SECTION—A: INTRODUCTION 1, Basic Concepts 1 — 24 Origin of the Universe, Age of the Earth, Interior of the Earth, Isostasy, Factors affecting development of Landforms, Rocks, Continental Drift, Plate Tectonics, Denudation, Rivers, Geohydrology, Glacial Landforms, Marine Landforms, Arid Landforms, Natural Regions and Landforms. SECTION—B: THE EARTH 2. Rocks 2 — 45 Introduction Rock Forming Minerals, Types of Rock, Igneous, Types of Igneous Rocks, Sedimentary, Colour in Sedimentary Rocks, Types of Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic, Types of Metamorhism, ‘Types of Metamorphic Rocks, Rock Cycle. 3. Interior of the Earth 46 — 58 Introduction, probing Earth's Interior — Density Studies, Meteorites, Seismic Studies, Free Earth Oscillations, Properties of Earth’s Interior Layers —Chemical Division, Mechanical Division. Temperature and Pressure within the Barth. 4. Geomagnetism so — 67 Introduction, Earth as a Giant Magnet, Earth's Magnetic Field, Evidence of Earth's magnetic field, The Source and Origin of Earth’s Magnetic Field, Changes in Earth's magnetic field: Palacomagnetism, Changes in the Magnetic Field: Reversal, Impact of Magnetic Reversals 5. The Crust 68 — 90 Introduction, Continental Crust, Shields of the World, Oceanic Crust, Origin and Evolution of the Earth’s Curst, Continental and Oceanic Crust: A comparison. SECTION-C: ENDOGENETIC PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS 6, Earth Movements 91 — 99 Introduction, Endogenetic Movements, Diastrophic Movement — Epeirogenic Movements, Orogenic Movements, Tsostatic Movement, Eustatic Movements, Sudden Movements. 7. Isostasy 100 — 106 Introduction, Airy's theory, Prats theory, Heiskanen’s theory, Phase Change, Isostatic effects of deposition and erosion, Isostatic effects of ice sheets, Isostasy and drifting plates, Isostasy and regional landscapes, Denudation and Isostasy 8. Continental Drift 107 — 114 Introduction, Wegener's Continental drift Theory, Support for Wegener's Theory, Palacomagentism, Sea Floor Spreading 9. Plate Tectonics 115 — 148 Introduction, What are Plates, Distribution of Plates, Plate Movement — with respect to earth's axis of rotation, with respect to each other — Divergent Plate Boundary, Convergent Plate Boundary, Transform Fault Boundary, Causes of Plate Movement, Problems with Plate Tectonics concept, Mantle Plumes, Plate Tectonics and Surface Features.10. Geosynclines & Orogeny_ ee t : Ge i dl oigin, tion, Classification of mountains Geographi atio : tin, Cees of Fold Mountains, Process of Mountain Building (OrogenEsis), Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building, Mountain Buildilng Episodes: 13 11. Volcanism as = 187 bution of Volcanism, Magma Generation, Intrusive features, Exir Introduction, Magma, features 12, Barthquake 188 — 199 Introduction, Causes of Earthquakes, Occurrence of Earthquakes, Intensity and Magnitude op Earthquakes, Prediction of Earthquakes, Man-made Earthquakes 13. Tsunami 200 — 207 Introduction, Tsunamis and other waves, Stages in the existence of a tsunami, Generation anj Tsunamigenesis, Approach of a Tsunami, Effects, Prediction and monitoring, Counter-tsunami measurey SECTION-D: EXOGENIC PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS 14. Denudation 208 — 230 Introduction, Weathering, Factors Affecting Weathering, Types of Weathering, Rates of Weathering, Products of Weathering, Mass Movement, Causes of Mass Movement, Erosion 15. Fluvial Landforms 231 — 246 Introduction, Characteristics of River, Erosional Landforms, Depositional Lanforms 16. Channel Morphology 247 — 257 Introduction, Processes that shape channel, Shape and pattern of the stream channel, Types of Channel Morphology, Applied Channel Morphology, Applications to Past and Future 17. Geohydrology 258 — 268 {ntroduction, Sources) of Geohydrology, Depth of Geohydrology, Occurrence of Geohyarology, Movement of Geohydyology, The Nature of the Geohydrology system 18. Karst Landforms ** 269 — 285 Fureduction, Factors favouring Karst Development, Types of Karst, Erosional Features, Depositional Features 7 19. Marine Landforms Introduction, Erosional Features, Depositional Feature 20. Acolian Landforms 304 — 325 Introduction, Origin of Sand, Erosional Features, Wit 21. Glacial Landforms » Wind Transportation, Introduction, Types of Galeier, Features, Depositional Features 22. Periglacial Landforms 286 — 303 - 366 — 383 Introduction, Permafrost, Periglacial Processes, Perigalcial Features 23. Geomorphie Cycles 397 Introduction, Views of Davis, Views of Penck, Davi 384 —24, Slope Development 398 — 414 Introduction, Genetic Classificati Study, Theories of slope evolution, Slope decline theory of W.M. Davis, theory of Slope replacement by W, Penck, Parallel retreat theory of L.C. King, The Concept of Wood, The Concept of Strahler, Fisher- Lehmann Model of slope evolution, Applied Slope Analysis 25, Rejuvenated Landforms 415 — 423 Introduction, Causes of Rejuvenation, River Capture, Features produced by Rejuvenation 26, Denudation Chronology 424 — 428 Basic Coneept, Approaches, Application, Palimpsest Topography, Model of Denudation Chronology 27, Erosion Surfaces 429 — 438 Imroduction, Peneplains, Primarrumpf, Endrumpf, Panplains, Pediplains, Glacial and Periglacial erosion surfaces, Exhumed surfaces/ resurrected landforms, Stripped plain or structural plain, Etchplain, Gipfelflur, Stockwerk and schictelflur, Strath, Berm, Plains of marine denudation, Multiple erosion or planation surfaces, Identification of erosion surfaces, Dating of erosion surfaces SECTION-E: ENDOGENIC—EXOGENIC INTERACTION 28, Eustatic Changes 439 — 451 Introduction, Evidences of Eustatic Changes, Quaternory Eustatic Changes, Pre Quaternary Eustatic Changes, Mechanisms of Eustatic changes, Impact of Eustatic changes 29. Economic Geology 452 — 463 Introduction, Ores, Origin of Mineral Deposits, Sedimentary Mineral Deposits, The Occurrence of Minerals, Coal, Petroleum, Resource mineral exploration, Extraction of Minerals 30. Applied Geomorphology 464 — 483 Introduction, The Challenges of the new cra, Significance and Role, Applications, Geomorphological mapping, Geomorphology and Mineral Exploration, Geomorphology and Petroleum Exploration, Application of geomorphology in sand and gravel deposits, Application of geomorphology to groundwater studies, Application to Engineering Projects, Stream channelization, Geomorphology and hazard management, Terrain Classification and its Applications, Agriculture, Forestry and Land Use, Geomorphology and Urban areas, Regional Planning, Geomorphology and Coastal Zone Management, Application of geomorphology to Military Uses, Other applications of geomorphology Appendix-I : Geological Period 484 — 485 Appendix-II : Basic Facts on Earth 486 — 487 Appendix-III : Theories in Geomorphology 488 — 493 Appendix-IV : Glossary 494 — 568 References 569 — 573 Acknowledgements 574 — 577 Classification based on stage of formation, Approaches to Slope »ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE ‘All theories that attempt to describe the development of the universe are forced into conformity with an important astronomic Oberon calle red she To ended red shift, some characteristics of light and tou maa be koown. Ligh, when spread ot Bee ee saat a eeloue called spectrum, This spectrum consists of violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red Modern theories of the origin of the universe are based on this flight of galaxies, on the assumption, that matter is in a state of rapid expansion. Big Bang Theory. je temperature and pressure was so high, that the formation of atoms was not possible. A primordial explosion took place ‘and this broke the condensed matter. The resulting fragments were scattered far ou! space at an enormous velocity Steady State Theory. The Big Bang Theory did not account for the origin of the particles in the initial agglomeration. A new proposed that ned the r¢ density of matter in the universe, is thus, maintained. Pulsating (Oscillating) Universe Theory. explosion that caused the initial expansion, gravitational forces begin to prevail and cause all the matter to be drawn back to its place of origin. A great explosion occurred some ‘ago and the universehas been expanding ever since then, But it is unlikely to expand for further 20 b.y, more, when gravitation will halt further expansion. From then on, atl inatter will begin (@ contract onjeollapse upon itself in a process known as Implosion, In the process of implosion, the material would be returning at enormous velocities resulting in compression of all the returned matter into an enormously dense mass in whieh the temperature and pressure would be so extreme that stars and their component atoms will be disassembled into their component atomic particles. From this mass would come the next big bang as the mass explodes and the initiation of yet another episode of expansion and contraction. ‘Each cycle of expansionyand!cofitraction is about 100 by. long. EARTH’S PLACE IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM The Earth is one of the jnine planets that revolve around a rather average star, the Sun’ The planets in order of increasing distance from the Sun are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter Satin, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, A belt of asteroids orbits the Sun in the region between the paths of Mars and Jupiter. Thi grouping of planets and asteroids around the Sun constitutes our solar system. (Our solat system is a” smallypartyofmaymuch larger aggregate of stars, planets, dust and gases called galaxy. As the Earth is a member of the solar system, its origin is intimately connected with the origin of the solar system, Although, the question as to how our solar system originated, is a matter of continuous investigation, current programmes in space exploration, | including the landing of spacecraft on the Moon, Venus and Mars and the flyby missions to Mercury, Saturn and Jupiter have largely improved our speculative ability about the Earth’s origin. Many new observations have been added to our pre- existing knowledge about the origin of the Earth. Any explanation about the origin of the Earth must take into account the various characteristics of our solar system. CHARACTERISTICS OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM ‘The Sun contains over 99.8% OF the ;, | mass of the solar system. ota) Hydrogen and helium constitute about og of the Sun's mass, In contrag,, y* terrestrial plancts have large quantities elements, such as oxygen, silicon and ings” ‘Al the planets revolve around the guy; the same direction, i.e.,in an eliptioy orbit and they all lie near the plane of tig Sun's rotation | The orbital paths of planets occur wityi, approximately the same plane, so that te solar system has the shape of a flat disc, The direction of planetary tevolution ig counterclockwise (called prograde), when Viewed from a hypothetical point, high ig space above the solar system. The planets rotate about their axis in the same direction as, that of their revolution around the Sun (with the exception of Veniis and Uranus). The direction ofthis rotation and revolution is counter clockwise. With few exceptions, satellite systems tend to follow the same movements as that of the larger planetary body they orbit. ‘The angle between the axis‘of rotationand the Pole of orbit of each planet is small, barring certain exceptions. This angle of inclination is 23.5° for the Earth. Most of the angular momentum of the soat system is concentrated in the planets and not in the Sun, This is in spite of the Suns large mass concentration. The distance of the planets from the Sun : can be described by a simple relations¥ called Bode’s Law. ‘The law says tH each planet tends to be roughly twice & far from the Sun as its neat Sua neighbour, The planets have different composi! indicated by their differing densities well as by Moon, Earth and meteors samples. For examples the smalls inner or ‘Terrestrial planets, SU Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars #8 mean densities of 3.8, 4.8, 5-5: 7 os, respectively. The outer or Jovian ple ion #8 5 ferent eee ailsuchas) Jupiters »Satumy "Uranus and Neptune have lesser densitics of 1.34, 0.71, 1.27, and 1,58, respectively, THE HISTORY OF THE EARTH The History of the Earth ean be mown by relative and absolute geocliFoials GGea Relative Geoehronology The events of carly history Were arranged iw) Geochronological order from oldest. (6 youngest. Sequences of rocks and the time they represented were assigned labels. So, there are definite criteria for the determination of the relative date of this rocks and events 1. Superposition: When sedimentation goes fon in a depositional basin, “the first depositing sediment will always occupy the bottom position, Successive layers will Ye laid above that and the last sedimentary layer will be found on the top, which wiil also be the youngest one. This is the law of the superposition,/In/an undisturbed) “Sequence of sedimentary formation, the topmost layer is always the youngest and the bottom most is always the oldest. Sometimes, Earth forces disturb the flat lying sequence and tilts; folds or faults are produced in certain cases. The overfolding or overturning of the sequence changes the whole picture. As a result of it, the younger rocks may be found at the bottom and superposition is disturbed. Older rocks can be shifted by faulting, just near or over a younger rock-unit. 2.) Cross-cut and_ intrusive relationships: ‘The volcanic rocks must B€ younger than the rocks on which they lie, but-in case of intrusives, the law of super-position does not help any more. Here comes the use of cross-cutting relationship of the intrusives to the rocks in which they are intruded. 