EE a i EDUCATIONAL THOUGHTS OF WESTERN AND EASTERN THINKERS 4.1 4.2 Plato (427 B.C. 347 B.C.) 4.1.1 His Philosophy 4.1.2 On Education 4.1.3 Aims of Education 4.1.4 Scheme of Studies 4.1.5 Methods of Teaching 4.1.6 Discipline 4.1.7 Concept of Teacher 4.1.8 Concept of Binary System of Education 4.1.9 Concept of Women Education 4.1.10 Management of Education 4.1.11 Value of Plato’s Theory of Education 4,1.12 Criticisms John Dewey (1859-1952) 4.2.1 His Philosophy 4.2.2 Educational Philosophy of Dewey 4.2.3 Aims of Education 4.2.4 Curriculum 4.2.5 Methods of Teaching 4.2.6 Discipline 4.2.7 Place of Teacher 4.2.8 His Ideal School 4.2.9 His conception of Democracy and Education 4.2.10 Contribution to Education EE ERED es ian4.3 J. J. Rousseau (1712-1778) 4.3.1 His philosophy i] 4.3.2 Concept of Nature 4.3.3 Concept of Education 4.3.4 Theory of Education 4.3.5 Aims of Education 4.3.6 Framework of Curriculum 4.3.7 Methods of Teaching 2 4.3.8 Views on Discipline 4.3.9 Role of the Teacher 4.3.10 Views on Women Education 4.3.11 Contribution to Education 4.4 Gopabandhu Das (1877 - 1928) 4.4.1 His Educational Thought 4.4.2 Satyabadi System of Education 4.4.3 contribution 4.5 M.K. Gandhi (1869-1948) 4.5.1 His General Philosophy a 4.5.2 His Educational Philosophy 4.5.3 Basic Education 4.5.4 Estimate of his Educational Philosophy 4.6 R. N. Tagore (1861-1941) 4.6.1 His Philosophy 4.6.2 Educational Philosophy of Tagore 4.6.3 Shantiniketan : An Experiment 4.7 Aurobindo Ghosh (1872 - 1950) 4.7.1 The Philosophy of Aurobindo 4.7.2 Concept of Education 4.7.3 Aurobindo Ashram at Pondichery 4.7.4 Auroville 4.7.5 Significance of His Educational Thought 4.8 Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) 4.8.1 His Philosophy 4.8.2 His Educational Philosophy 4.8.3 Aims of Education 4.8.4 Curriculum 4.8.5 Methods of Teaching 4.8.6 Place of Teacher 4.8.7 Place of Child 4.8.8 Evaluation of His Educational PhilosophyEducational | Thoughts of. | Western and: [athe object of education is to teach us to love beauty. And once we have given our | cannunity a good start,’ I pointed out” the process will be cumulative. By maintaining sound system of education you can produce citizens of good character, and citizens oy good character with the advantage of a good education, produce in turn good drildren better themselves and better able to produce still better children in their tum, as can be seer with animals,” ~ Plato \ 44. Plato (427 B.C.- 347 B.C.) ‘A famous disciple of Socrates, a philosopher, a rover of wisdom, an educationist, a mathematician a geet a reformer, a political philosopher, a prolific wwiter and kinsman of Solon, Plato was born in 427 RC. in an aristocratic family with royal blood of an old Athenian dynasty and died in 347 B.C. The influence of Socrates on his life made him write many valuable things. Like Socrates he aimed at the perfection of individual life. His dialectical method of asertaining reality, his contempt towards democracy, his advocacy of the rule of law, his combination of politics with ethics and his supremacy of reason and the idea of all ideas-virtue is knowledge were very uch influenced by Socrates. As a prolific writer, he ft a number of philosophical works after his death. They were : Apology, Crito, Phaedo, Symposium, public, the Statesman, the Laws etc. But of all works, the ‘Republic’ is a significant ‘td marvellous treatise on politics, morals, education, government, justice, political onomy and on multifarious subjects. It is the greatest works of all times. His ‘nbibution to the arena of education is splendid and spectacular. Plato (427 B.C.- 347 B.C.) emceePhilosophy : : The keystone of Plato’s thinking is his doctrine of a Idea is the ug, 7 Teality which is unaffected by the cross currents of a be dif itn from the object in which it appears. The idea of a horse will be different = Particular horse, Therefore, the idea is immanent in the transitory nature of j.2") | as the idea of horse is immanent in horses. The idea of absolute which consi, 8 divine order of reality transcendent to human knowledge or earthly Cxistengs Moreover, Plato said that idea of all ideas, the model of all models, the Prototype all archetypes is the idea of the ‘Good’. He calls this as the final and independon, reality existing “itself by itself”. This idea is the spring of all goodness, The idea g | ‘Good’ is not merely an abstract conception, but it reveals itself in everything truly exists, Itis the source of al truth, knowledge, beauty and of moral goodies, i can be comprehended by reason. It is the truth of all things and also the light wy; illuminates them. It is the cause of all things and the power which has brought them into existence. Plato believed that all men wanted to attain happiness by making a success of their lives in the best sense of the term. This happiness and success came Out of ang Were identifiable with goodness. A ‘good’ man is one who conducts his Own affairs those of his household, those of the city well. Thorough success in life is to possess “good’, To be ‘good’ a man must see to it that his soul is in good condition, As a humanist, he regarded man as the epitome of the universe, having tw essential elements-body and soul, To plato, soul has three parts-(i) instincts, Arives, apetites and desires, (ji) courage or spirit having the qualities-inspiration, endurance, hardihood nd perseverance, and (iii) reason, the divine, differentiated from the bod The above first and second parts represent body subjected to decay and destruction ~ source of all evils as reason is the enemy of it. He wanted that men should accept and apply reason to every aspects of life. Regarding the concept of ‘mind’. Plato identified two kinds of mind-the empirical and the rational. An empirical mind follows the path of ‘part to whole and the rational traces the path of whole to part. He considered the rational