Chapter-2

Literature review

There is a vast amount written about white-collar crimes, but it is by no means complete. There
is plenty of published works by a wide range of authors in academic journals, books, and other
formats; focus on the many facets of white-collar crime. Several of these records offer the
groundwork for learning about criminal law’s treatment of white-collar offences, whereas others
focus on the theoretical aspects of white-collar crime, these principles form the basis of the
argument. Such topics as the relationship between white-collar crime and more traditional
notions offence, criminology’s purview, penalties, and more. There is, however, a dearth of
material on the enforcement associated with financial wrongdoing. Since the vast majority of
these are authored byin the works of non-indian authors, other countries’ legal systems continue
to take precedence over india’s.the author conducts a literature assessment on white-collar crime
in this section.identified a major hole in the existing body of literature and proposed a plan to fill
it.

The term “white collar crime” was originally used by sutherland (1940) 1.crime’. White collar
crime, in his view, is defined as “crime committed in the upper, whitereputable or at least well-
respected business and professionals make up the white-collar class.men’. Despite the fact that
numerous authors before him had emphasised the need of investigating thecorporate aristocracy,
but sutherland was the one who got the criminologists’ attention Towards this mostly ignored
area. According to his analysis, the foundation for criminological theories wasputting too much
weight on financial hardship, or conditions like psychopathy and sociopathic behaviour, poverty.
He claimed that the current hypotheses were founded on information gathered by authorities.law
enforcement that was unfair since it didn’t take victims’ plights into account crime perpetrated
by the elite of the society. He looked into their criminal patterns and criminality against
businessmen and other professionals, and its repercussions and financial toll. White-collar
crimes, which sutherland argues should be included, are those committed by the wealthy.in the
study of crime and criminals. The crimes committed by the wealthy and the privileged, he said
“classes primarily diverge in how the criminal justice system treats them”.

1
Edwin H. Sutherland, “White Collar Criminality”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 5, No.1, February 1940, pp. 1-
12
The police, prosecutors, and judges of the criminal system deal with the offences of the lower
classes.punishments include fines, jail time, and even death for crimes committed by the upper
class.

Are dealt with by inspectors and administrative boards and commissions who use disciplinary
measures in the form of admonitions, orders to stop, suspensions, and, in the most severe cases,

Punishments such as fines or jail time. Thus, sutherland argued against the accepted conceptions
of criminology, since it failed to account for the criminal activities of the affluent, and because it
implied to replace the old ideas, which relied on contrasting lexical associations as well as social
chaos. He made an effort to revolutionise explanations for why criminal behaviour occurs. It’s
this moment when study of white-collar crimes became part of the criminology canon within its
farthest limits. After waiting nearly a decade, sutherland published a book in which he provided

White collar crime: meaning of the term. According to his definition, “white collar crime” is
roughly characterised as a serious offence that a respectable, high-status individual committed
while going about his consequently, sutherland emphasised the social standing of one’s
occupation rather than one’s ‘occupation’ in his definitions2.

The criminal.white-collar criminals are not criminals, according to tappan (1947)3, he has
researched what constitutes criminal behaviour and how to go about crime science research. He
raises doubts about who, exactly, should be labelled a “white collar criminal.”He argues that the
four factors listed below render it impossible to classify white-collar crimes as criminal acts
reasons. To begin, criminologists investigate the actions of criminals and white-collar. Since
criminals do not actually break the law, criminology cannot properly encompass them have just
antisocial habits. Second, the definition of white-collar crime is not clear-cut. Crystal apparent,
considering that the term’s progenitor has written three different definitions. Finally, he claims
that “greed,” not “need,” motivates the majority of white-collar crimes.this is an aspect of
criminal behaviour, and fourth, criminals are people who have court-determined, but civil rights
offences are included under the broader category of “white collar crimes.”Law. Therefore, in his
view, white-collar crime does not constitute criminal activity.