3. Use of Fossils: /Fossilsare remains of life ofthe past found preserved” in’ the sedimentary sequence under favourable geological conditions. Early in 18008, W. Smith noted! that any particular bed always contained distinctive fossils. It was also found that certain types, of fossils were restricted to certain layers of rocks. The fossils form can be compared eae eb rock feel under these circumstances with the modern forms, It fins been distinetly noted that younger the bed, the fossil is more advanced and closely resembling the present ones, But older the bed, primitive are the fossils in nature, From these and similar observations, it was evident that a relative age of the rock can be determined with the fossil-content- study. In many sedimentary layers, the fossil record ‘suggests very precise time span of limited period. These fossils, which had Tong geographical distribution but very short geological distribution, are known as index fossils. 4, Magnetic Reversals: The Earth's magnetic field has reversed itself many times during geological past. The intensity of the magnetic. field’ sof _the Earth is ‘Today's polarity is called" normal’»and= one opposite of it is called “reversed”. Exactly, we do not know, how long a reversal takes, but a rough approximation is about 1,000 years. ‘The lavas, having ferromagnesian minerals in them, are prone to the magnetic alignment existing at the time of stratification. Thus, they preserve the magnetic intensity and direction also, These observations and related principles are utilised in giving relative and absolute dates to events in the development of median sea floors. The technique is also used successfully on continental lava rocks. Absolute Geochronology Apart from the relative dating, some methods are also required to date the rock and event absolutely. The various methods include: 1. Rate of Sedimentation: If the thickness of a particular sediment is known alongwith the rate of deposition, then it becomes an easy job to find the total time taken by the whole sequence for its deposition. J. Murray estimated that rivers along its streams carry solids about 16 km’ to sea annually resulting into a deposition of point 0.11 mm of sediments in a year. If the total thickness is known, then the time of the beginning of the deposition can be easily detected, LESalinity study of oceanic water; We know that the oceanic water contains n good amount of salts, ‘Phe bulk oF mated values. are not Very accurate, but they have some relationship with the order of magnitude of the phenomenon. t is useful regional scale and it can be used for dating a few thousand years back in time rin; his gives actual from the birth to t] fo unit. Thes Wo units a to: be” deposi Winter) Taking both e can be. 7. Evidences from Extra-terresti Sources: The study of the meteorites ya on the Earth has revealed that their paye™ matter may be 4500 my. On this pea Starik and Sobotovich assigned the si 3500 my. for our Earth. “Again, jaitt radiometric and astrophysical considerations indicate that our Ean a probably 4500 m.y. least. Analysis of lunar rock samy 3300 to 4600 m.y. So, ow that much old at least, Researchers are going in this regard to fing the ultimate fact, 8. Radioactivity; It method for rock di ples varies from © Earth must be is the most reliable ating. The basic principle rate of decay (s) for any atom to decay into The relationship is T= 0.693 Usually, the most reliable dates are derived from the igneous rocks because the 'sation of the mineral gives '€ Point. This method is also tPlied for dating the metamorphic rocks. Following are the important radioactive Systems used— time of crystal] a sharp startin; {2 Uranium - Lead (b) Thorium « Lead (@ Lead - Lead (d) Potassium - Argon (¢) Rubidium - Strontium (f) Carbon ', metheay S2216t© dstes obtained by aifee! show set the same material ‘commonlf the errore:gt@Bularities. 1¢ is probobly due © less improye™Mitted by the person o» due nis improved technign, mnct™>rian time extended well over 3,000 se earns aNd our knowledge of eves evidently times is only slight. Much of SS 9f what happened ta these eal! regul> times has been obscured by later events and E F GE ; wisiadd essere sue ctatt an! |THE DIVISION OF GEOLOGICAL More recent geological time—about the use last 600 millon years, which accounts for only ‘The three eras are: one-seventh of total geological time—is . ‘ . divided thio theese ergy amd tina ies {a) Palaoozole — “ansfent? tpatatna) Torme of divisions are based upon the forms of animal ss , life, which are represented by the fossil ON Me Eitan!) Melt remains in the rocks. In the ‘era names", the BE INfa; ending *zoie’ which is derived from the Greek (c) Cainozoic ~ ‘recent’ or tnew* (kainos) word *zoon’ meaning animal, may be loosely forms of life. interpreted as ‘the form of life’. Alternative names for these eras are~ Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. It is now a common practice among geologists to divide the Cainozoie Era-into two parts: the Tertiary and the Quaternary. The Quaternary covers the past two million or so years, during which time man has evolved. Table 1.1: The Stratigraphical Sequence PERIODS AND SYSTEMS DERIVATION OF NAMES QUATERNARY Recent or Holocene Holos = complete, whole ‘cene' from Kainos, = recent Glacial or Pleistocene Piston = most. ~ recent TERTIARY Phocene Pleion ~ more Miocene Meion ~ less (2, less Oligocene Olgas ~ few Eocene Eos = dawn Paleocene Palaios ~ old ‘The above comparative terms refer tothe proportions of modern marine shells occurring as fossits (CRETACEOUS Creta = Chalk JURASSIC. Jura Mountains TRIASSIC Threefold division in Germany UPPER PALAEOZOIC PERMIAN Permia, ancient kingdom between the Urals and the Volga CCARBONIFEROUS Coal (earbon-bearing DEVONIAN Devon (Marine sediments Palsias ~ ancient (Old Red Sandstone ~ land sediments ofthe Devonian Period) (Ancient fie) LOWER PALAEOZOIC SILURIAN Silures, Cltc tite of Welsh Borders ORDOVICIAN Ordoviees, Celtic tribe of North Wales CAMBRIAN Cambria, Roman name for Wales PRECAMBRIAN ERAS: formerly described as PROTEROZOIC Proteros ~ earlier ARCHAEOZOIC or Archaeos ~ primaeval 0c Fos = dawnMajor divisions of geological time: The geologists, then, divide the vast span of geological time into four major divisions, But these, as in the ease of the historians’ divisions of convenience, are not of equal duration (a) The Precambrian Eras, These cover a vast length of time, something of the order of 4,000 million years, and during Pre- Cambrian times many series of rocks must have been laid down, Very little fossil evidence of life forms exists, although simple plants and animals both made their appearance during quite early pre-Cambrian Times, () The Primary or Palacozoie Era, This ora extended over a period of some 345 million years, The rocks, which were formed comprised sediments of all kinds while in some areas, there were phases of igneous activity. The sedimentary strata contain fossils of ‘ancient’ forms of life, such as spineless creatures, early fishes and algae, while towards the end of the era, the first land plants appeared. The Palaeozoic era ended approximately 225 million years ago. (c) The Secondary or Mesozoic Era. This era extended over a period of approximately 160 million years and drew to a close about 64 million years ago. It is a period of ‘intermediate’ forms of life when reptilian forms were especially numerous and plant life was being elaborated. Many groups of plants of modern type, such as flowering Plants began to emerge toward the end of the era, Table 1.2: Stratigraphic Chart. ory Cy aan (d) The Cainozoic Era Most of this er; occupied by the Tertiary ang Quaternary, covers only the last que mnillion years o so. During the Caingzyie fra, ‘recent’ forms of life emerged and rhie is the age essentially of flowering plans and mammals. This era has been marked j, pronounced mountain-building activity, ‘The subdivision of the eras: The above eras are basically, distinguished by the particular forms of life that were in existence during the Earth's past. The fossil record indicates an evolution from the most simple and primitive forms—when it is often difficult to tell whether a life form is an animal or a plant—to the highly complex variety of life that we sey today. Controversy still exists as to whether evolution has been a continual process, ay envisaged by Charles Darwin, or whether the major changes have occurred in ‘bursts’ of more rapid development. Evidence for both ideas is sought in the stratal record, for during each era, tremendous thickness of sediment were laid down, each containing fossils characteristic of their time, It becomes necessary, therefore, to have a more detailed time division. The geologist divides the eras into smaller time units and such subdivisions in decreasing order of magnitude are termed period and epochs. Groups of rocks deposited within period form systems, those within epochs, series. The smallest unit of strata is termed a zone. rary cry structural cos ‘The development and dominance of Homa Sapiens takes place. Great climatic {fuctuations ae reflected in vegetational fluctuations as seis of glaciation affects ‘many Northern Hemisphere counties, Cainawsic | Quaternary Recent Pistocene Tertiary Piocene |e Miocene — | 25 Oligocene | 38 Eocene | 54 Palaeocene | 64 Mammals became dominant among Main diloe Teutiates.Pimate evolution eas tthe | Epiade V3 riitve men atthe case ofthis period. teetation takes on modem appearance, Laramie ores, very extensive initially, are Partially | Phase laced by grasslands towards the end, ‘oli branches and gastropods proteate,Wesoraie—] Cretacoous a0 Tago rptites dominate General durassie 190-185 although the arly mammalian and bird worldwide Trissic 226 ‘vouton occurs here. Coniters and fers elevation commen and lwerng plant ara commen in Ciotacaous, Ammonites, brachiopods and : achinoderms important among invertabrates. Paleeoric | Permian 200 Fish became abundant and amphibians evele | Main Carbonitorous 345 from them atthe end of Devonian. Reptiles. | Hercynian Devonian davelop during Carboniferous as spore bearing | Episode Surion 440 +101 plans coloriso and, Molluscs, brachiopods Oroviien 440410 and corals ae common invertebrates. Cambrian 530+10 Tilbites nd graptotes are mast important 570410 invertebrates, although all the phyla present. Jawlss fish appeared and increas towards tho end. Main Caledonian Esisode ‘cic or Pre Oiest rock Tife poorly preserved. 