of edges is a tree.
Largest equivalence relation on A is A tree with n vertices has n-1 edges.
A×A
Number of elements in A × A = n2 Q.28 (a)
Smallest equivalence relation on A is If |X|= m and |Y|= n , the the number
the diagonal relation with n of functions from Y to X = mn
elements.
Q.29 (a)
Q.20 (a) From the venndiagram , we can see
R is not Reflexive that X and Y represent same region.
∴ R is neither a partial order nor an
equivalence relation.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.35 (a) Therefore, the simple graph with 4
There may be several minimum vertices cannot have 7 edges.
spanning trees of the same weight Hence such a graph does not exist.
having a minimum number of edges;
in particular, if all the edge weights Q.41 (b)
of a given graph are the same, then The graph has cycle of odd length.
every spanning tree of that graph is By Welch Powel’s algorithm 3
minimum. colorings is possible.
If there are n vertices in the graph, So, chromatic number = 3
then each tree has n-1 edges.
Q.42 (C)
Q.36 (b) A relation R on a set A is called an
Formula for the number of Hamilton Equivalence Relation, if it is
circuits in a complete graph : (n-1) Reflexive, transitive and symmetric.
!= (6-1)! = 120
Q.43 (a)
Q.37 (b) The number of equivalence relations
The maximum number of edges is on an n-sets equal to the number of
simply the number of pairs of partitions on the n-set. The number
distinct vertices; if there are n of equivalence relations on the set
vertices, then no of edges= n(n- {1,2,3,4} is 15.
1)/2s
Q.44 (c)
Q.38 (b) A relation R on A is Antisymmetric if
A Vertex having no incident edge is iRj implies jRi is false.
called isolated vertex. Isolated
vertices are those with zero degree. Q.45 (c)
Let n=2.There are only two onto
Q.39 (d) functions as shown below.
Consider, there are P vertices with
degree of each 2.
By handshaking lemma,
p

 deg(vi)  2.q  2.6 ,

i 1
where q=

number of edges
d(v1)+d(v2)+...d(vn)=12
2+2+...+2=12
2.p=12
P=6

Q.40 (b)
In a simple graph with n-vertices,
the maximum number of edges will For n=2,
n(n  1) Option a) 2n = 22 =4
be
2 Option b) 2n-1 = 22-1 = 4
Hence a simple graph with 4 Option c) 2n-2 = 22-2 = 2
vertices will have at most 4.3/2 =6 Option d)2( 2n-2) = 2(22-2) = 4
edges. S0, option (c) is correct.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 Q.46 (b) Q.52 (d)
f(f(i))= i, number of elements are We have 1 R 2 and 2 R 1, but 1 R 1
odd. is not there. So, R is not transitive.
∴ ∃i, f(i)=i We have 4 R 3, but 3 R 4 is not there.
For every i, f(i) = i need not be true. So, r is not symmetric.
Ex: take i=2, f(2)=3 ,f(3)=2 Also, 1 R 2 and 2 R 1 , but 1≠ 2. So, r
⇒ f(f(2)= 2 is not anti-symmetric.
⇒ f(3) = 2
⇒2=2 Q.56 (a)
Every such function must be onto. If k is even then all vertices of k-
regular graph are of even degree. So
Q.47 (a) Eulerian circuit exists.
The number of perfect matching’s in
a complete graph of n vertices, Q.57 (d)
where n is even, reduces to the It is not reflexive as -3 R -3 is not
problem of finding unordered true, not irreflexive as 3 R 3 is true,
partitions of the vertex set of the not symmetric as 3 R -3, but -3 R
type p(2n; 2,2,2,....n times) 3 is not true. It is anti- symmetric as
=(2n)!/(2!)n n! aR b and b R a are both true so a=b.
For n=3, 2n=6,i.e., complete
graphK6,we have Q.61 (d)
Number of perfect matching’s = Number of substrings of length 1=n
Number of substrings of length 2=n-1
6!/(2!)3 3! = 15
Number of substrings of length 3=n-
2 and so on
Q.48 (a)
Required number of sub
A tree with one node is not possible.
strings=n+(n-1)+(n-2)+..............+1=
It is given that every node has
n(n+1)/2
exactly one child.
Consider a tree with 2 nodes,
Q.62 (d)
T(n)=T(n-1)+n
T(1)=1
T(2)= T(2-1)+2= T(1)+2= 1+2
T(3)= T(3-1)+3= T(2)+3=1+2+3
T(n)=1+2+3+..............+n= n(n+1)/2
Now A has exactly one child.
Number of descendants of a=2. It is
Q.63 (c)
given that every node has odd
In the set{1,2,3....300}
number of descendants. Similarly
Number of integers divisible by
show for 3,4,5... nodes.
11=[300/11]= 27
It is not possible to have all nodes
But 121=(11)2
with odd number of descendants.
242=2.(11)2
So, exponent of 11 in the prime
Q.51 (b) factorization of 300!=29
The number of elements in the
power set of a set with n elements is Q.64 (a)
2 n. From the given data, we can
The given set A has n elements. So, A conclude that G1 and G2 are not
× A has n × n elements = n2. same. Suppose G1 is not
So, its power set will have (2) n2.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 having any cycle. The G1 is a Q.72 (c)
spanning tree of G.
∴ G1 ∪ G2must contain atleast one Q.73 (b)
cycle. From Kuwratoski’s Theorem, A
graph is non-plannar, if and only ifit
Q.67 (b) contain a subgraph homeomorephic
∅ always present in any power set of to K3,3or K 5.
a set and ∅is the only common
element between P(S) and P(P(S)) Q.74 (a)
∴ P(S) ∩ P(P(S))= { ∅ } Number of perfect matching’s with
Q.68 (c) 2nvertices=(2n-1).(2n-3).(2n5)... 5.
A Relation R on a set A is Reflexive if 3. 1s
every a ∈ A is related to itself.
A= {a,b,c} Q.75 (c)
R must contain {a,a}, {b,b}, {c,c} Chromatic number of graph=2
Diameter=n
Q.69 (b)
A graph which allows more than one Q.76 (c)
edge to join a pair of vertices is The set has 3 elements. So power set
called multi graph. = 2 3 =8
Formally, a multigraph G is an
ordered pair G:=(V, E) with Q.77 (d)
 V a set of vertices or nodes, Relation R={(1,2),(2,3)}
 E a multiset of unordered pairs of R is Reflexive, transitive and
vertices, called edges or lines. symmetric by adding the ordered
Q.70 (c) pairs={(1,2),(2,3),(2,1),(3,2),(1,1),(2,
2),(3,3),(1,3),(3,1)}.
So minimum ordered pairs added=7