2
Edwin H. Sutherland, White Collar Crime, Dryden Press, New York, 1949.
3
Paul W. Tappan, “Who is the Criminal?”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 12, 1947, pp. 96-102.
 according to newman (1958),4 sutherland’s focus on ‘social position’ sparked a stir in the field
of criminal justice on whether or not including the idea that white-collar crimes are a respectable
area of inquiry within the discipline of criminology and theoretical frameworks. White-collar
crime, in his view, is a form of social deviance from the offender’s position in society.
According to him, the debate over whether or not there are three main concerns when discussing
the inclusion of white-collar crimes in the study of criminology. That is, first and foremost, do
the alleged infractions of law constitute criminal acts?second, is it possible for the actions of the
perpetrators of white-collar crimes with abstract ideas like crime, because of the fact that
offenders rarely reflect on their actions considered to be bad guys? Thirdly, what’s the point if all
it does is sow discord and accuracy loss caused by expanding criminal definitions to include
more “normal” ‘punished’ by civil or administrative action as opposed to the usual and likely. In
a nutshell, the legal system for criminals.

Commission on Administrative and Organisational Change 2nd (2007)98: Corruption, as well

as a lack of accountability and ethics in government, are issues that the Commission investigates.
The Commission investigated the workings of the Indian government's bureaucracy and
connecting the political executive with the civil service at large. They looked at the ethical, legal,
and institutional measures already in place to combat corruption in India as well. The panel
proposed measures to guarantee efficient administration at the state and district levels in order to
realise the country's goal of having administration that is proactive, responsive, accountable,
sustainable, and efficient at all levels. Probity in government was also called for, along with the
introduction of systemic reforms and the development of social infrastructure through citizen-
centric management. The Commission recommended that e-governance be prioritised in the
rapidly developing field of information technology. Its work resulted in a plan for improving the
country's governmental structure.

Malimath Committee: 5Recommendations for improving the country's criminal justice system
were made by the Malimath Committee. To get there, the committee looked at the cornerstones
of criminal law and considered whether or not any Indian Penal Code, the Indian Evidence Act,
and the Code of Criminal Procedure all needed revising to bring them in line with modern needs
and the hopes of the Indian people. Based on their findings, the committee proposed concrete
4
Donald J. Newman, “White Collar Crime”, Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 23, 1958, pp.735 – 753
5
changes to the judicial system that would streamline processes and reduce costs, including ways
to foster cooperation between the courts, the prosecution, and the police.

They suggested ways in which the police, the prosecution, and the court may be held accountable
for delays in their respective spheres of responsibility in order to restore public trust in the
criminal justice system.

White-collar crime is considered to be ‘crime’ in the actual world, according to edelhertz et al.
(1977)6. Sense, and the fact that no physical harm is inflicted on anyone is the sole reason why it
is not considered a crime. That category of criminal activity. Before edelhertz and company
came along, most descriptions of white-collar criminal studies that emphasised the role of the
perpetrator yet were critiqued for undemocratic because they put more weight on the offender’s
social standing than on the crime itself. Offence. Edelhertz’s concept of white-collar crime is the
most practical and democratic one. White-collar crime was defined by him in terms of nature and
context, making his description more acceptable. Character of the wrongdoing rather than the
economic or social standing of the offender. White collar crime has far-reaching consequences,
which edelhertz et al. Segments of society and argue that tackling the white-collar crime problem
be every criminal justice system’s top priority. Prioritising actions to do on multiple
classifications of white-collar offences, they grouped related offences together. Distinct semantic
categories and explained how the police and prosecutors must be organised, and how the roles of
the many investigators should be divided, white-collar crime, it’s important to coordinate,
collaborate, and monitor detection and investigation efforts. Offences involving a collar. White
collar crime is distinct from other types of crime, as acknowledged by edelhertz et al. Crime and
shed information on the strategy and methods the legal system search warrants for law
enforcement to use in investigating white-collar offences. They stress the goal, and the part
intelligence agencies play in the fight against white-collar crime. When it comes to dealing with
criminals, edelhertz et al. Get to the heart of the problem facing law enforcement today.
Addresses white collar crimes and provides an in-depth look at how white collar crimes are
investigated. Crime in the united states that involves a collar. Despite this, they have discussed
enforcing white supremacist white collar crime in other countries, but it has contributed to a
6
H. Edelhertz, E. Stotland, M. Walsh and M. Weinberg, Investigation of White Collar Crime – A Manual for Law
Enforcement Agencies, US Department of Justice, Washington, 1977.
more complete picture of white collar crime worldwide. Challenges in criminal investigations
and given advice on how to approach them office theft and fraud probes.