1s thought that Several Cambrian 3787485 primitive plant ite of analgal type was Mountain followed bythe development of soft bodied | Buiding animals (9, worms etc) Erisodes 1100-820 2000-1600 FACTORS AFFECTING repeatedly, both in time and space. The latest LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT The landform at any given place is affected by a number of factors — Process We have already seen that distinctive landforms result from the activity of various surface processes. A sand dune has a form that is different from that of a moraine. We can distinguish, as well, between an alluvial fan and a delta on the basis of their form. In each case the active process and depositional environment lead to a unique end product, or landform, Process, then, is one factor that helps dictate the character of landforms. Climate Climate, in turn, helps determine with processes are active in any area. Climate also controls vegetation cover, which influences the effectiveness of erosive processes. Distinctive landscape regions can be identified that are dominated by landforms resulting from one or several surface processes. However, because climates have fluctuated through time, the active surface processes have also changed large-scale change occurred at the end of the last glacial age, with the result that some existing landscapes primarily reflect former conditions rather than those of the present. Lithology Within any climatic zone, a given surface process may interact with surface materials differently, depending on their lithology. Rock types that are less erodible than others commonly produce more prominent landforms than those more susceptible to erosion. Any one rock type, however, may behave differently under different climatic conditions. For example, limestone may underlie vaileys in moist climatic zones where dissolution is effective, but in dry desert areas the same rocks may form bold cliffs Structure Structure also plays in important role. Due to differential erosion, certain folded or faulted beds stand high or control the drainage pattern in such a way that they impart a grain or pattern to the landscape, thereby disclosing the underlying structure. A well-jointed or fractured rock is likely to be more susceptible to weathering, mass-wasting and erosion thanmassive tock of the same composition, and typically will form inore subdued terrain, Retiet Be cof of the land (its range of another primary control on de velopment Ititude) is landscape ‘nich in turn, is determined by the tcsonie environment, In tevtonically active regions where rates. of uplift are high, mountains reach great altitudes, slopes are steep, and erosion rates and sediment yields are high. Such landscapes tend to be extremely dynamic, Measured rates of denudation, the sum of the weathering, mass wasting, and erosional processes that result in the progressive lowering of the Earth's surface, generally are high, By contrast, in areas far removed from active tectonism, where relief is low, erosional processes tend to operate at slower rates, and changes take place more gradually. However, even in nontectonic areas, relatively rapid changes of sea level or regional isostatic movements resulting from changing ice and water loads may initiate and control significant changes in the landscape over broad areas. Time Finally, the concept of landscape evolution necessarily involves the clement of time. Although some landscape features can develop De tng om — bay gma and igneous Met 3 Figure 1.1: External and Internal Energy, These internal geothermally driven processes are said to be endogenetic, whereas the external forces operating at the ground Senta —> internal energy Rock Cycle and Landforms, surface, radi rapidly, even catastrophically, others guy, obviously develop only over long geolnr! intervals. We know this, of at least we ints this, from measurements of surface proces now operating and by dating deposits that pis on the ages of specific landforms or lang Role of Energy The various factors responsible for the development of various landforms are driven by the internal and external energy. The Geodynamic activities of the Earth are drives by two forces—internal heat energy and solar energy. The internal heat energy is responsible for creation of convection currents in the mantle of plastic rock below the rigid surface of the Earth. The convection currents are thought to be the mechanism by which © plates of rock, composing the crust, ate separated, pushed against one another, ot rotated. Thus, they create causing great rifts in the crust where plates separate, as along the line of the Red Sea and African rift valleys, ot igh mountain chains where the plates collide, as in the Himalayas. It is the motion of plates, which gives rise to earthquakes, and the bi heat flow towards the surface atong the plate boundaries, which produces volcanoes. _ Solar energy” / 7] Condensation —$ Oo —Nints Dust blown over ocean Magma rising to form new ‘ocean-loor crust a as a result of energy from sol ion, are said to be exogenetic (Fig. !-!)Solar radiation, intercepted by the Earth, drives the atmosphere by setting up convection currents init, which are noticed ax wind, It causes water fo evaporate from the sea, tivers, and lakes, and so sets in motion the interchange of water, from the surfaee into the atmosphere and back to the surface, known ay the hydrological eyele. It also provides the energy for biological processes. The work of rivers, wind, glaciers and waves, all are driven by external energy. The rotation of the planets and their positions in relation to one another, particularly to the Sun, Moon, and Earth, cause tides. which are most noticeable in’ water bodies. These tides have most obvious effect on the coasts and they also cause motion (Earth tides) in rocks of the crust Gravitational forces provide energy less directly, but by attracting all surface material towards the centre of the Earth, impart potential energy to rock and soil in’ elevated positions. The internal heat energy . is responsible for the various _endogenic, endogenetic or hypogene process on the surface of the Earth. Endogenetic process are of two types—diastrophic and sudden. Diastrophic forces are slow and largely imperceptible forces spread over millions of years. They belong to two groups—continent building or —epeirogenie movement, a dominantly vertical movement; and mountain, building or orogenic movement, a dominantly Tateral movement that leads to format various types of folds and faults. Sudden ‘movements include volcanism and Earthquake. ‘The external heat energy is responsible for various exogenous movements. The exogenous Processes are mainly caused by geological agents, such as, blowing wind, running water, glacier, sea waves, etc. The various processes associated with Epigene geological forces are: Gradation. It includes three-fold process— firstly, the surface is decayed and eroded: secondly, the products of this decay and undergoing erosion are then transported; finally, they are deposited usually at lower levels.” Thus, ‘Gradation’ is the process by which the original irregularities of the Earth's surface are leading to formation of a level surface. All gradation processes are directed by gravity. The processes of gradation can be divided into two major categories— The Ea (i) Degradation, Gi) Aggradation. 1. Degradation, It constitutes those processes by which material from a high relief feature by exogenous or external It includes activities like ‘mass wasting and erosion, including removal and transportation Degradation is affected by many factors— Properties of the material on which the processes are operating, {) The amount of energy available to the geomorphic agents, and (c) The tools used by the agents. Aggradation refers to the process of building. Aggradation brings about an increase in clevation of low-lying tracts, through deposition of materials, by various epigene geological agents like wind, river, glacier, etc. The activities of the epigene geological agents are divided into three major stages: Erosion, Transportation and Deposition. These three activities control the configuration of the land surface of the Earth, Rocks are aggregate of minerals and the term rock is applied to such soft materials as muds, clay and sand as well as to hard, massive slabs or boulders of stone. There are a few substances of organic origin, which the geologist also accepts as rocks; the chief of these is coal, peat and guano. The important rock forming minerals are of two categories—Ferromagnesian, with a dominance of Fe and Mg and Non- ferromagnesian, with a dominance of silica and feldspar. Ferromagnesian minerals are called Mafic while non-ferromagnesian as Felsic. There are three types of rocks on the basis of mode of origin—Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic. IGNEOUS ROCKS Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten material-magma and lava,On the basis of mode of occurrence, fe depth of cooling, a three fold division of igneous rocks cat be made— (a) Plutonic rocks—deep seated and of @ coarsely crystalline character. (b) Hypabyssal_—_rocks—intruded occurring at shallow depths. (e) Voleanie rocks—extruded finely crystalline or glassy rocks. The texture of igneous rocks is largely determined by its rate of cooling. Slow cooling gives rise to a coarsely crystalline. Very rapid cooling, on the other hand, produces @ very fine-grained or a glassy rock, such as one finds in lava flows. Those rocks, which have cooled and consolidated at a moderate depth, develop an intermediate texture. rocks Chemical and mineralogical composition— In most igncous rocks only eight elements (oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium) make up virtually the total bulk of the rock, upto as much as 99 per’ cent. The remaining minute fraction consists of numerous trace elements of which Hydrogen, Phosphorus and Titanium are usually the most important. Silica is the most important constituent of igneous rocks and it forms an important diagnostic character. Thus, it has been used as ‘one of the basis of the classification of igneous rocks. The groups produced are as follows— Percentage of silica ~ Type of rock Over 68% silica acid 52-66% silica 44-52% silica Under 44% silica intermediate basic or mafic ultrabasic or ultramafic In practice, a rock is often identified as belonging to one of these groups by its mineralogical rather than its chemical composition, since the former can frequently be much more quickly identified. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS These are ‘derived’ rocks, which at the time of their original formation, were laid down der water or on land surfaces. 1 re deposited more or Jey” pasvpontal layers. They are mainly the regu ieface processes, which have produced yp Siw materials, of which they are composey MMouglh some have originated through jy" processes, c.f, some organic (or biog * rreee, Two main groups arc identified— (A) Clastie or detrital sediments, 1c, thy ade up of fragments of mineral or roo, fnatter; such fragments have usually bees transported in some way before being jig cither ui cases these nig) down. (B) Chemical and organic sediments, eg those which result’ from — chemica} precipitation, often in evaporating seas, and those which are produced by biotic activity. Most sedimentary deposits are consolidated into relatively hard rocks. Though, when they were originally deposited they were mostly loose, incoherent masses of material, eg, sandstone was once loose sand, and shale as soft mud, The process of converting sediments into sedimentary rocks is termed lithification METAMORPHIC ROCK The term metamorphism comes from the Greek word: ‘metamorpho'-change of form. Hence, metamorphic rocks are those which have been altered and show change in character and appearance, There are two factors that cause the rocks to metamorphose—temperature and pressure. Metamorphic rocks were originally either igneous or sedimentary rocks. Although, it i: often possible to tell what the original rock was, sometimes, the change has been so stett that it is difficult to say with any certainty from which rocks the metamorphosed rocks were originally formed: some gneisses provide a case in point. But in general, this can PF traced. For t example, when sandstone metamorphosed, it is turned to quartzite, shit to slate, limestone to marble, basalt © greenstone, etc, ee?INTERIOR OF THE EARTH by disturbances within the Earth's outer = crust, reveals some useful information The factual evidence concerning the interior of about the Earth's internal structure. There the Earth is not readily available. ‘Therefore, are three types of seismic waves ideas on interior of the Earth are based om () P indirect evidences based on: waves or Primary waves or Compressional waves, in which the 1, Density Studies: Using the spherical shape, particles oscillate back and forth in the mean (or average) radius and mass of the direction of propagation of the the Earth, it is possible to determine the waye average density of the Earth as 5.5 g/em) (b) S waves or Secondary waves or 2. Meteorites: Meteorites, the remains of ‘Transverse or Shear waves are unknown planets, allow us to directly transverse in nature, similar to light analyse the density, chemistry and waves, that move through the Earth. mineralogy of the nickel iron cores of (ce) L waves or Love waves and Rayleigh bodies having a similar composition to that of the Earth. 