mind as mind proper and stressed ‘ends’ over ‘means’. His was a theory based on ideas that are innate and already exist in the mind. This conception led him to believe that all knowledge is amamensis (reminiscen) which implies that it can be recalled by stimulation, enquiry and discovery. Knowledse resides in soul and forms a part of it which, according to Plato, has three sources-() knowledge obtained through senses, (ii) knowledge gained through opinion, a (iii) knowledge which is innate. Knowledge through senses is not true, knowledge from opinions may be useful in certain circumstances, but too is unreal and koowledit is real that is innate wich is reliable, All mathematical truth, concepts, absolute ay ) ae a 4ye ional THoughts of Western and Eastern Thinkers a \dness ctideas are ture knowledge. Absolute ideas about beauty, justice and 00% at acquired through experience : which are already in mind. plato’s emphasis on inculcation of higher values which he termed “Goods be soul” lke justice, self-control, magnanimity, temperance, character, pine thee was an idealist to the core. He insisted on inculcating moral virtues 9) ww pina structured environment. Therefore, Plato is said to be the father of idealistic yorof of thought, 42.on Education ‘ plato’s view on education is most forcibly expressed in Book VII of his treatise spepublic”. No scheme of human life was so important to Plato as education. One of the sing he bequeathed to the posterity is education, which Plato calls it as “the eat thing” of life. He gave education a top priority in his ideal state. He was one fed that education was a social process which prepared the individual for his i station in society. It was a means of knowing truth for its own sake and realizing hk jdea of the Good which transcended all time and place. Besides, it was the only ‘tat bring permanent stability to the state. Plato convinced that education had a vy is conception of justice-every one should do his own part according to the nature that entitled him for a particular fuction or station or office. Education, ‘Plato thought, was an indispensable necessity for the operation of justice in his {deal State. It was through education that the principle of justice was properly meintained. Education was the positive measure for the operation of justice in the tia state, Education was calculated to promote justice by enabling individual to pom his allotted duty in the Ideal State. The function of education was to make Rian and woman socially, economically, politically and intellectually useful ind fit, Thus, Plato considered education as handmaid of justice and a key to susiining the republic. According to him “Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. It develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil allthe beauty and all the perfection of which he is capable of.” Plato stated the main function of education is not to put knowledge into the soul, but to bring out the latent talents in the soul by directing it towards the sight objects. To Plato, education meant bringing of the soul into that environment which in each tage of its growth is best suited to its development. The object of education is 'o"tumn the eye, which the soul already possesses, to the light.” The whole function “feducation is not to put knowledge into the soul, but to bring out the best things ee latent in the soul and to do so by directing it to the right objects. The problem lucation, then, is to give it the right surrounding and environment which the ad soul demands for its proper development and nourishment. The environment s and determines the soul. Thus, plato’s scheme of education is based on the esry Educational Philosophy recognition of the fact that human soul functions like a living organism and assimilate, itself to its surroundings. The soul is reached at different stages of its growth different instruments or agencies and through different media-religion, art, literature music, science, gymnastics, philosophy, institutions of society and of governmeny, Plato in his ‘Republic’ writes : “Education for citizenship is the only education which deserves the name; that other sort of training, which aims at the acquisition of wealth or bodily strength, or mere cleverness apart from intelligence ang justice, is mean, and illiberal and is not worth to be called ‘education’ at all”, He asserted that education is a public necessity as it is essential for health governance. It needs to be holistic. He said, “Education is to develop physially and mentally a human being, in such a way that his/her potentialities could be realized.” 4.1.3 Aims of Education Platonic education aimed at the following : (i) All-round development of human personality was the chief aim of education under Platonic System of education. Unlike Spartan Curriculum, Plato’s system of education gave stress on introducing subjects geared 1 development. In a nutshell, Plato imbued towards mental and moral different aspects of Spartian and Athenian education for the development of personality in a balanced manner. Therefore, development of whole man was the chief aim of Platonic education. Another important aim of education was to enable the soul to see the beautiful and the good. Education was not like giving eye to the blind; it was training the soul to the light to purify it. (ii) Promotion of common good on the basis of social justice was and then primary objective of education. (iii) Another important aim of education under Platonic Scheme of Education was development of civic efficiency-which could be fostered by inculcating the habits of temperance, courage and military skill into the youth. (i) (iv) Development of citizenship qualities was another aim of Plato in his design of education. Education would help the citizens to lead a disciplined life and make them well conversant with the requirements