Some of the major concerns surrounding white-collar crime are analysed by conyers (1980).7 it’s
the biggest issue in society, and we need to give it a lot of thought. He emphasises the
perceptions of the overwhelming nature and cost of white-collar offences. Serious as traditional
crimes, eating away at national income and wreaking havoc on national health and morale. He
also examines the american case law that has set the basis for the theory of criminal
accountability for corporations. But in spite of the criminal apparatus created to combat it is
poorly funded and poorly focused. Disordered and devoid of focus. White-collar crime, the
author believes, is the most problem that police departments have been having lately, and there
needs to be substantial given the complexity of the situation, it is imperative that the criminal law
enforcement apparatus be revaluated. Difficult, with no simple solutions or quick fixes available.

According to wheeler and rothman (1981-82)8, the role of white collar crime organisation. They
investigate white-collar criminals empirically. And find, through their research, that those who
break the law while operating under criminal acts of a higher level of sophistication and
complexity can be committed by an organisation. Magnitude. Organisational shape and public
perception are highlighted by the authors. Towards the organisation lend it an air of credibility.
Because of this legitimacy, unlawful profits can be magnitude that is difficult for men and
women to achieve separately. Group dynamics crimes are becoming increasingly intricate and
harder to prove. The writers maintain that it’s less probable they’ll happen the more complicated
and troublesome they get. Law enforcement’s attention, prompt investigation, and prosecution to
a fruitful finish after being charged. Wheeler and rothman (1999) found that and structure are to
the world of white-collar crime what blades and guns are to the world of street crime. Crimes. As
the authors point out, more study is needed to determine the effects of various similar to how we
may expect more specific information on typical criminal weapon analysis of how this structure
is used in white-collar crime.

7
John Conyers, “Corporate and White-Collar Crime: A View by the Chairman of the House Subcommittee on
Crime”, American Criminal Law Review, Vol.17, 1980, pp. 287-300
8
Stanton Wheeler and Mitchell L. Rothman, “The Organization as Weapon in White-Collar Crime”, Michigan Law
Review, Vol. 80, 1981-82, pp. 1403- 1426.
 people’s perceptions of those in white collar jobs are investigated by cullen et al. (1982) 9. The
colour white itself has evolved over time. So yet, this problem has received less attention. Cullen
et al. Evaluated how seriously people take various sorts of crime by conducting a national
survey. Et al. Did an empirical study by sending out a questionnaire to 200 locals who came
from a hat or a lottery or anything similar. In this study, participants were asked to rank several
types of crimes in based on the gravity of the offence.

A similar sample size and population were used in rossi et al.’s (1974) 10study, and the responses
were evaluated and compared. Requested to rate the severity of the offence. Cullen et al.
Conclude from their research that the general public’s view of white-collar crime has evolved
throughout time. The public’s moral apathy towards white-collar crime is more concerning than
white-collar crime has risen in both absolute and relative terms, making this myth seem more
plausible than ever. More so than any other type of criminal conduct.

in their article “west and carter (1983)11” west and carter argue that the widespread perception
that white-collar crimes are ‘notreal’ crimes, a common argument made by criminologists white-
collar crimes are often viewed as not being “real” crimes determined by a court following the
rules of civil law. They claim that this is primarily due to the vast majority of criminologists
make the assumption that there is a crucial distinction between civil and infractions of the law.
The two areas of law, however, are not necessarily exclusive. There is a great deal of similarity
between criminal law and civil law. Responsibility, the moral value they assign to actions, their
goals, and the ways in which they justify those actions controls them. According to west and
carter, the cornerstones of criminal law, purpose, both statutes recognise wrongdoing and
establish punishments for a reason. The only real distinction is degree. Their view is that any
action that breaks the law is the same as any other. There is no hard and fast line between the
criminal law and conduct that breaches civil law. Law that governs civil matters as well as
criminal offences.