3. Seismic Studies: The study of seismic waves, i¢., the vibrations, usually created waves are confined to the surface of the Earth. Litnosphere Cost stress Alantic Figure 1.2: Section through the Earth showing its internal structure. When a wave strike an interface between The seismic waves are reflected when they : : sivike ihe. interface berween two materiale | two, materials, the wave speed changes sti erties and gradually and) the wave will also denis Snell's aw) redually. ‘The amount by which it is bent Teference in wave velocities depends on the between two materials. These seismic waves can be detec various other points on the surface of the Earth, The time required for the wave to arrive atany point on the surface of the Earth depends fon the path of the wave through the Earth and Gn the speed of the wave along that path. IF the Nave speed is known at any given depth, this can provide ph parameters such as density, rigidity and compressibility for the various layers within the major structural units of the Earth, The S waves cannot be transmitted through liquid, which has no rigidity. Thus on the basis of seismic investigation, the Earth can be divided into three major zones based on chemical composition (Fig. 1.2): Chemical Subdivision 1. Crust, The outer superficial layer extending down to 30-40 km beneath continents and even further beneath some mountain regions and to about 10 km beneath sea floor in oceanic regions. There are two distinct types of crustal materials— one characteristic of continents and the other characteristic of ocean floors. The materials of the continental crust tend to be less dense, lighter in colour, thicker and considerably older than those of the oceanic crust. Both types. of crusts are made primarily of the silicates of various metals. But a comparison of the two reveals that the oceanic crust has somewhat more iron, magnesium, and calcium, whereas the continental crust has comparatively more aluminum, potassium, and sodium. At the base of the crust there is a denser layer, the boundary between the crust and the mantle. This boundary is called Moho or Mohovicie Discontinuity 2. Mantle. Extending from Moho to 2890 km, it is a solid layer divided into— : Upper Mantle - Moho to 400 km Intermediate Mantle - 400 to 1000 km. At the base of the mantle, there is another discontinuity known as Weichart- Gutenberg Discontinuity, which defines the boundary between the mantle and the core. Core, The core is a liquid, at least > outer part. The inner core (5150-6379) fe solid and is composed largely of gigp) and iron. Mechanical Subdivi Lithosphere and Asthenosphere ‘ecause they are so close to the cool Desnee of the Earth, the upper 80 To tl Kilometers of the upper mantle also are rahe fool and rigid like the crust and move algy, with the crust as a unit. This combined egg) ‘d outer region, which includes both ihe crust and the top layer of the upper mantle, i, called the lithosphere. Although, we ty Considerable vertical exaggeration in oy, Geawings, the lithosphere is still extremely thy in. comparison to its width. Its relate dimensions are thinner than those of an eg Shell, for example. The lithosphere is divide | into several large fragments called plates, anf the motion of these surface plates over the years is referred to as plate tectonics. Tie lithosphere appears to be quite compler, especially beneath the continents, where it sometimes includes fragments of former crusl plates that have been thrust downward during collisions. Immediately beneath the lithosphere, at a depth extending from about 100 to 200 km, is the low velocity zone. The name is derived from the relatively slow speed of seismic waves travelling through this region. Compared to the lithosphere above, this region is mort plastic or less viscous, that is, it is softer, more pliable and capable of bending or deforming without breaking. The higher temperatures these depths cause some partial melting of the materials, which means that some materials melt or soften and lubricate the motion of others that are more rigid or resilient. Benes! the low velocity zone is no sudden or devise | change in physical properties like it occu cas where it abuts the lithosphere. 7) pressure increases with depth, which ese seismic waves to increase as well. wpe emo relatively plastic region ote aay comantle, including the low velocity mid the ‘ome Of the material beneath it, ise Complnitenesphere, Scientists | 4° iy Teglne eg eee the lower bounding OF » but many now view it as extenddown to the 670-kilometer-deep base of the upper mantle. From this viewpoint, we could divide the upper mantle into two regions—the upper 80 to 100 km of cool rigid material and the lower 570 to 590 km of warmer and more plastic material. It is important to remember that descriptive words like ‘soft’, ‘plastic’, or ‘movement’ are written from a geological perspective, not a human one. Although, the asthenosphere is soft compared to the lithosphere, it is still much more rigid than steel, for example Furthermore, the movement we refer to is on a time scale of millions of years, not human lifetimes. Things that bend or flow over millions of years can be quite resilient to the blow of a hammer. Temperature and Pressure within the Earth The pressure drop in the Earth is reasonably well known, but the temperature is less well known. The pressures are due to the weight of the overlying material, and, with our knowledge of specific gravity gained from seismic studies, it can be calculated according to the law of gravity. These pressures are hydrostatic; that is, they are equal in all directions because the rocks in the mantle and crust are not completely rigid, even though they are solid. A simple analogy will illustrate hydrostatic pressure. Bricks, piled one on the other exert @ pressure only on their bases, because they are rigid. A pile of sand, however, unless confined by a wall, will assume a cone shape because the sand is not rigid; hence, the Pressure due to its weight is exerted in all directions, Data from drill holes and deep mines reveal that the temperature rises with depth in the Earth at the approximate rate of 1°C per 27 meters. If this rise continues to the center of the Earth, the temperature there would be 222000°C, an unreasonably high temperature—hotter than the Sun. The temperature in the Earth is estimated from the knowledge of the melting points of the materials assumed to form each layer, taking into account the rise in melting point at high pressures. ISOSTASY The word ‘Isostasy’ is derived from a Greek word meaning ‘in equipoise’ or tin balance’ The theory of Isostasy states that a great continental mass must be formed of lighter materials than that supposed to constitute the ocean floors..and., further, in order 1 compensate for its greater height these lighter continental material must extend downward to some distance under the continent and below the ocean floor level, in order that unit areas beneath oceans and continents may remain in stable equilibrium (Fig. 1.3). Figure 1.3: An analogy of Isostatic Equilibrium. Any loading due to sedimentation. deposition or intrusion of igneous materials, etc. or unloading du¢ to denudation or melting of ice will, therefore, disturb the balance. Compensation in the form of depression or elevation will follow to restore the state of hydrostatic balance. The state of isostasy can be maintained only if there is a continuous compensation at depth. Through erosion, material is being removed from the top of the mountains, which therefore, are becoming lighter. Some other materials should, therefore, move into the roots of the mountains at depth in the interior of the Earth. This movement is termed compensation. In simple terms, the lithosphere behaves like a wooden block floating on water. If a load is put above the wooden block, then it will depress. Conversely, when it is unloaded, the wooden block will rise in response to it. CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY The idea of lateral movement of continents or continental drift was put forward in 1915 by Wegener in a book ‘The Origin of Continents and Oceans’. This theory claimed that the changes in the appearance of the Earth were, largely, due to aE SS aof continents. Wegener grounded his theory primarily on two promises. Firstly, rs the. geological formation and fossil remains of the present far away continents Thawed striking similarities. Secondly, that Some of the continents showed astonishingly Somplementary coastlines. The enst cas! of eanty America, for example, matches the wert coast of Afri finely that they would fit together exactly, if they were brought together. ‘According to the theory of continental dei, the Barth is made of SIAL, SIMA and NIFE SIAL, comprising the continents, Is floating over SIMA, which is the upper portion of the Stafloor. About 250 million years ago, there was only one continent and one | ocean Wegener named tl continent as Pangaca (meaning all lands) and the ocean as Panthalassa (meaning universal ocean) Pangaca consisted of North America (with Greenland attached) and Eurasia (minus Arabia and India) in the extreme north; and below it, South America and Africa (with Arabi attached); and further down, Antarctica, Australia and India. Between North America ‘and Eurasia, the rudimentary Arctic Ocean formed a big gulf in the north, while between Eurasia and Africa lay a long, narrow and shallow basin, the Tethys Sea, the ancestor of the Mediterranean. ‘The break up of Pangaea resulted in the formation of present-day continents and ‘oceans, which began about 200 million years ago by two extensive rifts in the north and south. The northern rift cut Pangaea from east to west, along a line slightly north of the Equator, creating Laurasia in the north and Gondwanaland in the south. Laurasia consisted of North America and Greenland and Eurasia (without India and Arabia), while Gondwana contained Afica with Arsbia attached, Sou merica, Australia, Antarctica and India. This rift opened up. the Atlantic Ocean. The soubor rift out up Gondwana into: South merica, Africa-cum-Arabia, _Antareti Australia and India. This rift oj one Indian Ocean. oe one the shifting About 135 million years aj sift liberated India from the Antarctic commnee and India stated on alone voyage to the nari Some 65 million years ago, North ania separated ftom Eufasla, and South America a vm Africa, The two Americas drt, from “africa edged towards the orth 2 white ing Americas (North and South og ther, united by the Isthmus ‘of cay togete’ tralia out adrift ftom Antarctica gy ‘yards. About 20 million year “a aplit_from Africa to merge into 4 Arabifought into existence the Red Seu ang Guit of Aden (Fig. 14). te ‘The northward movement Was causeg ett Torces, i.e BECAUSE of inte gravitational pull of the Poles. The west gravitas caused by tidal forces, Ty movfward movement of India and Afi notged the sediments deposited in the Tethys faustumpled and deformed and thus, the Alig ond Himalayan mountain ranges were formeg The westward movernent led to the formatog aie sndes and Rockies and the Caribbean Ising ares. A Upper Carboniferous, moved nort! gravi (Carly Tertiary) CE > ie m el pant’ 14: Wegener's Concept of continen*The discoveries of the sixties, supporting the continental drift, have given birth to a new concept in geology—the theory of Plate Teetonies. Tectonics simply means the study of rock structures involved in Earth movements, Plate tectonics deals with such structures as are in the form of plates. This concept has revolutionised the study of geology in the same way asthe Copernican theory has revolutionised the science of astronomy, The Copernican theory entailed a radical change our ideas of the Earth and Solar System. The Theory of Plate tectonics has worked a similar revolution in our conception of the Earth itself, It has proved that the Earth is not static but dynamic, so dynamic that it can rightly be described as alive and kicking. The Continental Drift theory assumed that the