M. Young (Auth.), Clive v. J. Dellino (Eds.) - Cold and Chilled Storage Technology-Springer US (1997)

Cold and Chilled Storage Technology
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Cold and Chilled
Storage Technology
Second edition
Edited by
CLIVE V.J. DELLINO

Refrigeration and Cold Store Consultant
Hunstanton, UK
fill
BLACKIE ACADEMIC & PROFESSIONAL
An Imprint of Chapman & Hall
London· Weinheim . New York· Tokyo· Melbourne· Madras

ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-8430-7 e-ISBN-13:978-1-4613-1127-0
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-1127-0
Contents
Contributors XIll
Preface xv
Preface to the first edition XVll
1 The cold storage chain 1

M. YOUNG
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Bulk stores and associated services 2
History 2
Building construction 3
Regulations and standards 5
Traffic flow 6
Mechanization 6
Layout 6
Storage methods 7
Stacking material 16
Fork-lift truck handling equipment 22
Administrative routines 24
Additional services 27
Development 29
1.3 Distribution depots 29
Introduction 29
History 30
Recent developments 32
Construction and equipment 35
Distribution depot operations 36
The current situation 39
Future developments 43
1.4 Distribution vehicles 47
2 Controlled atmosphere storage 53
D. BISHOP
2.1 Introduction 53
2.2 History 53
2.3 Definitions 56
2.4 Produce storage conditions 57
2.5 Ethylene 58
2.6 Pre-storage chemical treatment 60
2.7 Storage rooms 61
2.8 Expansion bags 62
2.9 Store leakage specifications 65
2.10 Refrigeration 66
2.11 Humidity and water loss 67
2.12 CA machinery selection 68
2.13 Oxygen removal 69
Natural respiration 69
vi CONTENTS
Liquid nitrogen 69
Propane burners 70
Ammonia crackers 70
Pressure swing 71
Membranes 71
Comparison of technologies 73
2.14 Carbon dioxide removal 73
Lime 73
Carbon scrubbers 74
Flushing 75
2.15 Ethylene removal 76
2.16 Instrumentation 77
Temperature measurement 77
Temperature sensors 78
Oxygen measurement 78
Carbon dioxide measurement 79
Ethylene measurement 81
Humidity measurement 81
2.17 Gas sampling systems 81
2.18 Store atmosphere control 83
Oxygen control 83
Carbon dioxide control 84
2.19 Automatic control 84
2.20 Regulations 86
2.21 Safety 86
Low oxygen 86
High carbon dioxide 87
Fork-lift trucks 87
2.22 Store operating practice 88
2.23 Distribution of CA produce 89
2.24 Future developments 90
Greater variety of product 90
Reduced use of chemicals 90
Transport 90
Acknowledgements 91
References 91
3 Automated cold stores 93

D. BRITT
3.1 Introduction 93
3.2 'Push' model supply chain 94
3.3 'Pull' model supply chain 95
3.4 Tools and barriers 96
3.5 Changing expectations 97
3.6 Changing technology 99
3.7 Base level cold/chilled considerations 105
3.8 Case-handling technologies 106
'Smart' conveyor systems 106
Carousel 107
Mini-load AS/RS 108
3.9 Unit load technologies 109
Radio-frequency and push-back racking 109
Unit load AS/RS 110
Unit load HDDS 110
3.10 Future technologies 112
3.11 Case handling HDDS 112
CONTENTS Vll
Vertical and deep-lane handling 112

3.12 Unit load HDDS 113
Reference 114
4 Refrigerant choice and energy use 115
N.J. COX
4.1 General background leading up to the adoption of CFCs 115
4.2 Ozone depletion and global warming 115
4.3 Total equivalent warming impact 118
4.4 Temperature glide 118
4.5 Refrigerant nomenclature 119
4.6 HCFCs as interim solutions 121
4.7 HFCs as the original long-term solution 122
4.8 Environmental problems associated with HFCs 124
4.9 Natural refrigerants and 'not in kind' technologies 125
4.10 Absorption 126
4.11 Air-cycle refrigeration 127
4.12 Water vapour 128
4.13 Carbon dioxide 129
4.14 Hydrocarbons 130
Specimen risk assessment for hydrocarbon refrigerants
(to comply with UK regulations such as CDM) 132
4.15 Ammonia 133
4.16 Secondary refrigerants 136
Monopropylene glycol 136
Brine 136
Carbon dioxide 136
Silicone oil 136
Flo-ice 136
Organic salts 137
4.17 Refrigerants beyond the crisis 137
4.18 Indirect global warming and energy conservation 138
4.19 Energy conservation for cold stores 140
Automatically corrected power factor correction 140
Compressor motor control 141
Electronic evaporator control system 141
Floating head pressure and pack control 142
Maintenance and monitoring 142
Lighting 143
Cold store maintenance 143
Heat recovery 143
Use of cheap-rate electricity 144
Automatic non-condensable gas purgers 144
Refrigerated loading docks 144
Selecting the right condenser 144
Additional measures 145
4.20 Conclusions 145
5 Store insulation 147

B.A. RUSSELL
5.1 Historical background 147
The need for insulation 147
In situ cold storage 147
Early design and techniques 148
Conventional systems 149
5.2 Modern developments 150
viii CONTENTS
5.3 Insulation materials 151

Expanded polystyrene 151
Extruded polystyrene 151
Polyurethane and polyisocyanurate 152
Phenolic foam 153
Cork board (vegetable cork) 153
Glass fibre 154
5.4 Insulation applications 154
Internal insulated systems with external wall and roof cladding 155
External insulation system 155
Internal insulation system with external roof and partial external
wall cladding 156
5.5 Types of cold store panel 157
Continuous laminated panels 157
Composite panels 158
Foam-injected panels 159
Continuous foamed panels 159
5.6 Present-day design criteria 159
5.7 Internal pressure relief valves 160
5.8 The importance of vapour seals 161
Walls and roofs 161
Floors 164
5.9 Thermal bowing 164
5.10 Construction methods 167
Internal insulated systems with external cladding to walls and roof 167
Internal insulation with external roof and partial external cladding 170
External insulation systems 170
Floor insulation 171
5.11 Underfloor heating 173
Circulated glycol system 173
Low-voltage electric heater mat 174
Structural raised base slab 175
Vent systems 175
5.12 Specification for internal floor finishes 177
Cooling the store down to temperature 178
5.13 Insulated doors 178
Door protection 181
5.14 Erection plant 182
5.15 Technical data 183
5.16 Regulations and standards 184
UK requirements 184
International Association of Cold Storage Contractors (IACSC) 186
European requirements 186
US requirements 186
5.17 Current development trends 188
Industry needs 188
Structural alterations 189
Alternative finishes for cold store panels 189
Materials suitable for extreme climatic conditions 190
Thermographic scan 191
6 Cold store doors 192

T.FENTON
6.1 Introduction 192
6.2 Air infiltration 192
6.3 Door construction 193
6.4 Automation 198
CONTENTS IX
6.5 Controls 201

6.6 Installation 203
6.7 Protection 203
6.8 Special doors 205
6.9 Safety and maintenance 209
6.10 Conclusions 210
7 Refrigeration plant 211

A.J.PITT
7.2 Refrigeration systems 217
Direct expansion 217
Natural flooded 219
Pump circulation 219
Secondary systems 220
7.3 Power comparisons and running costs 220
7.4 Use of waste heat 222
7.5 Defrosting methods 225
7.6 Monitoring and controls 228
7.7 Maintenance 230
7.8 Current development trends 230
Emphasis on rotary compressors 230
Variable-speed drive motors 231
Electronics 232
Heat exchange 232
Refrigerant 232
7.9 Safety and quality 233
7.10 Reacting to the environmental challenge 234
New plant 234
Existing plants 236
8 Electrical installations 238

M.CARR
8.2 Electricity: the starting point 239
Generation 239
Transmission and distributipn 240
Tariffs 241
Metering 241
8.3 Control systems: computerised refrigeration 242
Temperature recording and control 243
Programmable controllers 244
SCADA systems 246
Computers for office and plant 248
8.4 Lighting: comfort and safety 248
General lighting 249
Emergency lighting 252
8.5 Alarm systems: protecting life and property 253
Fire alarms 254
Gas and vapour detection systems 256
Trapped personnel alarm systems 257
Security systems 258
8.6 Cold store installations: specific requirements 258
Refrigerated vehicle sockets 258
Frost heave protection 260
Door opening/closing systems 260
X CONTENTS
Standby power 261

Energy saving 262
8.7 Conclusion 263
9 Racking systems 264

RG.D. SHOWELL
9.2 Standards 264
FEM 10.2.02 265
9.3 Basic unit of storage 266
9.4 Storage concepts 270
Block stacking 270
Pallet racking 273
Live storage 280
Double-deep static racking 281
Push back racking 283
Powered mobile racking 283
9.5 Comparisons of racking systems 294
10 Mechanical handling 295

J. ROPER
10.1 Today's market 295
10.2 Cold store operation 296
10.3 Trucks for all reasons 298
10.4 Lifecycle cost -efficiency 305
10.5 Case studies 307
10.6 Ergonomics 309
10.7 Communications 311
10.8 Rental benefits 312
10.9 The future 313
11 Vehicle movement and loading bay design 315

A.K. THOMSON
11.2 Vehicle movement 315
Gates and approaches to roadways 317
Roadway surfaces 317
Roadway width 318
Turning circles 318
Traffic control 318
The loading/unloading area 318
Side-loading versus end-loading 319
Dock width 319
Flush loading bays 320
The approach to loading ports 320
'Saw-tooth' loading bays 320
11.3 Loading dock height 321
The bridging incline 322
11.4 Temperature control 322
11.5 Buffers, restraints and doors 322
11.6 Ancillary equipment 323
11.7 The loading bay as a total package 323
Dock levellers 323
Edge or front-of-dock levellers 324
Selection of dock buffers 325
CONTENTS Xl
Hydraulic scissor-lift tables 325

Port seals 326
Inflatable dock shelters 326
Combination foam dock pads with inflatable head seal 329
Vehicle restraints 329
Loading dock doors 330
11.8 The total package loading bay 330
Further reading 331
Index 332
Contributors
David Bishop David Bishop Instruments Ltd, Station Road,

Heathfield, East Sussex TN21 8DR, UK
Drew Britt Retrotech Inc., 610 Fishers Run, PO Box 586, Fishers,
New York 14453-0586, USA
Michael Carr Harry Carr Ltd, Armstrong Street, Grimsby DN31
1LG, UK
Nicholas Cox Stonegrove Ltd, Unit 3, Boyd Business Centre,
Whitewall Road, Medway City Estate, Rochester, Kent
ME24DZ, UK
Tony Fenton Dortek Ltd, St Mark Street, Hull HU8 7ED, UK
Tony Pitt J & E Hall Ltd, 6 Prospect Place, Dartford, Kent DA1
1BU, UK
John Roper BT Rolatruc Ltd, Stirling Road, Slough, Berkshire SLl
4SY, UK
Bev Russell United Cold Store Construction Group pIc, Winchester
Hill, Romsey, Hampshire S051 7UT, UK
Richard Showell Dugard Logistics Ltd, 2 Sherwood Road, Bromsgrove
B603DU, UK
Alex Thomson SARA/Loading Bay Specialist Ltd, Local Board Road,
Watford, Hertfordshire WD1 2JW, UK
Maurice Young Technical Centre, Frigoscandia Food Services, Scania
House, Amwell Street, Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire
EN118TT, UK
Preface
The first edition of Cold and Chilled Storage Technology was prepared at a
time when great changes were taking place in the industry that were hard to
put into clear perspective. For example, the CFClozone layer problem was
identified, the Montreal Protocol was signed and experts from many disci-
plines were already proposing 'solutions' to the problems seen at the time.
Not only were there the usual differences in approach to the problems,
there were different understandings of the problems themselves. For in-
stance, some authoritative voices were saying HCFC 22 was 'part of the
solution, not part of the problem' and recommending it as the main refrig-
erant for the future, others said the opposite.
As editor, I have taken the view that this should be a 'reference book'
and, as such, it should contain information that points in the direction of
tried and proven good practice. To avoid the risk of misdirecting readers, I
decided that the CFC issue was too unclear to be usefully discussed in the
first edition and left it out altogether. This was the main criticism of the first
edition at the time of its publication but, in view of the developments since
then, I stand by my decision to avoid premature comment in that instance.
The matter is discussed in this edition in Chapters 4 and 7, which include
summaries of other related factors, in a way that was certainly not possible
in 1989.
Some of the original chapter authors felt unable to contribute to this
second edition, for various reasons, so new and equally experienced authors
had to be found at relatively short notice. Some chapters, therefore, have
been completely rewritten to incorporate current developments and guide-
lines. The other authors have taken the opportunity to up-date their chap-
ters to include the latest practices, new and improved equipment now
available, and changes to current regulations and standards. To all of them
I express my thanks, and hope that all readers will appreciate the contribu-
tions they have made to taking this edition a step further to becoming a
standard reference book for our continuously changing industry.
Reflecting the changes taking place, some chapters have changed; for
example, the growing requirement for larger, centralised, distribution de-
pots operating with 'just-in-time' deliveries of perishable goods, rapid as-
sembly of mixed orders and the phased dispatch of delivery vehicles to meet
critical 'time windows' at their destinations has (or should have) concen-
trated our minds on the way in which the site layout and facilities affect the
overall operations. There is little sense in having the optimum order-
picking system in the depot if there are time-consuming bottlenecks that
XVI PREFACE
delay the movement, or positioning, of vehicles that serve it in the areas

outside the depot building. A new chapter discusses this aspect in more
detail.
Finally, and on a lighter note, readers with experience of the capricious
nature of low-temperature installations may wonder (as I did) how Samuel
Butler was able to describe so accurately our present industry three hun-
dred years ago! I found the following too late for the first edition:
'Ay me! what perils do environ
The man that meddles with cold iron,
What pia guy mischiefs and mishaps
Do dog him still with after-claps!
For though Dame Fortune seem to smile,
And leer upon him for a while,
She'll after show him, in the nick
Of all his glories, a dog-trick.'
Samuel Butler, 'Hudibras' Pt.1, Canto III
1612-1680
For all readers who 'meddle with cold iron' I hope this book will help to
avoid at least some of the 'dog-tricks' that Dame Fortune has in her
repertoire.
CVJD
Preface to the first edition
When I was asked to act as editor of this book, it was suggested that after
thirty-three years in the industry I must have some friends who know what
they are talking about. I hope the reader will agree that the contributors to
the various chapters not only know their subjects, but also have presented
summaries of their specialist knowledge in a way that interlocks into the
jigsaw picture of our industry. There may well be gaps, but this is due solely
to the need to keep the volume to a manageable size. The choice of what to
include and what to omit was mine, and I ask the reader's understanding if
some aspect is missing or inadequately covered.
The first four chapters are concerned primarily with the basic functions
and operation of the various types of temperature-controlled facilities in
the food distribution chain. The remaining chapters consider specific tech-
nical areas and equipment that make up the unique nature of temperature-
controlled warehousing and goods handling. Chapter 3 however, on
Controlled Atmosphere Storage, itself includes brief information on the
appropriate equipment specific to this application, whilst that on Fully
Automated Cold Stores comes in the later 'equipment' chapters as it is not
specific to a storage function or temperature regime.
In the selection of authors, I have drawn on those with experience in the
UK, USA and continental Europe. Our industry is becoming more inte-
grated in international terms and as development takes place, we are all
facing similar problems and finding similar solutions. For example, this
book was written during a period of great activity in the UK contracting
industry when a pronounced development of the composite, multi-
temperature distribution depots for the major retail chains was taking
place. The impact of the new requirements of these sites is reflected in the
content of the relevant chapters and is equally applicable outside the UK.
I hope that this book will be a useful summary of the current situation in
our industry and that it will be a valuable reference source for its readers.
Finally, I wish to record my sincere appreciation of the efforts made by old
and new friends who have so generously given of their time and experience.
CVJD
---_.
; (see chapter 3).
Unit load HDDS~:::=:---------
1 The cold storage chain
M. YOUNG
1.1 Introdnction
Temperature-controlled storage and distribution have become an increas-

ingly important aspect of the food supply chain. More and more foodstuffs
are being manufactured, stored and delivered to retail outlets under con-
stant temperature conditions, in order that they are maintained in peak
condition. There are other products which require to be maintained at
constant temperature but this chapter will mainly address the market for
operations involving food products.
The most obvious products which require to be maintained at constant
temperature are frozen foods. Once restricted solely to fish, ice cream and
meat transported from countries like Argentina and New Zealand, quick
freezing is now applied to many vegetables and fruit, plus manufactured
foods, including complete meals and 'convenience' foods, which can be
defrosted and cooked in the minimum of time. This applies to products both
for the domestic market and for caterers.
In many cases, the term 'temperature-controlled' refers to 'fresh' foods,
which need to be kept at chilled temperatures, that is above freezing but
below, say, +5 or +10 0 C. Regulations have been introduced and are being
updated regularly with respect to particular types of foodstuff and the
maximum temperatures they must be kept at by law. At the other end of the
scale are products like chocolates and confectionery, for example, which are
stored at a constant temperature, not very different from ambient condi-
tions, and require much the same sort of controls over the environment in
which they are held as chilled foods.
This chapter will first look at what might now be termed the traditional
bulk cold store, its salient features and associated services. The bulk cold
store simply provides a means of holding large tonnages of mainly seasonal
products, like vegetables, butter, meat, poultry and fish, plus ice cream,
confectionery and other added value products, for future distribution for
additional manufacturing, processing or retail for consumption. Many of
the details regarding the construction and running of such a cold store are
equally applicable to distribution stores, which are becoming the more
common type of premises now that minimum stockholdings are considered
the most efficient way of conducting business.
C. V. J. Dellino (ed.), Cold and Chilled Storage Technology
© Chapman & Hall 1997
2 COLD AND CHILLED STORAGE TECHNOLOGY
In some cases, cold stores and distribution stores, which may include
frozen, chilled and ambient storage facilities on the same site, are run by
manufacturers or retailers themselves, as 'in-house' operations. However,
over the last few years, third party contractors have played an increasingly
major role in providing distribution services, covering not only the trans-
port of goods from manufacturer to retailer but also order picking
and assembly, arranging deliveries and all ancillary services, including
storage.
In many cases, third party operators are running regional distribution
centres (RDCs) for retailers, covering all functions, including the holding of
buffer stocks as well as distribution. Food retailing has become concen-
trated in the hands of a number of supermarket groups, who are now
substantially controlling the distribution chain, but in many cases they are
using contractors who are, in the main, providing dedicated services to
one company. While distribution is carried out by third party contractors,
however, there will always be some element of multi-user services where
consignments from a number of smaller customers are consolidated and
delivered together.
The emergence of the RDC as a hub from which retail outlets can be
served in a broadly radial pattern has led to the sub-division of operations
into primary and secondary distribution, where primary distribution refers
to movements from manufacturer to RDCs and secondary distribution
refers to onward delivery to retail outlets.
All these factors have had an effect on the demand for cold storage, and
the way in which it is operated and by whom. The basic principles of
construction and operation of cold stores themselves, on the other hand, do
not vary considerably.
1.2 Bulk stores and associated services
History
The preservation of food by the use of low temperatures dates from the
eighteenth century with the first use of ice houses. These structures were
common among wealthier members of society at that time and consisted of
brick-lined pits or wells below ground level in which ice harvested from
local lakes was stored.
The late 1800s saw purpose-built commercial stores, generally to be
found at the major seaports of Europe and America, intended for the
storage of carcass meat, fruit and dairy products or at central markets. Most
of these structures were built on high-value land, so multi-storey buildings
were accepted as the best design available. The internal height of these
chambers was only about 2.5 m, as pallets and lift trucks had not yet been
THE COLD STORAGE CHAIN 3
developed. Refrigeration systems were, in the main, developed from those