9
Francis T. Cullen, Bruce G. Link and Craig W. Polanzi, “The Seriousness of Crime Revisited: Have Attitudes Toward
White-Collar Crime Changed?”, Criminology, Vol.20, No.1, 1982, pp.83-102.
10
P. H Rossi and J. P. Henry, “Seriousness: A Measure for All Purposes?”, Handbook of Criminal Justice Evaluation,
M. Klein and K. Teilmann (eds.), Sage Publishers, California, 1980.
11
Steve Blum West, Timothy J. Carter, “Bringing White-Collar Crime Back In: An Examination of Crimes and Torts”,
Social Problems, Vol. 30, 1983, pp. 545-554.
They are staunch proponents of the idea that white-collar crimes are ‘crimes’. Benson (1985) 12:
benson zeroes in on the methods utilised by white-collar criminals to lie about the absence of
criminal behaviour. He cites sutherland (1940) and newman (1958) as earlier proponents of this
view. Unfortunately, there hasn’t been much research into white-collar crime yet. White collar
criminals’ excuses for denying their illicit behaviour. Benson investigates former white-collar
criminals through interviews and case reviews to their justifications. These justifications are
employed to decrease the discrepancy between positive portrayal of the perpetrator’s character
and behaviours. Benson argues that the justifications given by white-collar criminals for their
behaviour often the mechanics, histories, and organisational structures of crimes and by the
activities themselves. Needing to go against what makes degrading rituals work properly it is a
crucial part of the legal system. Strongest and most reliable in terms of interviews was a
vehement denial of any illegal intent. Benson hints at the significance of an offense’s
“presentability” in determining an offender’s sentence.choice to act criminally; the act itself. A
criminal who wants to escape being typecast as a person who does not have a criminal history
will only commit the least serious crimes. ‘seriousness’. White collar crimes, the author argues,
are typically organised or in a position within their respective organisations that makes them
more adaptable than white collar crime, and it’s one of the reasons why people commit classic
crimes. Benson describes the extent to which this non-stigmatization of offender technique, one
of the mostrole of the criminal code and the justice system in the disproportionately high number
of white.

The nature of collar crime is yet unknown.according to zamir (1986) 13, who examines the
drawbacks of executing regulatory legislation via thecriminal apparatus. Administrative
offences, he argues, are distinct from more common types ofcrimes. He is aware that as time
passes and the government’s oversight of the industry grows,numerous areas of the modern
state’s economy and society, a slew of new crimes have emerged.he notes that the victims of
these crimes are typically upstanding members of society.and trustworthy in everyday situations
and dealings. Zamir points out that these violationsare administrative in origin, but criminal
penalties have been put in place due to thelegislators have found it practical to utilise the already,
12
Michael L. Benson, “Denying the Guilty Mind: Accounting for Involvement in a White-Collar Crime”, Criminology,
Vol. 23, No. 4, 1985, pp. 583-609.
13
Itzhak Zamir, “The Administrative Offences Law: An Introductory Note”, Isarel Law Review, Vol. 21, 1986, pp.
201-207
ostensibly effectivein order to enforce the numerous new standards set by contemporary
regulatorylegislation. In his opinion, there are numerous drawbacks to holding individuals
criminally liable forfirst, the traditional criminal justice system is inefficient when dealing with
regulatory offences like these. Consequently, time-consuming andcostly, and secondly, police
forces have scant resources and frequentlyshould focus more on combating major crime than it
does on reducing minor offences.the enforcement of numerous laws is due to the enforcement of
regulatory legislation.thirdly, the prosecution and enforcement of laws governing social and
commercial activity are severely underfunded.