continents ploughed through the oceans like massive ships. The theory Plate Tectonics tells us that it is not only the continents that are in motion, but the oceans as well. This is so, because the top crust of the Earth is not (as we have thought) an unbroken shell of rock and Pacific plate g Antarctic plate basalt, but a mosaic of several rigid segments, called plates. These plates include not only the Earth's solid upper crust, but also parts of the denser mantle below. They have an average thickness of 100 km. They float on the plastic upper mantle of the Earth, called Asthenosphere and carry the continents and oceans on their back like mammoth rafts, All these plates are in constant motion relative to one another. One source of confusion in distinguishing between continental drift and plate tectonics is to assume that continents and plates are synonymous. They are not. Continents form only a part the rest of the plates. The continents alone do not drift or move. It is the plates containing both continents and oceans that move. So we now talk of plate movements instead of continental drift. PLATE TECTONICS A plate include not only continents (unlike continental drift) but oceans as well, hence, there are oceanic and continental plates. Figure 1. : Distribution and movement of pl There are seven major plates on the Earth's surface today (Fig.1.5). They are— Eurasian, Antarctica, North American, South American, Pacific, African and Indian plate. The Pacific plate is the largest plate composed almost entirely of oceanic crust and covers about 1/Sth of entire Earth's surface. The other large plates contain both continental and oceanic crusts. None of the major plates are ‘composed entirely of continental crust. Intermediate sized plates are—China, Philippines, Arabian, Iran, Nazca, Cocos, Caribbean and Scotia Plates. The smaller plates appear to form near convergent boundaries of major plates, where collision between continents occurs or betweenn Island are. The smaller a continent and an pid and complex plates are characterised by 1M movement, The plates are con respect to cach other (Fig: 1.6) Three types of plate margins are identified which fundamental kinds of geological metivity! inuously in motion with boundaries and Constructive boundary Destructive ‘boundary Figure 1.6: Types of Plate Boundaries. Constructive margin or divergent plate boundary Diverging plates. Plates are said to diverge, when two adjacent plates move apart ‘As the plates diverge, hot magma comes up through the crack and solidifies. The magma forms ridges on either side almost symmetrically. As the ridges rise, magma overflows from both sides spread farther and new ocean floor is created. Thus, divergence brings in two results—(a) the formation of a new crust, and (b) submarine mountains or ridges. The Mid-Atlantic ridge, the East Pacific ridge and the Chagos-Laccadives ridge in the Indian Ocean and other oceanic ridges have come into being in this manner. Along the crests of these ridges, narrow rift valleys have opened. It is through these rift valleys that hot magma wells up to form new ocean floors. The pressure exerted by the newly-formed crusts pushes the plates around. ‘The rifts in the ocean floor may sometimes extend into the adjoining continents and split the continent into two. This may realign continental boundaries and create new oceans. The rift, which broke Arabia away from Africa and grafted it on to Asia, changed the define three | “New material 1, Constructive Margins or Divergent pi Boundary. 2, Destruct Boundary. 3, Conservative Margin of Parallel Bound or Transform Fault Boundary. ay Destructive boundary = WD plate Subducted plate nce of both continents and opened up the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Converging Plates. Plates are said 0 converge, when they come together and collide. Such collision boundaries are—known as subduction zones. In a subduction zone, many things happen— (i) Melting of old plates. All subduction zones are marked by deep octat trenches. The Aleutian Trench (Nort Pacific), the Tonga Trench (Soutb Pacific), the Philippine Trench (West Pacific), the Peru-Chile Trench (East Pacific), the Puerto Rico Trench in te Atlantic and the Java Trench, in te Indian Ocean and similar other trenches are all plate boundaries and subductioy zones. Here, the moving plate bends # plunges into the mantle. Such parts 1 the plate that go right into the man® ___ are melted and destroyed. (ii) Mountain building and When two continental plates the lateral pressure exerted by the plates crumples and compresses them folds. When this crumpling and continues, high mountains ental crust is more buoya” appearai new sea uplift converse ive Margin or Convergent play |less dense than the mantle on whieh the plates rest, Therefore, the plates tend to Mloat rather than to sink, Gii) Earthquakes and Volcanoes. All subduction zones or plate boundaries abound in carthquakes and volcanoes, The Andean subduction zone breeds the quakes that rock Chile and Peru, The subduction zone formed by the Arabian plate and the Asiatic plate sends up the quakes that plague Iran and Turkey. Where the African and the European plates meet, the African plate has bent down into the mantle and is being steadily melted. It is this melted lava that is being thrown up by the volcanoes of Etna, Vesuvius and Stromboli in Europe. Parallel plates Parallel plates, as they slide past each other along a common boundary, do not create new crust or destroy the old. They butt and jostle against each other and produce what are called transform faults: Transform faults are fractures in rock formations. Fractures imply displacement of rocks. The displacement may range from a fraction of an inch to thousands of feet. Transform faults are not peculiar to parallel plate boundaries. All plate boundaries are characterised by transform faults. But in parallel plate boundaries this is the only important geological feature The San Andreas Fault in California marks the meeting place of two parallel plates, one carrying North America and the other carrying the Pacific Ocean, This fracture stretches for more than 1000 km. It splits California in the middle at one end and cuts into the Pacific basin at the other. Both plates are moving northwest but the Pacific plate is moving faster than the American plate. For most of the time, the two plates move smoothly along but, now and then, their edges get locked. As the plates continue to move, the locked rocks bend and strain till they snap. Then they shift violently back to equilibrium, like a bent stick breaking. This violent shift causes earthquakes. In 1906, the San Andreas Fault shifted as much as 6 m, unleashing the earthquake that wiped out San Francisco Causes of Plate Motion ‘There ate various forces that act upon the plates to make them move— 1, A pull exerted on the plate as the plate descends into the asthenosphere in the subduction zone because it becomes more dense 2. The sum of the forces, which push the plate on or near the ridge for the ridge being higher than abyssal plains. 3. Convection currents that are generated in the mantle are powerful enough to move the plates. DENUDATION Denudation is the sum total of all forces that bring about lowering of the Earth’s surface. It comprises weathering, mass movement and erosion. Weathering is the breakdown of rocks in situ, i.e., when the rocks are broken, the fragments do not move. The breaking up of the rocks is accomplished by mechanical, chemical and biological processes. Mechanical Weathering Mechanical processes involve breaking up of the rocks by crystal-growth, pressure release and thermal tension. (a) Crystal growth includes growth of ice crystals and salt crystals. In regions, where day and night temperature differences are very large, the temperature frequently drops to below freezing point at night. Thus, the water in the interstices of the rock freezes. Freezing entails increase in volume, which causes the rocks to break up. (b) Pressure release. Most rocks are formed under specific temperature and pressure conditions. An igneous rock, intruded deep inside the surface, has great overburden and in solidifying gets adjusted to this burden. When erosion or any other activity removes this burden the rocks expand and develop cracks along lines of weaknesses. (c) Thermal tension. In those deserts, where + the range of temperature is high, the rocks are intensely heated while during the night time, they are cooled by radiation. NEAlternate heating and cooling weakens the bonding between grains and the rocks Wisintegtate grain by — grain, = The temperature range may also lead to the expansion of the outer shell of the rock, leaving the inner part, causing the outer shell to spall off. Chemical Weathering _ Chemical changes in the rocks through formation of new compounds, solution or formation of new substances due to change in theit weight and volume, is called chemical weathering. Water, oxygen and carbon dioxide are the main agents of chemical weathering. The rate and intensity of chemical weathering is rapid in areas of high temperature and humidity Chemical weathering involves four major Processes— (a) Oxidation. A process, in which atmospheric oxygen reacts with the rock to produce oxides, is called oxidation. Greatest impact of this process is observed on ferrous minerals. Oxygen present in humid air reacts with iron grains in the rocks to form a yellow or red oxide of iron. This is called rusting of the iron, Rust decomposes rocks completely with passage of time. (b) Carbonation. A process by which various types of carbonates are formed. Some of these carbonates are soluble in water. For example, when rainwater containing carbon dioxide passes through pervious limestone rocks, the rock joints enlarged due to the action of carbonic acid. The joints enlarge in size and lime is removed in solution, This type of breakdown of rocks is called carbonation. (c) Hydration. A process by which water is absorbed by the minerals of the rock. Due to the absorption of water by the rock. grains loose their shape. The volume of the rock also increases. Many of the minerals get decomposed in this process. Feldspar, for example, is changed into kaplin through hydration. Kaolin on Vindhyan Hills near Jabalpur has been formed in thig manner. (4) Solution. Some of the minerals are soluble in water. They are, therefore, removed in es solution. Rocksalt and gypsum igo by this process. ing Biotic Weathering Plants. Plants contribute yy mechanical and chemical weathering. ty, of the plants penetrate into the joint, rocks. They grow longer and thicker! manner, they exert pressure on the rogjy the rock joints are, thereby, enlarged ang. into smaller fragments. re Dead vegetative matter in the soit decomposed through bacterial action, py this process, a number of chemical subyan! like carbon dioxide, organic acid, ammonis yy nitric acid are released. Humus is a produ y this process. When the soils contain hums combines with water, the dissolving capacity water is enhanced many folds. Even some the insoluble substances like limonite becom soluble under such conditions. Burrowing animals like earthworms, fore, termites and ants breakdown the rocks. Tice disintegrated rocks can easily be eroded « removed by wind, etc. Hooves of animals best the soil, and thus, assist soil erosion. The me of carthworms and termites is of specil significance. They help in turning of rock nas into good soil and bringing it to the surface. Man. Human beings play a very imporast role in weathering of various rocks. Mar breaks a large amount of rocks in the course of his activities, like agriculture, construction & houses, roads, ete. He digs deep quarries mining minerals from the interior parts of Earth. He helps in rock weathering breaking, weakening, loosening and alteitt the rocks, Maus Mc ement — The movement of weathered material hillstopes under the influence of gravity" OF without the assistance of running Wt called mass movement, mass wasting of translocation, Mass movement is of, (™E {ypes—(i) Fall reters to the tree fall TAcrial, without maintaining any contact the surface. The falling material may o™ (fom one spot to another but in. P bounces are also con case Of slide the materia feio-oFal naterialmoving. (iii) Flow involves continuous movement of materials, which behave in a liquid, semi liquid and plastic manner, Erosion Erosion refers to the wearing