found in the marine industry, tending to be brine-circulated secondary
systems of some kind.
World War II saw the first dramatic change in refrigerated warehousing.
The use of the pallet was developed for moving ammunition and other
supplies and proved to be a very valuable tool for all types of product
movement and storage. Lift trucks were also developed for the movement
of heavy loads and subsequently to achieve better utilization of storage
space.
At this time, demands on the bulk cold store were confined mostly to
receiving products from the processor at the loading bay, checking the units
or items delivered, then stacking the product inside the cold store, three or
four pallets high. Products mainly came into the cold store in large tonnages
(or lots, to use the modern term) and usually also went out in fairly large
consignments back to the processor for further processing or packaging.
The later introduction of the 'five-high' fork-lift truck increased, at a stroke,
storage capacity per unit area of floor space by 25% or more.
Few additional services were provided for the customer at the cold store.
These were generally limited to facilities for freezing, either in blast tunnels
or compact plate freezers. The majority of customers did not require addi-
tional services to be carried out at the cold store. The main requirement
was for correct in-store temperatures, good reliable handling practices and
accurate documentation.
In recent years, bulk stores themselves have changed with the introduc-
tion of multi temperature chambers, with humidity control for some prod-
ucts. Enclosed loading bays have provided better environmental protection
from prevailing atmospheric conditions, plus better loading and discharge
facilities.
Various cost factors, among them the high cost of transporting goods
between sites and facilities, have resulted in a move to greater reliance on
the additional services which can be provided at the cold store. In many
cases, the simple freezing service has given way to full processing, where the
customer delivers the raw material to the site and the cold store carries out
all processing on his behalf.
Escalating costs, including utilities such as electricity, water and gas, and
ever-increasing labour costs have forced cold store operators to improve
techniques and operating facilities, while customers are being forced to
limit the volume of individual products being held in the store to keep
storage costs to a minimum.
Building construction
Once a suitable site upon which to build a cold store has been chosen, the
modern cold store development must meet a number of specific require-
ments that will allow it to accommodate the ever-changing demands placed

on it by its customers.
In general, it needs to be located near a major road network with suitable
access and within easy reach of attendant commercial support, in the form
of specialized contractors as well as general, permanent personnel. It is
essential that all the main utilities such as electricity, water and gas are
readily available otherwise the premium for providing them is an unneces-
sary cost penalty. The site itself should obviously be as level as possible to
avoid unnecessary movement of soil; the land should also be stable and as
structurally sound as possible to avoid unnecessary expenditure in estab-
lishing a structural base.
The most important element in an industrial building of this nature
consists of the ground works and the main floor slab itself. In order to
improve efficiency, utilization, storage and retrieval, cold stores nowadays
tend to be tall high-bay constructions with deep, insulated concrete floors to
prevent frost heave. It is generally accepted that loading bay facilities
should be provided, incorporating the means for discharging from road
vehicles, as the most likely form of transport into and out of the store,
directly into an enclosed environment on the loading bay. In order to
achieve this level of sophistication, it is likely that the loading bay height
will have to be approximately 104m above the traffic yard level. In order to
accommodate the varying heights of modern road vehicles, dock levellers
are introduced to make the connection between the loading bay and the
rear of the vehicle as perfect as possible (see Chapter 11).
The chamber configuration within a bulk cold store will depend entirely
upon the anticipated business available in that particular area. It should,
however, be as flexible as possible because the available business is likely
to change frequently because of changing customer demands and market
trends, and the need in some cases to provide a variety of storage facilities
for one particular customer with a range of different products.
Over the years, a reasonable standard module plan has been used, which
can provide the operator with the best use of the space constructed and the
ability to change the internal layout of each chamber as the business de-
mands. The conventional insulated envelope is (in the UK) usually con-
structed using an external steel frame with internal insulated panels, which
are in turn protected by weatherproof sheeting over the roof and all or part
of the vertical walls.
Other designs provided an internal structure, usually using concrete col-
umns and steel trusses supporting the top roof which in turn was insulated.
The external insulated panels provided the weatherproof cladding for the
structure. In many parts of the world the external system is still used. Over
the years, technological improvements in all aspects of cold store construc-
tion have greatly added to the constructors' ability to maintain a reasonable
cost level for building new bulk cold stores on green-field sites.
The internal height of the cold store is important and serious considera-
tion must be given at the planning stage to the ultimate working height
within each chamber. It is important today that consideration is given to the
variety of alternative stacking techniques that are available to the industry
and the use of internal racking in various forms is becoming more and more
important at the planning stage.
Regulations and standards

The structure of a cold store has to meet the same standards as any kind of
building but, technically, the cold storage envelope and refrigeration only
have to meet the technical requirements of the end user.
A cold storage operator who wishes to store products under the EC
Intervention Regulations has to have the store certified by Lloyd's Register
but if only the company's own products are handled, then it can set its own
standards. Having said that, there are a number of standards and codes of
practice which it would be ill-advised to ignore. Even if the local authority
is satisfied with the structure, and the fire officer satisfied with the fire
precautions, insurers may insist on further precautions like, for example, a
sprinkler system for the areas above O°c.
In designing and installing the insulated envelope, the operator would be
well-advised to use the Institute of Refrigeration's Code of Practice for the
Design and Construction of Cold Store Envelopes Incorporating Prefabri-
cated Insulating Panels, first published in 1986 (this can be obtained from
the Institute of Refrigeration, 76 Mill Lane, Carshalton, Surrey SM5 2JR).
This draws together good practice from a wide cross-section of the industry
on which an individual design can be based to suit specific needs.
Meeting the requirements of the Lloyd's Register is an internationally
recognized certification procedure and essentially a test of fitness for
use. The refrigeration machinery can be designed to conform to various
standards but safety is covered by British Standards, which are allied to
other international standards. American standards were common in the
1960s, as at that time the American refrigeration market was ahead of
Europe.
The Institute of Refrigeration has published other standards (obtainable
from the Institute. address as before) on the use of different refrigerants,
including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which have now fallen out of favour
because of environmental considerations about the harm they cause to
the ozone layer. There are few legal requirements to use specific design
standards but the general duty of care within current health and safety
regulations makes the use of industry standards a worthwhile basis of
operations.
The following sections describe the basic concept of in-store layout using
the various alternative racking systems available to the industry.
Traffic flow
When planning a bulk cold store, it is normal to consider the following
elements in assessing the basic parameters on which the design will be
formulated:
• Product types
• Tonnages
• Lot sizes
• Expected turnover
• Seasonal fluctuations
• Packaging
• Arrival temperature
• Transport used, e.g. road, rail or both - in and out
• Pallets used in conjunction with the transport
• Pallet size and design
• Ancillary services, such as check-weighing, marking and sorting
Information on these items and traffic flow (always important given the
high cost of transport), together with data specific to the site chosen, will
allow a layout to be planned.
Cold store layouts are invariably planned for future extension so the
information on which the initial layout is based will always be incomplete to
some extent. Developing markets will dictate future development with
regard to product characteristics and the need for special handling equip-
ment and other investments that affect the product flow.
Mechanization
Bulk cold stores are always planned with some degree of mechanization in
mind, from the simplest, basic fork-lift truck (FLT) operation to a fully
automatic computer-controlled, stacker crane operation. However, in all
cases, a certain amount of manual handling will remain. This may involve
unloading and loading of vehicles, stacking product on pallets and occasion-
ally sorting to mark or grade. In some cases, hand-stacking will even be
required in the cold room, as with, for example, long-term storage of carcass
meat.
Routines and practices for manual handling are important for the
economy of the operation and for work safety. It is important to acquire
and have access to considerable expertise in this area. For these reasons, it
may be advisable to consult specialists who will be better able to prevent
costly errors in the planning stage.
Layout
In general, bulk cold stores are laid out for FLT operation which means
that the chambers are built as a single storey with internal heights of 8
to 10m. Handling costs and building costs, as well as increased demand

for flexibility in use, have brought a universal development of large
rooms, usually 15000-20000m3• Rooms are long and narrow, with doors
only at one or both ends. Several rooms, side by side, face a common
loading bank, which provides access to vehicles and to service and handling
areas.
The working areas of the cold chambers and loading banks are usually at
a height above the yard level, coinciding with the load level of road vehicles
or railway wagons, in order to facilitate loading and unloading.
Storage methods
Block stacking. It is generally acknowledged that a system of block

stacking of pallets in single-storey cold rooms achieves the best uti-
lization of usable space within a large chamber. Whilst the layout of large
chambers must be determined by the storage pattern to the lot size and
turnover, it should be remembered that a deep stow will give a high net
volume of actual product stored. However, deep stacking can mean much
more taking down and re-stacking to locate particular lots and rotation
units.
Although there is no recognized standard, a typical bulk chamber has a
width of 25 m with two trucking aisles. Twelve rows of pallets are stored
between the two truck aisles and three rows are placed on the outer side of
each trucking aisle. Access to the centre block of pallets is from both truck
aisles, so that at no point will any stow be more than six pallets deep (these
figures relate to typical l.Om x l.2m pallets).
It is often possible also to use the front pallets of bulk stows for small lots
including part pallets, provided that frequent access is not required to the
bulk stack behind.
The following definitions can be used as a guide when discussing the
layout analysis of handling and storage problems, and can be helpful in
avoiding confusion (Figure 1.1):
• Stow Two or more columns behind one another (across gangway)
• Row Two or more columns beside one another (along gangway)
• Column Two or more pallets on top of one another
• Tier A layer of pallets in the storage block (column, stow, row or block)
• Block Several rows or stows adjacent to one another
The word 'stack' is used when it is not essential to distinguish between
column, stow, and row.
Spaces. It is necessary that pallets in block stows have a space of not less
than 0.5 m between the top of the columns of pallets and the ceiling of the
cold room to allow for adequate air circulation. Space must also be allowed
between the pallet columns in a stow of pallets, and between the stows
ROW
Figure 1.1 Block stack.
themselves, of SO-lS0mm, not only for air circulation but also to enable an
individual stow of pallets to be drawn out of a block. This would, of course,
be impossible if the stows were actually touching each other.
Pallet stacks must not, on any account, be allowed to touch outside walls.
In most cold rooms it is normal to install a kerb at the base of the wall to
prevent this from happening. However, bad stacking can result in the upper
pallets of a column touching the walls. Not only is this dangerous from a
physical point of view, because the stack may fall, it also impedes air
circulation. Pallets that are actually touching outer walls may suffer a rise in
temperature.
Stacking discipline is all-important for the correct operation of palletized
cold rooms. A pallet pattern should be painted on the floor; trucking aisle
lines and stow lines must be strictly adhered to, and pallet columns should,
at all times, be perpendicular. This is essential for safety as well as for
efficient operation.
In instances where bulky products, such as carcass meat, are palletized
and the product overhangs the pallet, it is important to leave sufficient
space between pallet stows so that interlocking does not take place if an
individual stow has to be moved.
In a standard room layout as described here, the actual space taken up by
the product itself not including pallets, assuming the cold room to be fully
occupied, would result in a use of approximately 50% of the total storage
space available.
Corner posts or frames. Many of the products placed in cold stores require
some form of support to enable them to be palletized and stacked in the
cold rooms. Such support is normally given by corner posts (also referred to
as pallet posts) and converter frames. When designing cold stores, it is usual
to dimension the chambers to allow pallets to be stacked four or five high.
Most products are not strong enough in themselves to support the weight of
such a column of pallets; they would collapse, causing a fall of pallets and
damage to the product. Even when a column of pallets appears to be stable,
the effect of weight on the bottom pallet can be cumulative. Over a period
of time, the product on the bottom may be compressed unevenly and cause
the pallets above to tilt. If there is any doubt at all about the ability of the
product to stand this stacking weight then posts, frames or racks must be
used.
It is important to remember also that if a product which is normally quite
safe to store free-standing on pallets is received into the store at a higher
temperature than is customary, then the product must be placed in frames
or corner posts to allow for the temperature of the unit to equalize because
this in itself can also result in a distortion of the stack.
Because of their shape, many products, such as carcass meat or irregu-
larly shaped packages, cannot be placed on a single pallet without collaps-
ing. Such products must be placed in special frames when they are being
off-loaded from the vehicle delivering to the cold store. Since the customer
has the same handling problem, it is sometimes possible to arrange for the
product to be placed in these special frames at the time of processing at the
customer's premises. In such cases, it is essential that each pallet is checked
carefully for stability before being stacked in the cold rooms.
It should also be noted that it is often not the actual product itself but the
material and type of packaging which influences the decision when and
where to use corner posts or converter frames. Cartons can be placed in
different patterns according to size: the pattern used should optimize stabil-
ity and space utilization on the pallet.
Hand-stacking of carcass meat. It is possible to stack carcass meat by hand

in converted static racking frames. This method, when correctly organized,
affords a better space utilization for difficult products. However, there are
a number of important points to consider, of which two - hygiene and safety
- come high on the list. Substantial metal plates should be used between the
Figure 1.2 In-store stows.

Figure 1.3 Special frames.
beams on which the product is placed and care should be taken not to
overload the rack.
Chamber layouts. The initial design of a chamber layout can be made only
on an estimate of the traffic and units to be handled. Often the picture
which emerges is quite different from that originally painted. Customers
may change their product distribution methods and consequently their
handling and storage requirements. In such cases the chamber layout
should be reviewed. If large tonnages of the same product are to be stored
for extended periods, as in the case of seasonal crops like peas, a significant
increase in utilization can often be achieved by block stacking across one
gangway for all or part of a chamber.
Examples of storage patterns for block stacking are shown in Figures 1.4
and 1.5.
The layout can be changed when changes in lot size and turnover occur.
A third gangway with a 3 x 4 pallet layout module will, of course, make the
pattern better suited for smaller lot sizes.
Racking systems (see also Chapter 9). In most cases, pallet units stored in
bulk chambers are associated with corner posts or converter frames of one
kind of another. However, bulk chambers do not, understandably, offer
great flexibility with regard to varying products and space utilization. We
must now look at alternative methods of storage using the various racking
systems available.
- -
--- --. - - - f-- -+-f---+-l
- f ~ --f-- -- I--~ -- -
- r-- I- - 1--- -1-----
-- -~ - - r-
Figure 1.4 A standard layout with a 6 x 6 pallet module.
Static racks. Racks consist of a steel framework which is built to support

all pallets above ground level independently. This method gives direct
access to every pallet in the system. The space occupied by the steel rack
and the clearances required between pallets give far less efficient space
utilization than block stacking. In addition, an aisle is required for every
two-pallet row.
Static racking is installed for small lot sizes with high turnover or where
access to every pallet is important for other reasons. Static racking is com-
mon for break-bulk operations where, in most cases, the picking positions
are at ground level and positions above are used for spare pallets. Often
only a limited area of a chamber is equipped with racks; in particular, static
racks are never used for general-purpose storage.
--
- =========.
C::.
-
-ill-
r-r-- -- -- -{- r-
I-- -- I-- - r--r-- -- - _-- ---1- ---
- r-- --,---
--+t+ - ---+-+-+-1 1---·-
r-- I-- -I--
~ --I-- --I-- I--
'-------
ft
I
t--- - -
- -1---
1- -- ---,--
l-rJtlt ill
=-.!l+
-
Figure 1.5 Room as in Figure 1.4 but with three gangways,
Mobile racks. Racks for two-pallet rows are assembled onto carriages
with wheels. These run on rails in the floor arranged to cross the length of
the racks. Along the rails there are so many racks from wall to wall of the
chamber that in one position only is there enough space between two racks
to allow an FLT to operate. By moving some of the racks, this space can be
opened up between any two racks to give direct access to all pallets in the
system. Each rack is motorized and connected to a control system that
allows the FLT to open up the desired position with a push button or
possibly a remote control, either from the truck itself or from some external
control point. Mobile racks offer better space utilization than static racks
but access is not quite as quick. This type of racking is ideal for small lots
with a limited turnover, where space utilization is important.
Recently, developments in the field of mobile racking have proved that

this type of installation can be used very successfully with turret trucks
which, operating as narrow aisle truck~, offer even better space utilization
than the conventional mobile rack with standard FLT.
Drive-in racks. Drive-in (or drive-through) racks are static racks with
several pallet positions behind one another as seen from the aisle. The steel
structure allows an FLT to enter empty racks because there are no cross-
beams. The pallets are supported only on two opposite edges by longitu-
dinal beams for each tier.
Drive-in racks offer individual support of each pallet and better space
utilization than static racks. The stock is accessible on the LIFO (last in, first
out) principle which limits the use of this system. It may be used as a buffer
store in break-up operations or as a terminal store for loads prepared for
outloading. The location of the pallets in the racks is important in order to
get good utilization.
The most obvious advantage of the drive-in rack system is that it can
easily be used in older and less adaptable bulk chambers and also dispenses
with the use of corner posts and metal converter frames. However, pallet
quality is critical.
Live storage. A live storage block consists of several lanes of roller con-
veyors arranged side by side and in tiers above one another. The conveyors
are slightly inclined, so pallets loaded at the upper end will advance through
the block by gravity. A braking arrangement ensures that they do not move
too fast. At the lower end, the pallets are stopped and queue up in the lane
until the first pallet is removed.
Live storage is a system for big lots and high turnover. The outloading
capacity is high and the FIFO (first in, first out) rotation is easily main-
tained. The system needs careful calculation because the utilization of
pallet positions is, in practice, not easy. Investment per pallet position is
also high. Live storage systems can also be used successfully with break-up
operations where the system itself is positioned at high level above the
order-picking aisles.
Rack entry module. A rack entry module (REM) system consists of a

structure similar to drive-in racks. The pallets are moved by a self-propelled
carrier module which travels along each lane. The carrier module is shifted
horizontally and vertically from lane to lane by a transfer lift moving along
the one face of the block.
The REM system may be manually operated, semi-automatic or compu-
ter-controlled. It is a compact storage system with access to more lots than
conventional block storage. The system can be installed in high-rise build-
ings but gives much less flexibility than the stacker crane system. It is also
Figure 1.6 REM system.
possible to use the racking system to support the building, if the system is
designed to be a permanent installation when a new chamber is being
constructed. However, this decision must be taken very carefully as the
REM system does have some disadvantages, as does the live storage
system.
Stacker crane storage (see also Chapter 3). A high-rise store is one that
stores goods at a greater height than that which can be handled by FLTs.
The term is restricted to layouts where the pallets are supported on steel or
concrete structures, which can be 30 m or more high. In addition to pallet
loads, they can support stacker frames, external walls, mezzanine floors, etc.
In other words, this installation can also be the supporting structure of the
warehouse, as described for the REM system installation above. A variety

of handling equipment is available. The system can be controlled manually,
semi-automatically or fully automatically. All stacker crane installations are
designed specifically for a particular situation. They can provide highly
efficient and cost-effective automation of handling and storage of stocks
with a fast turnover.
To be effective, stacker crane installations must be planned in great detail
to perform the functions required. Initial costs per pallet position are higher
than with pallet racking and flexibility is more limited. Preventive mainte-
nance and servicing programmes are of particular importance for a reliable
operation. A stacker crane installation will undoubtedly come into its own
when the turnover of large quantities of product exceeds 10 times per
annum. It is also important to have a steady product flow for such a system,
which can be programmed over a 24-hour period.
Stacking material
Standard pallets. Within the frozen food industry, and the food industry in
general throughout the world, two standard sizes of pallets are in normal
use: 0.8m x l.2m the so-called 'Europallet' and l.Om x l.2m. Both have a
thickness of 15cm. The pallet most commonly used today is the l.Om x
l.2m, which seems to have advantages in all links of the distribution
chain.
The UK frozen food industry has a recommended standard for a
l.Om x l.2m pallet. It is a four-way entry unit and, where possible, it should
be constructed of soft wood. The use of the 0.8 x 1.2m pallet in the UK
is very limited and no recommended specification is currently available
for it.
Non-standard pallets. All other types and sizes of pallet are non-standard.
Within the cold storage industry, where there is a steady demand for the
storage of product which will not easily fit on a standard pallet without an
unacceptable loss of space, the use of non-standard pallets can occasionally
be justified.
Disposable pallets are used only where the distances involved in trans-
porting the product from the producing country to the consumer market are
so great that any possibility of pallet return or participation in pallet pool
schemes is impractical. The disposable pallet usually consists of a number
of blocks of very low-quality wood or cardboard fixed to a thin base; its
strength comes mainly from the way in which cartons on the pallet are
strapped together. When receiving product on disposable pallets, it is essen-
tial in the interests of safety that the product is transferred to a standard
pallet, if necessary with a converter frame, before it is stacked inside the
cold chamber.
Quality standards. The pallet base is undoubtedly the most important