Fourth, the courts are already quite busy, and it can be unfair to put someone on trial who has
been charged with an administrative violation and attached therecord, and sixth, the prevalence
of administrative violations, all of which contribute to the negative perception thatbeing codified
as a component of criminal law, is sure to breed contempt for the law. Theconsidering these
drawbacks of the criminal justice system, the author offerscountries should develop novel and
specific approaches to administrative violations.regulation law implementation. He suggests that
punishments include fines and as an alternative to the current system, compounding has proven
to be effective.

Hirshi and gottfredson (1987)14 provide a unified explanation of criminal behaviour.they contend
that the idea that theoretical issues are only raised by white-collar offences isincorrect as the line
between white-collar and other types of crime should bein the same manner that we can tell a
generic crime from a specific one. Onon this foundation, they lay out a theory of crime that is, in
their view, capable ofcapable of both structuring the data we have on white-collar crime
andinformation about every type of crime. A basic distinction is made in the general theory of
crime.between criminal acts and criminality as a personality trait. Supposedly, unlike other
experts in the subject, they focus on criminal behaviour from the outset of their research.in their
comprehensive explanation of crime, gottfredson and hirshi state that a lack of self-control in
conjunction withthe main reason why people commit crimes is because they have the chance to
do so. The authors, aided by empirical evidencedemonstrated the applicability of this crime
theory to white collar crimesalso.

14
Travis Hirshi and Michael Gottfredson, “Causes of White Collar Crime”, Criminology, Vol. 25, 1987, pp. 949-974
Wheeler et al. (1988)15 investigate what makes white-collar crooks tick. Theyexamine the matter
by asking three questions. To begin, is white-collar crime a distincta unique phenomenon, or can
it be understood in terms of the establishedhow, in terms of theory of crime, does white-collar
crime vary from "common" crime?the specifics of the crime or the perpetrator?second, if there is
a correlation between crime rates andeach tier of white-collar crime has its own unique set of
causes and effects, includingthirdly, in white-collar crime, should the crime itself or the
perpetrator be the primary focus?by evaluating gottfredson and hirshi's broad theory of crime,
wheeler et al. Essentially did the same thing. Data analysis conducted by wheeler et al. Led them
to the conclusion thatdue to substantial differences, white-collar crime cannot be explained by a
universal theory of criminal behaviour.distinction between low-level criminals and high-level
corrupt officials. The most important factorsthe sophistication and severity of a white collar
crime set it apart from other types of theft.position as a victim, and most significantly for the
most severe crimes,by the criminals themselves. Not only that, but even within white-collarin the
criminal underworld, there is a pecking order. White-collar crime, they say, cannotexplained by
focusing on the offender's social environment or the nature of the offencecriminality itself.
Instead, we must determine how these two elements can work together.

According to shapiro (1990)16, white-collar crime should bedecoupled from associating

wrongdoers with their acts. And sutherlandthe other professionals in the field of white collar
crimes relied on the perpetratortraits serving as the backbone of any definition. Contrary to what
shapiro claims, however, this 'class'method should be open, and he notes that sutherland
mentions this very point in his own definition.breach of confidence. White-collar crimes,
according to shapiro, involve violations of trust and collusion.criminals prey on people because
they breach the trust placed in them.shapiro defines trust, identifies the wrongdoings that are
forbidden by social norms, and offers solutions.trust, while also shedding light on the methods
used by dishonest trustees to gain and abuse that trust. Heputs the lie to the idea of white collar
crime and advocates that theresearchers in the social sciences would do well to examine the
social structure of trust networks.white collar crime as a notion. In addition, he advocates for the
judicial system to free itself.from 'class' bias and instead concentrate on trusting relationships and

15
Stanton Wheeler, David Weisburd and Elin Waring, “White Collar Crimes and Criminals”, American Criminal Law
Review, Vol. 25, 1988, pp. 331-357.
16
Susan P. Shapiro, “Collaring the Crime, Not the Criminal: Reconsidering the Concept of White-Collar Crime”,
American Sociological Review, Vol. 55, No. 3, 1990, pp. 346-365.
the benefits they offer.for using deception to uncover evidence of wrongdoing in the business
world and bring those responsible to justice. Heargues that we should view white-collar crime
not as theft but as a violation of trust,characteristic of a criminal.