away of land surface by the mechanical action of debris derived from weathering as they are transported from their source to destination by various agents, such as water, wind, glacier, ete, The various processes of erosion aro— Abrasion, It is the wearing away of surfaces by mechanical processes, such as rubbing, cutting, scratching, grinding, polishing, ete. Attrition. It involves a reduction in the size of detrital fragments by friction and impact during transport. Cavitation. The collapse of bubbles of water vapour in highly turbulent eddies of water; is like a negative explosion or implosion and sets up powerful shock waves, which tend to disintegrate any adjacent rocks. Corrasion. The cumulative effects of mechanical erosion by running water or wind, when charged with detritus and so provides with ‘tools’ or abrasives Corrosion. The wearing away of surfaces and of detrital particles and fragments by the solvent and chemical action of natural waters is called corrosion. Deflation. Deflation is the lifting and removal of dust and sand by wind Exaration, A term now little used. for modes of erosion by glacial ice, akin to ‘plucking? and ‘quarrying® RIVER Beginning of a stream system Rainwater is normally guided into depressions and areas unprotected by plants. The concentration of the flowing water produces rills of irregular depths running down the slope. A master rill finally emerges by flooding of water into them, and thus, a drainage system is developed. The main streams flowing directly into the slope are joined by tributaries at accordant junctions, i.c., without a change in gradient. These streams which are relatively small are called rivulet. The master rivulet finally drains into a larger stream called river. The rivers can be effluent or influent. In case of effluent rivers, the regional water table lies near the Harth's surface, as a result the fiver or stream is fed; whereas in case of influent rivers, the water table is located at a great depth, a part of runoff is scheduled to percolate downwards ‘The rivers can be of various types from the point of view of its origin and development— (i) Antecedant. Rivers existing before the surface relief was impressed upon the area. (ii) Consequent. River formed as a consequence of the existing surface relief. They follow the slope of the initial land surface. (iii) Subsequent. The river, which joins the consequent river on the sloping side of a river valley. (iv) Insequent. It displays no reason for its particular course, such as that upon homogeneous terrain. (¥) Obsequent. Here, the river drains in the opposite direction to the original consequent-river. (vi) Resequent. It drains in the same direction as the original consequent, but at a lower topographical level. (vii)" Superimposed. At some places, old rocks may be covered under a sheet of new deposits. Any river developed on such an area will follow the surface relief of the overlying cover and will not have any relation with the older rocks lying below. Gradual erosion removes the overlying cover and the river flows on the older rocks below. Here, the river is said to be super imposed on the older rocks below. Many rivers, when they join together, form a variety of patterns. The common drainage patterns are (Fig. 1.7)— (i) Dendritic Pattern. It is characterised irregular branching of tributary streams in a similar pattern as that of a tree's branches. (ii) Parallel Pattern, It develops on steep slopes, where ‘the tributaries and themaster stream flow parallel to each other, (iii) Trettis Pattern, 1 develops in topography created on a folded structure of synetines and anticlines, faults oF joints ote, (iv) Radial Pattern, It consists of drainage lines radiating trom central parts as on dom Deranged Trellised ek Centripetal Figure 1.7: Common Drainage Pattern. THE WORK OF THE RIVERS 1. The main geologic work of rivers is transportation. Dissolved load comes from chemical weathering and solution by the river. Suspended load is the material carried in suspension—clay, and in turbulent water, silt. Bed load is material that rolls or slides along the river bottom, in some cases only during floods, 2. River erosion is mainly by solution and abrasion. Maximum erosion occurs in areas with about 25 centimeters of rain per year, 3 10, WL River erosion deepens, lengthens widens the valley. Hendwarderosio,?M downcutting at the head of a stream, | lengthens the valley. The valley wideng yi ereop and landsliding and by lateral cugy! by the stream. & Distinctive curves called meanders form, which distribute the river's loss of ener most uniformly, Developing meanders me interscet, cutting off @ stretch of rive! forming oxbow lakes. B ‘A graded stream is one that has just the right gradient to be able to transport the debris delivered to it by its own erosion tributaries, downslope movements and rain wash, The gradient of a given stretch ig maintained by the river's eroding op building up its bed in response to climate o other conditions. The concave slope of the long profile of a river provides for the most uniform rate of work along the river, balancing slope with discharge and velocity. Base level is the limit to which a river can erode the elevation to its mouth. Fluvial (river) deposits are found near deltas (formed where rivers enter standing water), alluvial fans are formed where rivers flow out of mountains into broad, fst valleys and levees are formed along river banks when floodwaters spill over, reducing velocity. Rivers also build up their beds by deposition. Deposition occurs when velocity is slowed. Terraces form from changes in river tegimen or conditions; they can be formed by either deposition or erosion. Braided streams form when load is large and coarse for the slope and discharge. The channel divides and rejoins many times. Narrow, youthful valleys have V-shaped cross-sections and are generally formed bY downcutting of non-graded rivers near theit headwaters. They commonly have falls rapids and lakes, which are temporary features, Valley widening begins after a stream his Teached grade, usually first near the mouth Meanders are common features. In mature valleys the meander belt occupies most ° esthe width of the valley. Old age valleys are much wider than the meander belt GROUND WATER The water, whieh percolates inside the Earth, is called ground water. The upper limit. of xround water is called water table, The te of water table is not even and wt varies seasonally. Consequently the water table is of two type—permanent water table and temporary water table. Ground water comes to the surface through wells, tube wells and springs. Wells and tube wells are man-made holes dug into the Earth's surface through which water is obtained. In addition to these ordinary wells, there is a special type of well in which water flows out automatically under hydraulic pressure. They are called artesian wells. Surface outpour of ground water rock opening under its own pressure is called a spring. Sometimes, the water flows out of spring is hot, such springs are called hot springs. When the hot springs emit water in form of a fountain, they are called geysers. Geysers are found mainly in Iceland, Yellowstone National Park, USA and New Zealand. Ground water does the work of erosion, transportation and deposition, which result in number of topographical features. The major erosional features are—sinkholes, swallow holes and caverns. Depositional features made by ground water are stalactites and stalagmites, which develop in the caverns. GLACIERS In areas, where the temperatures always remain below freezing point, precipitation occurs i the form of snow. Therefore, these areas are covered with snow. Such regions are called snowfields, Snowfields are found always above the snowline. Snowline is that line above which the snow never melts completely. Moving ice is called a glacier. They are of two types— continental glaciers and valley glaciers. Glaciers do the work of erosion, transportation and deposition through which a number of topographical features are formed. The major topographical features of glacial erosion are the U-shaped valleys and hanging valleys. The vel major depositional features of glacial action are the moraines, There are three types of Mmoraines—terminal moraine, fateral moraine and medial moraine, Topographical features made by glaciers are found in areas of high altitude and high latitudes, WORK OF WIND Wind, like running water, movi ground water, is an important agent of gradation, Action of wind is more effective in semi-arid regions. Wind erodes the rocks tansports the broken material and deposits it in different areas, These three actions of wind are known as erosion, transportation and deposition. Erosional work of wind includes abrasion, attrition and deflation. One of the major topographical features made-by wind erosion is mushroom rock, which resembles an umbrella in shape. The transportation work of wind is also extensive; the broken particles of rocks are transported to thousands of Kilometres. Deposition of the transported material results in formation of a number of topographical features. The important ones among these arc the sand dunes, barkhans and loess. WORK OF SEA Sea waves are an effective means of gradation in the coastal regions. Three important works of waves are the breaking up of the rocks. removal of broken material and then laying down of this material in different parts of the coastal areas. These three actions of waves arc called erosion, transportation and deposicion: Erosion by waves is achieved through the Processes of abrasion, attrition. hydraulic action and solution, Erosion by sea waves results in formation of topographical features like—sea cliff, sea caves, arches and stacks, Transportation work of waves makes possible seaward movements of the material accumulated on the coast and coastward movement vf the material found in the sea, Depositional work of sea waves is responsible for formation of topographical features like— bars, spit, beaches and lagoons, a1 REGIONS AND LANDFO! = = ee ; | =< ——— en Oe ee rete te oor | Saale pens FES [Soa aee ; | = a | 27 Eee Ee | fetes bee one ee —" || — ‘Sesmeoone: en [Reamereany amma =e ane — [ep feces |S eset [Rare Scotto |S et ese Feeerreengl bree Foe Sesame | Stents tse rn nee pee |Scnnaeee| endten peice, | oe | oe enttiscontinooas Tow and arth mater vepetmion cover. | Wind brsian and remove of Eth materials. Lateral pening of ats coring Sf ina rotates across pemattst Ten cap | Enenvol snowial | Acsraled weathering buat ‘Soured and grooved rocks Wana, {Moches moutonnees) then near source of } wisi lace. lee-scoured rock basins Seasonal metaty : (Paternoster lakes) Ag Temperatures low | Plucking of rocks by fost ection. ‘snough to pei icp bein removed tea, | OU Usoped VET topersst ‘i Sharp ridges and peaks between Snow aalectng down PY vay glass fom and — axetes | Morsnes and outvash features near edge of ce. ‘Avalanche chutes. IMPORTANT TERMS a pa Accordant junctions Exogenetic Matic Agradation Exogenous movements Magnetic reversals Clastic Fall Meanders Compensation at depth Felsic Plate tectonics Degradation Flow Primordial explosion Dendrochronology Galactic systems Prograde Dettital Galaxy Radioactivity Disstrophic Geochronological Red shift Discontinuity Gradation Rivulet Doppler effect Hydrological cycle Sedimentation Effluent Hypogene Seismic waves Endogenetic Implosion Slide Endogenetic Index fossils Terrestrial planets Endogenie Jovian planets Varves Epeirogenic Law of the superposition Zoic Epigene Lithification Zoon vAwitiet. Abt L500 real spss are kaos ia gectopts wa thasa afd aie atten fee Une ee tice eee eer Ghren Ronco anit welinely “few of these The uppermost layer is the lithosphere, numerous minerals are important rock forming Lithosphere means rock sphere (Lithos—rock). minerals. It is these few rock-forming nia racks ‘coneiite iauwt tthe tolé~ | mintals whieh eolletivaly make ay Saat oF materials of the Earth. The term rock is the Earth's crust. Snir Gasace 1oR matenals x sna, coy pod ee Biehce clas hard mcsvivercsie of booties | gg Tint stckztre smalls composed of saa fer stone, Tideeds ny -nacirally ovenrcing words, rocks are simply the aggregate of Sfalomctaion of minal pericley form Tock | MOmGs OGRE a, simply the. aggregate of INTRODUCTION ‘The Earth is composed of different concentric layers, each layer different from the other. in the true geological sense. Rocks