and constitution of the state. (v) Development of morality and rationality was another aim of education under Platonic system of education. (vi) Since Plato advocated supremacy of State, his fundamental aim of education was to ensure state unity. It was, by means of education, that egsveational Thoughts of Western and Eastern Thinkers fh citizens should be trai sake of the state erie to subordinate their individual interests for the state. completely dedicate their life to the service of the F. (ee eee men in their rapport to one another, and to is viduslized by qe Protection ‘was another prime aim of education, : . Inculcating m ef purpose of his education, § morals and manners was the chit 414 Scheme of Studies plato’s scheme of education represents a state-controlled system of compulsory ation for both sexes. But, he favoured it in the beginning of education. Later on, tion was given to a selected class - guardian or ruling class - embodiment of plan of education is divisible into two parts, viz. Elementary and Higher Uke SF AE. Tae educ education | season. His education. ( Elemen! Inchildhood upto the age of six, there was no necessity of imparting education. ‘qe children were to be given play, fables, fairy tales and simple recreations. The child is to be taught first simple religious truth and then simple moral truth and to Jearn the lessons of good manners and good taste. The child must learn to hate and ove things properly. : nearly boyhood i.e. in the second stage of elementary education upto the age of 18, education is to be both physical and intellectual in nature. He emphasised siudy of music for the achievement of the gentler side of life (for soul), and gymnastics forthe physical side of life (body). Plato disliked the study of poetry at this stage, as ‘twas an outrage on understanding and injuriously excited the feelings. Tt had an motional appeal without any rationality. Besides, he laid a good deal of emphasis onthe cultivation of memory and the study of natural sciences. tified the study of sciences on the following grounds : ()) they taught us mind comes gradually to decipher certain principles. He considered the Science of numbers as the mother of all sciences and arts. He included mathematics in his scheme of studies, for it trains the mind to think clearly and precisely. He objected to Homeric mythology, Hesoid and other theogonists relating stories of violent dethorning of older dynasties of God by the Younger. Therefore, upto the age of 17 or 18, there was a general education embracing, music, gymnastics, elements of sciences, mathematics and morals. From 18 to 20 years, there was to be an inclusive training in gymnastics including military training, exercises to develop courage, character, self-control and discipline. At the age of 20, men without good intellectual capacity would drop off 4a consequence of public test. tary Education ane oe He jus to think; and (ii) in studying scineces theSE ae Ny (ii) Higher Education A : Those who were weeding out in the test, were Se pear ik of the community-businessmen, clerks, factory, workers and [Sr 8 ie few were received higher education and higher educa’ Tt 2D age to 20 to 35. This fifteen years period was again divide f0 39, and 30 to 35- ten and five years respectively. : given systemetic scientigi, were to be In the first part, men and women, Wee 10 98 OTT hasis was lad «g education. Education was both physical an mathematics including arithmatics, plane and solid geometry, astronomy ang dialectics, Mathematical sciences were to be learnt. ‘Alongside this there was trainin, in publi ilitary servi £30, a second selective t in publ i i ilitary service. At the age of 30, ctive tog public service, particulary mi Be at Ee icnal ead was to take place. The less gifted were ‘. subordinate vificers or le officers of the state. The selected iat ile a further course of training in mathematics, chiefly science of dialectics. At ley Occupied positions of authority in the state. Thus, it higher education people ries to be brave, the fairest, and generous having good memory, quickness to learn truth, jusitce, courage and temperance. ics, they gained 15 years of practical After studying five years of dialecti 0 experiences. During this period, they were exposed to all sorts of temptations. “They would be tried more thoroughly than gold was tried in the fire,” so that the ers of the country might be ensured incorruptibility and self-control of the future ru 4 50, who had passed through the time honoured beyond a pale of doubt. Now at th hrou experiences and practices, were to be introduced to their final task of governing their country and their fellow citizens. They would pass most of their time in philosophical pursuits. It is, in this way, after receiving a sort perfection, the rulers would exercise power in the best interest of the state. Thus, the ideal state was the just and happy state. 4.1.5 Methods of Teaching Plato believed in correlated lectures and dialogues like his teacher, Socrates. In his Academy he himself taught mathematics and philosophy by correlated lectures and dialogues. Self-questioning was another method of teaching. Students were encouraged to question to clarify their misgivings and doubts. Thus, self-questioning was a form of method leading to intellectual curiosity. Thinking followed by arguments led to establishing the truth. Persistent questioning, thus, was the best method of teaching. Plato did not favour acquisition of knowledge under compulsion. 4.1.6 Discipline This system of education was more disciplinary than of other Greek writers on education. He realiseed that the true life of an ideal citizen was a life of discipline, @ za eee eee eee foe |ast Thoughts of Western and Eastern Thinkers mn of fundamental thi BS, of contentplation of fx and one of loving truth for its own ti For the disciples in his Acaclemy, he maintained that nelf- discipline was the fans for UNIS Aa tee through the technique of free self-questioning. A Te eae the pupils to ask questions to clear their misgivings oo minimise rors is doctrine of ‘Reminiscence’ was based on the premise “a ginted out the necessity of providing motivation to pupils to ask as many 26 whi jons as they could to clear their doubts and misconceptions. yet : a“ conception of Teacher He assigned a prominent place to the teacher in his Academy. In the Platonic gystem of education. nothing is said of direct teaching, as the main problem of ston is simply to bring the soul into a particular surrounding, He never talked steps PY which an object of knowledge is to be presented to the mind, for mind is Phat directs itself to objects. Therefore, teacher can never touch directly the piritual force. The true business of the teacher, in fact, is to bring out what is patin his pupils in place of any pumping in to the soul. E.Barker writes, “The true pusiness of the teacher in fact, is to bring out what is best in his pupil ; more iraly, it causes of itself in response to the right objects, and it is in setting them ” his pupils that the true art of the teacher lies.” This view coincides with the theory of “reminiscence” propounded by Plato in his dialogue, the “Meno”. He says garour soul hes seen in the former life all things which it learns in this world, and ur learning is a mere remembrance of that life, which flashes to the mind when ome facts of an object stirs what we call an association of ideas. The object only givesa clue, the soul itself responds to its suggestions. Therefore, the role of teacher vas infact very significant. 44gConcept of Binary System of Education Plato thought of binary system of education in his frame of education. The fist one is related to education for practical affairs and the second is education for service to the state. He confined the education for practical affairs to the artisan. and mnie classes ie. Tron Class. He prescribed no specific training in citizenship for industiral class, for he thought that the member of this class has no voice in the government of the state; their characteristic virtue is obedience. His education was a type of liberal education involving service to the state. It was meant for developing inthe learner the ideal perfection of citizenship and equipping him for service to the ‘ite In this liberal form, Plato wanted to develop two types of virtues- fundamental andrational in the learners. He wanted that the child should develop moral attitudes and habits in his ideal state. 44.9Concept of Women Education Plato supported education for women and thus, he wanted to teach both the sx music, dancing, gymnastics, military exercises, housemanship, art of the war,Educati f men were the pursuits of women also, Ag g,,, favoured their entry into all offices and works of the state. re ato of educa is to make man and woman socially, economincally, intel Sea tay useful and fit. So, he was rightly called as the champion of women educatig, i the world. 4.1.10 Management of Education : Plato was a supporter of the principle of division of labour in any offi.. institution. He wanted different forms of training for three fundamental classes of the Ideal State-Iron, Silver and Gold (Artisan or Industrial clas: military clagg and philosopher or governing class). He wanted vocational training only 4 4 iron class. Since primary duty of the ideal state is to provide education toall, he sai ii all children should be in the public schools controlled and guided by the state, A Superintendent of education over age 50 would have to hold office for a periog five years who would be elected by the magistrates from among the ablest citizens the state. He would be assisted by the director of music, director of Bymnastics ang other assistants and suprintendents for organising contests. 4.1.11 Value of Plato’s Theory of Education Plato attaches a great importance to education in curing maladies of the Society and it stands to support for the stability of state. According to Prof G.H. Sabine, “Education is the positive means by which the ruler can shape human nature in, the right direction to produce a harmonious state.” 1. One great merit of Plato’s theory of education is that the scheme of education was based upon the doctrine of equality of opportunity to all. Girls were entitled to receive education like boys and women were allowed to participate in public life like men. 2. Another great plus point of his theory of education is that it aimed at the harmonious development of human personality. His scheme is comprehensive and all-inclusive as training was given to body, mind and soul. The purpose was to produce the right type of individualities in the state. 3. A modern educator may learn things from Plato's theory of education. The importance of environment in the education of a child, imparting education through successive stages, proceeding from simple to complex, providing opportunity to the child to play active role in the process of learning, the selection of candidates for higher stages of education, etc. are some of the implications for today’s educators and planners of education. 4, Another advantage of Plato’s System of education lies in the fact that the purpose of it was very magnanimous, i.e. spiritual as against the notion ©’ material. The purpose of education was the attainment of the idea of Goot ete. He said that all pursuits ofee | nts of Western and Eastern Thinkers sonal TO “ato’s plan of education i 7 plato’s P took into consideration the division of human 5 Mi into three elements-appetite, courage and reason and was calculated rape so progressive and systematic as to bring about the development of all jhe three. The course of education was designed to arouse the slumbering jes of the individual. It was not burdensome nor any constraint in it faculties O° fore, it was psychological in its spirit and temper. There! he puritanical touch in his scheme of education, the censorship of art ety and literature were calculated to be in keeping with the general Praception of guardians who bereft of family and property, were to rule as guardian saints. 