The generic theory of crime is criticised by benson and moore (1992)17.gottfredson and hirshi put
out the idea. Despite the fact that wheeler, weisburd, waring, and bodesimilarly looked at the
hypothesis put forward by gottfredson and hirshi, but they focused on signsof conformity as
opposed to crime and deviation. Benson and moore's explicit discussion offlexibility and
deviation hypothesis. It had been suggested by gottfredson and hirshiwhite-collar criminals are
as adaptable and vulnerable as their common law counterparts. Deviation as common law
criminals, where intent plays a secondary role at best. In a similar vein, benson andmoore states
that there are two conclusions that may be drawn from this broad theory. For starters,
adaptability implies criminals with white collar jobs conduct many different types of crime
because they lack specialisation.street criminals' habit of committing crimes on the spur of the
momentwhite-collar crooks, the concept suggests, are drawn to a wide range of shadysimilar to
how street people engage in drug use, alcohol use, promiscuous sexual activity, and job
hopping,offenders. Benson and moore disprove this by reviewing the arrest and conviction
records of severalwhite collar crime, street crime, the total number of people convicted, and the
average sentencecorresponding degree of engagement in criminal behaviour. Their research
provides the basis for an argumentthat there is a clear distinction between white-collar criminals
and those who commit crimes on the street, and the reasons whyhas significant weight when
determining whether or not criminalityan idea or hypothesis.

they imply that a more intricate framework is required to explain patterns ofoffences committed
while wearing a white collar are not supported by general theory. In his article "punitive civil
sanctions," mann (1991–1992)18 delves into this topic. Author contends thatcase law establishing
that, in the event of wrongdoing, the state can eitherexecuted, referring to both civil and criminal
remedies. Criminal law is based oncivil law is based on compensating victims rather than
punishing offenders. The standard model ofpunitive goals, stringent procedures, and high stakes

17
0 Michael L. Benson and Elizabeth Moore, “Are White Collar and Common Offenders the Same? An Empirical and
Theoretical Critique of a Recently Proposed General Theory of Crime” Journal of Research in Crime and
Delinquency, Vol. 29, No. 3, 1992, pp. 251-272
18
Kenneth Mann, “Punitive Civil Sanctions: The Middle Ground Between Criminal and Civil Law, Yale Law Journal,
Vol. 101, 1991-92, pp. 1796-1871.
all define criminal law. Emphasis on the guiltiness of the accused and the severity of the
penalties. Civil law, on the other hand,described as a system of financial compensation that
places more emphasis on reparation than attribution of blame,provides less legal protections and
milder penalties. As the author sees it,punitive civil sanctions should be considered separately
from the bifurcated category of punishments to avoid any confusion. Despite the procedural
differences, the goal of punitive civil sanctions is the same: punishment. Humane or civilised.
Author notes proliferation of severe civil punishmentslaw enforcement, it is replacing a sizable
chunk of criminal legislation, particularlywhite collar wrongdoings. Sometimes these
punishments are even worse than their criminal counterparts. Punishments for the same actions.
The author uses the two basic paradigms of civil law and criminal law to argue that punitive civil
punishments are somewhere in the middle mixed legal systems. He proposes a dichotomy
between two types of legal punishments.is a false choice, and this split in the law of punishments
does not existconcepts have been incorrectly defined, or because wrongful legislation has been
enacted,permitted the emergence of punishments that defy categorization.

In goldstein (1991–1992)19, goldstein adds to mann’s (1991–1992) description of the

burgeoningarea of criminal penalties by elaborating on certain pressing topics in contemporary
criminal law,opinion polls and the study of crime. One modern scholarly movement, in his
view,works generally agree that criminal responsibility is the overarching concept in criminal
law anddiscrimination and it cares less about societal regulation of deviant conduct than
thealternatively, there is another school of thought, represented by the researchers who place a
greater emphasis onsocial order rather than assigning blame to specific individuals. These two
schools of thoughttwo types of criminal responsibility have emerged, one focusing on societal
control and the other on individual responsibility.responsibilities have been vying for attention in
the law for a veryconventional offences. In light of the proliferation of white-collar crimes, the
author argues thatits size has grown as a result of punitive civil sanctions. These restrictive civil
sanctions are in direct competition withwith the penal code, and to replace it, as an imminent
menace. According to goldstein, the difficulty lies inidentify the interconnected nature of
criminal and civil punishments in order tomanage undesirable actions and develop hybrid
strategies tailor-made for thebecause if this isn't met, the social stigma may become permanent, a

19
Abraham S. Goldstein, “White-Collar Crime and Civil Sanctions”, Yale Law Journal, Vol. 101, 1991-92, pp. 1895-
1899
hybrid process of civil punishments is necessary.punishments typically associated with 'crime'
will be applied, through both the civil and criminal justice systems.and if that happens, if the
criminals who don't fit the stereotype are too afraid tothe 'crime' label will lose its incremental
utility, the moral weight of being found guilty will decrease, and this will all happen because it is
so easily and casually applied.the criminal consequence will lose its bite, leading to additional
unfair suffering for many.treatment.

According to geis (1991), there are a lot of disagreements over what constitutes a
"definition."white-collar crime studies and writing are plagued by and energised by the same
issues. He hastracked the heated debate over what constitutes "white collar" crime in academic
circles. Hehas, over time, discussed the three sutherland definitions, and hasopposed these
definitions as inadequate. He has also looked into sutherland's proposed definitions.disciples
over time, and how these meanings respond to previous definitional commentsvs sutherland.
Geis then looked at edelhertz's definition from the middle ages.the like, etc. Geis looked into the
various definitions put up over time and found thatthere are two defining features that are shared
by the various definitions. He claims thatboth the nature of the 'offence' and the nature of the
'offender' are taken into account in the various definitions.geis, on the other hand, does not rule
on the question of what trait should be used to define whiteness.white-collar crime. Instead, he
doesn't settle the question.

According to wright and friedrichs (1991)20, the acknowledgement ofwhite-collar crime has been
increasingly important over the past few years, although this hasnot been reflected in the
criminal justice curriculum or the criminal justice literature. Inin order to back up their claims
with data, they carry out an experiment.the books and courses offered in criminal justice and
criminology inthe study of crime and punishment as taught in a range of american university
departments.the authors did a double-sided analysis. The primary goal was to check if the topic
ofthere was a rise in white-collar crime between 1956 and 1965, but not in street crime.1981-
1990 in the studied textbooks, and secondly, if there was an uptick inunlike courses on women in
crime or comparative criminology, white-collar crime is more commonly offered.elements of the
criminal justice system that had recently come into emphasissystem. Wright and friedrichs draw
the conclusion from their research that even if white-collar crimeeven if there has been a rise in
20
Rob Wright and David O. Friedrichs, “White-Collar Crime in the Criminal Justice Curriculum”, Journal of Criminal
Justice Education, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1991, pp. 95-121
textbook and course coverage during the study'soblivious to the growing magnitude of white-
collar crime. Moreover, they discovered that whitecompared to comparative criminology, white-
collar crime has made fewer strides. Scholarly interest in white-collar crimes is said to have
increased dramatically during the 1980s.and a social movement in the united states has formed to
combat this trend. That said, thethe focus that white-collar crime has received in criminal justice
curricula isinsufficient because there is not enough attention paid to street crimes in the
textbooks. In their opinion,white-collar crime is an important issue that needs more attention in
the field of criminal justice.education because, for starters, the price of white-collar crime might
exceed the price of more conventionala rise in street crime; a pervasive and growing lawlessness
among the upper class; andthe third reason why criminal justice programmes might benefit from
studying white collar crime is becausequestion the status quo understanding of criminality,
punishment, and punishment's effectiveness.by criminals. The results of this research should
serve as a springboard for more studies of white-collar crime.research during the next twenty
years.

For example, cullen and benson (1993)21argue that research into white collar crime in the field of
criminal justice. The study included an analysis of white-collar crime virtually simultaneously
with wright and friedrichs' (1991) work on criminal justice education. They said that new
research and increased awareness of the crimes white collar crime, which is typically seen to be
'upper-world' criminality, has been a persistently controversial edge of the field of study.
According to cullen and benson, the school system is failing students pertaining to the subject of
crime. They claim that white-collar crime gained popularity in the mid-1970s and the
1980s.several criminologists have published works on the subject. Trends in white-collar crime
are analysed how it has weathered inclusion criticism from when Sutherland first raised it in
1940 until now the outermost regions of criminology. Authors argue that social media has awhite
collar crime has moved from the periphery of the study to the centre as the world around it has
changed of study, as more academics publish their findings and criminologists focus on it. The
issue the authors have brought up is whether or not understanding white collar crime should be
required crime studies' holy text? They claim that white-collar crime is an essential part of
criminology and can be used to essentially 'hold a mirror' up to the discipline's established

21
Francis T Cullen and Michael L. Benson, “White- Collar Crime: Holding a Mirror to the Core”, Journal of Criminal
Justice Education, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1993, pp. 325-348.
foundation. The writers also explore what topics a white collar crime course should cover. As a
means to they did a content analysis to back up their case for including lessons on white-collar
crime in the classroom. Statistical analysis of the incidence of sexuality education in criminal
justice programmes classes focusing on white-collar offences. Consistent with wright and
friedrichs's (1991) findings. There is not much white-collar crime, the authors agree.inclusion of
this material, which is underrepresented in other criminal justiceidea in the classroom will
enhance teaching in the field of criminal justice.

Lynch et al. (2004)22 investigate the competing beliefs held by corporations and investors.
Whether or whether white-collar crime has been given sufficient attention in criminological
literature. While it was generally accepted that people in the corporate and white-collar the
criminological and criminal justice literature has paid sufficient attention to crime. While
investigations through which Wright and Friedrichs and other collar researchers after
establishing the concept of white collar crime in (1991), Cullen and benson (1993) maintained
that under-represented. Lynch et al. Analysed the content of numerous key publications to gain
insight into the problem. Criminal justice and criminology academic periodicals, syllabi, and
dissertations. They increased our understanding of how white-collar crime is depicted by
including three new use of sources from the criminal justice and criminology fields into their
justice curricula at the graduate level. Previous research had only conducted exploratory books
required for classes alone. The authors analysed the depiction by analysis of the ratio of textbook
pages to journal articles published on compared to other criminological concerns, white-collar
crime is quite rare. The results of their study showed suggested instances of white-collar crime
were underrepresented generally. For this reason, they put out the argument that the
criminological literature lacks adequate representation of white-collar writings up to this point.

Mcgurrin et al. (2013)23 Mcgurrin et al. Examine the evolution of fields of criminology and
criminal justice throughout the last decade in regards to white the criminological literature's
depiction of white-collar crime. It is noted by the writers that many to date, research has shown
that white-collar crimes are underreported in study of crime through writing. This is the first
study to notice a rise in white-collar crime. Wright and Friedrichs (1991) were the first to
22
Michael J. Lynch, Danielle McGurrin and Melissa Fenwick, “Disappearing Act: The Representation of Corporate
Crime Research in Criminological Literature”, Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 32, 2004, pp. 389-398.
23
McGurrin, Danielle and Melissa Jarrell, “White Collar Crime Representation in the Criminological Literature
Revisited, 2001-2010”, Western Criminology Review, Vol. 14, No. 2, 2013, pp. 3-19.
investigate underrepresentation, and subsequent researchers include lynch et al. (2004), Cullen
and Benson (1993), and others.

The author emphasises once again that the aforementioned literature summary is meant to be
illustrative and is by no means comprehensive. Due to space constraints, just a subset of the
many papers, books, commentaries, digests, journals, magazines, and websites studied by the
researcher are cited here.

As the number of white-collar crimes rises, a review of the existing framework of principles and
procedures for handling such offences is warranted. It's also worth noting that most of the
literature on white-collar crime focuses on American law and very little is available that has
India as its primary location. Almost all Indian authors have taken a narrow view of the current
regime and failed to propose a clear alternative paradigm.