are composed of _ minerals. Minerals, in turn, are composed of atoms of elements, which ‘are very simple units of minerals, there are a few substances of organic origin, which can be accepted as rocks. Examples of such rocks are peat and guano. ROCK FORMING MINERALS About 20 kinds of minerals account for the great bulk of the Earth's crust and most of the upper mantle. About 90% of the rock forming minerals are silicate compounds containing silicon, oxygen and one or more metals, Each silicate mineral has as its fundamental unit the silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, This is a combination of one ‘small’ silicon atom with a radius of 0.42 A surrounded as closely as geometrically possible by four ‘large’ oxygen atoms, each with a radius of 1.40 A, forming a tetrahedron, The most common rock forming silicate minerals are olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, muscovite, feldspar and quartz. These silicate minerals can be broadly divided into three groups - Ferromagnesians, Non-ferromagnesians and Clay minerals. Silicate Minerals A. Ferromagnesians Ferromagnesians are joined primarily by ions of iron and magnesium. These comprise olivine, pyroxene, amphibole and biotite. All the four ferromagnesian minerals are very dark or black and have a higher specific gravity than other rock forming minerals. Olivines—Olivine [(Mg Fe), SiO,] is a hard mineral characterised by an olive green colour, it magnesium is abundant, and a glassy luster. It rarely forms crystals larger than a millimeter in diameter, Olivine is a high temperature mineral and is a major constituent of the material beneath the Earth's crust, the mantle. Pyroxenes—Pyroxone is dark green to black with a colourless streak. It Is a high temperature mineral found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks and occurs as microscopic crystals.sid tt ow esas orci Yocea at nceeIMPORTANT IGNEOUS ROCKSche gio saan a fewest i aa a pts aera ea ea idee cn mechaicly tapas ite a Seager uh gr Sorento mete asa ei a et aroaoiee | ae ‘Sires at Goh nh eon Ung meses oa ets cnc compl may elie woh Gant ch ae onm in a it a ee Th {8 comontion However the proces eared aural om ne Se of oat feet tod depestina of ths sve at (fae ay pipe ey Seine ie by ‘pe Ta he ot ‘Squat’ or cee ston, Th Tne Some Rieti of einem es Fate say ble per ater diet rt inn a te Shee Sty tan ey SCCSINRSGS Potato LLcoeaeat ses al genes feng “Sete ‘ron is da aero et Screen miele cae Sees merits sie Tae Ft tt a Spe RF gi depend onthe sain TOLOUR IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS a pad pe aoe a oo tnt oie yn cata few-— ent ‘ Great ‘Netti | a 2a i i CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS- SEISMIC STUDIES sTRODUCTIONemai me al einen tea = Se SS Story vasensa ts fceaj —— eit ton nea a ae rte Eo a rd eenocae ‘remmnypn (or valpha) ‘ore See i it's ao en ma Sc, See avs et wl ff | tetas (oy, ood eet Lavets oF ourreng Seas ae vie) fate a os wae (CHEMICAL COM Sere i 8, cl ame te me SS ecg | ASM ee Ra eTe ae isphere TEMPERATURE AND EARTH PRESSURE WITHIN THE Bow mneeedhe ha maa EVIDENCE OF EARTH'S Source, i terms of the physical conditions thet re tines of force emer8iNe riyto be somewhat ies it.tw|] MAGNETIC FIELD make i possible han Song think “that these currenyo°M a apesifi angles for 8 fort a believed that the source of Carth's tee scretist® et scien tho Earth's rotation. This igg2 WHY EARTH BEHAVES Spganed by any fet: nite whi | hour day, has a ‘strong | LIKE A BAR MAGNET ce exactly why I re 2 9 ding the Earth js the atmospheric layer tae | called the magnetospe in whi teie|Sonlaed paces ae fined electrons x as to Eharas) ae alleced by bare magnetic finan the Earth. The ‘once In 28 cays, ha id. Venus, Wh has no measurable ma ‘according 10 space nt. result {snot known for brought about by from va differences hough the molten rd part of ree of Earth oly lent of a sclecold Below tat ie furounds te ising trom the E ‘The magnetosphere is. formed St wire, often Sis cere Mow sets in hal sy bh tony” be" the cae ena trofion of charges im th Wasi 6 Sehevation of convection currents of mene apace Eure cove cretes the mag! generat in tho liquid part of the Ena shrew) ‘The magnetic Geld could not con i the Muid of the outer core The mation of fons and clectrons in ty would produce an fotation produces the Earth's. ma Id Inthe aynamo. i for dak, side-the shape of is quite different. The lines of mag Teaving only the faintest traces of magn rocks field Regeneration of heat would have agin caused convection currents he same direction 1 of 260,000 km) ‘The magne! behaves Changes in Earth's magni The lines field around a shape, though, Take up the magnetle fa] magnet, 2 field of sini particularly oxides of iron and He and ilmenite, acquire = ism which becomes frozen, as it cools ture, above Figure 4b.1: Accounting for the Eerth's ‘THE SOURCE AND ORIGIN OF EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD Earth at the opposing pole, 80! is surrounded by avast sefi ric loops. If one could draw @ rough the center of all these 3 11,58 from the equi ‘end south magn which are on a plane perpendicular Earth's ‘magnetic field-are 11.5° 0 plane that has remained active for billions of years. re tnd In the ttermal ets repeces tha ofthe see he coi is replaced. by “currents ip the ondacting molten or semtlien wate eon en mater On the other hand, scientists do have a good iff) understanding of the geomagnetic field'sa Seeker Se ae fae IMPACT OF MAGNETIC REVERSALS Spgeaoe ‘ee tip ss ne cee st at tl Eero cleat ate kesh Bry ie.comm, of o "THE CONTINENTAL CRUST: STRUCTURE AND. ‘COMPOSITION rep aul ts srnen ‘ara els why if lee th ies ir tft ri ns eeumlate to thicksestes ri ‘Serie ck fhe ‘cRaTONS SHIELDS segue of Pecan meee et fre hghiy dened ad yh hat es0 Areger aac dest eS acl i te mere OROGENIC BELTS ‘rps (Giekre massa toe “hen ahem ote et a bane as ee se The shu ine_relyi belts are formation. Examples of such oun cone ‘THE OCEANIC CRUST: STRUCTURE AND The upper sedimentary Iyer (Layer 1) COMPOSITION _ This yer Stas of eee saree ‘of microscopic marine organisms ether wih te clay The thee ienous layers. mountains Were €0F hs ceased long apo sonographic el ide fmscetctannMountiss of the fstera Tange of easier As emer 4 Plains ore flat areas wit ce re risteen ioviscdinchio: | Tein we Se, Besmuputca, Amazon. 8-0 surface layer of marine J to 2S hen ick, Thess scorns ly of mane | Sate fens ic pilee shin a ee aes anally ted by sumerous Sats. Later tee batatc flows solidifies foto dykes tthe vents and fisutes. The pillow Tova represent the eaoes onthe sea foc Layer 3 iy consist af dykes La oni ‘of com uch a5 the Ganga, ‘Mississippi_and Seal, Seals ec oso Nt In fact, pl es compared al vale san we Ae Oceanic crust hs aaa es Sequence Understood by means of 8 hypsometric eurve (Fig. $4). Figure 5.3: Section through the oceanic crust1 most of its 4, The oceanic ridge, throughowl ION ee, ‘Spreading Contre Tength, is ent by a series of Soa mounts of Reversals of magnetisms are miror images of those on olher side of spreading centre Figure 5.12: Features of Ocean Ridges. The main difference between ridges and rises is that ridges are steep sided while rises, such as the East Pacific rise, are gentle sloped. Ridges and rises can be both active and inactive. In active ridges and rises there is continued volcanic and seismic activity while inactive aseismic ridges and rises are devoid of any earthquake or volcanic activity. Ridges and rises are mostly arranged in the form of a linear chain of extinct volcanoes and are indicators of past plate movement. The most important aseismic systems are the Galpagos rise, the Rio Grande rise, the Hawaiian and the Austral Marshall Gilbert chain, D. OCEAN TRENCHES Along some coasts, e.g., the westem Pacific Ocean, eastern Indian Ocean and the Caribbean sea, the continental shelf drops steeply into trenches, forming the deepest part of ‘the oceans. These trenches are 30-100 km wide and 300-5000 km long, Their sides slope first at angles of about 4-8° and then at 10°-16" to depths of more than 10,000 m (Fig. 5,13), The walls are in the form of steps, which may have been formed by the slumping on. young mountain belts on their seaward side, These wee characteristically V-shaped with narsow thy floors up to several kilometres wide, They a Covered by a very thin layer of sedinwane faults (Fig: 5-12) ‘Transform fault “quake activity’ Elevated ridge with central trough, intensive seismic actviy, ‘extrusion of new sea floor Examples of trenches are—the Mariana trench of Philippines, the Java trench, the Aleutian, trench, the Japan trench, the Puerto Rico trench, the Peru-Chile trench, etc Table 5.9: Characteristics of Trenches. Trench mC caer) Cn eT ) Pacitic Ocean Kurile Kamehatk Trench ° 105 | 2200 Japan Trench Bonin Trench i 00 [100 Mariana Trench 800 90 7 Wi Philippine Trench ie 2550 [70 Tonga Trench 7 1400 | 60 Kermadec Tranoh 1 1400 Aleutian Trench 0 1500 Lui inva Tae Ta} —| 3700 16.7 [2800Peru: Chile Trench 1 5900 | 100 indian Ove Java Trench TS ‘a0 | 60 ‘Atlantic Ocean Puerto Aico Trench | 8.6 1560 [120 South Sandwich 84 1450 [90 Trench Romanche Trench 78 300 [60 E. ISLAND ARCS are chains of volcanic lands. Island ares These islands are generally convex towards the open ocean (hence they are called arcs) and run parallel to the ocean trenches and mountain 5.14). Island ares range in size chains (Fi; from less than 1 km to as large as Guinea, Luzon or Hokkaido, These are seismically active and arc topographically and structurally continuous with some continental belts of young folded mountains (e.g., Malaya, Kamchatka, Alaska), which they strongly resemble. Bach island arc is generally made of the parallel arcs of island 50-150 km apart. The outer arc is dominantly composed of folded and thrust sediments and lacks forms. It may be submerged, ¢.g., Ryukyu Islands between Japan and Taiwan or it may be topographically and structurally fused with the inner arc, e.g, Japan SS % Badan SSG Sten Brain New Hebrides = Mexico" Kermadec- _ Ocean trenches —~__ Island ee Ares Figure 5.14: Distribution of Trenches and Island Arcs of the World. Troughs are simply depressions in the deep sea floor of which Barleltt trough is the most important example. Marginal sea basins lie between the island ares and the continents, e.g., the Philippine Sea. These basins are 500-1000 km wide and may include abyssal plains extending down to more than 5 km below séa level. G. PLATEAUS Plateaus are submarine elevations of considerable extent with relatively flat tops. Examples of plateaus are the Albatros plateau in the Pacific Ocean off south and central ‘America, the Seychelles plateau of the Indian Ocean and the Azores plateau in the north Atlantic Ocean.Cnn ‘A, Continental Shel! Table 6.10; Summary ‘of Ocoan Bottom Rollef. re " Ta) Drowned depositional form uigin(ocdptans, deta and coastel plains) ily filled erosional forms By Drowned and par fa (rivar valleys, glacial of terrestrial origin troughs) 7 iar ortasttial io Tarrestial agencies (running waqy operating during glacial-eustatig 4 essi0ns Coastal agencies (waves, wind) ope during glacial-oustatic reprassions " Tiase movements (debris sige, amps My } Drowned coastal landforms (bart island sea ells, shore platforms, coastal turbidity currents) Glacial drift (icaberg debris) dunes) @) Basing and Hats of marine deposition 5, Tidal and bottom currents @) Submarine valleys and canyons Marino deposition or precipitation of suspendad or dissolved materials ToDiastrophism and volcanism —Harine deposition or precipitation of B. Continental Slope a) Inclines and platforms of marine depo: suspended or dissolved materials b) Submarine canyons Hass movements and turbidity curreng Glacial drift “4._Diastrophism and volcanism a] Submarine fens and fan valleys C. Sea-floor Plains 1B) Flat plains of marine deposition (brown elays and organi oozes) ¢) Seamaunts and Guyots D. Mid-ocean Ridges 2} Fault-block plateaus, ridges and rises Diastrophism (including plate tectonics) b. Volcanic seamounts Volcanism 6. Spreading rift fissures Mass movements and turbidity currents . Transform fault scarps Marine deposition or precipitation of sediments Arcs E. Trenches and Island a) Deep trenches T.Diastrophism and voleanism (b) Voleanic seamounts and islands 2. Mass movements and turbidity currents Island arcee Se Qeeanie Conia Continent y 3 tht ih ee Figure 5.15: Major Relief features of Oceans,sounjeoy soneu 4ofew Jo uonnquasig :9t"s e4nBhs= | INHOMOGENOUS EARTH >— fi 7a Ts nn eta tno | RERQMOGENOUS EARTH sie 2S eee ceri STINENTAL AND OCE cig | Sie Sater a coMrantsos ia te eee Sa a | teh een “Sees a inet toy | ey ram ge | A patent mn my | onsets ann evoiution or Si en | Set ett vn ee EARTIS CRUST me ee sat eee eenomelet nce mel aragonite oor soniye csuneace men _—__—_ | gee re oe RODUCTION. "Rinks che: titra fy te tows ‘einen sense es ENDOGENETIC MOVEMENTS, DIASTROPHIC MOVEMENTSCommonty wo or more similarly: trending Rormal fwults enclose an upthrust, A_down hopped block is a graben or a rift, if it is bounded by two normal faults oF a halt graben iC it subsides along a single fault, An upthrust block isa horst. Rift valleys are among the most dramatic, fuult features. The Mid Oceanic Ridge (MOR) system, running for about 64000 km, has its Block Faulting Fault Scarp wae (Grid faulting) Figure 6.5: Rift valley, Block faults and step faults, with example of African Rift Valley. Although none being as spectacular as the Great African Rift Valley, normal faults and graben are very common. The valley in which the Rhine River flows through western Europe follows a series of grabens. The Narmada and the Benue also flow in the rift valley. A parallels of faults with a repeated downthrow in the same direction is termed step faulting. A horst is the opposite of a graben and may create huge, high plateaus, The mountains which are remnants of the Hercynian mountain building period, for example, Central Plateau of France, Vosges, Black Forest and Bohemian Massifs are all Block Mountains (in fact, they are relics of old fold mountains which have been denuded and shattered). The Sinai desert in the Middle East and the Ruwenzori Mountains in East Africa are all horst blocks. A horst and graben type of topography is found to be associated with Flinders Mountain and Torrens Valley in South Australia, (L. Naivasha) Sey crest occupied by a rift valley (p Perhaps the worlds most famous. sy graben and hall grabens isthe Greys)! alley of Enst Africa, which runs North.sovr all the way from Israel to Mozambique gi distance of more than 6000 km. The hog" 4 2 the rift valley is the downtheown block cay ° fh graben, Rif valley Lake Reverse faults arise from compressive forces. Movement on a reverse fault hanging-wall_up relative to the footwall Reverse fault movement pushes older rock over younger ones thereby shortening sod} thickening the crust, Reverse faults are les steep and more varied in. angle than norm! faults, “ A special class of reverse faults are calle] thrust faults (or thrusts). These are low angle reverse faults with dips less than 45°. St faults, common in great mountain chains. foteworthy because along some of them hanging wall block has moved many kilomettes Over the footwall block, Thrust faults may split into a kind of staircase of level seetiO™ called flats and step sections called ramp: ‘ normal or reverse fault on which the ot! Component of movement lies in a vertical pla Normal to the strike ¢ ace is tht dip slip Taues TE OF the fault surfsPatterns of faults develop according to the stress system involved, and may be parallel, en Gchelon, radial, concentric, or in two directions (intersecting). Strike Slip faults (also called tear, transcurrent or wrench faults) are characterised by predominantly lateral (horizontal) movement, Movement of a strike slip fault is described by looking directly across the fault and by noting which way the block on the opposite side has moved, To an observer, standing on one fault block the movement of the other block is left lateral (sinistral) or right lateral (dextral). The sense of relative motion is the same regardl of the block on which the observer is standing. One form of tear fault is the transform fault (Fig. 6.6). Transform faults are largely found Inactive > fracture zone {Both blocks move in ‘same direction.) Figure 6.6: Transform Faults on the oceanfloor are formed of differential stretching. Rotational faults occur where the amount of displacement varies along the fault. The rocks on either side of the fault behave like rigid blocks rotating about an axis at right angles to the fault plane. A hinge fault occurs where a fault dies out and the end of the fault acts as a hinge. A scissor fault or pivot fault occurs where the sense of displacement changes between opposite sides of the axis about which the blocks rotate, There is an axis on the fault plane where no movement occurs; on either side of the axis, the displacement is in the opposite sense so that the action may be compared to opening a pair of scissors. Listrle faults are spoon-shaped rotational faults in which the hanging wall is rotated towards the Active faults zone (Blocks move in ‘opposite directions.) on the ocean floor. They cut across and offset the rift zones of Mid Oceanic Ridges throughout the world. The most important aurface expressions of transform faults are San Andreas Fault, California; Alpine Fault, New Zealand; the Philippines Fault and the Atacama Fault of Chile Oblique-Slip faults have similar magnitudes of both strike and dip slip components of displacement, It is a fault in which blocks of rock slip up and down and past each other diagonally. This occurs when a wrenching movement in the Earth's crust is combined with compression or tension causing blocks of rocks to slip diagonally past cach other. If this happens on a massive scale, they are called transtension or transpression faults. (Both blocks move in same direction.) fault in the same sense as the movement along the fault, Isostatic Movements Isostatic (Greek: ‘iso-equal *statis-standing) movements involve vertical movements under the action of floatation displacement between rock layers of differing density and mobility to achieve balanced crustal columns of uniform mass above a level of compensation in which topographic elevation is inversely related to the underlying rock density. This isostatic movement is best represented by the readjustments, which followed the Pleistocene glaciation,r scanty eden ‘lau ln ow se ‘ei Fei preventer oe he oe decrees ig 69) oT Tete ST euch ‘gsi evan a cua tea SUDDEN MOVEMENTS _ foo Ea mn ml SASS os Sp tae eat cain a ine th al Este ew cn low 9 G8 Senta aoe ae Sen at cam 308 p70 km aur fa Cae Movement in) (he Cap aa IMPORTANT TERMSINTRODUCTION —__ cats Sai wd Sect St atte nimenee ad seytsor tte rot ein ii nro gsc aaten Sec re he a Spe bee vee cigialy tt fered teats of mater bee min ney en arg Te elomen ofthe hear ws eet ery rey soso cores ‘a ‘nu “This cacy bowen ohne a C's al irises oP cc ‘io steve (ity teweg i a pio bance te 1h ea ao mune) fond dap eet evecare sae ch oma ante | Ep ua ens a sr =e rg Mears a th woes CN‘Became rn then ete ‘Gheeed soar nef Sis ogre, ee ote oe mech nas [AIRY'S THEOR) Sesriem cee Se Se scar on et, whe Sy ween eter wera Teese ei Hi subtne Cat Seino oe deny ee me te nencphre, sans te Tower en etd ered The a seen tons on Ag Frac, Veing Males Li Aecper an he depth of iupher ha deny lee ie sa" =a PRATT'S THEORY vu tte "Eagh” subeeaen and | So Ligh to nde moun Prat bps (198) ated hat pe ei al ‘ome at 8 Sper eel ander eve | ST ROWMet ney al-——— sma cms tame | Sate cemivsarasceucteaet | Sedan” har Wwe seer | AAMT tl tae a en mpc eee mepaee | nn no te a a sei oem ee samy | fees vey ew anwale (i, Th [iets soma _HEISKANEN'S THEORY ana pela wet ead tons snd ecen peal ey tasty the et frm ie ay el ad Sega a es ae a it rai and comps hemes ISOSTATIC EFFECTS OF DEPOSITION AND EROSION row on See venta te ph Shae lio ot ctu ISOSTATIC EFFECTS OF ICE SHEETS ced bye ‘ia he Sat te aalso involves horizontal Movements. It can Fetana xeeetee® inthe gravitational field and rotation rate the Earth, polar Wander, and earthquakes, of ISOSTASY AND DRIFTING PLATES ‘sostasy explains plate movement in two way Q when plates collide a >. deformation ‘occurs, where Mountains are built, exist to maintain isostatic equi ISOSTASY AND REGIONAL LANDSCAPES Regional Landsca trenches also ilibrium, pes are shaped to a large Geter MOBS earth. movements, Isostasy determines the relative upliftment and Subsidence of regional surfaces. O Isostasy is active on continental plains, where erosion by wind, water, ice removes material, and adjustment is required; plains and uplands aff in phases - and sialic isostatic and root slower. the weight equilibrium. O the weight of damned u isostatic cted by isostasy are when erosion first takes place Toot is deep, there is greater lift; as more material is eroded become shorter and uplift is a of dams require crustal Ip water can cause inking of the crust below it, DENUDATION AND ISOSTASY US TASY Since the rate of denudation is functionally related to relief and the latter is reduced IMPORTANT TERMS Depth of compensa Flotational balance Isostasy a ime, it is possible to calculate, on the time, it is possi BuelseoT the above relationship, that after 1] my. landmass would be reduced to 10% of i ‘ginal relief and afler 22 m.y. it sl ould be reduced to 1% as the rate of denudation declines both with time and relief. Denudation rates, however, refer only 4 material stripped from the continental surfaces, In considering destruction of relief we mus also take into account isostatic rebound, as the gradually thinning continent becomes more buoyant on the underlying mantle. Isostatig rebound can be calculated thus: h=Br/A where, h B =specific gravity of surface rocks removed, sostatic compensation, A= specific gravity of material replacing at depth r= thickness of surface layer removed. Assuming A = 3.4 and B= Assuming then, that i Tesponse to erosional losses, is a continuous aha Widespread process, then three-quarters of the relief Ttemoved within a -6 then h = 0.76 5. isostatic rebound, in u reduction of 100% relief and 37 my. of 1% reduction, Finally it can be co; 4 ‘ for vertical motions of the Earth’s surface, Just as plate tectonics is the principle explanati inci on for lateral motions of Plates inside the earth, TL et Gravitational eq ps 'sostatic equi tase change = ibriumINTRODUCTION There are a number of features found on the Earth’s crust resulting from two forms of energy—internal energy and external energy. The stresses set by meteorites and the presence of radioactive elements all provide internal energy. Internal energy is responsible for creating endogenic movements. The endogenic _ movements are, in turn, responsible for gi tic movements on the Earth’s crust. Plate tectonics is the manifestation of such a movement. Plate tectonics imply large scale horizontal and vertical motion where the exogenic processes also play an important part in maintaining equilibrium. CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY. The suggestion that there might have been lateral displacements of the continental masses on a gigantic scale is generally ascribed to Alfred Wegener (1910). But the germ of the idea can be traced back to 1620 when Francis Bacon observed the parallelism of the opposing coasts of the Atlantic. Frenchman P. Placet made similar types of observations in 1668. In 1858, Antonio Snider united the continents (Fig. 8.1), Snider’s reconstruction of Carboniferous Geography was to explain why the fossil plants preserved in the coal measures of Europe are’identical with those of North American coal measures. Snider's observations, however, were soon forgotten. F B.Taylor, while accounting forthe | Continental Drift distribution of mountain ranges, visualised the Laurasia stretching and splitting while moving from the Poles to the Equator. Similarly, the Gondwanaland also ruptured and splitted. Because of lack of a suitable mechanism, this theory was not accepted. These works may have prompted Wegener to postulate his famous theory of Continental Drift. Figure 8.1: Snider's reconstruction of continents. Wegener’s theory basically grew out of the need to explain the major variations in the Earth’s climate. He sought the solution of this problem either in the movement of landmass or the change in climate but having gained no evidence of climatic changes, Wegener proposed the movement of continents or drift of continents as the reason behind climatic change. At the same time, Wegener was also struck by the congruence of Atlantic coastlines and the intellectual problems raised by the ‘land bridge’ explanations of links between continents seemed inseparable. Such land bridges were imagined island chains or continents which for long had foundered and it a