7, Themost original part of Plato's scheme of education is the higher education to be given to the ablest and fittest few between the ages of 20 to 35. The higher education of the guardians was meant to be professional as well as calculated to improve the body and mind of the guardians. ‘The most fascinating aspect of his educational thought was that education was considered as a strong weapon to cure maladies that afflict the body of society. This is now widely acknowledged all over the globe. y2criticisms 1, Plato scheme of education is anti-democratic and unj roducing class is concerned, Although the contribution of artisans clas: profound to production, but Plato did not provide rights of citizenship to Fem, The education was simply meant for the rulers or philosophers or sses of gold or silver. Therefore, a bulk of the classes of people did upper cla not get education unlike the few upper classes. As such, free and compulsory Jn cannot be suited to modern tducation was a myth or utopia for plato whic democracy. scheme of education did not emphasise vocational and technical .d the training of artisans and did not even ‘make clear how they would be included in the plan of elementary instruction. According to this conception of justice, everyone must, as efficiently as he can perform his allotted duties in the ideal state. But, Plato’s education would train the guardians only for their duties. So, education is lop-sided. just so far as the s is Plato's: education as he never discusse Plato's scheme minimizes the influence of literature and exaggerates the importance of mathematics in life. This type of education will produce an ideal philosopher bereft of an ideal man of action and therefore, will suit the very few, not the many. Hence, it is quite dichotomous.Eatcations Pie, Y £ education there is constant wavering between theig tion. Sometimes the goal is the idea of eal * set, nist 4, In Plato's theory 0 i lal of action and that of contemp!a : te 'poats good, sometimes social service. At one time, its aim is perfeg development, at another social adaptation. Both these aims are antag, to each other. *~ i 5. Instead of conceiving education as a creation and function of the State ceived of government as a consequence of educate Government, Plato cone n 2 e His guardian-rulers are a result of his educational system. This is contradictory and confusing. 6. Plato's scheme of education, like his communism, condemns his guardian, toa life of military monasticism. His education, extending to 35 years py age, will not only be expensive but would also stifle initiative in-men jy that age. The scheme is, as such, self-defeating because the Suardians, remaining in statu pupillari till 35 will lose capacity for self-directed activity and will not be the true and efficient guardians of the state as desired by Plato. 7. Plato's scheme of education, again, is so arranged that the first part defeats the aim of the second ie. stimulation of thought and free thinking, the more important aim. This aim will hardly be possible in the face of accepted ideas and habits which are injected into the hearts and minds of theirs, ‘The ingrained habits of accepted beliefs will make the guardians diehard conservatives who will fear inprovements and decry change. They will not be fit for governing the affairs of a state and their minds will ‘always be framed more in a fixed pattern. Critics say that it involves a complete surrender of intellect and mind. i.e. intellectual slavery. Their minds will be torpid. To conclude, Plato’s scheme of education represents the most exquisite plan encompassing whole life. His education, undoubtedly, has left its mark on the present system of education in a number of ways. Let’s agree with E. Barker who says “Education of Plato is an attempt to touch the evil at its source, and to reform wrong ways of living by altering the whole outlook on life. It is an attempt to cure a mental malady by mental medicine.” 4.2 John Dewey (1859-1952) The most distinguished American educational thinker, the advocate of ‘ti polar educational process’, the exponent of pragmatic philosophy, the votary of experience-centred curriculum, a strong supporter of democratic education, antagonist of classical approach to education, the fore-runner of progressiv® education, the great experimentalist and a many more, John Dewey has made ®? Jess and solid contribution to the periphery of education in a number of ways ite ee eee —<“—*srs”::s=ststrs=si“ ‘#E «=CsCeeG |orm : 1859, John pad rich experiences of early years which ey 1 sm to ponder over the grappli pe ed during the prevailing poses” Ts from the university of Vermont in 1879, ing sla teacher for a brief spel. He left it snc pe Fo to Johns Hopkins University to pursue his pti gee in philosophy. He became a lecturer in fh ‘ophy at the University of Michigan where he giles till 1894. For the years during his career cost 992 to 1904, he was the Director of the School got 1p, It was at Chicago in 1896, he founded his ; igo eM nowledge of facts and laws hitherto a fo 0 own to the educationists and to test and verify his educational ideas and theories atk perspectives: He had to remain professor of philosophy at the Columbia in tt from 1904 to 1930 and at last he remained professor in Emeritus upto 1952, as of his last breath. During his career, he penned a lot of articles and books. The followings are eof his selected works. (i) “Interest as related to Will” (1896), “My Pedagogical creed” (1897), “The School and Society” (1900), “Studies in Logical Theory” of), “Relation of Theory of Practice in the Education of Teachers” (1907), tyoral Principles in Education” (1909), “How we Think” (1910), “Schools of jammorrow” (1915), “Democracy and Education” (1916), “Creative Intelligence” asin, “Experience and Education” (1938), “Freedom and Culture” (1939). *problems of Men” (1946). “Education Today” (1949), “Moral Principles in sducation” (1959). and “Dewey on Education” (1959). 