Q.79 (a)
We have 2R5 and 5R2. If it is
transitive, then 2R2, but it is not, as
2R2 means 2 is not equal to 2, which
is wrong.

Q.80 (b)
ω is the generator, as all the cube
roots of unity can be expressed as
powers of ω. For similar
Q.71 (c) reasons,ω is also a generator, as
2

The given graph is planar graph. By ω=(ω2)2 and 1= (ω2)3

four color theorem the chromatic
number of the graph is ≤ 4. Using Q.81 (c)
Welch-powell’s algorithm, we can (x *y)2 = (x *y)(x *y) = (x*y)(y*x) =
color the graph with 4 colors. The x*(y*y) *x = x* y2 *x = x* x* y2 = x2 *
interior four vertices can be colored y2
with two colors, but 3- colouring is
not possible.S0, chromatic Q.85 (b)
number=4. A∩A=A≠∅

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 ⇒ A is not related to A If the first bit is 0, then the second
∴ R is not Reflexive. bit should be 1.
Let A R B ⇒ (A ∩ B) = ∅ The remaining (n-2) bits we can
⇒ ( B ∩ A) = ∅ choose in xn-2 ways.
⇒BRA The recurrence relation for xn is xn =
∴ R is Symmetric. xn-1 + xn-2 where x1=2 and x2=3.

Q.86 (a) Q.92 (d)

Given that T(n)=2T(n-1)+n.............(1) Using the recurrence relation for xn
Complementary function = C1.2n is xn = xn-1 + xn-2, we have
Let T(n) = A n +B X3 = x2+x1 = 5
Substituting in (1), we have X4 = x3 + x2 = 8
(A n + B) = 2{(A(n-1)+B}+n X5= x4 + x3 =13
Comparing coefficient of n and The value of x5 = 13
constants, we get A= -1 and B=2
The solution is T(n) = C1.2n – n- 2 Q.93 (c)
Applying initial condition we get C1=2 Vertices denoting empty set and 1
element subsets have degree 1.
Q.87 (b) Number of vertices of degree 0=
Number of 4-digit even numbers n+1.
ending with zero=9.8.7 = 504
Number of 4-digit numbers not Q.94 (c)
ending with zero= 8.8.7 = 1792 Degree of a vertex representing any
Required 4-digit even numbers= two element subset = 2 n-2
504+1792 = 2296 Degree of a vertex representing any
three element subset = 3c2 .2n-3
Q.88 (d) Degree of a vertex representing any
Number of vertices with odd degree four element subsets =4c2 .2 n-4 and
is even. If we add a new vertex to all so on.
the vertices of odd degree, then For n≥6, C(3,2)2n-3 is maximum.
degree of every vertex in the graph Maximum degree of a vertex in G=
is even. So, the graph is a Euler graph. 3.2n-3

Q.89 (b) Q.95 (b)

(4,4) does not belongs to R. So R is Given f: B ⇢ C and g: A ⇢ B,
not reflexive. h=f o g: A ⇢ C
(1,1) belongs to R. So R is not if h is onto function then every
irreflexive. element of c is mapped by some
element of A via B.
Q.90 (d) ∴ f is onto.
The empty relation on a finite set is But , the function g need not be onto
symmetric and transitive but not Ex:
reflexive.
Q.91 (d)
Xn = number of binary strings of
length n with no consecutive zeros
If the first bit is one , then the
remaining (n-1) bits we can choose
in xn-1 ways.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
 The, fog is onto and f is onto but g is
not onto.

Q.96 (c)
Let A = {1,2,3}
Let R = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,2),(1,2),(2,3)}
and
S = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(2,3),(3,2)}.
Now R and S are equivalence
relations but R ∨ S is not an
equivalence relation.
Now prove R ∩ S is an equivalence
relation.
For any element x ∈ A,(x,x) ∈ R and
(x,x) ∈ S
∴ (x,x) ∈ ( R ∩ S)
∴R ∩ S is reflexive.
Let (x,y) ∈ R ∩ S
⇒ (x,y) ∈ R and (x,y) ∈ S
⇒ (y,x) ∈ R and (y,x) ∈ S
⇒ (y,x) ∈ R ∩ S
∴R ∩ S is symmetric.
lly , we can prove that R ∩ S is
transitive. R and S is an equivalence
relation.

Q.97 (d)
Matrix multiplication is not
commutative.

Q.98 (d)
Sum of degrees of vertices=
2(number of edges)
2*6+4 * 3+(n-9)*3 = 2 * 27
n=19= number of vertices

Q.99 (a)
In a complete undirected graph on 6
vertices, any 4 vertices form a cycle
of length 4.
So, the number of distinct cycles of
length 4 in G = 6c4 =15

Q.100 (a)
Required number of ways = number
of rearrangements of 5 objects =D5
=44.

© Copyright Reserved by Gateflix.in No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission