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PART

Great musicians
and their
neurological
disorders
4
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Stroke, music, and creative

output: Alfred Schnittke and
other composers
Yuri Zagvazdin1
College of Medical Sciences, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA
1
Corresponding author: Tel.: +1-954-2621315; Fax: +1-954-2621802,
e-mail address: yuri@nova.edu

Abstract
Alfred Schnittke (1934–1998), a celebrated Russian composer of the twentieth century, suf-
fered from several strokes which affected his left cerebral hemisphere. The disease, however,
did not diminish his musical talent. Moreover, he stated that his illness in a way facilitated his
work. The composer showed amazingly high productivity after his first and second injuries of
the central nervous system. The main topic of this chapter is the effect of strokes on Schnittke’s
output, creativity, and style of music. A brief biography of the composer with the chronology
of his brain hemorrhages is included. In addition, the influence of cerebrovascular lesions
on creative potential of other prominent composers such as Benjamin Britten, Jean Langlais,
Vissarion Shebalin, Igor Stravinsky, and Ira Randall Thompson is discussed.

Keywords
stroke, brain, lesion, recovery, music, creativity

Stroke is a devastating disease caused by either occlusion or rupture of the cerebral

blood vessels. It affects physical and cognitive abilities of millions. Damage and re-
covery after this traumatic event vary substantially among individuals. Some can
regain control over their brain functions almost without consequences, while the ma-
jority suffers from neuromuscular and cognitive impairments of various degrees
(Bowman and Giddings, 2003). Nevertheless, many stroke victims continue to pro-
duce innovative contributions to their professions. Several authors of recent studies
discussed the outcomes of cerebrovascular lesions in notable artists and writers
(Annoni et al., 2005; Bäzner and Hennerici, 2006; Bogousslavsky, 2009; Boller
et al., 2005; Colombo-Thuillard and Assal, 2007; Dieguez and Bogousslavsky,
2007; Iniesta, 2013; Mazzucchi et al., 2013; Piechowsky-Jozwiak and
Bogousslavsky, 2013; Schott, 2012). In contrast, much less has been written about
how cerebrovascular accidents have changed the lives and outputs of renowned

Progress in Brain Research, ISSN 0079-6123, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2014.11.006

© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
149
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150 Stroke, music, and creative output

creators of music. This type of brain injury has been suspected or documented to have
occurred to J.S. Bach, H. Bulow, G. Enesco, C. Gluck, G.F. Handel, E. Humperdinck,
F. Mendelssohn Bartholdi, O. Peterson, M. Ravel, J. Tavener, H. Vieuxtemps, and
others. The focus of this chapter is on the effect of strokes on productivity, creativity,
and style of music of a prominent Russian composer Alfred Schnittke. In addition,
literature on the consequences of cerebrovascular damage to the creative output of
other outstanding masters of composition is briefly reviewed.

1 ALFRED SCHNITTKE, HIS MUSIC AND LIFE

The music of Alfred Schnittke (1934–1998) has been performed all over the world.
People who listen to his compositions for the first time can be astonished by the emo-
tional tension and anticipation of something dramatic and tragic that emanates from
his melodies. Schnittke’s music has been described as “desperate, aggressive, con-
soling, enraptured, and inwardly torn all at the same time.”1 Full of sharp contrasts,
his creations frequently assimilate a variety of styles ranging from early Christian
chants to excerpts of twentieth-century material. His masterpieces are praised as sen-
sational reflections of the innermost struggles of the human soul.
Schnittke was a prolific writer. He produced nine symphonies, six concerti
grossi, four violin concertos and string quartets, two cello concertos, two viola con-
certos, four concertos for piano, choral, chamber and solo instrumental pieces, and
soundtracks for more than 60 films (Gimonov, 1998). His life was threatened by ce-
rebrovascular injuries, which successively happened in July of 1985 and 1991. Not
only did the composer recovered on both occasions, but paradoxically he was able to
generate an overflow of musical gems in the aftermath. In June 1994, the third stroke
paralyzed his right side and rendered him speechless. Yet Schnittke continued to
write scores using his left hand. In this respect, his case mirrored that of his teacher
and outstanding Russian composer Vissarion Shebalin (1902–1963).
Critics and musicologists underscore intimate connections between Schnittke’s
musical vocabulary and Christian, German, Jewish, and Russian traditions. The com-
poser was born on November 24 1934 in Engels2 in the Volga German Autonomous
Soviet Socialist Republic (Ivashkin, 1994, 1996; Kholopova, 2003).3 In 1941, when
the boy was 6 years old, Hitler’s armed forces attacked the Soviet Union. A few
months after Nazi invasion, Stalin’s order and subsequent deportation ended the Au-
tonomous Republic, cutting short the life of Wolgadeutsche community which
thrived in Russia for more than a century since the era of Catherine the Great.

1
See notes on the website of the Sikorski Publishing Group at http://www.sikorski.de/1492/en/consoling_
and_enraptured_alfred_schnittke_s_first_cello_concerto_in_hamburg.html.
2
Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) was a German philosopher, social scientist, political theorist, and father
of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx.
3
The brief biography of Schnittke in this chapter is largely based on the books written by Ivashkin
(1994, 1996) and Kholopova (2003).
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1 Alfred Schnittke, his music and life 151

Schnittke’s mother, Maria Fogel, was a local dweller of German nationality, so she
and all of her relatives were facing the prospect of being sent to Eastern parts of the
country. Fortunately, the members of Alfred’s nuclear family escaped this tragedy
because his father Harry proved that he was not Volksdeutsche.4 In 1926, Harry ar-
rived in Moscow from Germany with his parents, who originally were from Latvia.
The terrible socioideological cloud that surrounded the war, and the fact that his
father was Jewish, made Alfred’s cultural self-identification a tormenting issue
which troubled him throughout his life. The composer, however, spoke about his
heritage with pride.
Schnittke once told to his biographer and notable violinist Alexander Ivashkin
that he learned to speak Russian and German at the same time (Ivashkin, 1994,
p. 24). However, Ivashkin later stated that the first language of the boy was a local
colloquial variant of Volga German (Ivashkin, 1996, p. 15).5 Alfred loved books and
read the original poetry of Goethe and Heine in his childhood. His early interest in
literature is not surprising considering the occupation and passion of his family.
Schnittke’s grandmother, Thea Katz, served as an editor in the State Publishing Com-
pany of foreign literature for many years. German played a crucial role in her career,
the careers of her son Harry and his wife Maria Fogel, who worked most of their lives
in Soviet newspapers distributed to the readers of this language. Alfred’s younger
brother Victor was a translator and a talented poet.6 Their sister Irina became a
teacher of the tongue of their predecessors.
Fluency in the German language helped Schnittke to advance in his profession.
He could take a full advantage of direct communications with the members of the
International musical community, mainly in the countries of Central Europe. This
was especially true in the second half of his life, when the restrictions imposed by
Soviet government on interactions with foreigners were weakening. The benefits
of bilingualism, however, might extend beyond establishing contacts and network-
ing. A growing body of evidence suggests that the ability to use two languages ex-
pands intellectual potential due to reorganization of neuronal connections that hold
implications for the resources with which bilinguals face cognitive tasks (Kroll
et al., 2014).
In 1946, Alfred received an opportunity to experience firsthand the richness of
European music and literature when his family moved to Vienna. His father Harry
€
secured a position as a translator and correspondent for the Osterreichische Zeitung
(Austrian Newspaper). This was daily published by the Soviet occupational forces
for the population of the city. In their article about Schnittke, Moody and Ivashkin
stated: “This decisive exposure to the Austro-German cultural tradition fundamen-
tally influenced his future tastes and approach to form and vocabulary throughout his

4
People of German origin who lived outside the Third Reich.
5
The composer suddenly switched from Russian to German when he was hit by stroke in 1985.
6
Victor Schnittke like his mother, brother, and sister had been a victim of stroke, which killed him in
1994.
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152 Stroke, music, and creative output

career” (Moody and Ivashkin, 2001, p. 568). In Austria, Alfred began his musical
education at the age of 12 with piano teacher Charlotte Ruber.
. . . He spoke German with a Viennese accent, and, arguably, composed in Vien-
nese as well. . . . His harmonies had a Mahlerian heft, his melodies a Schubertian
lilt; he spun them out effortlessly, wrote Alex Ross in Schnittke’s obituary.
Ross (1998)
In 1948, Schnittke’s family returned to Russia and settled in Moscow. In the capital,
Alfred passed examinations at the October Revolution Musical College (now
Schnittke’s Musical College and Institute) and later at the Moscow Conservatory.
There were no musicians in his family. However, his inclination toward the future
profession became apparent quite early, prior to his departure to Austria. Schnittke
recalled that in the last years of the war radio broadcasts of operas inspired him to
sing Lensky’s aria from Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin (Ivashkin, 1994). In addition,
radio introduced him to other genres, including instrumental and symphonic music.
In particular, the Ninth Symphony of Dmitri Shostakovich (1906–1975)7 left a mark
of something fresh, bright, and unexpected in the memory of 11-year-old boy
(Ivashkin, 1996). In Vienna, Alfred attended various opera productions and listened
to compositions of Beethoven, Wagner, Handel, Shubert, and other classical masters.
He was excited by the idea of creating his own symphonies. His musical schooling in
Vienna, however, was not strict or very demanding. Only in Moscow did Schnittke
start building fundamentals in earnest, which allowed him to progress toward the re-
alization of his dream.
In 1953, Schnittke graduated Summa Cum Laude from the musical college and
was accepted in the Moscow Conservatory, where he studied from 1953 to 1958.
Shebalin characterized him at the time of graduation as the most professional among
his peers. Alfred presented the oratorio Nagasaki for mezzo-soprano, mixed chorus
and orchestra as his thesis work. It was one of his first reflections of Apocalypses,
human suffering, and the good and evil of human nature. These themes, which
seemed to occupy his thoughts early in life, became central in his music. Nagasaki,
with its expressive musical palette and original instrumental effects, attracted
attention of students and teachers of the Moscow conservatory, impressing even
Shostakovich (Ivashkin, 1996).
In 1958, Schnittke started his postgraduate studies with Evgeny Golubev, his
composition mentor, and a former student of Shebalin and Myaskovsky.8 Both
Golubev and Shebalin encouraged students to broaden their horizons and explore
contemporary music. Inside the walls of the conservatory, a valuable forum for dis-
cussions and performances of contemporary music existed in the Student Scientific

7
Many critics consider Schnittke as Shostakovich heir. According to Ivashkin (1996), performances of
Shostakovich’s 10th Symphony in 1953 and First Violin Concerto in 1955 made a great impact on
Schnittke’s development as a composer. He did not imitate the great master, but fully adopted his dy-
namic profile and innate foundations and principles of his compositions.
8
Nikolai Yakovlevich Myaskovsky, or Miaskovsky, or Miaskowsky (1881–1950) was an outstanding
Russian and Soviet composer. He is sometimes referred to as the “Father of the Soviet Symphony.”
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1 Alfred Schnittke, his music and life 153

Society. It consisted of a group of enthusiastic students, led by Edison Denisov

(1929–1996), a remarkable composer and prominent figure of Russian musical
avant-garde during the second half of the twentieth century. Schnittke was an active
member of the society and had an opportunity to look into scores practically
unknown in the USSR, e.g., the works of Schoenberg, Webern, Berg, Stravinsky,
and other modern composers. After completing his postgraduate courses in 1961,
he continued serious research into Western contemporary music. His studies of
the second Viennese School led to creation of his serial compositions including
the First Violin Sonata (1963).
By 1968, however, Schnittke abandoned the serial method and dramatically
changed his way of writing music. According to Ivashkin:
. . . his main concern is the dramatic shape of the whole piece. There are shocking
contrasts of opposing images, clashes of styles, and paradoxes in logic and devel-
opment. He combines rather confusing hints and elements of different styles.
Ivashkin (2002, p. 455)
This approach, which Schnittke called polystylism, became his unique mark and
method. Talking about his method, the composer stated that the phenomenon of
“polystylistics” in music existed long before he started to use the word and thought
about interaction of musical material in different styles (A Schnittke Reader, 2002).
Ives and Mahler were among the first twentieth-century composers who successfully
experimented with it. Schnittke once told Ivashkin:
The fact that I began to use a polystylistic method was brought about, first, by
everything these composers had done before me, which I naturally could not
ignore. But there was a personal element too. The polystylistic method, the use
of interacting styles, gave me a way out of the difficult situation in which I had
been put by having combine, over a long period, work for the cinema with work
“at the desk.”9 There was a time when I simply did not know what to do: I had to
drop either one or the other.
A Schnittke Reader (2002, p. 17)
Schnittke found the way out of this difficulty by mixing his own elements in his sym-
phonies and concertos with ideas, allusions, and quotations used in his soundtracks.
By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Schnittke’s national popularity reached un-
precedented heights. With the beginning of reforms initiated by Michael Gorbachev
in 1985, new opportunities were opening for the composer. He received recognition
from the Soviet Government in the form of prestigious state awards. The flow of
commissions from abroad was increasing. His music was in demand and he worked
very hard. However, the splendid fruits of this labor flourished at the expense of
Schnittke’s health. In one of his interviews, he recalled:

9
Schnittke worked on music for cinema very seriously. If the plot of a movie was set, for example, in the
eighteenth century, allusions to or quotations from the composers representing that epoch would have a
good chance to be inserted into soundtrack by Schnittke. Work “at the desk” consisted of scores written
not for movie industry but for other purposes (e.g., performances at concert halls).
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154 Stroke, music, and creative output

In 1985, I have completed six long compositions during six months. I do not un-
derstand how I was able to do it. . . . I had an impression that time flew extremely
fast and kept accelerating, and on the limit of this acceleration stroke hit me, and a
new circle in my development began.
Kotykhov (1999)
Schnittke’s first hemorrhage in the left hemisphere was quite severe (Kholopova,
2003). He lost consciousness but fortunately survived. Under the supervision of neu-
rosurgeon Alexander Potapov, the patient was transported from Georgia (where he
went on vacation in July) to Moscow at the end of August of 1985 (Ivashkin, 1996).
There he successfully recovered from right hemiplegia and dysphasia. By the end of
September, he resumed his work. During the following years, Schnittke completed
numerous compositions including Symphony Number 5, First and Second Cello
Concertos, the ballet Peer Gynt, piano sonatas, String Quartet Number 4, and other
pieces of chamber and instrumental music. Some of these scores were written in
Germany, where he had an opportunity to become a resident in 1989 as a recipient
of special stipend from the Wissenshaftskolleg. Consequently, Schnittke spent a year
in Berlin and moved to Hamburg where he began to teach composition in the local
Hochschule fur Musik part-time.
Schnittke was very busy composing and attending numerous premieres when
stroke hit again. In July1991, while sharing memories about brilliant violinist Oleg
Kagan with his old friend, film director Andrey Khrazhanovsky, the composer sud-
denly complained about having an acute headache (Kholopova, 2003). It was a
symptom of his second cerebrovascular lesion, which was localized in the cerebel-
lum (Ivashkin, 1996). However, again the composer recovered and continued his cre-
ative work with inspiring success. In June 1994, the third stroke dramatically
worsened his health and resulted in aphasia and agraphia, but not amusia. Despite
tremendous difficulties, Schnittke did not stop writing music. His last major piece
was his Symphony Number 9. The next stroke ravaged the composer’s brain in
July1998, and he passed away on August 3rd of that summer. The Memorial service
was held in the Moscow Conservatory. In accordance with his will, Schnittke was
interred by Eastern Orthodox traditions at the Novodevichy Cemetery in the capital,
where many other prominent Russian musicians, including Dmitri Shostakovich, had
been buried (Kholopova, 2003).

2 MUSIC AND STROKE: BRITTEN, LANGALAIS, SHEBALIN,

STRAVINSKY, AND THOMPSON
Stroke survivors can demonstrate a wide spectrum of abnormalities that affect their
music comprehension or production. A priori, there cannot be any certainty about the
long-term effects of cerebrovascular lesions on motor, cognitive and creative pro-
cesses including perception, performance, or creation of melodies. It depends on var-
ious factors, such as the severity of damage, the areas of the brain affected, and the
extent of recovery (Bowman and Giddings, 2003; Langhorne et al., 2011). As with
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2 Music and stroke 155

brain trauma in general, cerebrovascular accidents are likely to have negative

consequences. However, Jacome described a patient who developed hypermusia
and musicophilia after stroke ( Jacome, 1984). Historically, strokes and other types
of brain damage have been a source of insightful information about music and
language processing in the cerebral structures (Graziano et al., 2012; Peretz,
2006; Zatorre, 1984). In addition, changes in vocal or instrumental performance after
cerebrovascular injures have been studied by clinicians (Murayama et al., 2004;
Wilson et al., 2002). However, assessments of stroke consequences in terms of
output and creativity of composers have been largely limited to occasional remarks
in a few cases, which will be reviewed in this chapter.
Neurological diseases of musicians, including stroke, have been briefly described
in several reviews (Bentivoglio, 2003; Breitenfeld et al., 2010; Newmark, 2007). One
of the most cited papers on this subject was published by Alexander Luria and his
coworkers, who reported on the communicative and musical faculties of Shebalin
after stroke (Luria et al., 1965). A number of researchers analyzed Handel’s and
Ravel’s illnesses and came to conflicting conclusions whether cerebrovascular acci-
dents or some other problems were responsible for the health troubles of these com-
posers (Amaducci et al., 2002; Bäzner and Hennerici, 2005; Cavallera et al., 2012;
Evers, 1996; Hunter, 2008). The case of Jean Langlais (1907–91), the blind French
organist and composer, who, like Shebalin, suffered from stroke-induced aphasia
without amusia, has also attracted attention of scholars (Labounsky, 2000;
Signoret et al., 1987). Judd and coworkers published a detailed study of the effect
of stroke on an American composer Ira Randall Thompson ( Judd et al., 1983).
His initial aphasia and agraphia cleared rapidly, but he still suffered from alexia
and mild anomia. According to the authors, critics characterized his composing skills
as “undiminished.” The authors further stated that:
his post-stroke compositions have been well received. Independent critics con-
sider them to be as good as his pre-stroke compositions, but musically somewhat
more conservative.
Judd et al. (1983, p. 450)
Only a few researchers have paid attention to stroke-induced changes in a com-
poser’s style of music, production, and creativity. Hutcheon and Hutcheon (2014)
discussed how these features were modified by the cardiovascular disease which af-
fected Benjamin Britten (1913–1976). This brilliant British composer suffered from
heart failure and stroke, which developed in 1973 during an operation for aortic valve
replacement. The results of the surgery were far from perfect and recovery was very
slow. Movements of his right hand and leg were compromised. He could not play the
piano and was frequently depressed. Physical and emotional problems took their toll
on his composing, and his productivity diminished after the operation. Although
Britten’s poststroke scores are relatively short, their quality is considered to be su-
perb. According to Hutcheon and Hutcheon (2014), critics unanimously describe his
Third String Quartet as masterpiece. Critics also agree that composer’s final works
were “somberly colored,” as he apparently realized his impending mortality. Never-
theless, one of Britten’s biographers claims that the composer’s “renewed creativity
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156 Stroke, music, and creative output

reached its peak” in 1975 (Matthews, 2003, p. 150). Another biographer stated, “even
at this stage Britten’s physical exhaustion was not accompanied by any enfeeblement
of his imaginative powers” (Oliver, 1996, p. 210).
Signoret et al. (1987) described the consequences of Jean Langlais’s cerebrovas-
cular accident. It happened in July of 1984 when the composer was 77. He had in-
farction in the territory of the left middle cerebral artery involving the temporal and
the inferior parietal lobes. Initially, the organist’s right extremities were paralyzed,
and he could not speak. In 15 days, he recovered his ability to walk and use his hands.
Interestingly, Langlais started to speak not in French, but in English as his basic lan-
guage skills began to return (Labounsky, 2000). His speech improvements, however,
were limited. The blind composer could no longer read texts in Braille and had
anomia. Yet, he was able to write, read, and play music after the stroke. Listeners
still appreciated his performances. According to Labounsky (2000), the music of
his poststroke years was “tingled with retrospection and introspection.” Memory
slips and difficulties with his verbal communication frustrated Langlais. Like
Britten, he suffered from depression. However, his poststroke “final burst of
creative energy” resulted in the production of 16 works for organ, three hymns,
two choral works, and a variety of instrumental pieces. These last compositions
are considered to be fresh and similar in style to those created before stroke
(Labounsky, 2000, p. 318).
Renowned Russian composer Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) experienced a stroke
that caused headache, right-sided dysesthesia with reduced coordination and dysar-
thria (O’Neill et al., 2014). It happened in 1956, when he was conducting a concert in
Berlin. The celebrated master was 74 at that time. Nevertheless, he was conducting
again 6 weeks later. According to O’Neill et al. (2014), Stravinsky composed more
works in the following decade than he had in the 1930s and 1940s. Moreover, his
music continued to show development and innovation as he adopted the serial com-
position method. Following the recovery after his stroke, the composer wrote the
score for the ballet Agon considered as one of the “most spectacular successes of
his entire career” (Walsh, 2006, p. 374). Eventually, the progress of Stravinsky’s ill-
ness and subsequent strokes led to his inability to produce music in the 1960s.
As in the case of Stravinsky, Vissarion Shebalin’s first stroke, which occurred in
1953, did not rob him from ability to complete a number of masterpieces. In 1957, his
best opera, Taming of the Shrew, premiered in the Bolshoi Theater with tremendous
furor among spectators. More than 50 years later, this premiere, especially the per-
formance of the main character Katherina by the brilliant Russian singer Galina
Vishnevskaya, was called the most memorable Moscow experience by Firdaus
Akhtyamova10 (Kadyrova, 2011). Shebalin’s opera was also successfully staged
in Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and various cities of the Soviet Union in the 1960s–
1980s and recently again reappeared in repertoire of some Russian theaters

10
Firdaus Akhtyamova (1939–2012) was an actress from Tatarstan, who received an international ac-
claim after winning the prize for the best female role in the movie Bibinur at International Film Fes-
tivals in New York and Kazan in 2010. She studied in Moscow in the late 1950s.
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3 The effect of stroke on Schnittke 157

(Ziangirova, 2012). After his first cerebrovascular accident, the composer lost con-
trol of his right hand and arm, which forced him to write his scores and conduct using
his left upper extremity (Shebalina, 1990).
Composing became an even more difficult process for Shebalin after his second
stroke (Luria et al., 1968). Despite his condition, according to Meta Weiss,11 the
composer
experimented with a pseudo-twelve-tone style, though still within the tonal idiom,
writing themes that featured all twelve tones melodically but relied on the functional
harmony of tonality. Perhaps counterintuitively, his music was full of optimism fol-
lowing the onset of his aphasia, and, like his music before the strokes, . . . very clean
and straightforward, but with new richness and depth despite the economy of means.
Weiss (2013)

Anna Lazzarini12 came to conclusion that Shebalin “after the second stroke despite
aphasia and right hemiparesis . . . could compose his music in a similar way but with
less inhibitions and influences” (Lazzarini, 2012, p. 41).
Overall, this brief review suggests that stroke might not always hamper creativity
and ability to produce music. Moreover, the case of Stravinsky shows that the num-
ber of new works from a composer might not be diminished by cerebrovascular in-
jury. It is rather difficult to argue on the basis of the small number of reviewed cases
whether the style of music undergoes a significant change as a result of brain damage.
Tables 1 and 2 summarize the effects of cerebrovascular lesions on Britten, Langlais,
Stravinsky, Thompson, Shebalin, and Schnittke.
An important point is that in all of the abovementioned cases, the left hemisphere
was affected. By contrast, descriptions of cases in which composers had right hemi-
spheric stroke are difficult to find. Engelbert Humperdinck (1854–1921), a notable
German composer, apparently developed this condition, but was able to recover and
continued to write music (Humperdinck, 1965). It is possible that a great Romanian
master George Enescu (1881–1955) also suffered from the right hemispheric infarc-
tion and was able to compose. Another example is that of remarkable Canadian jazz
pianist and composer Oscar Peterson (1925–2007). Finally, Judd reported a case of
an American composer who lost his ability to create music as a result of his right
frontoparietal and posterior temporal cerebrovascular lesions ( Judd, 1984).

3 THE EFFECT OF STROKE ON SCHNITTKE

Shnittke’s successful return to composing after his stroke has been popularized in
Russian publications as a rare example of complete functional recovery after brain
injury (Malsteva, 2009). Moreover, there seems to be an assumption among Russian

11
Meta Weiss is a professional cellist and Tokyo Foundation’s Sylff Research Abroad program
awardee for researching Shebalin’s String Quartets in Moscow.
12
Anna Lazarini is the president of the School of Music Il Contrappunto Veneziano of the Wolf Ferrari
Association in Venice, Italy.
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158 Stroke, music, and creative output

Table 1 The effect of left hemispheric stroke on composers and their musical
abilities
Name, date of
birth/death and
age at the onset
of stroke Disturbancesa Composing after stroke References

Benjamin Britten Right-hand Productivity decreased, Hutcheon

(1913–1976, 59) paralysis music was “somberly and
colored,” although creative Hutcheon
and not different in terms of (2014)
style or quality
Jean Langlais Right hemiparesis, Numerous works, no change Labounsky
(1907–1991, 77) aphasia in style, but “the pull toward (2000)
chant and very simple style
. . .”
Igor Stravinsky Speech, right No decrease in productivity, O’Neill et al.
(1882–1971, 74) hemiparesis, right- change in style? (2014)
side numbness
Ira Randall Agraphia, Composing skills appear to Judd et al.
Thompson aphasia, alexia, be undiminished. Poststroke (1983)
(1899–1984, 77) right compositions appeared to be
homonymous as good as prestroke ones,
hemianopia but “musically more
conservative”
a
Disturbances in ordinary font largely resolved sometime after stroke, while those which are italicized
did not.

researchers that the illness might have had paradoxical consequences and even aug-
mented his creative potential (Chernigovskaya, 2011). The possibility of enhanced or
emergent artistic expression after the onset of brain disease has been discussed in a
number of publications (Annoni et al., 2005; Gordon, 2005; Schott, 2012). For in-
stance, Annoni et al. (2005) suggested that modifications of style and increased cre-
ativity after strokes in two painters were at least partially due to their diseases.
Another remarkable example of stroke-induced transformation is the case of Jon
Sarkin, previously a calm, disciplined chiropractor. After a brain hemorrhage, he
was seized by insatiable desire to paint (Nutt, 2011). Cerebral lesions could influence
creative processes not only in visual artists, but also in composers. Some authors
argued that Ravel’s and Donizetti’s late compositions could reflect the effects of
their brain illnesses (Amaducci et al., 2002; Cavallera et al., 2012; Peschel and
Peschel, 1992). Cases of sudden musicophilia seemingly triggered by cerebral dis-
turbances have also been reported ( Jacome, 1984; Miller et al., 2000; Sacks, 2007).
Was Schnittke’s musical productivity altered by his strokes? How strong is the
evidence that his creativity was augmented by his disease?
An attempt to answer the question about productivity necessitates a quantitative
comparison of the number of compositions completed before and after the first and
second stroke. According to Ivashkin, Schnittke’s musical output was three times
greater after the first hemorrhage of 1985 than before the lesion (Sidorova, 2004).
Table 2 The effect of several left hemispheric strokes on composers and their musical abilities
Name, date of
birth/death and Composing Subsequent
age at the first after the first strokes: age and Composing after subsequent

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stroke Disturbancesa stroke problems strokes References

Vissarion Shebalin Speech, right Wrote his best 57, aphasia, right His poststroke fifth symphony was Luria et al.
(1902–1963, 51) leg and right opera hemiplegia referred to as “brilliant creative work,” (1965),
arm weakness his style became “more succinct” Weiss
(2013)
Alfred Schnittke Speech, right No loss of 56, slow and shaky Composed numerous works after 56, Ivashkin
(1934–1998, 50) hemiparesis creativity or gait, 59 aphasia, but only a few after 59 (1996),
productivity, almost complete Kholopova
change in style paralysis (2003)
a
Disturbances in ordinary font largely resolved sometime after stroke, while those which are italicized did not.
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160 Stroke, music, and creative output

Moreover, the number of scores written by the composer after his second but prior to
his third stroke (between September 1991 and May 1994) is astounding. His output is
comprised of all three of his operas, three symphonies, three sonatas, two film scores,
Concerto Grosso Number 6 for violin, piano, and string orchestra, and at least a
dozen more pieces of orchestral, instrumental, and vocal music. Schnittke shared
his thoughts about the effect of disease on his musical writing:
I lost a lot in my memory, especially numbers and names. However, the illness had
a positive side, because my memory changes help to shrug off my fatigue. Previ-
ously, I was frequently exhausted by my work; my thinking was chained by this
tiredness. Now my fatigue slips out in an hour and a half, and I can move on.
. . . Thus, on one hand it became more difficult, but on the whole easier for me . . ..
Kotykhov (1999)

Schnittke admitted that the physical act of writing after his first stroke became more
difficult (Ivashkin, 1994). However, he noticed an improvement in his ability to ad-
vance toward completion of his works, “as if I can visualize the final shape of piece
while previously I would see something more or less suitable” (Ivashkin, 1994,
p. 79). In addition, the composer discussed changes in his perception of other mental
activities after his brain hemorrhage, for example, a reduction in analytical processes
(literally in “intellectual thinking” or “knowledge”) and increased intuition. Again,
he considered this shift as positive for his composing (Ivashkin, 1994). In addition,
Schnittke emphasized his altered perception of time after stroke as a factor that
affected his creation of music:
Every year moves faster in comparison to the previous one. You have a perception
of a long childhood, somewhat shorter period of youth, and then life accelerates
. . .. My second circle13 returned me to the initial reference point. Time again
moves slower . . . and the significance of every detail, every tiny aspect of what
I am doing has increased. As if again, as some time ago, I am occupied less with
duration, form and concept in general, but pay more attention to the choice of an
instrument for solo, to sharpening instrumental contrast . . .
Meylac (2007, p. 228)
A change in Schnittke’s compositions after his strokes has been noticed by musicol-
ogists and critics14 (Ivashkin, 1996; Kholopova, 2003). Their opinions regarding his
style modification seems to be largely consistent. Many point to the intense

13
Schnittke referred to his poststroke period as “a life after death” or “second circle of life.”
14
Evolution of Schnittke’s score writing following strokes was depicted by Jones (2009). In his ac-
count, the journalist starts with Klingende Buchstaben (Sounding Letters) composed in 1988 after
the first stroke: “In Klingende Buchstaben, written in Russia, the script is confident, neatly laid out
in black ink. In the Quartet for Percussion Instruments, after the second stroke, the notes are bigger
and the bar lines wobbly and unperpendicular. In the Ninth Symphony, written during Schnittke’s third
stroke, when he was almost completely paralyzed, the struggle to steer the pen is shockingly apparent in
the agonizing multicircling of the wild notes and the many angry, scrawled crossings-out. The absence
of words is striking: no title, no dynamic markings, nothing save the bald notes” (Jones, 2009).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

3 The effect of stroke on Schnittke 161

expressiveness of Schnittke’s late compositions despite an apparent decrease in note

density of his scores. Alex Ross wrote:
The stroke of 1985 spurred him on: in the next few years, he wrote music of ex-
ceptional lyrical generosity, even of embarrassing kitschiness. After a second
stroke, in 1991, he became scarily austere.
Ross (1998)
Twitchell (2006) stated, “Temporal expansion in Schnittke’s works after 1991 is car-
ried further and frequently combined with thin textures, resulting in an austere style”
(Twitchell, 2006, p. 9). Ivashkin’s remarks indicate that the style simplification did
not lead to a reduction in emotionality:
Schnittke’s late compositions are enigmatic. Their textures become very ascetic,
and the number of notes is reduced. However, the latent tension increases, and the
meaning . . . is to be found between the notes rather than in the musical text itself.
A Schnittke Reader (2002, p. xiv)
Was the change in Schnittke’s music caused by his stroke(s) or did it come from his
internal evolution? The opinions on this matter vary. Gidon Kremer, an outstanding
violinist, attributed stylistic modifications to an internal evolution of the composer’
mind. In 1989, Kremer told Ivashkin:
An inner change took place directly before or after his illness . . . already in the
String Trio, written before his illness, I find the quintessence of his suffering, or
even the whole of his struggle to find some unearthly power that might enable him
. . . to overcome the force of gravity . . .. After his illness there was further devel-
opment of this feeling.
A Schnittke Reader (2002, p. 234)

Ivashkin considered this shift in style after stroke as a deliberate choice of the com-
poser. He said:
. . . I love the late compositions of Alfred. There are no many notes, and the score is
white, not black. He just discovered another kind of music . . .. He needed quite
different music filled with silence and tension.
Sidorova (2004)
Overall, the qualitative and quantitative assessment of Shnittke’s later music seems
to be consistent with the statement that the composer “suffered no loss of creativity
and productivity after stroke” (Chang, 2008, p. 35). It is possible that new social de-
velopments initiated by Gorbachev in 1985 generated additional incentives (e.g., in-
creased number of commissions from abroad) and stimulated Schnittke’s poststroke
productive outburst. In addition, while working in the movie industry, the composer
had accumulated materials used later in his symphonies and other pieces. These ma-
terials might have facilitated his creative process and, thus, also helped him to write
music faster. The effect of these factors is difficult to evaluate. In any case, the sheer
number of completed compositions strongly suggests that two strokes did not impair
Schnittke’s productive output.
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162 Stroke, music, and creative output

The expressiveness of Schnittke’s poststroke works presents a compelling argu-

ment that he retained his creative capabilities despite the onset of the disease. The
damage to the composer’s left hemisphere does not preclude a possibility of its pos-
itive effect on his creativity. A number of researchers have suggested that left hemi-
spheric lesions could liberate artistic potential in some cases (Annoni et al., 2005;
Nikolaenko and Pachalska, 2008; Schott, 2012; Seeley et al., 2008). There is evi-
dence that left temporal lobe injury might also lead to an emergence of musical talent
(Sacks, 2007, p.157). Moreover, the recently reported case of professional jazz
guitarist Pat Martino shows that outstanding musical capabilities can be fully
reacquired even when much of the left temporal lobe has been removed (Galarza
et al., 2014). Finally, Miller et al. described preservation and emergence of compos-
ing skills in patients with frontotemporal dementia localized in the left hemisphere
(Miller et al., 2000). Disinhibition and paradoxical functional facilitation of the
nondominant hemisphere could be among the mechanisms responsible for these
unexpected effects (Annoni et al., 2005; Huang et al., 2013; Miller et al., 2000;
Schott, 2012). In-depth analyses of Schnittke’s compositions would be a further step
toward affirming the hypothesis that damage of the left cerebral hemisphere by
stroke might result in enhanced musical creativity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author thanks Dr. Christine Jackson and Lori Dribin from Nova Southeastern University
for invaluable help in proofreading the manuscript and their comments. The author also thanks
Meta Weiss, Nina Zagvazdina and Dr. Anastasia Mashukova for their support in preparation of
this chapter. In addition, the author is grateful to Dr. Konstantin Kotliar from Aachen for his
contribution in obtaining and translation of German literature.

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