42AHis Philosophy Dewey's philosophy represents Darwin’s evolutionary ideas and William James’ pragmatic ideas. Evolutionary theory of the former firmly holds the view that world isstil in making and life is an ever-changing process. Pragmatic concept of William hues believes the maxim, “whatever useful is good and whatever good is useful. Truth is that which serves our purpose and satisfie our desires.” The Philosophy of John Dewey contains the following characteristics : 1, No Fixed and Absolute Values John Dewey firmly believes that values are not eternal and perennial. All values change with time and space. What works in practical situation is true and what does not work in the line of practicality and usability is absolutely false. Truth is eemn Educational Philosophy something subject to change. What is true today may cease to be true tomorrow This is essentially pragmatic idea. é 2. Knowledge is Intimately related to Action Dewey reserves the idea that both knowledge and action are same ang inseparable. He does not give action a higher pedestal than knowledge. He does no think practice or action is superior to thought, rather complementary to each other, Thus, knowledge connot be divorced from action. 3. Experience forms the Reality For him, the only hard-core reality is one’s experience of objects, physical ang social surroundings around him. It is through experience that knowledge increases which helps him to modify his behaviour jn changing circumstances and times, Therefore, experience forms the core of his philosophy. He experimented his ideas to the touch stone of experience. So, he is called a great experimentalist. 4, Inseparability between Indi dual and Society t there exists an organic relationship between the individual and the society. An individual is a social being and a “citizen growing, and thinking ina vast complex of interactions and relations.” For proper growth, an individual must live both in physical and social environment. ‘Self’ can not grow in solitude. Tt cannot grow in the mere contact with nature. For the growth of a man, the essential is that he should live with the rest of mankind. 5. Scientific Analysis of the Problem He viewed that thinking analyses problem in a scientific way Thus, scientific method is central in governing every types of human affairs. The problem has to be solved by applying thinking in a rational way. But it has to go through four fundamental processes : (i) Sensing of a problem, (ii) Observation of the conditions surrounding it, (iii) formulation of hypothesis (course of action), and (ty) experimental testing of hypothesis to see its result. Thus thinking is central to the problem and this is personal and influenced by one’s emotions and abilities. 6. “Importance of Thought in Good Adjustment ~ He said that development of human beings takes place through modification of environment by human beings. Thought is instrumental in making adjustment between a person and his environment. Therefore, John Dewey was an instrumentalist who emphasised thought as the instrument of human beings to help them making good adjustment in their milieu. 7. Breaking down the Barriers of Humanity He understood that barriers of language, caste, nationality, colour, religion, etc. have divided the entire humanity and separated man from man. These barriers Dewey convinced tha’1 Thoughts of Western and East Education Thinkers make man ignorant and retard the growth of nation. John Dewey said that it was through education that these barriers could be broken down and it could forge 2 jink between individuals and groups and between individuals and nations. Therefore, education plays a very strategic role from the view point of the above barriers of humanity. g, Conception of Mind His conception of mind is some what evolutionary in nature, Instead of it as a fixed entity fitted with some faculties Dewey considered mind as a product of activity and it develops through a series of activities. Thus, growth of mind is evolutionary. 9. Individual Differences, Impulses and Interests John Dewey recognised the factor of individual difference and the individual ‘ows through a richness of social opportunity. He asserted that each child has jnnate impulses which are aroused by the environmental stimuli and the impulses play their part in making decisions. Interest, according to Dewey, “as a form of F a-expressive activity-that is, of growth through acting upon nascent tendencies.” itis an outgoing of the self towards the development of the organism. Interest is the sign of growing powers and the basis to solve myriad problems. Interest is contained in the activities of the child-physical, constructive, intellectual and social. 4.2.2 Educational Philosophy of Dewey Citing the importance of education, John Dewey says, “what nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social life.” Education, according to him, “as the development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfil his possibilities.” Two important trends are apparent from the above definitions of education- psychological and social. The former includes the study of the child’s instincts, innate potentialities, interests and endowments, It is the starting point of education. Education should start with the psychological nature of the child. It directs controls and guides innate propensities of the child in a socially desirable way. So far as social side of education is concerned, John Dewey emphasised social environment in which the child is born, lives and grows for society. Social situations or conditions determine one’s personality and they are essentials for right interpretation of child’s powers. He writes "All education proceeds by the participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race." This process tegins unconsciously almost at birth and the social consciousness continually shapes and modifies the individual's powers and personality. True education comes through the stimulation of the child’s powers by the demands of the social situation. The situations affect one's character and mind, form habits of language and vocabulary, and cultivate mannerism and appreciation. Education is a social necessity-essential for living a social life. It bridges the gulf between the innate nature of the immature aera eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eeed ild and the social standards and demands, It gives $0 usNess to child through the school as a special environment. The school cultivates In the ¢ a Panitve attitude and disposition: necessary for a continuous and progressive lite society. Further, to understand his educational ideas, it is essential to highlight o, essentials which are captured as under : (i) Education as Growth Education is growth and the end of growth is more growth. In simple words, it leads to growth. But, growth is not directed towards a pre-determined goal, ag the end of growth is more growth, similarly, the end of education is more education, Growth is necessary for the growing personality and the fuuction of education is tg help the growing personality to grow more. The teacher is to provide ample opportunities for proper growth by arousing the the instincts and capacities of pupils in a proper manner. (ii) Education as Life John Dewey believes that educ uncertain and far away from present. ation is not a preparation for iife as future is So, education is life itself. Activity provides rich and varied experience, and life is a by-product of a heap of activities. School is a “miniature society” with problems similar to those faced in life. The basic purpose of school is to train pupils in “co-operative and mutually helpful living in community”. The pupils learn the art of actual living in the community in school. The pupils encountering social problems will create their new social order by solving a host of problems. Therefore, the school is a necessity to serve pupils in the line of social and democratic social orders. Education, as such, is life-a laboratory for practical life problems. (iii) Education as Social Efficiency Since development of individuality requires a social medium, it is essential that education should provide necessary social skills to children, John Dewey said, “The aim of education is ‘social efficiency’-economic efficiency and good citizenship". Economic efficiency refers to attainment of certain skills to earn one’s livelihood. Good citizenship refers to the ability to judge and decide wisely and to take a part in making as well as obeying laws. Thus, cultivation of good citizenship is sine-qua-non for a democratic order. School is a fertile land to foster economic skills and democratic temper in children for leading a better life in the society and the nation. (iv) Education as Experience The central theme of education is experience. Dewey said that education is by, of and for experience. Experience helps to gain knowlege and to modify the behaviour. Experience is ever increasing and one experience leads to further| ill Se aveational Thoughts of Western and Eastern Thinkers rience, and each ne i ; eT as eupericieea Com carnc® Warrants revision, modification or rejection of tHe Peres experience. Thus, rear nas, 2 Pr0¢ess, helps reorganise and reconstruct Cae ee cio fully ie S, reorganisation and xe-constuction of experience helps ynan to develop fully in all aspects of personality. ‘sims of Education John Dewey does not believe in fixed aims of education, for change witnesses in physical and social environment. As such, aims can not be fixed for all times to come. Aims change with the tenor of the time. The following are some of the aims of education which are drawn from his writings on education : (@) John Dewey rejected the thesis that education as preparation for life, because, he said that future is uncertain and the child is uninterested in the unknown future. Education, on the contrary, aims at helping the child solve the present life problems, Therefore, education is life itself. . (i) Another aim, which has already discussed, is the cultivation of social efficiency for a better society. School as a ‘miniature society’ instills in the minds of younger generation all necessary skills to become efficient members of society. (ii) John Dewey always emphasised on both action and thought. He wants to strike a blend between theory and practice. Thus, he said that the aim of education should be to secure a balanced interaction between theory and practice. (iv) Another chief aim of education is to promote individual development according to the child’s capacities and interests as against any absolute standards or values. Dewey says. “Education protects, sustains and directs growth.” (v) John Dewey remarkes that one of the important aims of education is ‘self- realization of the individual’. Education assists the child in realization of all his or her powers all the time to come. (vi) Dewey stressed on natural development which refers to the development of organs of human body. As such, the aim of education is to enable the child to maintain a standard health and to acquire certain. physical skills for natural development of organs of human body. 42.4 Curriculum John Dewey rejected the subject-centred curriculum, divorced from pupil’s interests, impulses and experiences. He preferred integrated curriculum. According to him, curriculum should be organised round certain. activities and experiences. He does not suggest any ready-made curriculum, rather he wants the curriculum to emanate out of child’s own interests, inclinations, impulses and experiences. ItEducational Phito consists of an array of activities and projects tending towards reconstruction a organisation of experience. Curriculum is a reflection of social life. While plantt® rnin the curriculum Dewey asserted that essentials and refinements side cout forgotten. His essentials are man’s fundamental concerns like food, shelter, ec" and household furnishings and appliances linked with production, exer": consumption are refinements in nature. However, the following things are ney." in his curriculum design. Occupational activities or crafts form the core of @ conception of curriculum. Aesthetic, moral and religious education were incorpo fr fall development of personality ofthe child. He does not intend to a and religious education through i i oaet ee ee igh lessons but by practical experience, Hence, his 4.2.5 Methods of Teaching The important contribution of Prof. Dewey to the field of education is meth 3 nee : ods of teaching based upon activities, experiences and problems. His creations - 'How we Think’ and ‘Interest and Effort in Education’ reflects his view on methods of teaching. “Project method’ is his innovation which is based on the principle of leaning by doing and experiencing. This method believes in correlation of activities and integration of subjects. It is problem-solving in nature. Pupils work out the problems and solve them ultimately through their self-efforts and creative activities in real life situations. It is noteworthy to mention here that in this method the child’s interests and purposes are given importance. Dewey does not like to allow projects which are too ambitious and beyond the pupil capacity to grasp and accomplish. In this method, participation and activity are accorded prime place. He laid down five fundamental steps in problem-solving or project method. (i) Creation of a suitable situation of experience giving rise to real life problem. (ii) Stimulation of thinking for solution of problem, (iii) Collection of information to deal with the problem. (iv) Execution and arriving at possible solutions, and (v) Validating the solution by application. Besides, John Dewey recommended experimental method for the pupils in his laboratory school. Every facts, he said, should be tested by the touch stone of experiment. Constant revision is the work of experimental inquiry. Hence. experimental method is fatal to dogmatism and cult of traditionalism as it shows that all ideas, conceptions. theories. however consistent, reliable and aesthetically attractive they may be, are to be entertained provisionally until they have been tested by acting upon them. Moreover, he favoured 'auto-learning’ and 'play-way method! of teaching and learning. a |vy ps # e cain Thoughts of Westernand Eastern Thinkers 8 piscipline John Dewey deprecated strict discipline imposed by the adult members. He geievesin free and. eae resulting from free purposeful and creative activities Sraed out ina soci environment, He quotes, “The natural way of establishing ach discipline is to redirect the natural impulses of children, through suc’ native o shared activities along socially approved lines for realization of rain definite purposes. In such activities each child realizes his responsibility ee acquizes self-discipline.” an Moreover, it is clear that Dewey has spoken of self-discipline and social- aiscipline Social discipline emerges out of manifold activities in a social atmosphere aftheschool. Ina social atmosphere, children will be able to develop social attitudes. cocial interests, social habits and social skills. In such a condition, children will be giciplined themselves by engaging in the shared activities of the school. Therefore, a Seepline is both self and social in nature, oy 42.7Place of Teacher John Dewey gives a very important place to the teacher in his scheme. He is Sn} encemed with impulses and interests of the child rather than sprinkling, of isa} _jgowledge. He is the planner of activities for the children. He is the supervisor and ittes!|jgmeone buys... The i nila] pesor of the activities for securing growth and development of the children. He | nites, “Teaching may be compared to selling commodities. No one can sell unless tive lies with the learner, the teacher is a guide and ‘svti) girector.” His function is to guide them through the complexities of life. He helps them to adapt adequately to the contemporary situations and new experiences. He says that instead of wast his time in ‘Chalk and talk’ instruction and imposing rigid formalities, redllé| the teacher should observe plan and encourage the children. Therefore, in the scheme of education, he has to shoulder a heavy responsibility to implement his plan of adion and guides the young not only into the habit of democratic co-operation but also towards the highest intellectual pursuits and the fullest aesthetic experiences. He motivates every child to engage in manifold educative activities. 42.8His Ideal School ne pa Unlike naturalists, John Dewey stressed the need of an ideal school from as¢ Pchological as well us social stand-points. From the stand-point of psychological St necessity, he considered ideal school as an enlarged ideal home. In this home, the wu si thild learns to subordinate his interests to the general interest of the household. The y "yj “hooliis related to the child’s experience. In this home, the child learns the habits of aie bedience, sacrifice. fellow-feeling, patience, discipline, hard work, sincerity, co- c Peaion and all forms of social ‘etiquette’. In this home, he gets love and affection om the teachers who present themselves as ‘parents figure’ before the children. ,