piece of equipment used in warehouse systems and, as such, must be main-
tained with the highest degree of care. A poor-quality or damaged pallet
can prove extremely costly not only in terms of damaged product but also
occasionally in causing serious injury or even the loss of life.
Pallet posts. Pallet posts or corner posts are designed to give stability to a
pallet and also to take the weight of pallets stacked above. Individual corner
posts are secured to the pallet unit by means of steel banding using
either fixed top and bottom timber frames or a number of timber spacers
positioned inside the angle of each post. In the case of carton packaging
when the product exactly fits the pallet without any gaps in the pallet layer,
both the carton and the product may be strong enough to withstand the
pressure of the banding, in which case posts can be fixed directly to the
pallet unit.
If, however, there is any doubt as to the strength of products, or the
product itself is unstable, then wooden slat stabilizers or metal bars must be
used to fix the tops of the corner posts to one another. It is of course
essential that banding is sufficient and tight before stacking of such pallets
commences.
Where possible pallet posts should be galvanized; painted posts are very
prone to rust, especially as posts are subject to impact damage of one sort
or another in the course of normal handling and may be stored in humid,
ambient areas.
Pallet frames. Standard pallet frames are normally sized to fit the 1.0m x
1.2m pallet. They are made in a multitude of designs by many manufactur-
ers. When handling heavy and unstable products like carcasses in pallet
loads, rigid frames must be used because conventional corner posts do not
provide acceptable safety for the product or the unit.
In principle, pallet frames are made to be collapsible but in practice
frames, once erected, are often used as semi-permanent solid units. This
fact often leads to a situation where the wooden pallet becomes badly
damaged yet continues to be used because the frame holds the wooden
pallet together - a practice which is extremely dangerous.
Pallet frames must be regularly inspected, both for physical damage and
also for corrosion (especially if frames are stored in the open, as they often
are). Only frames in good condition should be taken into use in the cold
chambers for any variety of product.
The cost of pallet frames and converters is relatively high compared with
that of pallet posts. Converters and frames should be used only if there is a
fairly high turnover, if products are awkwardly shaped or if a large number
of part pallets are likely to be involved during the course of the storage
period.
Figure 1.7 Corner posts with wooden and steel top frames.
Strapping material. The usual type of strapping material used in securing

pallet posts is steel banding. This requires the use of a banding machine.
The degree of tension of the banding must be correct; if it is too tight, the
banding will contract in the low temperature of the cold chamber and may
snap, and if it is too loose, the pallet stacks will be unstable.
It is dangerous to use steel-banded pallet units more than once; new
banding should be applied after each use.
When pallet post sets are dismantled, care must be taken to gather up the
discarded banding and remove it from operating areas of the cold store.
Steel banding is not only unsightly but can cause serious damage to wheels
of FLTs and pedestrian trucks, and even injury to personnel.
Automatic and semi-automatic banding machines are available on the
market. A fixed strapping station with sophisticated arrangements can al-
ways be justified where there are a large number of units to assemble at any
time.
Other strapping methods, such as stretch-wrapping or shrink-wrapping
products with plastic film, are used for some products. This type of strap-
ping is necessary for pallets without corner posts when these are stored in
racks, and is becoming increasingly popular.
Figure 1.8 Corner posts with crossbars attached in keyhole slots to give stability close to that
of a rigid frame.
It is quite usual to find fresh product being frozen either in low-

temperature cold store chambers or through a conventional blast freezing
tunnel. When cartoned products are placed in the freezing tunnel, an opti-
mum air circulation must be achieved to ensure rapid and even freezing of
products. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to place spacers between
the layers of cartons on the pallet.
In freezing tunnels it is also important that space is left between pallets
placed next to each other in the direction of the air flow in order to ensure
an even freezing pattern.
Freezing frames. There are various types of specialized frame designed for
use in blast freezing tunnels. Common types in use are for the hanging of
meat carcasses for freezing and frame racks for cartoned products.
The size of the frame may vary according to the actual product being
Figure 1.9 Frame for freezing of hanging carcass meat.
frozen. It should be noted that the frames should be capable of being

stacked in the cold room, since either the workload of the loading bay staff
may be such that it is not convenient to discharge the product on to pallets
for final stacking at the time the frames are removed from the tunnel or the
storage time may be too short to make such a transfer economically
worthwhile.
Since carcass meat for freezing is delivered for freezing to the cold store
in the hanging position, the freezing frame should be so adapted that the
hanging bars can be connected to the meat rails system at the point of
delivery from the transport vehicle.
Palletainers. It is current practice throughout the world to place vegeta-

bles and some fruits into bulk packing units directly from the blast freezer
and then to repack into appropriate retail or catering packs as market
demands require. One common type of bulk pack is the palletainer.
Palletainers can be of varying sizes, according to the product stored, but
the most usual is that which is designed to hold 1 tonne of peas.
Figure 1.10 Palletainer of cardboard, wooden slats and corner posts.
Product inside a palletainer should always be covered to prevent dehy-

dration and to give the same level of protection as for a product packed for
retail sale. This is important to reduce drying out, which in turn increases
the weight loss of the product if it is held in store over a long period of time.
It is important to ensure that the palletainer is assembled with a great
degree of care and accuracy; a badly constructed palletainer unit can endan-
ger the whole stack if one unit is slightly off the vertical.
Angle steel corner posts are generally used as the supportive unit
for palletainers, although timber corner posts forming an integral part
of the card box are also used. In either case accuracy in assembly is
all-important.
Control of stacking materials. The stacking materials form a significant

part of a cold store investment. Such an investment must be protected by
rigid control and good maintenance practices. Clean and well-maintained
stacking materials are important to the safety and protection of the goods
stored in any bulk cold store.
Stacking materials not in use should be marshalled in a defined area,
allowing supervision to inspect and check quantities at regular intervals. All
damaged pallets must be withdrawn from the system and repaired is pos-
sible. Where corner posts and metal converters are damaged, they should
be scrapped. Where deterioration has taken place through corrosion, these
materials should be accumulated separately until they can been cleaned
(usually with a shot-blasting machine) and then repainted. The quality of
the finished paint surface is important, as only certain paints are acceptable
in the presence of foodstuffs. In the case of blast freezing frames, where the
equipment is under even greater stress because of temperature variations, a
galvanized finish is recommended and in certain special circumstances
stainless steel is the only metal acceptable.
It is normal for bulk cold stores to receive goods on pallets and to replace
the pallet received with an exchange pallet. It is of the utmost importance
to ensure that only an acceptable standard of pallet is received into the
store. Damaged pallets must not be accepted for storage, as this could result
in the collapse of a stow and possible injury to personnel. The product must
be transferred to an acceptable unit and the customer advised and charged
with this operation. It is possible to use a machine called an inverter to
replace damaged pallets but this equipment is only generally useful where
uniform carton products are stowed on the pallet board.
Inloading documents should be endorsed when defective stacking ma-
terials are shipped into the cold store. It is most important that an inventory
is kept at all times of stacking materials in circulation because in a large
bulk cold store stacking materials amount to an enormous cost item.
Fork-lift truck handling equipment (see also Chapter 10)
Pedestrian trucks. A truck operated by a man standing on or walking with

the truck is usually referred to as a pedestrian truck. It is capable of lifting
a pallet purely for transportation purposes. The lifting height is generally
limited to 10-30cm. Small roller wheels extend from the forks of the truck
to take the weight of the pallet and to give stability.
Pedestrian trucks may be either electrically or manually operated with a
hydraulic pump lift. Electrically powered appliances are most commonly
used in bulk cold stores.
One of the principal jobs of the pedestrian truck is to unload pallets from
insulated or refrigerated vehicles via a bridge plate to the loading bay. It is
important that the type of truck chosen is capable of negotiating the rela-
tively steep slope of the bridge plate. It is also important that the main drive
wheel and roller wheels attached to the forks are wide enough to ride over
corrugations, which are an integral part of the design of modern refriger-

ated vehicles and containers.
The operator must always proceed with the pedestrian truck whilst it is in
transit. From an operational safety point of view, the pedestrian truck, be it
stand-on or conventional, should never be moved with the pallet in the lead
position. The exception to this rule is when placing the pallet in position in
the transport vehicle on a weighing platform or in other similar areas which
require precise manoeuvring.
Ride-on trucks. These trucks usually travel considerably faster than the
conventional pedestrian truck. They are often used when relatively long
distances have to be covered, for instance in moving product from the bulk
cold store to the inspection or repacking area. However, for vehicle loading
and unloading, the conventional pedestrian truck is more manoeuvrable
and more practical.
Manual hydraulic pump pedestrian trucks can handle the same load as
electrical trucks but obviously more labour is involved and the operation is
much slower. However, manual trucks are much lighter and easier to han-
dle. They can be of considerable use with road vehicles delivering palletized
loads to points where FLTs or conveyors are not available. Manual trucks
are used for such tasks as moving engineering spares and stores where the
utilization would not justify the investment of an electrically-driven pedes-
trian truck.
Under no circumstances should pedestrian trucks of any sort be used for
yard work, since the relatively rough surface of the tarmacadam or concrete
will quickly damage the roller wheels in the forks and stabilizing wheels on
the truck itself.
Counterbalanced trucks. A counterbalanced FLT is a truck where the

pallet is both carried and lifted outside the overall wheel base of the truck.
The rear of the truck is weighted to counterbalance the pallet weight at full
elevation. Such trucks operate with fixed masts. To place the pallet on a
stack or vehicle, the mast itself is tilted and the truck is slowly driven
forward.
Counterbalanced FLTs may be powered by batteries, diesel or gas-
operated internal combustion engines. Internal combustion engine trucks
are used for outside work in yards, etc. and battery-operated trucks are used
in cold rooms and on loading bays.
From a safety point of view, it should be noted that all FLTs should be
fitted with fire extinguishers and lights. Lights should be placed in such a
position that they ensure reasonable visibility when placing top pallets in
stacks in the relatively dark areas away from the trucking aisles where the
lights of the cold room are generally positioned.
For operating in block stacks, a side shift of the fork lifts is a usual
attachment to the truck. Note that the side shift reduces the lifting capacity,
which is important when selecting the particular truck to be used.
Service and availa:bility of spare parts are also of primary importance
when choosing an FLT.
Reach trucks. The principle of a reach truck is that the pallet and mast are
carried within the wheelbase of the truck, allowing the use of narrow
gangways. To place the pallet, either the mast moves forward or the forks
are projected by a pantograph mechanism.
In comparison with the counterbalance truck, the design of the reach
truck allows narrow gangways and better stability, which means higher
lifting capacity. On the other hand, a counterbalance truck has the
advantage in horizontal movement because it is faster and more
manoeuvrable.
The wheels of the reach truck are much smaller than those of the
counterbalance truck. Consequently, reach trucks should never be used for
yard work because of the relatively rough surfaces involved. Like counter-
balance trucks, they require lights and fire extinguishers.
Considerable research and development have taken place in recent years
with regard to reach trucks and they are now more reliable and more
sophisticated than the earlier models. It is now possible, for example, to
leave a reach truck inside a low-temperature cold room for the whole of
the working shift and the truck comes out of the room only for battery
changing.
Administrative routines
The service a bulk cold store offers its customers is directly dependent upon
the level of administrative back-up routine that it has in operation. In a
large bulk cold store with its many stows of pallets, stacked four and five
high, it is essential that the documentation is simple and accurate, otherwise
product can easily be lost in the mountain of units in the chambers.
Location system. For the efficient working of a cold store, it is necessary

that the position of each and every pallet in the cold room should be clearly
identifiable. For this purpose, a pallet location system must be operated and
maintained on almost hour-to-hour control. Not only does the location
system provide a vital link in the store operation, it can also be used as a
countercheck for stock records in the event of any discrepancies arising.
The basic information for the location system is provided for the FLT
driver who completes a location sheet giving the actual stow number in
which a particular pallet is stacked and also the position of the column of
pallets concerned within the stow. It is, of course, essential that when any
restacking takes place in the cold rooms, the new locations are reported by
the FLT drivers. Normally, a special form of location sheet is used for this
purpose, generally referred to as an internal movement sheet.
Each pallet in the cold store bears its own individual card, each card
being numbered and containing information such as customer, type of
product, lot or rotation number, etc. To ensure product safety, pallet cards
are fixed only to the centre wooden block of the pallet; under no circum-
stances should cards be fixed to the product itself. Each card has a tear-off
part giving the number. This portion of the card is attached to the location
sheet and passed to the location clerk.
The actual location information is usually kept in a card system which
should be able to provide the following information:
• The situation of each pallet stow in the cold rooms showing details of
product stored in the stow
• By cross-reference, the identification of location by customer and lot
number
• The location of a pallet from a pallet card number
• A separate record should be kept to check that each pallet card issued is
actually used and that no cards have been inadvertently left in the system
after a particular unit or lot has been delivered
It is important to ensure that all pallet cards are removed from pallets when
outloading takes place. It is usual for such cards to be returned with the
outloading documentation sheet so that they may be removed from the
system.
Sometimes the location sheet is used to determine where pallets are to be
placed when inloading and in these cases the FLT driver receives pre-
marked location sheets.
Modern technology is now moving rapidly towards computerization.
Packaging is marked with a bar code, which can be read by a hand-held bar-
code reader. The FLT driver can thus record the position of pallets of
products and the information downloaded into the stock control system
without any paper transactions, although in reality paper records have
tended to be kept as back-up. In addition radio control between the office
and the FLT driver should mean that the accuracy of locating unit pallets
will become almost foolproof.
Stock records. The purpose of stock records is to maintain accurate

records about customers' products held in the cold store. Accurate records
also provide the base from which to determine the important question of
charges in respect of services carried out.
Today, the tendency is for records to be computerized. It is possible to
arrange for the information to be accessed by modem link by the customer,
so an up-to-the-minute stock position is known to all concerned. The older
method, still often used in smaller cold stores, is some form of card index
system. Whichever method is used, it is essential that information on prod-

uct movement over the loading bank is entered into the stock record system
continuously and as quickly as possible.
It should be remembered that without computerized links, the customer's
own records might not be up-to-date or correct. If the cold store is not
completely in command, almost on an hour-to-hour basis, mistakes will
occur such as wrong product being delivered and, although the fault may lie
initially with the customer, the cold store may be blamed for not informing
the customer of the error at the time instructions were given.
The basis of all information for stock records is the checking sheet and/or
delivery document compiled during the process of receiving or dispatching
product. The greatest care must be taken both in the actual checking and in
ensuring that the checking document is processed without delay.
The normal flow of checking documents is via the chargehand or foreman
to the dispatch office. Before any delivery instructions are given, it is often
advisable to check the stock record for availability of the product lot con-
cerned and to make some form of temporary notation that the delivery is in
progress, thus avoiding any possibility of the customer over-ordering on any
particular line.
Stock control. It is generally recognized that in the warehousing industry

throughout the world the term 'stock control' means not only that stocks
held on behalf of the customer are properly recorded but also that such
stocks are rotated on the basis of 'first in, first out', the so-called FIFO
principle. However, it is considered advisable that the customer should give
specific instructions on how he wishes such a system to be operated. This
principle is particularly important in the case of chill storage where product
life is, almost always, rather limited.
It must be borne in mind, however, that in the case of small lots extra
handling may be involved in observing the FIFO principle. Indeed, where
bulk stows with sizeable tonnages are involved, it may be either uneconomi-
calor impractical to operate. This is particularly the case, for example,
where stows of hand-stacked carcass meat or bulk stacks of vegetables are
involved.
It must be appreciated that it is virtually impossible to take a complete
physical stock check of a cold store holding at anyone time or to check
stock for anyone large customer whose goods move rapidly. It is also
impossible to take an accurate stock check of hand-stacked products. Cus-
tomers' requests for physical stock checks to be taken at one particular
time, for example at the end of a financial year, should generally be resisted
or additional charges made for this service.
It must be appreciated as a medical fact that temperatures as low as
-30 D C have an adverse effect on the powers of human concentration after
a period of exposure, making stocktaking of any sizeable quantity of pro-
ducts quite difficult. Stocktaking should, therefore, be carried out in short

working periods throughout the year, whenever the pressure of work is such
that loading bank staff are not fully utilized. Staff carrying out such checks
should never be informed of the booked stocks beforehand.
Each pallet row should be checked for the actual product stored in that
row and the result compared with the pallet location system. It is, of course,
necessary for stock records and location systems to be regularly spot-
checked to ensure that they are in agreement.
It cannot be emphasized too clearly that an efficient stock control is one
that is not only accurate but is up-to-the-minute as far as feasibly possible.
Stock records whiCh are 100% accurate but a couple of days behind the
actual operation are inadequate for the demands of a modern cold store
operation.
Stock records today may be computerized but unless appropriate infor-
mation is fed into the computer quickly and accurately the benefits of this
will not be fully realized. It is also important that the person entering stock
information into the computer has some knowledge of the store operation
itself, in order to avoid placing any obvious mistakes on the computer
record.
Additional services
Additional services associated with bulk cold stores can be many and var-
ied, depending upon the customers' needs and the cold storage operator's
desire to satisfy those needs in order to secure business.
There are too many services to detail in this chapter but some of the most
popular and widely offered are worth mentioning.
Packaging. Packaging of frozen product is mainly associated with frozen

vegetables, which undoubtedly command a large volume of the space in
most cold stores. Fruit is another product in this category and the whole
range of fruit and vegetables can now be handled through sophisticated
packaging machines which are totally automatic and are technically suffi-
ciently advanced to produce a range of accurate packs that meet the legal
requirements of the weights and measures officers and of local hygiene
inspectors.
This equipment, which needs to be located in specially constructed
premises in order to meet a high standard of hygiene, is extremely expen-
sive. The cold store operator must have an assured and guaranteed contract
before speculating with such high-valued equipment. Once having taken
this step, it is then necessary to support the venture with the level of skills
needed by the supervising people, both operational and engineering, to
ensure maximum utilization of the equipment.
In addition to vegetable packing, of course, certain meat packing is
undertaken, particularly in the field of carcass lamb which is cut up into

various portions, weighed and packed for retail consumption. Again, the
premises in which this work is carried out have to meet a very high standard
in order to satisfy the local veterinary inspectors.
Freezing of meat. Industrial freezing of meat has been used for about a
century. It was first used to facilitate transport from overseas countries to
markets in Europe, but cold storage was also used to take care of the
seasonal surplus of meat. Microbiological deterioration was stopped by cold
storage but otherwise quality was impaired because of poor techniques in
freezing and storage. Frozen meat therefore acquired a bad reputation in
the early days: an opinion which has, to some extent, remained. Many
consumers and also meat trade people look upon frozen meat with some
suspicion but meat properly frozen with modern techniques and stored
under appropriate conditions is, as far as the overall quality is concerned,
almost indistinguishable from chilled meat.
When a very high water-binding capacity is required for some meat
products, the meat is theoretically best frozen immediately after slaughter
when the pH is high. It is, of course, necessary to avoid thaw rigor. How-
ever, it is impossible to freeze a carcass or a quarter-carcass fast enough to
achieve this objective. The meat must therefore first be cut and then frozen
by a rapid method.
Carcass meat is normally frozen after complete chilling. Such meat must
be deboned before use and this requires thawing. If the freezing is per-
formed on the third day after slaughter, the water-binding capacity is very
low and the subsequent drip when the meat is thawed is high. The better
cuts of meat are not sufficiently aged and therefore will probably be tough.
Such meat is therefore used for process meat products.
From a technical point of view, there are few problems in the freezing of
whole carcasses. Blast freezing is the only practical method for carcass
freezing. If a good air circulation between the carcasses is provided, the
freezing will be fast enough to meet the quality criteria. The freezing rate is,
of course, rather slow because of the large cross-sections but the quality of
frozen meat has been shown to be dependent upon the freezing rate only to
a limited extent. It is, however, very important that the surface layer is
frozen fast enough to prevent microbiological growth and this is normally
the case. Meat from healthy animals is almost free of microorganisms in the
inner parts and therefore microbiological problems do not playa significant
part in carcass freezing, even if the freezing rate is rather low.
When meat is cut, the surfaces are infected. Since the ratio of surface to
volume increases with the degree of cutting, the microbiological problems
will increase. When such products are packed into cartons, it is therefore
very important, from a hygienic point of view, that the freezing is performed
as soon as possible and as quickly as possible. Even with good air circulation
between the cartons, it takes longer than is usually believed to reach the
freezing point in the centre of the carton and therefore some growth of
microorganisms is unavoidable.
The best way of freezing products such as meat cuts and meat products is
in-line freezing before packaging. When meat cartons are frozen, the freez-
ing must be carried out in a proper freezing tunnel. Instructions for the use
of freezing racks and other equipment as well as stacking patterns in the
tunnel must be followed in order to avoid unnecessary quality deterioration
and to minimize the risk of future claims which otherwise might be caused
by too heavy a microbiological growth during freezing.
Storage and thawing of meat. The storage conditions for frozen meat are
most important and it is essential that during storage meat is protected as
far as possible from losses due to evaporation. There are various methods of
preventing excessive drying or dehydration. A sufficiently low and constant
temperature gives good protection, since the vapour pressure over ice
decreases very rapidly with decreasing temperature. A storage temperature
as low as -30°C is therefore always better than a higher temperature.
Thawing is a very important but often neglected process. During thawing,
the same amount of heat must be supplied which was extracted during the
freezer process and the heat must be transferred through a deeper and
deeper layer of unfrozen (thawed) meat to the inner parts. Since unfrozen
meat conducts heat less well than frozen, thawing takes longer than freez-
ing. The surface layer is kept at a temperature which favours microbiologi-
cal growth and so there is a risk of microbiological deterioration. It is
therefore necessary that the thawing of meat is performed under controlled
conditions and in a hygienic manner, with precautions being taken to avoid
excessive microbiological growth.
Development
Bulk cold storage has changed considerably in the last 40 years and the pace
of change has quickened in the last ten years. Demands on the bulk cold
store today are such that it must be adaptable to customers' changing
requirements. Management and efficiency are the keys to successful opera-
tion but these must be combined with innovation. Initial planning must take
account of changing demands which might be made on the operation in the
future.
1.3 Distribution depots
Introduction
In this section we look at what has become an important sector in cold
storage - distribution depots. As retailers have taken control of the distribu-
tion function, especially with respect to foodstuffs, which are mainly sold
through the supermarket chains these days, and stockholdings have been
minimized to keep costs down, distribution depots now account for a major
part of the total storage facilities available, including cold storage.
In many respects, the actual buildings are constructed in the same way as
premises intended for longer term cold storage but they are arranged differ-
ently internally, to reflect the need for access to stocks held and the higher
throughput.
History
The creation and growth of the modern frozen foods industry have taken
place since 1945 and have been linked to sociological changes arising since
World War II. These changes have included redevelopment of cities, in-
creased urbanization of all towns, reduced use of gardens and allotments to
grow food and, perhaps most importantly, the increase in employment of
women away from the home.
The concept of convenience foods has developed in this time, the term
referring initially to selected prepared uncooked foodstuffs, all preserved
by deep freezing, such as potato products, peas, beans and so on, progres-
sively including specially created items, such as fish fingers, and now refer-
ring in addition to fully prepared meals, ready to eat after a simple cooking
process.
Development of the frozen food industry was inextricably linked with
home-ownership of domestic deep-freeze cabinets and fridge-freezer com-
binations. The industry promoted the development of such equipment,
which was sold by the large retailers at reasonable prices, setting the stage
for the frozen food industry to take part in the retailing revolution in recent
years.
Before World War II only two industries in the UK used below-ambient
distribution regularly, the fish and ice cream sectors. Frozen meat from
countries like Australia and Argentina was available but the emphasis was
on it reaching the UK in good condition in refrigerated ships, rather than
controlled-temperature distribution. Butchers' cold rooms served a temper-
ing role for frozen carcasses as much as storage.
Fish was gutted at sea, boxed with ice and kept iced until it reached the
fishmongers. It might have spent time in chill rooms at the dockside or in
insulated containers on a road or rail journey from the major ports. How-
ever, the ice would be replenished as necessary and customers were accus-
tomed to buying and eating fish which could have been in ice for up to two
weeks since being caught. Only near smaller fishing ports would truly fresh
fish be available.
Ice cream was frequently sold by small local businesses, direct from the
manufacturing unit via insulated containers. The point of production and
point of sale were frequently on the same premises. Major producers

with a distribution network used solid carbon dioxide blocks to achieve
temperature control. Their ice cream was distributed in three ways: by a
street retailer from an insulated container carrying a block of solid carbon
dioxide with the ice cream, by dispatch of insulated boxes to shops or
restaurants, or from the factory to a depot in insulated vehicles, again using
solid carbon dioxide, and thence in the same way to the retailer. The ice
cream manufacturers also produced their own carbon dioxide blocks. Post-
war, these manufacturers set up their own depot networks, with their own
cold stores. From here, in the heyday of van-selling, driver-salesmen would
take orders, deliver and take cash from customers on a daily round. Shops
would be provided with a so-called 'conservator' from which to sell the ice
creams.
In the 1960s the carbon dioxide cooling was replaced by refrigerated
vehicles. They were refrigerated by eutectic plates, which provided ten
hours 'hold over' during the day, being recharged overnight by a compres-
sor carried on the vehicle and plugged into the mains supply. This worked
well for the single shift system.
The fledgling frozen food business had to start from scratch. Display
refrigeration in shops was encouraged, although the equipment was not
provided by the manufacturer as with ice cream. Few home deep freezers
were available at this time so, like ice cream, frozen food was in practical
terms sold for same day consumption. Those homes with refrigerators had
only a small compartment where freezing conditions were maintained. This
led to the practice of marking frozen food with stars to show the desirable
maximum period of storage.
Significant growth of the frozen food industry took place from the late
1950s and distribution had to keep pace. At this time, efforts remained
directly or indirectly with the manufacturers. Cold stores were built on a
large scale, with palletized goods from the factories stored up to three
pallets high or in racking. Battery operated fork lifts capable of working at
low temperatures for long periods were developed. Blown air from evapo-
rator coils was generally used to refrigerate the cold rooms rather than
static coils.
Throughput at the stores tended to be high, as capacity was not sufficient
for the industry's rapid growth and the concept of distributed stock was not
yet developed. Shop deliveries were carried out in much the same way as
for ice cream, although individual deliveries were becoming larger.
By the end of the 1960s supermarkets were becoming significant.
Telesales started to replace van selling and very soon orders, invoices and
sales records were computerized. Ownership of deep freeze cabinets in the
home as well as in shops, hotels and restaurants was becoming widespread.
The pressure of delivering to supermarkets and other large customers led
to bulk deliveries using specialized vehicles, with load-handling equipment
such as tail-lifts. To reduce the weight of the eutectic systems, tubes re-
placed plates and air-blown systems were developed, although not yet
accepted for local delivery routes. Multishift systems began to require 'on
the road' refrigeration, in general leading to engine-driven air-blown
systems.
Recent developments
The 1990s have shown how distribution systems are dictated by the market
place. Past business drivers, in the 1970s and 1980s, satisfied a 'push
through' requirement whereby goods were forced through the supply chain
to fulfil a need for high cube utilization and low operating expenses.
Nowadays design and operational changes have had to meet an ever-
increasing desire for 'pull through', whereby new business demands control
the way the supply chain is managed and serviced. There is now a need for
'just-in-time' (JIT) systems involving high and flexible handling capacity,
quicker turnover of stock, access to individual pallets, relevant information
flows and consistently high service levels.
The retailer has developed a sophisticated and detailed understanding of
the cost of carrying stock and has used this information to improve the
supply chain, controlling what has to be where, by whom and by when.
These business changes have therefore dictated the way in which the supply
chain is designed and served (and consequently the way in which distribu-
tion centres are constructed). The solution has not been driven by informa-
tion and other technologies, although they clearly have an important role to
play in fulfilling the business need.
As to who does what, most of the large producers of frozen products have
moved from in-house distribution to contracted services from specialist
distribution companies. Retailers have thus become the dominant force in
distribution. The larger retailers, who control the majority of the market
between them, have developed their own distribution centres, backing up
their own supermarket chains.
The swing from manufacture-based distribution to distribution managed
by specialists on behalf of retailers has taken time and considerable invest-
ment. For a time, some manufacturers attempted to stem the tide, by
stocking and distributing products manufactured by others. In some cases,
the resultant distribution networks were hived off as companies in their
own right, which have now become suppliers to the retailers.
The total change in distribution patterns has been facilitated as well as
necessitated by the growth of the relatively small number of very large
retailers. They have been able to take control of the distribution market but
it could equally be said that in practical terms this was a necessity. Other-
wise, the large number of small deliveries from various suppliers would
cause impossible congestion at the 'back door' of every supermarket.
Recent developments in food distribution of all types has also been

shaped by the emergence of large distribution companies, which have been
able to make the necessary investment in regional distribution centres and
vehicle fleets on behalf of the large retailing companies. That is not to say
that all distribution is undertaken by third parties but they have become a
dominant force.
Systems range from the retailer running the RDC and its associated
transport totally in-house - if only for one area as a bench-mark by which to
judge the performance of contractors in other areas - through owning and/
or running the RDC with bought-in transport, to having a contractor run
the entire distribution within a given area, possibly for just frozen or chilled
products, or for the retailer's entire range, including operation of the RDC
and all other functions, including order processing and transport.
The success of the large retailing companies is dependent on that of their
large edge-of-town hypermarkets as well as their strategically sited distribu-
tion depots. The shops are normally sited just outside major towns and
cities, with large car parks. They mirror the transatlantic situation and aim
to provide one-stop shopping for car owners, prosperous or otherwise, who
now form a major part of the population. Bus services, in many cases free,
are also provided to increase the catchment area. The out-of-town location
of the hypermarkets and superstores also makes deliveries to their back
doors easier, avoiding the need to take the large vehicles carrying con-
solidated orders into town centres and adding to the problems of traffic
congestion.
Distribution depots are usually sited near to significant conurbations,
with good access to major roads and motorways. As well as the dedicated
RDCs, which provide a service for a single retailer's stores within a given
area, there has also been a resurgence of multi-user facilities, generally
provided by a contractor for a number of smaller retailers or more often
manufacturers, who cannot afford their own dedicated distribution system
but who want or need to retain an element of control.
There has also been growth in the volumes of frozen food supplied
through wholesalers. Their customers range from hotels and caterers to
small cash-and-carry shops. A feature of this business is the rapid turnover
of a limited range of products, with the wholesaler's cold room being a
transit shed rather than a cold store. Franchising has re-emerged within the
ice cream business as a way of supplying the general trade, being small
individual accounts such as seaside beach concessions while national ac-
counts have been retained by the manufacturers, serviced by distribution
companies.
In line with the growth of the supermarket business, there has been a
decline in the order-picking of individual packets for retail customers, other
than by the franchisers and wholesalers just mentioned. The vast majority
of all frozen food deliveries are now in case-lots and pallet loads.
Another development which arises from the adoption of RDCs, dedi-

cated to supplying one retailer's outlets in a given area, is the multi-
temperature 'composite' type of depot. This means that frozen, chilled and
ambient goods, or two of the three types, are consolidated at the same site
for onward distribution, in many cases on multi-temperature vehicles. The
same thing is happening on a smaller scale with some of the wholesalers and
catering suppliers. As the name implies, rather than only handling goods
at one temperature, be that deep frozen, chilled or ambient, the multi-
temperature depot is segregated, with different chambers at different tem-
peratures. Intakes of the various types of goods will be put to store in the
appropriate section of the depot. Orders will then be picked and, where
multi-temperature vehicles are also available, loaded accordingly.
In general, frozen and chilled goods are quite often carried in separate
compartments on the same vehicle. Frozen and ambient goods, or all three
types, are less commonly carried together. Deliveries to individual super-
markets are often large enough to warrant a full load on a regular basis, in
which case frozen and other goods are carried separately. In other cases, say
where supermarkets are close together, it is more economic or convenient
for the distribution depot to schedule part loads of each type of goods
separately.
Perhaps the most significant development in recent years has been the
computerization of the whole stock control and ordering system. What used
to be known as 'the paper work' is largely a thing of the past. Electronic
point of sale (EPOS) systems, using bar-coding of individual product lines,
mean that the act of putting an individual item onto a supermarket cus-
tomer's bill at the checkout will in turn send an order right down the line
through the RDC, even to the manufacturer, to replenish the stock on the
supermarket shelf.
Manual stock checking and such time-consuming and potentially inaccu-
rate items as written stock cards are being replaced with bar-code readers
linked to stock control systems. All downstream actions can be handled by
computer, including order take, transmission to the distribution centre,
raising of invoices, stock control and replenishment, plus stock rotation
within the cold store, including movements of stocks into and out of the
store and traffic planning based on orders received.
For large companies, order processing can be done centrally, to give sales
information as well as that needed for distribution. Stock shortages or
overstocks can quickly and easily be identified and inter-depot transfers
arranged to cover these.
The benefits to the distributor are important in terms of the speed of
response possible to sales and control of stock. A 24-hour cycle of order
to delivery is possible and stores can operate with hundreds of lines
while carrying stock for a number of days rather than weeks. This means
the store is also better utilized in terms of space, while inventory costs are
kept to a minimum. The distribution centre is no longer seen as a ware-

house but as an integrated link in the chain between manufacturer and
customer.
Construction and equipment

The evolution of the concept of the distribution centre has resulted from
developments in the market place. Change has therefore been market-
driven and not occurred simply because available technology has improved.
Retailers have opted for regional centres to which all supplies are delivered.
The centres are located as a result of transport studies, with reference to
access to motorways and trunk roads. Each will serve an area and its
population of up to seven million people.
As all supplies pass through the distribution centre, it will usually have to
operate at four defined temperatures: frozen at -25°C, cold chill at O°C, chill
at +5°C and ambient. This is a multi-temperature 'composite' depot. It is
likely to have to store up to two weeks' stock of some products.
The RDC will not only have to be effective when it is built but also be
adaptable to significant changes in requirements. In the current situation,
where RDCs are often run by logistics contractors, there could be a change
of customer at the end of a finite contract period. Some elements of con-
struction have to be unchanging while others can be flexible.
The yard, vehicle parking (of both transport and private vehicles), circu-
lation areas and maintenance facilities can all be defined as a function of the
tonnage throughput rather than the nature of the products passing through,
as in the case of any cold store. Similarly, office and administration provi-
sion will depend on the numbers employed, again in turn depending on
throughput. Existing and possible future legislation, including EC directives
now that harmonization in Europe is in place, must also be taken into
account.
Variations are most likely in the relative sizes of the various temperature-
controlled rooms. Within the single large internal envelope, discussed ear-
lier in Section 1.2 on bulk cold stores, formed in a large structurally
independent shed, changes can be made without structural modification.
Insulation panels can be factory-produced to be demountable so they can
be moved within the building to vary the size of chambers. The necessary
fire walls can be placed to allow this. Consideration does have to be given,
preferably at the initial building stage, to frost heave prevention in any
areas which might be used for frozen storage.
For flexibility, temperature-controlled rooms in distribution stores are
designed as rectangular boxes with the height governed by the speed of
working possible using reach or turret trucks. Crane-operated stores are
usually only used for longer term storage.
Access to and from the stores is usually by means of air-operated sliding
doors. Air operation is seen by operators as quicker and more reliable than
electric drive.
Inloading and outloading could take place at the same docks or be
separate. The working areas need to be as spacious as possible because of
the high activity levels. They should be hygenically finished, well-lit and
temperature-controlled. They act as a buffer between the temperature-
controlled storage areas and ambient. A good compromise temperature
would be +5°C, compatible with chilled products and stable in relation to
adjacent frozen store rooms. Coolers on the loading bank will need defrost
facilities, as they may have to work below freezing to maintain +5°C in such
onerous conditions.
In recent years sealing of the loading dock to the vehicle has been
improved. Seals on runners and sections of seals are available which can be
used for the various sizes of vehicle which have to be accommodated. Air
bag seals, which are inflated around the vehicle when in position, are
expensive but do not rely on compression between the vehicle and dock
shelter. This is likely to be sealed off from the loading bank by an elec-
trically operated, counterbalanced segmented up-and-over door. Figure
1.11 shows a typical modern loading bank arrangement.
Dock levellers assist in coping with the differing floor heights for all types
of vehicle from 10tonnes to 38tonnes gross. They need to be long enough
to slope at no more than 10% for the lowest vehicle. They can be electro-
hydraulically or manually operated and have a fixed, folding or hydrauli-
cally operated lip, depending on the range of vehicle movements expected.
Rather than extending out from the dock, the dock leveller is usually
indented into the bank, to save yard space, but this requires safety rails to
prevent trucks crossing the leveller laterally. The interface between loading
bank and vehicle is very important for efficient operation and needs to be
right for the particular operation. A system of traffic lights may be neces-
sary to tell drivers when such enclosed dock ports are available. Provision to
deal with non retractable tail-lifts could also be needed and power for the
vehicle refrigeration unit could be required if the trailer is to stand at the
port for some time (see also Chapter 11).
Distribution contractors must retain flexibility of operation but the limi-
tations of temperature-controlled operations mean that generally the distri-
bution cycle can be controlled from manufacturer to retail outlet, without
imposing too many specific requirements.
Distribution depot operations

Two criteria determine the scale of a distribution store - line range and
stock cover. The line range determines the configuration of the store. Every
line has to be accessible so a larger line range requires more access or 'faces'
from which picking can take place on a daily basis.
Figure 1.11 A modern loading bank arrangement (used with permission).
Stock cover is determined by the decision on how many days', or possibly

weeks', stock is to be held. The quantity of stock is a function of the daily
throughput, which in turn is determined by the area covered, number of
customers and so on. An arithmetical calculation based on either known or
anticipated sales gives the quantity of stock. Fast-moving stock will require
more space with the order-picking area replenished more often, possibly
from bulk back-up stock on-site or elsewhere.
Computer programmes now exist which allow complex store operations
to be controlled, with the location of every pallet predetermined on delivery
to the store from the manufacturers, its movement in the store controlled
and its replacement anticipated.
Operations can conveniently be subdivided into three: intake, storage
and dispatch. The intake from frozen food manufacturers is now universally
on 1 m x 1.2 m pallets, with the possible exception of imports from mainland
Europe. They arrive in an insulated and refrigerated trailer in loads of up to
24 pallets at a time. The constraint in haulage may be weight but is more
usually how many loaded pallets, on which some products may overhang,
are within the length of the trailer, now limited to 13.6m.
The vehicle will reverse onto a dock leveller, usually surrounded by a
dock shelter, which seals onto the rear of the vehicle using pressure pads,
isolating the products being unloaded from outside conditions. The vehicle
is then usually unloaded using battery-powered hand pallet trucks and the
product checked for quantity, quality and damage in transit.
Occasionally, the 'slug' unloading method is used, whereby the whole
load is moved onto the bank by some receiving conveyor system but this
remains uncommon, requiring considerable investment in equipment that,
as far as the vehicle is concerned, is then of necessity dedicated to a particU-
lar traffic flow, losing flexibility in operation.
Usually, the powered pallet trucks will take each pallet, after checking,
into the store and deposit it in predetermined positions, usually at the end
of the storage racks, ready for the next movement. In some stores pallet
conveyors are installed to take pallets from the unloading dock, through a
minimum-sized door, on driven rollers. This will accommodate a full vehicle
load, thus making unloading fast. Pallets will be taken from the end of the
conveyor and placed at the ends of the racks as before.
Storage can now be done in three ways: by using reach trucks working in
wide aisles and putting to stock on racking, by using turret trucks working
in narrow aisles to achieve the same result or by using cranes in narrow
aisles. The choice of which system is used will be based on distribution
factors - throughput, line range and stock levels - and also on investment
decisions - capital availability, site availability, forecast of use and life.
Each type of installation has different attributes. Reach trucks in wide
aisles are well-proven but they are slow at the fourth stacking level and very
slow at the fifth. On the other hand, they are reliable and it is easy to obtain
replacement equipment. They are the least economic in space terms but the
cheapest in terms of capital cost. Turret trucks in narrow aisles are fast at all
levels up to five. They are reliable but replacement equipment is specific to
the location. While economic in space terms, they are more expensive than
reach trucks. Cranes in narrow aisles are more economic in levels above
nine. At high levels they are competitive in capital cost with other system.
They are reliable and economic in space utilization and can be wholly
automatic in operation but require sound and dimensionally accurate pallet
bases. Figure 1.12 shows a modern crane in a narrow-aisle configuration.
All three systems require pallet racking as part of the system. In the
case of cranes, devices are available to reach a second pallet behind the
first space if it is empty. Alternatively, with a limited line range, it may be
sensible to use racking with gravity rollers so loading and unloading at
opposite sides of the racking are possible and there is always a pallet
available at the off-take face. A qualified engineer should always be
involved in the construction of racking systems for safety's sake. Pallets can
be withdrawn from the racking for break-bulk to compose customers'
orders if required. Simple methods can be used for case-lot picking. Using
a pedestrian pallet truck, cases can be picked around low-level racks, with
Figure 1.12 A typical stacker crane installation (used with permission).
picking at floor level and replenishment stocks above (see also Chapter 9).
With small cases, especially if they are to be opened for assembly of cus-
tomer orders, low-level racking with a gravity roller conveyor can be used.
The length of the racking is limited only by the size of the building and the
number of lines. Goods can be picked onto powered conveyors to take the
goods out of the store for checking and loading. Most commonly the cases
will be reassembled on pallets or wheeled cages for transport and delivery.
The current situation

Distribution centre operation has polarized into two different types of
operation. On the one hand there is the RDC, dedicated to servicing the
supermarkets of a particular retailer, often operated by a third party con-
tractor but very much under the control of the retailer. On the other hand,
there are the specialist distribution companies, franchisers and wholesalers
whose operations are all similar in that they are generally distributing a
larger number of smaller orders to separate outlets. The details of the
operations might differ but as far as the distribution store is concerned the
situation is similar.
The major retailer's RDC will require delivery of products in bulk from
the manufacturer - the primary element of distribution - in at least pallet
loads of individual product, often several pallets of each. The depot will be
responsible for break-bulk and make-up of orders for delivery to the retail
outlets. Controls such as minimum order size and minimum line order will
be put in place. These could be in terms of numbers of pallets or drops per
vehicle. The shop deliveries will be made up into pallet loads or wheeled
pallets containing picked loads of cases. It follows that the distribution store
will be designed for rapid intake of bulk pallets, enough storage space for a
specified stocking period and the facility to dispatch pallets and reassemble
pallets quickly and easily.
Control of product temperature has led to loading banks being
temperature-controlled, with enclosed ports for loading and unloading of
vehicles. Products pass through the area as quickly as possible. Intake to the
cold store may be by powered roller pallet conveyor to facilitate this.
On the dispatch side, final order and load assembly and checking will be
carried out at the loading bank. At a large depot, different parts of the same
order may be picked in separate parts of the store and only be collated at
the loading bank. The means by which products progress to the loading
bank will depend on the throughput of the line. Fast movers may move by
the pallet load. Others may be picked from ground-level pallet lines by
hand, with a hand-operated battery pallet truck. Slow-moving lines may be
picked by multi-level order-picking trucks. In this case, the operative moves
with the forks, as high as five levels, to select the cases required. The order
made up on the loading bank could come from all three sources within the
depot.
For the specialist distributor, delivering to a greater variety of individual
sales outlets, most of which will be smaller than the major retailers' super-
markets, the individual deliveries will be smaller. Pallet and wheeled pallet
loads may still be the delivery unit but they will be made up of a variety of
different products. These may be by the case lot or even require a 'broken
case' section. For cases, the methods are likely to be quite simple, with
manual picking onto a pedestrian-controlled pallet truck or into cages, or
maybe a conveyor out to the loading bank where the pallets or cages are
made up. If a broken case section is required, it can take up considerable
space within the cold store, out of proportion with the total throughput of
the cold store. One way of carrying out this function is for whole cases to be
gravity fed into frames beside a conveyor. This discharges the picked goods
into the loading bay area where loads are made up and checked. If a very
large range of lines has to be picked, this type of system might be needed for
whole cases. Because there is not a lot of pallet movement involved, it may
be that the frame could be sited on a mezzanine floor inside the cold store.
The only problem associated with this is avoiding any obstruction of air flow
around the store and the need to remember that most cold stores have their
air coolers at high level so there is the danger of the mezzanine floor being
cooler than the rest of the store.
The specialist distribution company, franchiser or wholesaler is more
likely be expected to carry the complete line range of the manufacturers
which are dealt with or which the customers demand. In many cases there
will be a long 'tail' to the product range and the 80/20 rule will apply, i.e.
20% of the product range comprises 80% of the volume handled. The
retailer has more control over order-picking in that the range of lines
carried is more easily restricted.
In almost all cold stores used for distribution racking is used to store
pallets. This minimizes the use of floor space by using height as well while
making pallets easily accessible and stock rotation easier. The amount of
racking is a function of the number of lines carried, the throughput of those
lines and the stocking period.
The other universal feature of distribution stores is an area for marshal-
ling or order picking. This can vary from the picking of a single shop order
to the assembly of picked pallets into a vehicle load. Communication be-
tween picking and checking teams is important so that items missed can be
picked to complete orders. In many cases two-way radios are used for this,
where checking is carried out at the loading bank.
Distribution stores will require good lighting by industrial storage stand-
ards because labels have to be read and documents checked. In the store
250 lux is normal in the aisles between racking and order picking area, with
350 lux expected in the loading bank area.
In recent years, as well as becoming enclosed and well-lit, loading banks
may also be the only area where much manpower is used in a depot, with
increasing automation in the storage area. They are now also generally
operated on a multi-shift pattern. Typically, intake will be early in the day
then stock is consolidated and picking takes place in the afternoon shift and
overnight, when the fleet is most likely to be loaded for delivery to shops the
next morning.
The multi-shift pattern is changing to a more continuous one, as deliver-
ies are made during a wider 'time window' at retail premises. Shopping
hours are getting longer so the working day at supermarkets is longer. It is
no longer unusual for deliveries to be made overnight and shelves stocked
ready for the next day's business. At the same time, delivery times are
becoming more precise, both for primary and secondary distribution. The
days of vehicle queuing to deliver either to a cold store or to a supermarket
are gone. Booked times for deliveries are the norm, which are expected to
be adhered to other than in cases of emergencies or problems on the road.
Booked delivery times are essential for a structured work pattern through
the day at distribution centres so that stock can be received and put into
store, ready to be picked for onward delivery at the right time. This is
important for the maintenance of correct stock levels to satisfy orders,
without keeping unnecessarily large buffer stocks to cover short or late
deliveries. Where night-time deliveries are made to retail outlets, staff may
be brought in specially so it is important that booked delivery times are met
for optimum staff utilization. Increasing road congestion is making adher-
ence to booked timings more difficult and increasing the importance of
precise route planning. Computer programmes are now available to assist
with routing vehicles but skilled staff remain an important element.
Multiple-drop working is becoming less common, other than for the
wholesalers' deliveries to smaller outlets. In this case, it is still most likely
that experienced staff will plan routes to cover the day's deliveries, or
'drops', in the most efficient manner. This will also involve loading the
vehicle with the drops in the correct order, i.e. first off, last in.
The distribution of food is currently following the general trend towards
so-called 'just-in-time' distribution. This type of system originated in manu-
facturing in Japan. The idea is that stocks of components are delivered to
the production line at just the right time to be fitted, rather than storing
parts ready for use. The need to keep supermarket shelves stocked, without
having further stocks in a warehouse behind the shop, means that supplies
have to be replenished regularly at the right time to avoid running out, in
other words 'just-in-time'. Computer systems using information from the
EPOS system assist in this function but the need to have the right stocks
available at the right time is passed back down the supply chain to the
manufacturer via the distribution depot.
Whilst the development of computer and other systems for use in distri-
bution has been spectacular in recent years, the hardware involved has
changed more slowly. This reflects the large investment involved in building
and equipping any type of cold store, which implies a return over a number
of years. In particular, where distribution depots are operated by contrac-
tors on behalf of their customers a degree of flexibility to cope with future
changes in services required will need to be built in.
One area in which there are currently developments is packaging. The
basic unit for the majority of goods remains the cardboard carton or case.
These are loaded onto wooden pallets or into metal wheeled cages, depend-
ing on the type of operation and what type of retail premises the products
are being delivered to. Wheeled cages are more likely to be used the smaller
the shop being served, especially if unloading of the vehicle takes place at
the kerbside. Pallets and cages are often strapped or shrink-wrapped to
keep the loads intact and avoid damage.
Frozen products in packets within a cardboard outer case are relatively

resistant to damage. The perishable foodstuffs involved in chilled distribu-
tion, on the other hand, are vulnerable to damage, whether to inner pack-
aging, for example with dairy products, or to the product itself as with fresh
fruit and vegetables. They require relatively strong and heavy cardboard
outer packaging to protect them, which is costly and wasteful, even when
largely recycled.
A number of retailers and manufacturers are looking at ways of using
plastic returnable packaging, which will give the products protection with-
out involving as much costly waste. This is likely to involve having cleaning
and other facilities for these trays at distribution centres, in addition to their
other requirements for staff and vehicles over and above those of a cold
store.
It is important in any case that employees have good working conditions.
This implies a need for canteens, food-standard changing rooms and wash-
rooms as well as good lighting and environment in the working area, such as
on the loading banks.
The distribution centre will also need facilities for the vehicles based
there. Auxiliary services might include workshops for the maintenance of
vehicles as well as handling equipment. Fuel supplies and charging points
for refrigeration systems, if appropriate, are necessary while a mechanical
vehicle wash is almost a must these days as vehicles need to be presented
clean inside and out for both hygiene and company image reasons.
As shown in Figure 1.13, adequate space for vehicles using the site to
manoeuvre, wait and park, including employees' cars, is also important.
This can appear to take a disproportionate amount of the total site area
until operations are observed at a busy time. The articulated vehicles which
are likely to make up the majority of almost any distribution fleet require a
large amount of space to manoeuvre onto loading banks without congestion
quickly building up.
Future developments
Current thinking is largely the result of the dominant position of the retail-
ers coupled with the general use of distribution contractors or 'logistics
partners'. Many are seeking to integrate primary and secondary distribution
routes to reduce costs and improve profitability for all links in the supply
chain.
A current trend is for retailers to buy goods 'ex-factory' and also buy in
the primary distribution function themselves, rather than rely on the manu-
facturer to deliver to the RDCs. The most likely development of this will be
the retailer's logistics partner being contracted to carry out both primary
and secondary distribution and being expected to integrate routes wherever
possible to keep costs down to a minimum.
Figure 1.13 A typical vehicle yard (used with permission).
By developing effective logistics relationships, improved service levels

and cost efficiencies are being sought throughout the supply chain. This is
being done by identifying and providing the required infrastructure and
information technology systems to underpin the business processes. The
ultimate goal is to use the EPOS data from the retail outlets, with 24-hour
lead times and replenishment, allowing stock levels of one week and below,
even for the slowest moving lines, larger stores and central inventory con-
trol systems for a network of rationalized composite RDCs, strategically
located to serve outlets at 6-hour lead times.
In recent years, there has been pressure on retailers' margins. Inefficien-
cies perceived in the frozen supply chain are excessive stockholding levels,
poor vehicle utilization and expensive administration. The retailers are
demanding from their manufacturing suppliers a quicker response in terms
of lead times and order frequencies, reduced multiple buying on slow lines,
on-time deliveries to RDCs booked with orders and improved accuracy in
administration. They are being involved in promotional plans and strategies
are being discussed more.
Electronic data interchange (EDI) is being used to transmit product
data between manufacturer and retailer. This, together with closer
partnerships and improved forecasting from EPOS data, is helping the
r----------.-----.---------------~
High
Business drivers in 1970s
and 1980s
- Low construction cost
Q)
- High cube utilization
N
'(j)
- Low operating expenses
.:§
I Business drivers in 1990s
:::J and beyond .... !
::.:::
(f) - JIT philosophy
- High flexible handling capacity
- Access to individual pallets
- Relevant information flows
Low - Consistent high service levels
Low Stock turnover frequency High
Figure 1.14 Business drivers in cold storage.
retailers to move towards the ultimate goal of stockless distribution.

Initiatives to improve efficiency include order harmonization, supplier
pooling and preferential supplier status, with more disciplined operations
to allow planning and minimize peaks. The impact on logistics partners,
who are operating the temperature-controlled stores, is a reduction of
inventory at RDCs, a reduction in lead times, the product arrival time
and order fulfilment have become more critical, reduced numbers of
vehicles have reduced congestion at RDCs and administration has been
simplified.
In the 1990s, as lot sizes have reduced and stock turnover frequency has
increased, the principle business drivers in cold storage have become the
'just-in-time' philosophy, highly flexible handling capacity, access to indi-
vidual pallets, the relevant information flows and consistent high service
levels. Figure 1.14 shows how this has changed from the business drivers of
the 1970s and 1980s, which were low construction costs, high cube utiliza-
tion and low operating expenses. Handling capacity has become more
dependent on accessibility than cube utilization.
As product ranges expand and order lead times contract, faster and more
sophisticated storage technologies are required. Figure 1.15 shows how the
trends in frozen storage technology are away from the traditional bulk
storage, as stock turnover increases along with lot size, towards mobile
racking with wide or narrow aisles and to static narrow aisles with trucks
(Figure 1.16).
Market changes are having an impact on RDCs with reduced inventory
and more frequent deliveries. In turn this leads to a decline in replenish-
ment order size and a more complex order profile. This goes down the line
to the primary distribution centre (PDC), with increased requirement for
layer or case picking and a decrease in full pallet selection at line level,
High
.1
C ube uti·1·Izatlon ---+
I
+ Handling capacity
Q)
N Bulk storage Entry module Live storage
·w
:§
I
::>
~
en Mobile racks Mobile racks Static racks
(wide aisle) (narrow aisle) (narrow aisle)
Accessibility + Handling capacity

Low I
High Stock turnover frequency Low
Figure 1.15 Physical characteristics of storage systems.
Figure 1.16 A narrow-aisle installation (used with permission).

which leads to increased time and labour to collate the order and increased
costs at the PDC.
In the 1980s distribution contracts were asset based, with dedicated stores
and vehicle fleets. This gave retailers control of their own supply chains and
secured supplier and inventory level control. In the early 1990s, attention
has turned to primary distribution within these supply chains and, by using
secondary distribution vehicles on primary movements from consolidated
suppliers, inventory and transport costs have been further reduced.
In the late 1990s, assets are being separated from distribution contracts,
supplier consolidation is being fully developed, RDCs are being trans-
formed into cross-docking operation, transport agreements are being de-
tached and the multi-user approach is being encouraged. The objective is to
lower both inventory and transport costs. The retailer sector is shifting the
supply chain away from dedicated distribution facilities towards the multi-
user approach, particularly with regard to transport activity.
Primary supply chains in future are likely to involve major branded
manufacturers operating via dedicated or semi-dedicated PDCs, while me-
dium and smaller own label suppliers will operate via PDCs of their own or
retailers' choice. Utilization of all assets within the supply chain will be
improved. This will depend on information flows, global strategies from
logistics companies, consolidated distribution with full loads, low cost han-
dling systems and flexibility for delivery patterns, including provision for
expansion.
Figure 1.17 shows the construction of a modern primary distribution
centre alongside the 1960s technology that it will replace.
1.4 Distribution vehicles
Discussion of temperature-controlled distribution vehicles, as with any

other commercial road transport, is based around a combination of what is
most practicable and best suited to the particular operation combined with
an element of flexibility to take account of future changes, and all within the
current regulations applying to such vehicles and their use.
With very few exceptions, distribution vehicles have been getting larger
over the years, including those for temperature-controlled work, much
in line with road transport vehicles generally and also in line with the
increasing size of individual retail outlets and the loads required to service
them. The days are largely gone when a distribution vehicle's size was
dictated by the tonnage which a driver, possibly assisted by a mate, could
deliver to a given number of drops in a working day. Such practices do
linger with the specialist distributors where a large number of small con-
signments are regularly delivered to hotels, restaurants and possibly high
street shops.
Figure 1.17 Construction of a modern primary distribution centre underway alongside the
existing technology that it will replace (used with permission).
The majority of supermarkets take deliveries from maximum weight

articulated vehicles. Only where there is difficult access to delivery points,
or possibly overall weight restrictions in force restricting access to a town
centre address, would smaller vehicles be used. Deliveries are consolidated
into full loads where possible at the RDC and vehicles are unlikely to be
dispatched with deliveries for more than two supermarkets on a run. It is
more likely that two full loads would be delivered to different supermarkets
within one shift.
Distribution cost pressures have led to larger vehicles, with their econo-
mies of scale, along with bigger drops, faster turn-round and multi-shift
operation. This has changed the overall design of distribution vehicles.
The differences between vehicles used for primary and secondary distri-
bution have become negligible. Primary distribution, from manufacturer to
RDC, is close to what used to be known as the trunking operation. Full
loads are made up on pallets and sent on a maximum weight, maximum
dimension vehicle, as has been the norm for many years. In the main this
will involve an articulated combination, although multi-wheeled rigids and
drawbar outfits might be used for specific operations. The weights and
dimensions of road vehicles are defined in the Motor Vehicles (Construc-
tion and Use) Regulations (generally known as C & U). These are updated
at regular intervals, not least when EC regulations, to which the UK rules
are closely allied, change. Currently, the maximum length of a semi-trailer
is 13.6m, within a maximum overall length for the artic of IS.Sm. Under a
specific exemption for refrigerated vehicles, the overall width of the trailer
is allowed to be up to 2.6m over the bodywork, whereas the insulated walls
need to be at least 40mm thick. This is to allow two international pallets to

be loaded side by side, with their long side across the vehicle to make
maximum use of the trailer's weight capacity within the length allowed.
Maximum gross vehicle weight allowed in the UK is 38tonnes (unless
operating to or from a rail transfer point when 44 tonnes is allowed, which is
unlikely for a refrigerated distribution vehicle). Within the 38 tonnes gross
weight, payload is likely to be just over 20 tonnes, allowing for the compara-
tively heavy insulated body and refrigeration equipment. In the main, the
same type of maximum weight articulated vehicle will be used for second-
ary distribution. This has made possible the concept of integrating primary
and secondary routes using a common fleet. Similar proportions of weight
and specific dimensions apply to smaller vehicles, which are also used on
secondary distribution duties, especially by specialist distributors or whole-
salers. Four-wheeled rigid vehicles can be up to 17 tonnes gross, with a rear
drive axle limit of 10.5 tonnes. In this case a payload of 8 to 9 tonnes would
be good. This is generally reckoned to be the ideal maximum weight for
high street distribution in towns, where manoeuvrability is important. How-
ever, for operational reasons, such as interchangeability of routes, larger
vehicles are often used, which can give rise to complaints on environmental
grounds. Retailers and distributors are keen for their operations to be seen
by the public as user-friendly so they try to minimize the impact of their
distribution vehicles on their surroundings if possible.
In the past, vehicles used for high street deliveries of frozen foods were
racked out inside and the van salesman would pick packeted goods for
individual deliveries. With the current emphasis on case lots and increas-
ingly wheeled cage or pallet loads for even the smallest drops, bodies are
now equipped for deliveries of these. Straightforward box bodies, with
doors only at rear, are the norm. Some sliding or lifting side access is still
seen but the use of wheeled cages and pallet trucks on vehicles has led to the
increasing importance of tail-lift operation. This has become true whether
deliveries are made to the 'back door' of supermarkets or across the pave-
ment to the front of smaller retail stores. There are a number of designs of
tail-lift, some of which tuck away for loading or unloading at a loading dock.
Some tail-lifts even slide away under the vehicle or trailer chassis, out of the
way for reversal onto a loading dock or fork-lift loading. All tail-lifts are
electro-hydraulically operated and have to be fail-safe so they remain in
the 'parked' position and cannot drop to the ground while the vehicle is
moving. They also have to incorporate the rear bumper required under the
C & U regulations.
An important facet, which can easily be overlooked, is load restraint. The
increasing use of wheeled cages of some sort, in which the goods are
transported on the vehicle, makes the load potentially 'mobile' within the
vehicle body. Some system of locking bars or straps needs to be provided
within the vehicle's body, not only for the safety of operatives and the
general public but also to protect the goods from damage if cages are able
to move about. The fittings inside the vehicle bodies used for load restraint
also act as rubbing strips to protect the inside of the insulated walls from
impact damage when loading.
The insulated panels from which the body is constructed can be of various
types, although the most commonly used are now some form of sandwich
contruction with insulating foam within outer faces of steel, aluminium or
glass-reinforced plastic (GRP). Care is needed in use not to damage these
panels, as water ingress can adversely affect their insulation properties very
quickly and permanently. Any damage needs to be repaired very quickly.
Various developments have taken place in the types of bodywork for
refrigerated vehicles. One is the availability of movable internal bulkheads
to separate goods at different temperatures on the same vehicle, allowing
movement of frozen and chilled products on the same journey. Some distri-
bution vehicles have been built with longitudinal internal walls separating
multi-temperature compartments into 'lanes' while in a few cases special-
ized vehicles have been built using a double-deck principle.
Yet another development, again most commonly connected with chilled
products, is that of insulated side curtains, giving increased flexibility of
loading and unloading more in line with ambient goods where fork-lift
operation can take place away from a loading bank.
One exception to the general rule of larger vehicles with rear doors and
tail-lifts is the growth of home deliveries of frozen foods and ice cream
products. This tends to be at the expensive end of the market and started in
northern Europe. The products are loaded in a small multi-compartment
vehicles with individual side doors for each compartment to minimize the
cold-loss with repeated opening during the day.
Perhaps the most important feature of any temperature-controlled distri-
bution vehicle is the use of a suitable refrigeration system. In the past,
distribution was essentially a single-shift operation, principally because the
customer only had staff available to receive goods during opening hours in
the normal working day. Vehicles were therefore on the road during the
day but available overnight at the depot. The most reliable refrigeration
system was provided by eutectic plates. These became the standard refrig-
eration system in the UK and Europe for shop delivery vehicles and still
have a place in certain markets, such as the multi-door home delivery vans.
The eutectic plates are generally fitted inside the vehicles' roofs to keep
floors and walls clear for loading with pallets and wheeled cages. Recently
these have taken the form of steel tubes and beams, trapezoidal in shape,
and, even more recently, plastic beams. The disadvantages of such systems
are the weight of the tubes or plates, the condensing set which also needs
to be carried and the need to recharge the system overnight. The vehicle
has to be charged for a period equal to the hours in its working day. As
commercial pressures moved towards multi-shift operation, while operators
were reluctant to abandon the reliability of eutectic systems, there was

perceived a need for generators driven by a power-take-off (PTO) on the
vehicle, for on-the-road recharging.
Larger drops, combined with multi-shift working, have led to larger
vehicles and payloads. To meet this market, transport refrigeration suppli-
ers have developed more powerful, yet compact, plant and a change to air-
blown systems. The main disadvantage of these systems is the noise they
generate. Disesel-driven compressors give total flexibility but the noise they
make, while it is perhaps less important on the road when the vehicle is
moving, when waiting or loading at depots can contravene local regulations
and can upset local inhabitants, especially at night. In some cases, some
element of eutectic stand-by provision is made to overcome this problem.
The biggest development for distribution companies in recent years has
been mulit-compartment vehicles. The 'host' refrigeration compressor unit
is mounted on the front bulkhead, as has become the norm, and this is
linked to separate evaporator units for each lane or compartment. A con-
trol unit sets the individual temperatures and maintains them at a constant
level. This control unit can also be used to monitor and record the tempera-
ture levels inside one or more refrigerated compartments on the vehicle,
providing a printout either on the vehicle or back at base when the informa-
tion is downloaded. This is becoming important as customers are requiring
proof of transit temperatures, while it is likely that there could be EC
regulations covering such records in the future. It is now possible for satel-
lite tracking of vehicles, which is also used for security and vehicle routing
purposes by some companies, to be used to record temperatures inside the
refrigerated compartments and even to control the equipment.
Refrigerated transport across national boundaries must comply with the
conditions of the Agreement on the International Carriage of Perishable
Foodstuffs, known as the A TP agreement. In the UK the provisions of this
agreement are enforceable under the International Carriage of Perishable
Foodstuffs Act of 1979. There are numerous other regulations affecting
international vehicle operations. Up to date information on these, as well as
the current national regulations, plus advice for operators can be obtained
from the Freight Transport Association (FTA) Handbook, which is up-
dated annually and available from the FT A.
There are a number of EC Directives which cover food hygiene and apply
to the transport of perishable foodstuffs as well as to manufacturing pro-
cesses. Before 1991, chill control requirements only applied in catering.
This has since been extended to all food businesses and prescribed foods
must be kept below maximum set temperatures. Currently, in many cases
this is +8°C but there are variations from 0 to 15°C in specific countries for
different products. The trend is towards harmonization of the regulations in
all EC countries, especially on specific temperatures at which certain foods
should be kept, and also towards simplification of the rules which apply.
The regulations are primarily aimed at protection of public health but this
needs to be done with regard to maintaining the shelf life and value of
foodstuffs. The Food Safety (Temperature Control) Regulations were in-
troduced in late 1995 and these try to take account of as many considera-
tions as possible.
A final thought is that refrigerated foodstuffs are relatively high value
commodities. Distribution operations, including transport, need to be de-
signed to minimize product loss in handling, notably because any such
losses are likely to have to be borne by the distributor. Technical develop-
ments are constantly being made that make possible the additional 'added
value' services increasingly being offered by third party operators and
demanded by distribution customers.
2 Controlled atmosphere storage
D. BISHOP
2.1 Introduction
Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage is used to extend the storage life of

seasonal perishable produce when refrigeration alone is not sufficient. This
technique can be used for many fruits and vegetables and, historically, has
been the principle storage method for the world's apple crop. Apples still
remain the pre-eminent produce stored under CA conditions but, in recent
years, it has become an important storage technique for many other
commodities.
To successfully store fruit for long periods the natural ripening of the
produce has to be delayed without adversely affecting the eating quality.
This is achieved firstly by reducing the temperature of the fruit to the lowest
level possible without causing damage by freezing or low-temperature
breakdown. To delay the ripening even further the atmosphere in the
storage room is changed by reducing the oxygen and allowing the carbon
dioxide to increase.
The precise temperature and level of oxygen and carbon dioxide required
to maximise storage life and to minimise storage disorders is extremely
variable. They will depend on produce, cuitivars, growing conditions, matu-
rity and post-harvest treatments. Optimum storage conditions can even
vary from farm to farm and from season to season. Recommendations are
published regularly by the various national research bodies and extension
advisers and these are considered to be the best compromise between
extending life and maintaining quality in their own locality. Because of this
variability, storage conditions in this chapter should only be used as exam-
ples and local guidance should always be sought.
The biology and physiology of the CA storage process are beyond the
scope of this chapter but are fully described in references [1-3].
2.2 History
There is some evidence to suggest that the ancient Egyptians and Samarians
in the second century Be stored portions of their crops in sealed limestone
crypts to prolong their storage life. Perhaps even Joseph used these tech-
niques when preparing for the seven years of famine [4].
The first recorded experiments to control fruit ripening by changing the

surrounding atmosphere were carried out in France by Jacquet Bernard in
1821. The results of his experiments won him the Grand Prix de Physique
from the French Academy of Sciences but it failed to inspire any commer-
cial application [5].
In the 1860s in Cleveland, Ohio, a commercial storage operator called
Nyce limited the oxygen available to his fruit in a sheet-metal-lined ice-
cooled store. He realised the fruit generated 'carbonic acid' and he reported
improved storage life and increased profits.
In 1918 Kidd and West started a thorough scientific investigation at the
Low-Temperature Research Station at Cambridge. They had many prob-
lems to solve which required the cooperation of engineers and physicists to
help overcome the practical problems of making gas-tight stores. Kidd and
West later moved closer to the fruit growing industry in Kent and helped
establish the Ditton Laboratory where they continued their pioneering
work. The Ditton Laboratory was incorporated into the East MaIling Re-
search Station in 1969. The Cox's Orange Pippin apple, which is the main-
stay of the English dessert apple industry, is notoriously difficult to store
and required extensive research to improve storage conditions. This re-
sulted in much pioneering work by Fidler, Mann and North in the 1960s
with North and Sharples developing and introducing the commercial use of
ultra-low-oxygen storage in the late 1970s. The work at East Malling contin-
ues now under the leadership of David Johnson in the new Jim Mount
Building, opened in 1992 and shown in Figure 2.1.
In 1934, after studying with Kidd at Cambridge, Eaves was given respon-
sibility for the fruit and vegetable work at the Experimental Farm in
Kentville, Nova Scotia, introducing CA storage into North America. He,
with his co-worker Lightfoot (Figure 2.2), discovered that new-laid cement
adsorbed carbon dioxide, thus leading them to the use of hydrated lime in
place of the very dangerous caustic soda for the removal of carbon dioxide
[6].
Smock also worked with Kidd and West in Cambridge in the 1930s and
returned to his native USA where he published a paper in 1938 entitled The
possibilities of gas storage in the United States. Smock continued to pioneer
CA storage at his laboratory at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York,
where he died in 1986.
The first commercial CA storage in the UK was carried out by Spencer
Mount in 1929. He successfully stored 30 tonnes of Bramley's Seedling
apples in 10% carbon dioxide at his farm in Canterbury. It is interesting to
note that despite all the subsequent research 10% carbon dioxide is still a
recommended storage condition for this cultivar.
At the outbreak of war in 1939, storage capacity in the UK had grown to
30000 tonnes. Expansion started again after the war with estimates of
70000 in 1950 and 175000 by 1966. CA storage started much later in
CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE STORAGE 55
Figure 2.1 The Jim Mount Building, East Mailing, Kent (courtesy of HRI East Mailing).
Figure 2.2 Eaves and Lightfoot (courtesy of Agriculture Canada, Kentville, NS).
continental Europe, with only 50 tonnes in 1959 in Italy and none in France
until 1962. These countries have, since that time, expanded their CA stor-
age rapidly.
In 1977 Geeson and others started work at the Food Research Institute
in Norwich on the storage of Dutch white cabbage. This work proved
successful and now CA is regularly used for cabbage storage in many
countries [7].
McGlasson and Wills in Australia carried out experiments in 1971 with
green bananas and found that the storage life of an unripe banana could be
extended from 16 days to 182 days in a CA atmosphere of 3% oxygen and
5% carbon dioxide [8]. This work, however, remained commercially unused
until regular shipment of bananas under CA conditions started in the early
1990s.
The same delay between the research and practical application can be
seen with onion storage. Adamicki of Poland [9] published research on
onion CA storage in 1974 but it was only taken up commercially in 1994 for
regular onions. The opposite was the case for sweet onions with commercial
storage already starting to take place when Smittle published his work in
1988 [10].
There are now many establishments throughout the world carrying out
research on very many products which have been shown to benefit from CA
storage. Space does not allow the description of them all but significant CA
work has been carried out at the University of California Davis, by Kader
and colleagues, and at ATO-DLO Wageningen in the Netherlands, by
Schouten and his co-workers. The results of much scientific work on con-
trolled atmospheres are presented at the International Controlled Atmos-
phere Research Conference, which takes place every four years, and the
proceedings of these conferences are a mine of information on the latest
CA techniques and storage conditions [11].
2.3 Definitions
Kidd and West, in their original work, called the technique of changing the
composition of the gas mixture surrounding stored product 'gas storage'.
When this was taken to North America, as described in the previous sec-
tion, the name had other meanings and the term 'controlled atmosphere' or
CA was used. There are other terms commonly used in the industry but
there is some confusion so a definition of the meanings as used in this
chapter follows.
Gas storage. The storage of any product in an environment that differs

from ambient air (i.e. 21 % oxygen, 300ppm carbon dioxide).
Controlled atmosphere (CA). A low oxygen and/or high carbon dioxide

atmosphere is created by natural respiration or artificial means. It is then
controlled by a sequence of measurements and corrections throughout the
storage period. Its common use is confined to fixed storage warehouses,
bulk shipment and transport containers with self-contained control capac-
ity. This is the technique of storage that this chapter is concerned with.
Modified atmosphere (MA). MA differs from CA in that no measurement

or correction takes place during the storage period. An atmosphere of the
required composition is created by respiration or by flushing with a pre-
mixed gas. This mixture is expected to be maintained over the storage life.
This definition is commonly used to describe produce in retail packing. This
is usually designated modified atmosphere packaging (MAP). In some sys-
tems there is an element of control by using packing materials with suitable
gas exchange characteristics. Modified gas packaging is an expanding tech-
nology and is beyond the scope of this book. This technique is more fully
described in books by Thompson [3] and Kader [12]. This definition can
also be used for shipping containers that have a one-time charge of gas
mixture which lasts the complete journey.
Controlled ventilation. This is when carbon dioxide is permitted to build

up naturally due to respiration and is controlled by ventilation at a chosen
level. This can be used both to enhance the level of carbon dioxide to
improve storage life or, conversely, to prevent carbon dioxide building up
to harmful levels.
Ultra-Low-oxygen storage (ULO). This term was used by the scientists in

East Malling in the early 1980s when the recommended storage condition of
Cox apples was reduced from 2% to 1.25% oxygen. It is now commonly
used, particularly in mainland Europe, for storage in oxygen concentrations
of 2% and below.
2.4 Produce storage conditions
One of the first considerations when storing a fruit or vegetable under CA

is the composition of the storage atmosphere. As mentioned in Section 2.1,
the optimum storage is dependent upon variety and growing conditions.
Cultivars in some areas have undergone exhaustive factorial testing and
the results of each CA regime can be predicted with an excellent level of
confidence. Recommendations for other crops can be based just on the
results of one or two years' good experience at particular gas levels without
any work being done to optimise and select the best possible combinations.
Table 2.1 Recommendations of storage conditions by country for Golden Delicious apples
Country % CO2 Temperature ("C)
Australia (Victoria) 1.5 1.0 0.0

Belgium 2.0 2.0 0.5
Brazil 1.5-2.5 3.0-4.5 1.0-1.5
Canada (Ontario) 2.5 2.5 0.0
China 2.0-4.0 4.0-8.0 5.0
France 1.0-1.5 2.0-3.0 0.0-2.0
Germany (Westphalia) 1.0-2.0 3.0-5.0 1.0-2.0
Holland 1.2 4.0 1.0
Israel 1.0-1.5 2.0 -0.5
Slovenia 1.0 3.0 0.0
South Africa 1.5 1.5 -0.5
Spain 3.0 2.0-4.0 0.5
USA (New York) 1.5 2.0-3.0 0.0
USA (Washington) 1.0-1.5 <3.0 1.0
USA (Penn) 1.3-2.3 0.0-0.3 -0.5-0.5
There is much variation from country to country, illustrating the different

soil and climate types, local post-harvest treatment, acceptance criteria and,
it must be said, research methods, preferences and timing. To illustrate this,
Table 2.1 shows variations in local recommendations for Golden Delicious
apples grown throughout the world.
Individual countries and advisory organisations usually publish their own
list of recommendations and Table 2.2 shows the recommendations for
some common varieties of English apples published by the East Malling
Research Association [13, 14]. This and other tables published here are only
shown as a guide and are regularly updated. The original source of data
should always be consulted before using for commercial crop storage.
Tables 2.3 and 2.4 show storage conditions for other fruits and vegetables
which have been obtained from various sources. The products indicated as
being in regular commercial use are known by the author to have been
successfully used for land-based storage. Others may well have been used
quite successfully for either land storage or container shipment. The situa-
tion is constantly altering, with more research being carried out and more
commercial interest in previously unused experimental results. The list is
not necessarily exhaustive and some common products are included where
CA is not a significant advantage. For further information and reference see
references [3, 11, 15].
2.5 Ethylene
Ethylene is produced by some fruits as part of the ripening process where its
presence accelerates ripening. Low-oxygen storage reduces ethylene pro-
Table 2.2 Recommended CA storage conditions of selected English apples and pears
Temperature Storage time

Variety % 0, % CO, (0C) (weeks)
Apples
Bramley's Seedling 10-13 8-10 4-4.5 39
2 6 4-4.5 40
1 5 4-4.5 44
Cox's Orange Pippin 3 5 3.5-4 20
2 <1 3.5-4 23
1.25 <1 3.5-4 28
1 <1 3.5-4 30
Fiesta 2 <1 3.5-4 27
1.25 <1 3.5-4 40
Gala 2 <1 3.5-4 23
Jonagold 2 <1 1.5-2 32
1.25 <1 1.5-2 36
Discovery 2 <1 3-3.5 7
Ida Red 1.25 <1 3-4.5 37
Spartan 2 6 1.5-2 42
Pears
Concorde (pear) 2 <1 -1--0.5 32
Conference (pear) 2 <1 -1--0.5 37
Taken from data published by HRI, East Mailing. Do not use for commercial storage without
consulting the originals in references [13] and [14].
Table 2.3 Typical CA storage conditions for fruit
Fruit % 0, % CO, Temperature (0C) Notes
Apricot 2-3 2-3 0-5

Avocado 2-5 3-10 10-13 a
Banana 2-5 2-5 12-16 a
Blueberry 2-5 12-20 0-5 a
Cherry 3-10 10-15 0-5 a
Grapefruit 3-10 5-10 10-15 b
Kiwi fruit 1-2 3-5 0 a,c
Lemon/lime 5-10 0-10 10-15 b
Mango 3-5 5-10 10-15
Orange 5-10 0-5 5-10 b
Papaya 2-5 5-8 10-15
Peach 1-2 3-5 0-5
Persimmon 3-5 5-8 0-5
Pineapple 2-5 5-10 8-13 b
Plum 1-2 0-5 0-5 a
Raspberry 5-10 15-20 0-5 a
Redcurrant 2-5 12-20 0-5 a
Strawberry 5-10 15-20 0-5 a
'In regular commercial use.

b CA not considered commercially beneficial.
'Very low ethylene for long-term storage.

Storage times are very dependent upon cultivars and post-harvest treatment.
Table 2.4 Typical CA storage conditions for vegetables
Vegetable % O2 % CO 2 Temperature (0C) Notes
Artichokes 2-3 2-3 0-5

Asparagus 10-14 0-3 a
Broccoli 1-2 5-10 0-5 a
Brussels sprouts 1-2 5-7 0-5
Cabbage (white) 3 5 0 b
Canteloupe melon 3-5 10-20 2-7
Lettuce 1-3 0 0-5
Onions 3 5 0 b,c
Potatoes 4-7 c
Sweet-corn 2-4 5-10 0-5
Tomatoes 3-5 3-5 10-15 a
"Used in transportation.
hIn regular commercial use for long-term storage.
cStored at 65-75% RH.
d Considerable research with potatoes with, as yet, variable results on the potential benefit of
CA storage.
duction and increased carbon dioxide inhibits ethylene action. However, it

can still build up to significant levels in CA rooms. This ethylene can be
removed and the response of the produce has been shown to be beneficial
[16]. For apples, the economic advantage of ethylene removal is marginal
and it is not normal commercial practice. Ethylene scrubbers may become
more commonplace when post-harvest chemical treatments for the reduc-
tion of scald are no longer available.
For kiwi fruit, low ethylene of less than 20 parts per billion (ppb) is
needed to avoid accelerated flesh softening, and its removal is necessary in
both controlled atmosphere and refrigerated air storage.
2.6 Pre-storage chemical treatment
Traditionally, most fruit and vegetables destined for long-term storage,

both chilled and CA, have received post-harvest chemical treatment to
prolong storage life. In recent years, this has become less acceptable to the
market-place and a very substantial amount of recent CA research is aimed
at reducing the dependency on chemical treatment. It is not the purpose of
this chapter to describe this in any detail and a good summary of the current
situation for English apples has been written by Johnson [17] and for Anjou
pears in the US by Kupferman [18].
Some of the new CA regimes (e.g. 5 % carbon dioxide and 1 % oxygen for
English Bramley's Seedling) have been developed specifically to reduce the
need for chemical treatment, but in practice much produce is still stored with
some chemical application. The usual method of applying these chemicals is
known as drenching, in which bulk bins of fruit are saturated with water
containing a mixture of the required chemicals. Local advice on the permit-
ted treatment and the allowed strength must be taken before proceeding.
Superficial scald or storage scald is an irregular area of burned or scalded
appearance which forms on the skin of a number of varieties of apples
and pears during and after storage. This is controlled by applying an
antioxidant immediately after harvest and before loading the fruit into the
store. The chemicals used for this are either diphenylamine (DPA) or
ethoxyquin.
To protect against various fungal rot problems in storage, collectively
known as storage rot, the produce can be drenched in a specific fungicide
such as carbendazim.
Any chemical treatment should be part of an overall management pro-
gramme which includes the correct cultivation techniques and spraying
programme. Great care should be taken to ensure the produce is in the best
possible condition for long-term storage.
2.7 Storage rooms
The first consideration when planning a controlled atmosphere store is the

size. A major factor in determining size is the speed of loading and unload-
ing. For optimum storage conditions a store should be completely filled with
produce of the same or compatible variety in a matter of two or three days.
When emptying a store, the fruit should be graded, packed and marketed
within five to seven days. It is, therefore, preferable to have the total storage
capacity divided into smaller units but, of course, this is more expensive and
economic considerations need to apply. In the UK an average store size
for apples would be about 100 tonnes, with variations between 50 and
200tonnes. In continental Europe the average size is about 200tonnes, with
vegetables being in the 200-500tonne range. In North America the stores
are larger, averaging 30000 bu (or 600tonnes: 52 US bushels (bu) = 1 tonne).
A further important consideration in store design is the bin layout and
spacing. The bin size will vary with commodity type and area of operation
but the store should be designed with a particular bin layout and stacking
pattern. This will avoid excessive or inadequate spacing between the bins
which can easily lead to incorrect air flows and poor store performance.
Controlled atmosphere stores are constructed in a similar manner to the
conventional cold stores described in Chapter 5. A CA store, however, has
to be totally gas tight and this is achieved by careful attention to detail, both
in design and workmanship. This is usually a job best left to experts and
many problems have occurred by inexperienced contractors trying to build
new, or convert existing, cold stores for CA use.
Almost all CA stores now being built in Europe are made from metal-
faced insulating panels locked together with proprietary locking systems.

Gas tightness of the joints is usually increased by taping and coating with a
flexible plastic paint. This process is also carried out on floor-wall and wall-
ceiling joints.
Doors are a common leakage area and they have to be of very substantial
construction to allow good sealing with a rubber gasket around the perim-
eter. They are sealed when the door is closed with screw jacks equally
spaced around the door. Some novel door seals are available which are
sealed once the door is in position by inflating a pneumatic seal with a
simple foot pump. Conventional cold store doors, even though designated
leak tight are not suitable and any door used must be specified as suitable
for CA rooms. The doors on modern stores are almost always of the sliding
variety and should be of sufficient height to allow efficient loading with
fork-lift trucks.
Particular care has to be taken in gas sealing all the internal fixings and
entries for pipes and cables. Drains for the removal of condensate water
should be properly designed with U-traps to ensure water can escape with-
out breaking the room real.
Each store should be fitted with inspection hatches to allow access to the
fruit for routine examination during the storage period. It is common prac-
tice on the continent of Europe to include double or triple glazed windows,
at a high level, to allow visual inspection of the condition of the fruit in the
top bins and to check for ice build-up on the refrigeration coils. Figure 2.3
shows CA stores constructed as part of a complete packing and distribution
complex built in Kent during 1995.
In North America panel-built stores are not so common. Here it is usual
to construct the stores with either timber frame and plywood boarding,
concrete blocks, or tilt-up concrete walls. The store is sealed and insulated
with foamed-in-place urethane which is then coated with a fire retardant.
To protect the store structure from damage due to excessive air pres-
sures, it is essential to install a pressure relief valve. This valve should limit
the pressure on the store structure to the designed safe limit. Typically this
could be ±190Pa (0.75" water gauge). The store pressure relief valves may
be either a simple water-based vent system or a mechanical valve relying on
the weight of the sealed disk to obtain the correct pressure. Many conven-
tional cold and frozen stores are designed for a maximum internal pressure
of ±125 Pa and WOUld, therefore, be unsuitable for conversion to CA use
without substantial modifications.
2.8 Expansion bags
A CA store is totally sealed but, because of structural limitations, the air

pressure in the room should not vary from ambient by more than 180 Pa
Figure 2.3 CA stores in Kent (courtesy of International Controlled Atmosphere).
(0.7" water gauge). Charles's law shows us that volume is directly propor-
tional to absolute temperature at a constant pressure. In a typical CA store
the air volume when full with produce is likely to be 70% of the empty
volume. If the air temperature increases by 1°C at O°C, then the volume
change (LiV) is:
1
LiV = - x 0.7 = 0.25% empty room volume
273
In a well-designed apple store the cooler temperature is close to the crop
temperature and defrosting is infrequent. The average air temperature is
slow-moving and the resultant pressure/volume changes are compensated
for by the pressure relief valves without an excessive ingress of atmospheric
air.
Roof
150mm Breather bag
~ Ventilation direction
Store
Figure 2.4 Expansion bag and pressure relief valve.
In, for example, a CA room for onions where lower humidity is needed,
the refrigeration is designed for a colder evaporating temperature and
frequent defrosts. In this instance, the frequent and significant temperature
changes can cause a room to breath with significant volumes of store gas
being expelled and air drawn in through the store pressure protection
valves. This can cause difficulty in maintaining a low oxygen environment
within the room. In this situation, fitting an expansion bag to the room
can be very helpful. A bag, usually of reinforced polythene with a size of
between 0.5 % and 1 % of room volume, is connected to the store. When the
volume expands due to an increase in air temperature during defrost
and when the refrigeration is off, the bag is filled with excess gas. When the
air is cooled again, instead of fresh air being drawn in, the bag contents
return to the room, thus reducing the ingress of oxygen from the ambient
air.
An expansion bag also helps to reduce leakage in the store when the
atmospheric pressure changes and can also buffer changes due to the opera-
tion of some types of carbon scrubbers. It is common practice in some
countries, particularly The Netherlands, to keep an expansion bag partially
inflated by giving the store a regular injection of nitrogen from a generator.
This constant positive pressure helps reduce the leakage of air into the
room.
Figure 2.4 shows a typical expansion bag installation, complete with the
room over/under-pressure valve.
2.9 Store leakage specification
Many people not familiar with CA storage seriously underestimate the level
of sealing that is required in a CA store. A leak rate should be part of any
specification and contract for building a CA room and a test to check for
this should be part of the acceptance criteria. These tests should then also
be carried out yearly and any problems rectified before loading with
produce.
The leak test is carried out by press uri sing the room and measuring
the rate at which the pressure falls. The room is prepared for testing
by checking that all doors, hatches, drains, valves and pipes are closed.
A sensitive pressure gauge (manometer) is connected to the store.
An inclined tube water manometer is the best type to use. A dial-type
bourdon tube pressure gauge should not be used as this is not sensitive
enough.
After the manometer has been connected, the store should be pressu-
rised with a small air blower; a domestic vacuum cleaner would be suitable.
Care is needed as these blowers can produce enough pressure to structur-
ally damage even very large stores. The store should be pressurised to
25 mm water gauge (or the maximum design pressure) and when this is
achieved the blower should be stopped and the air inlet to the store sealed.
If this pressure cannot be achieved a large leak is indicated and it requires
rectification before continuing.
The rate at which the pressure falls is measured and is an indication of the
store leakage rate. In the UK the time taken for the pressure to fall from
19mm water gauge* to 13mm is measured. In a store intended for storage
at 2.5% oxygen and above, the minimum recommended time is 7 minutes.
For stores running at 2% oxygen and lower, 10 minutes should be the
minimum. It is not uncommon for well-constructed stores to take up to 30
minutes to lose 7 mm of water gauge. North American operators define
their tests slightly differently and the time used here is when the pressure
falls to half the starting value. For example, the time will be the same for a
fall from 1" to liz" as that from liz" to lit. The acceptable time for this is 30
minutes for all low-oxygen stores with all types of scrubber, but for 3%
oxygen rooms 20 minutes is acceptable. Incidentally, the North American
'20 minute' room is equivalent to 12 minutes on the UK test and the '30
minute' room is the same as 18 minutes.
An alternative, sometimes used in mainland Europe, is to measure the
rate of air flow into a room to achieve a specified pressure. This requires the
use of a variable speed air blower.
* We have used millimetre water gauge as the pressure specification here because of its
practical convenience in use: 25 mm = 1" water gauge = 250 Pa = 250Nm-2•
2.10 Refrigeration
The design of the refrigeration system is covered in other chapters in this

book but a few notes on the requirements for CA stores are appropriate
here.
Most CA stores are for long-term storage and therefore product weight
loss is a very important parameter in the design. The refrigeration system
should be designed for a very small temperature difference between the
produce and cooler surface, thus maintaining high humidity and minimising
the defrosting required. Secondary refrigeration systems are seen as the
ideal solution but flooded freon and ammonia systems are popular in large
installations with direct expansion freon being used in the majority of
smaller stores. The exception to this is CA rooms for onions where a lower
relative humidity (RH) is needed and the refrigeration can be designed to
maintain this low RH level.
To maximise the produce storage potential, the recommended store tem-
peratures are close to the minimum before damage occurs. It is therefore
important that close temperature control is achieved and that the tempera-
ture differences throughout the store are minimised.
Good circulation of air throughout the store is essential and the recom-
mended UK rate during cooling is in the range of 30-50 empty room
volumes per hour. This can be reduced after temperature pull-down to half
or less the initial rate. A well-designed and operated CA store will have
temperature differences within the store of less than O.soC. It is common
practice to control the store temperature with an electronic thermostat or
Coolstat with an accuracy of better than O.2°C and control differentials
adjustable down to less than O.S°c. Many new installations have the tem-
perature control incorporated into an overall computer control system.
The position of the temperature control sensor is important for the good
control of store temperature. It is not advisable to place the sensor in the air
discharging directly from the cooler as this will lead to short-cycling of the
refrigeration plant. For ceiling-mounted coolers the sensor is best posi-
tioned in the air returning from the crop to the inlet of the cooler. This may
be a little warmer than the actual crop temperature and the thermostat
can be adjusted accordingly. For floor-mounted coolers with high level
discharge, as traditionally used in English CA apple stores, the sensor is
best placed adjacent to, but not directly in, the air discharging from the
cooler.
A thermostat to override the main control should always be used to
prevent freezing of the fruit in the event of a malfunction. This is particu-
larly important in pear stores when an override thermostat controlling the
minimum temperature of the air off the cooler should be fitted.
In order to minimise the refrigeration running time, the heat input to the
store must be reduced to a minimum. A major source of heat input other
than the respiration of fruit itself is the air circulation fan. These are
sometimes operated intermittently to reduce power but great care must be
taken to maintain even temperature distribution within the store.
With modern store and refrigeration design the produce weight loss can
be reduced to a very small amount. Weight loss is becoming a factor in the
physiology of fruit storage and it has been found that some weight loss at
certain times of the storage period can be beneficial to the storage of the
produce. Further research is needed in this area and recommendations on
weight-loss control could be a factor to consider in the future.
If ammonia is used as a refrigerant and piped directly into the store
evaporator, then some means of measuring and alarming for ammonia
leakage within the store is necessary. A small ammonia leak can go unno-
ticed in a sealed CA store and this can cause severe damage to the stored
fruit. An ammonia detector with a sensitivity of about lOppm should be
used. Ammonia is also toxic to humans with a maximum permitted short-
term exposure of 35ppm [19].
2.11 Humidity and water loss
As indicated in the previous section, the humidity in the room and the water
loss from the produce being stored are very important factors in the success-
fullong-term storage of fruit and vegetables. For most produce high humid-
ity is important and for many years store and refrigeration design has
emphasised the reduction of water loss. Current scientific work has indi-
cated that this may have a gone too far and that the amount and timing of
water loss can be a relevant factor in the physiology of stored apples.
Onions are an exception to the general rule where a humidity of between
65% and 80% is required for good storage. With a store designed specifi-
cally for onions, the refrigeration can be designed to maintain this level of
RH. The stores designed for this are unsuitable for normal fruit and vegeta-
ble storage. Conventional high humidity CA stores can be used for onion
storage but in that instance separate dehumidification equipment needs to
be installed in the room. This can be of the refrigeration type but generally
this does not remove enough moisture and an adsorption type machine to
the Munter design has been used quite successfully. The heat produced by
these machines considerably increases the refrigeration load, causing addi-
tional running expense.
In some circumstances it can be advantageous to add water to a room to
maintain humidity. This is unnecessary in a sealed CA store but can be
useful in a refrigerated holding store which needs ventilation to maintain
low carbon dioxide or ethylene. Dry ambient ventilation air, especially in
winter, can reduce the RH to an unacceptable level and this can be in-
creased with a humidifier. Steam humidification can be used but the amount
of water needed is usually quite large and a more economical method is to

use ultrasonic nozzles injecting water droplets directly into the airstream.
These are powered with compressed air.
2.12 CA machinery selection
An important aspect of the design of any CA storage system is selection of

the most appropriate machinery for creating and maintaining the correct
gas concentration in the store. The following functions need to be carried
out:
• Removal of ambient oxygen
• Removal of carbon dioxide produced by respiration
• Addition of air to replace oxygen consumed by respiration
• Removal of ethylene
• Addition of carbon dioxide
The need for machinery to carry out of these functions depends entirely on
what product is to be stored and under what storage regime.
The sizing of the equipment is also dependent upon the respiration rate
of the product. This is a factor that can have wide variations. It is also
information that is not widely available. A general summary of respiration
rates is given in reference [15] (p. 11) but it must be noted that these are for
air and in CA respiration can often, but not always, be less than that.
The scientific way of expressing respiration is carbon dioxide production
in g/tonne/h or mg/kg/h. A practical way of measuring this in a well-sealed
CA room is to determine the rate at which the carbon dioxide increases
with no machinery operating [20]. Table 2.5 shows some common products
stored in CA and their typical initial respiration rates. Respiration tends to
fall as the storage season progresses to perhaps half of the initial level.
Once the range of produce to be stored and the conditions under which
they are kept are determined, then the most appropriate machinery and
method can be selected. Table 2.6 shows a summary of current typical
commercial practice.
Table 2.5 Typical initial respiration rates in CA conditions
CO, production
g/tonne/h %/h increase
Cox apples 5 0.10

Golden Delicious apples 2 0.04
Onions 1 0.Q2
Cabbage 2 0.04
Table 2.6 Typical machinery selection
CO, Ethylene Air CO,

N, generator scrubber scrubber addition addition
Cox apples OP .I
Golden Delicious
apples .I OP .I
Onions .I .I
Cabbage OP .I .I
Kiwi fruit .I OP .I
Cherries .I .I .I
OP = Optional.
2.13 Oxygen removal
To significantly reduce fruit maturity development during storage, the CA

conditions need to be established before the ripening processes start. There
are differences in crops that determine how quickly the oxygen is removed.
Some storage regimes specify 'rapid CA' with oxygen removal in a day or
so. Other produce can give problems unless the oxygen is removed more
slowly over, say, a 7-day period. Unless the stores are very leaky the
removal of oxygen with external equipment is only required to achieve the
initial conditions. For the remainder of the storage time the natural respira-
tion of the fruit removes sufficient oxygen to overcome any small store
leakage.
Natural respiration
It is common practice for English apple storage not to install machines for
removal of oxygen. The majority of the commonly stored fruit (e.g. Cox and
Bramley apples) have a high respiration rate which naturally reduces the
oxygen concentration to the required value in 7 to 10 days. Some benefit in
fruit firmness is obtained by more rapid establishment of conditions, but too
rapid a reduction may result in a damaging increase in alcohol in the fruit
tissue. In most other countries, where produce respiration rate is generally
lower, it is normal practice to reduce the oxygen with some type of me-
chanical system.
Liquid nitrogen
Store oxygen levels can be reduced quickly by flushing with nitrogen. This
can be purchased as liquid or gas and either stored on site or used directly
from tankers. Used with care, this can be an economic and safe way of
reducing the store oxygen. The nitrogen itself may be expensive but there
is very little capital or installation cost unless on-site storage of the gas
is proposed.
The amount of nitrogen required can be calculated from the following
approximate formula:
o
V=Alog e - '
Or
where V is the volume of the gas to be injected, A is the store void space, 0i
is the initial store oxygen concentration (usually 21 %) and Or is the final
oxygen concentration required. A store containing 100 tonnes of fruit
would have a typical volume of 350m3 with a void air space of approxi-
mately 65 %. This, therefore, would require 326 m3 of nitrogen to reduce the
oxygen from air (21 %) to 5% or 442m3 to reduce it to 3%. It is not
necessary to reduce the oxygen to the required final level by flushing as the
respiration of the fruit can be used for the last one or two per cent.
The nitrogen must be discharged slowly into the store to prevent the low
temperature causing damage to the fruit. The fans must be running, the
refrigeration turned off and an outlet valve open. The temperature in the
store must be closely monitored and flushing stopped if it falls too low.
Great care must be taken to prevent the pressure in the store exceeding
190Pa or the structure could be severely damaged [21].
Propane burners
A propane burner uses the combustion of propane to convert the oxygen in
the atmosphere to carbon dioxide and water. The 'open flame' type reduces
air to about 5% or the catalytic type can be used in a recirculation mode
down to a level of 3 % oxygen.
There have been problems with safety due to accumulation of propane
and carbon monoxide, which are produced when the burner is not correctly
operated or adjusted. It is essential that an explosive gas detector is fitted to
any system using this equipment. This type of burner also produces a large
amount of carbon dioxide which has to be removed by the scrubber. Some
ethylene is also produced, thus increasing the ethylene concentration in
the store.
This equipment can now be considered obsolete and is no longer installed
on new CA stores.
Ammonia crackers
In an ammonia cracker anhydrous ammonia is reacted at high temperature
with the recirculating store atmosphere to convert the oxygen to nitrogen
and water with the hydrogen as an intermediate component. This technique
can also be considered obsolete and is not now installed in modern fruit
stores.
Pressure swing
A nitrogen pressure swing adsorption (PSA) system consists of two beds of
carbon molecular sieve. Pre-treated air at high pressure enters the bottom
of the first bed and passes across the carbon. Oxygen and other trace gases
are preferentially adsorbed by the sieve, allowing nitrogen to pass through
the bed. After a pre-set time when the on-line bed is nearly saturated with
adsorbed gases, the system automatically switches the bed to a regenerative
mode whilst the second, previously regenerated, bed comes on-line and
takes over the separation process. The saturated bed is regenerated by
rapidly reducing the pressure inside the column so allowing the captured
gases to escape to the atmosphere. This continuous swing in pressure
between the adsorption and regeneration modes gives the technology
its name.
Carbon molecular sieves differ from ordinary activated carbons in that
they have a much narrower range of pore openings. This allows small
oxygen molecules to penetrate the pores and be separated from the nitro-
gen molecules that are too large to enter. The smaller molecules are physi-
cally adsorbed and therefore removed from the gas stream by the carbon
sieve. The larger molecules by-pass the sieve and are effectively recovered
as the product gas.
The concentration of the oxygen in the outlet will depend on the output
flow, which can be varied to obtain the optimum combination of flow
and nitrogen purity. Compressed air is required at a pressure, typically,
of 6-8bar and this has to be pre-treated to remove moisture and
contamination.
Membranes
Membranes employ the principle of selective permeation to separate gases.
Each gas has a characteristic permeation rate that is a function of its ability
to dissolve and diffuse through a membrane. This characteristic rate allows
'fast' gases, such as oxygen, water vapour and carbon dioxide, to be sepa-
rated from 'slow' gases, such as nitrogen.
Modern membrane separators use hollow fibre technology and a typical
module is illustrated in Figure 2.5. High-pressure pre-treated air is required
at a typical pressure of 9-12 bar. The oxygen concentration in the output is
again dependent upon the output flow.
Some work has been done to use membranes in a recirculation mode.
However, because the nitrogen stream is typically only 20% of the input
-NITROGEN
STREAM
OXYGENO
ENRICHED
STREAM
\
-AIR
Figure 2.5 A hollow tube membrane (courtesy of Permea Inc.).

Nitrogen flow m%
144 ,---------------------------------------------, .10
.. 20
120
... 40
96 G 80
~
::l
72
i,
0
I
~'
! I , I
200 600
Empty store volume m 3
Figure 2.6 Oxygen pull-down time. 70% void space N, flush with 2% O 2 to 4% 0, in store.
flow, the improved efficiency is relatively marginal, especially with the

problem of balancing the pressure in the store.
Comparison of technologies
Both membrane and PSA technology are widely used in the CA industry
and either technology is suitable. The PSA has more moving parts and
could, theoretically, be less reliable. On the other hand, membranes can be
damaged and are more expensive to replace than the molecular sieve. The
PSA machine is usually more electrically efficient, requiring about 30% less
power for the same output. The choice is, then, a commercial decision based
on both capital and operating cost for a specific volume of nitrogen. It is
important to evaluate like with like by taking into consideration both the
output flow and purity. Figure 2.6 gives a guide to choosing the size of
machine to give the pull-down time needed.
2.14 Carbon dioxide removal
Lime
The removal of carbon dioxide, or 'scrubbing' as it is commonly called, can
be achieved by using hydrated lime. This is still common practice and in
many instances is preferred over mechanical scrubbers, especially for ultra-
low-oxygen stores where it is essential to limit the amount of oxygen enter-
ing the store. The lime that is used should be freshly hydrated high-calcium
lime with at least 95% purity of calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2].
The chemical reaction as carbon dioxide is adsorbed is:

Ca( OH)2 + CO 2 -7 CaC0 3 + H 20
The lime can be loaded into a 'lime box' external to the store and its
effect on the store carbon dioxide level controlled by regulating the flow of
the store atmosphere through the box. Alternatively, where there is a
requirement for carbon dioxide levels in the store of less than 1 %, the lime
can be placed directly in the store with the fruit. In either method, the lime
should be in paper sacks. These are sufficiently porous to carbon dioxide
and no additional puncturing is required. The bags should be well spaced to
allow maximum exposure to the store atmosphere.
The amount of lime required depends on the respiration rate of the fruit,
the required storage time and which deployment method is used. In theory
1 kg of lime will adsorb 0.59 kg of carbon dioxide but in practice the limiting
factor is the adsorption rate, which decreases rapidly as the lime is ex-
hausted. A practical capacity would be an adsorption of OAkg per kg of
lime. The recommended quantity of lime to place into the store for 6
months' storage of English Cox apples at 2% oxygen and <1 % carbon
dioxide is 5 % of fruit weight. The recommendation in Canada for McIntosh
apples at less than 2% carbon dioxide for 3-4 months' storage is 1.2% of
fruit weight.
Once the lime is exhausted it is useful only for agricultural purposes and
disposal is sometimes a problem.
Carbon scrubbers
Carbon dioxide can be adsorbed on the surface of activated carbon
granules. Once the carbon is saturated no more adsorption takes place.
However, if it is then flushed with fresh air the carbon dioxide is removed
and the same carbon can again be used to adsorb more carbon dioxide.
This principal is the basis for all activated carbon dioxide scrubbers. The
store atmosphere can be blown through carbon beds with a low-pressure
fan for a pre-set period of time (usually from 5 to 10 minutes). The store
gas is then disconnected and the bed flushed with fresh air for a similar
period.
These scrubbers are commercially made with either a single or dual
bed. The type and size chosen will depend on store size, fruit respiration
rate and the level of oxygen and carbon dioxide desired in the store. An
important factor in the design and setting up of a carbon scrubber is the
amount of oxygen it introduces to the store. There are various ways of
overcoming this problem and these are subject to various manufacturers'
patents. A typical system from The Netherlands is shown diagrammatically
in Figure 2.7.
.. ==~
...
(2)
1
•
15 minutes
Adsorbing store CO 2
10 seconds
Fill bag with store gas
from bed
• .. •
I I
~
...
o • •
-{I) j~ ...
20 minutes
Removing CO 2 with fresh air 0) 10 seconds
Flush out air with
store gas in bag
Figure 2.7 Carbon scrubber cycle (with permission from Van Amerongen ULO Technics).
Flushing
Nitrogen generators are used quite successfully for removing carbon diox-
ide and a single machine can be used for both carbon dioxide and oxygen
removal. It is, however, much less efficient than a carbon scrubber and
electrical costs can be very much higher. The economic feasibility of this
approach depends on the respiration rate of the produce stored and abso-
lute level of carbon dioxide required in the room. The graph in Figure 2.8
illustrates the nitrogen flow requirements and Table 2.7 compares energy
consumption for various levels of respiration and carbon dioxide. It must be
remembered that respiration rates do vary and they are likely to reduce as
the season progresses.
Respiration rate
g/tonne/h
.1
+2
... 5
Figure 2.8 CO, removal by flushing. Flow for 100 tonnes produce.
Table 2.7 CO, removal: comparison of power consumption
Store Carbon N, generator

Respiration concentration scrubber
rate (kW per Flow kW per
Product (g/tonne/h) % CO, % 0, day) (m3/h) day
Cox apples 5 0.9 1.2 30.0 136 1550

Bramley apples 3 5.0 1.0 3.5 15 170
Golden Delicious 2 3.0 2.0 4.0 17 148
apples
Onions 1 5.0 3.0 1.5 5 37
Cabbage 2 5.0 3.0 3.0 10 74
Pears 2 0.7 2.0 12.0 72 627
Power shown for 500 tonnes; other sizes pro-rata.

Respiration rate typical at start of season.
2.15 Ethylene removal
Ethylene removal from a store can have a beneficial effect on the fruit
storage life and quality, as mentioned in Section 2.5.
Ethylene can be adsorbed by potassium permanganate crystals [22].
These are successfully used with the transport of fresh produce but prove
uneconomic in long-term CA stores.
Commercial ethylene scrubbers have been made which remove the eth-
ylene by passing the atmosphere over precious metal catalysts running at
high temperatures. As well as being expensive in capital terms, the energy
needed to both heat the air and then to cool it again to acceptable levels
proves difficult to justify. A novel solution is the swing therm concept [23]
developed in Poland which reduces the energy consumption by passing the

store gases through a porous heat exchange bed in alternate directions. It is
not common commercial practice to install ethylene removal in a CA store
except for kiwi fruit storage. It is, however, used in refrigerated fruit and
flower rooms for removing the ambient ethylene.
2.16 Instrumentation
For successful storage of produce in a controlled atmosphere it is essential

to have the correct instrumentation to measure the conditions within the
storage room. More losses of stored products have occurred due to faulty
measurement than any other cause. Equipment is needed to measure both
temperatures and gas concentration. This can be done with a variety of
equipment varying from simple portable apparatus to complete computer-
controlled automatic systems. However, it must always be stressed that any
amount of computer or automation is irrelevant if the initial measuring
method or accuracy is unsuitable for the task.
Temperature measurement
It is important that the temperature within the store is carefully monitored.
If the temperature is too low, chilling or freezing injuries can occur; if it is
too high, storage life is reduced. This is particularly important with the Cox
and Bramley type of apple grown in northern Europe where the storage
temperature is about 4°C.
It has been common practice in the UK for over 30 years to use a num-
ber of electrical temperature probes in each store to accurately monitor
both the air and the fruit temperature in various positions throughout the
store.
In North America and many European countries the normal former
practice was to use a single mercury-in-glass thermometer suspended in the
store but visible through a window. This gave satisfactory results with the
easier-to-store varieties of fruit but with recent trends to extend storage life
and to reduce power consumption by reducing fan operating time, multiple
probe equipment is becoming commonplace in modern CA stores.
The recommended minimum number of probes is three in a 50-tonne or
smaller store, increasing to four in a 100-tonne and five or six in larger
rooms. One probe should be used for monitoring the temperature of the air
freely circulating within the room and the remainder placed within the fruit
at various locations to measure the actual fruit temperature. In a properly
designed and loaded fruit store temperature differentials throughout the
room should be less than O.S°c. The accuracy of measurement must be
better than ±0.2°C and care must be taken when examining the manufactur-
er's specification that the error of both instrument and probe are taken into
consideration.
Because the fruit temperature is so critical to good storage, temperature
systems must be checked on at least an annual basis to ensure the accuracy
remains within the specification. An ice/water mixture, well stirred, is a
good reference for O°c.
Temperature sensors
Platinum resistance thermometers (sometimes called PT100) can give accu-
rate measurements of temperature and have been widely used, especially in
older stores. The accuracy of standard commercial probes to BS 1904 Grade
1 is ±O.25°C which is insufficient for this application and therefore each
probe requires calibration against an ice standard after installation. This
will also take into consideration the connecting cables which, because of the
low basic resistance (100Q) of the sensor, can cause significant errors. This
can be reduced by the use of three- or four-wire connection systems. An-
other problem that occurs with thermometers using these sensors is errors
due to changes in resistance of the probe selection switches.
Another type of sensor which has been used in storage rooms is the
thermocouple. These have the advantage of being very inexpensive but the
standard accuracy to BS 4937 Type T Class 1 is ±0.5°C, which is insufficient
unless individually calibrated. Thermocouples require special compensa-
tion cable and give extremely small voltage outputs (typically 40llV per 0C).
They are very good and useful sensors for high temperature applications
but are unsuitable for use in modern cold stores.
The precision thermistor type of sensor is now widely used in fruit stores
and it has many advantages. The basic resistance is high allowing use with
hundreds of metres of cable with negligible errors. The initial accuracy, as
purchased, is typically O.l°C and therefore individual on-site calibration is
unnecessary although testing is always advised. There is sometimes doubt
on the long-term stability of these devices which can be a problem on some
of the lower cost units. The higher quality probes, however, are extremely
stable and practical measurements in many fruit stores have shown a total
drift of less than 0.1 °C over periods of 10 to 15 years.
All types of probes should be checked on a regular basis to prevent errors
due to contact corrosion, moisture ingress or calibration drift.
Oxygen measurement
Oxygen is the most critical gas to measure in a modern low-oxygen CA
store. There are various types of oxygen analysers available but the most
satisfactory is a sensor based on measuring the magnetic properties of
oxygen.
Oxygen is highly paramagnetic compared with all other common gases
and this effect is used in a 'dumb-bell' measuring cell. The 'Servomex'

oxygen analyser in various forms is in common use in the majority of low-
oxygen fruit stores throughout the world [24]. Some care has to be taken
with this type of analyser to ensure that the gas to be measured is properly
clean and dry and the flow through the cell has been adjusted to the correct
level.
An alternative to paramagnetic analysers based on electrochemical
measuring cells is now available. There have been recent improvements in
this technology and some modern cells give long life coupled with a negli-
gible interference from carbon dioxide. These analysers are considerably
lower in cost but do require the cells to be replaced on a regular basis. The
accuracy is not as good as the paramagnetic but is usually adequate for
portable and smaller scale storage installations.
Another type of analyser which has been used in fruit storage applica-
tions is based on zirconia technology. These are good analysers for oxygen
measurement at parts per million levels and they use a carefully controlled
high-temperature furnace to operate. There is a potential problem in fruit
storage applications with high ethylene in the store. Burning can occur at
the sensor face resulting in incorrect readings of oxygen. This type of
analyser is not recommended for CA operation.
It is necessary to calibrate all oxygen analysers against a known standard
and a nitrogen or nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture is used for setting the
zero. Fresh air with a standard oxygen concentration of 21.0% is used to
calibrate the full scale.
For automatic oxygen control long-term analyser stability is essential and
this can be achieved by housing the analyser in a temperature-controlled
cabinet. Modern computer-based systems also automatically calibrate both
the zero and full scale on a regular basis.
For checking the operation of a fixed analyser system it is always re-
commended that a portable oxygen analyser is used. A portable battery
operated analyser measuring both oxygen and carbon dioxide is shown in
Figure 2.9.
A chemical Orsat analyser is still commonly used in parts of North
America and in southern Europe for fruit store analysis. The capital cost is
low and the accuracy acceptable for higher oxygen regimes but the readings
are subject to chemical freshness and operator competence. The major
drawback is the time needed to complete each reading and the dependence
on a skilled operator. This equipment is not recommended for a modern
CA installation and is unsuitable for low-oxygen storage.
Carbon dioxide measurement

The traditional method of measuring carbon dioxide in fruit stores before
low-oxygen storage became commonplace was by using a thermal conduc-
tivity analyser. This type of equipment measures the temperature of a hot
Figure 2.9 Analyser for oxygen and carbon dioxide (courtesy of David Bishop
Instruments Ltd).
wire which changes as the thermal conductivity of the surrounding air

increases with increasing carbon dioxide content. This is an acceptable
method when the background gas remains stable (as in a carbon dioxide/air
mixture), but when the relative concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide
and air are altered by scrubbing then the measured errors become
unacceptable.
To ensure the measurement is specific to carbon dioxide an analyser
which measures the amount of infrared adsorption is used. In this type of
analyser the infrared wavelength adsorbed by carbon dioxide is selected
with special optical filters. This radiation is then directed through a simple
cell containing the gas to be analysed before being measured with a detec-
tor. The change in radiation is very small and therefore to improve stability
the radiation is modulated either with a motorised shutter or by switching
the source itself. The output from this measurement is inherently non-linear
but can be linearised electronically if required. This type of analyser is less
sensitive to flow than the paramagnetic oxygen type but care has still to be
taken to ensure the sample is clean and free from water droplets.
Again, the analyser will require calibration and it is usual to use air for
zero and a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture of a known value for full scale
adjustment. Atmospheric air contains approximately 400 ppm carbon diox-
ide but this does not cause significant zero errors in an analyser used for
fruit storage. However, calibration air must be drawn from outside as room
air can easily increase to significant carbon dioxide levels with people and
fruit store ventilators in the area.
An Orsat chemical analyser can also be used for measuring carbon
dioxide but, again, the same comments as made for oxygen analysis apply.
Ethylene measurement
Ethylene in the concentrations found in fruit stores is difficult to measure.
For the higher ranges where ethylene is injected for ripening, a colour
change detector with disposable glass tubes filled with chemicals that
change colour can be used. The minimum detectable level with this equip-
ment is typically 0.5 ppm.
For long-term storage where ethylene is to be removed, levels in the
range 0.01 to 1 ppm require to be measured. The only practical method of
measuring this is with a gas chromatograph, which is an expensive machine
for use by trained operators and only practical in the largest storage sites.
Humidity measurement
The measurement of the high humidity needed in a conventional CA store
is not easy and the results are very difficult to interpret. In a sealed store
such as a CA room, where the volume of water in the air remains relatively
constant, a small change in temperature can significantly affect the RH.
This is indicated in Figure 2.10. It is therefore not normal practice to
measure RH in these circumstances as it is relatively expensive and of
limited value.
RH measurement is, however, necessary and technically much easier at
the 65-85% level used in onion storage. Modern capacitive RH sensors can
give good service in this application with an accuracy of ±2 % being readily
achievable. At humidity above 90%, accuracy is significantly reduced with
specifications of ±5% being normal.
An alternative for high humidity measurement is an electronic wet-and-
dry bulb thermometer but that brings with it the problem of maintaining a
clean wet bulb. Another option is a chilled-mirror dewpoint hygrometer.
These can give good results but are expensive.
2.17 Gas sampling systems
A very important aspect of gas monitoring within CA stores, which must

receive careful attention, is the sampling of the storage atmosphere. The
analysers must be presented with a gas sample to measure that is clean, free
of water droplets and representative of the gas within the store. The time
10
8
~
~ 6
::J
ro
Q:;
n.
E 4
~
2
0 100
90 80 70 60
%RH
Figure 2.10 RH changes with temperature. Water content 5 g/m'.
taken to obtain this sample should be as short as practically possible to

prevent wasted time waiting for the gas reading.
There is no evidence to suggest that there is any stratification of gas layers
within a commercial CA store even with the store air circulation fan on
intermittent or variable duty. Stratification can, however, occur when
carbon dioxide is introduced into a chamber without any forced air
circulation.
The sampling point should be remote from any entries or exits of atmos-
phere control equipment. A good place is halfway up the wall of the store
near the cooler. A filter can be usefully fitted to the end of the sampling
tube to prevent rubbish or insects entering the system. If, however, the store
is operating below DOC it is better not to fit a filter as condensate running
back down the line can freeze and block it.
The tubing connecting the store sample point to the measuring position
should be of at least 6 mm inside diameter to help prevent blocking with
water. Condensation can occur in sample lines when the ambient tempera-
ture is colder than that in the store. The lines should always be sloped either
towards the store or to the analysing station to ensure that the condensate
drains away. If the lines are exposed and very cold weather is expected,
trace heating should be considered to prevent the condensation in the lines
freezing. This is particularly important on automatic control systems in
which the sample is taken much more frequently than manual systems and
the store condition is dependent on the automatic control.
Air leaking into sample lines can be a cause of disaster with CA stores.
This can be prevented by taking care in the installation and regular testing.
The tubing material should be either copper or a heavy duty plastic that has
been stabilised against UV degradation. Many of the lightweight clear
flexible tubes become brittle and crack over a period of time. The tube
should be installed as a single length if at all possible. Copper tubes should

be brazed in preference to using tube connectors. The junction into the
store should be without joints, using electrical-type glands rather than
conventional pipe fittings. The sampling lines should be terminated directly
to a valve manifold which must be leaktight to prevent cross-contamination
of the samples. When completed all sampling lines should be vacuum leak-
tested and this should be repeated on an annual basis.
A pump is required to draw the sample from the store and to provide
sufficient pressure for the analysers. It is important that the pump does not
also pull in ambient air and that the output is oil free. A diaphragm pump
is the most suitable but regular checks should be made on the diaphragm.
Gas samples contaminated with air due to a split diaphragm have resulted
in serious damage to fruit in some stores.
A filter and catchpot are needed to ensure the sample is clean and free of
water before it reaches the analysers.
2.18 Store atmosphere control
Oxygen control
The prime control function for the atmosphere in a low-oxygen CA store is
the precise regulation of the oxygen concentration. This is achieved by
controlling the amount of air introduced into the store, which should be just
sufficient to replace the oxygen consumed by the respiration of the produce.
This is a small amount and, for example, a 100-tonne apple store respiring
at 3 gltonne/h requires about 1 m 3/h of air which is only 0.3 % of empty
volume per hour. To maintain the required low-oxygen atmosphere, the
store must be sufficiently leaktight to allow the greater part of this air
requirement to be carefully controlled either by manual or automatic
valves.
In manually operated stores this air is admitted through a 'fresh air' pipe
with a hand valve to control the flow. A second pipe - commonly called a
'foul air' pipe - will allow a similar quantity to discharge. In a modern CA
store solenoid valves will be added to these pipes to allow automatic control
of the ventilation. In many installations, a small fan is used to blow air into
the room. This reduces dependence on the store air circulation fan which
can be cycled to reduce energy.
Automatic control is considered essential for storage below 2% oxygen
and even at the higher oxygen concentrations the stability given to the
oxygen level by automation often provides a measurable increase in the
quality of the stored fruit.
Controlling the long-term oxygen content of the room with nitrogen
injection is not normal practice and indicates a very leaky store. This
control should be an occasional one, used to establish initial conditions and

to re-establish low oxygen after store opening for partial product removal
or equipment maintenance.
Carbon dioxide control

If nitrogen flushing is the method to be used for the control of carbon
dioxide in a low-oxygen store, then the flow of nitrogen is regulated in
response to the measured carbon dioxide level. This flow can be continuous
or intermittent and achieved by either regular manual adjustment or auto-
matic control. For controlled-ventilation stores, air is used as the flushing
gas and again this can be either manually or automatically controlled.
Certain storage regimes specify a maximum carbon dioxide level which
should not be exceeded. In these circumstances, lime is often put directly
into the store with the result that no control is possible or necessary.
Alternatively, lime may be placed in an external lime box where a scrubbing
fan can be switched on or off either with a time switch or automatically in
response to the measured carbon dioxide level. For higher levels of carbon
dioxide (>3%) it may also be necessary to isolate the lime box with motor-
ised valves to prevent unwanted scrubbing by natural convection.
Commercial carbon scrubbers are often equipped with time control sys-
tems, which can give adequate control of carbon dioxide levels. It is possible
to control the scrubbing with an automatic computer control system which
will optimise the operation of the scrubber in each room. This becomes
more complicated in that one scrubber will usually serve several rooms and
can be active only on one room at a time.
2.19 Automatic control
The automatic control of conditions within a controlled-atmosphere store is

now standard practice in almost all new CA stores [25]. Computerised
systems incorporate the analysers and measuring equipment described in
Sections 2.16 and 2.17. Good measurement accuracy and correct gas sam-
pling are essential for the successful automation of CA stores.
Microprocessor-based controllers automate the sampling and control
procedures and provide a record of the conditions in each store. It is usual
for a single control and analyser system to be able to control many rooms,
each one being programmed to different storage levels. Each room is meas-
ured in turn and the necessary control functions are activated as required.
Currently available automatic systems are able to carry out a wide range of
functions including:
• Oxygen measurement
• Carbon dioxide measurement
OXYSTAT I
200
I
Figure 2.11 'Oxystat' automatic CA control system (courtesy of David Bishop

Instruments Ltd).
• Temperature measurement from multiple sensors

• Humidity measurement
• Ammonia alarm
• High and low alarm on all measured parameters
• Automatic calibration of analysers
• Printout and electronic storage of data
• Control of ventilation
• Control of nitrogen flushing
• Control of carbon dioxide scrubber
• Control of temperature
Some systems will permit remote monitoring over telephone lines, allowing
unattended operation.
It is strongly recommended with any automatic or central system that gas

levels are regularly checked with a back-up system or a portable analyser.
This will detect any errors from faulty sample lines or leaking pumps. Air
leakage into the sample gas will lead to higher oxygen readings than the
oxygen in the store, which can lead to anaerobic conditions and irreversible
damage to the stored fruit. These secondary readings should be carried out
at least once per week.
Figure 2.11 shows a David Bishop Instruments Oxystat system, typical of
many installations throughout the world.
2.20 Regulations
In the UK and Europe there are no government regulations that apply

specifically to CA fruit.
In North America apples bearing the CA label are subject to regulations
which vary depending upon the province or state. Typical regulations for
fruit bearing a CA label would be storage for 90 days or longer at 3% or
lower oxygen. 3% must be achieved within 20 days of loading. Alterna-
tively, a shorter period of 60 days' storage is allowed if low oxygen condi-
tions are achieved within four days. The regulations also include various
rules about notification, equipment and licensing.
2.21 Safety
Low oxygen
CA stores, by their very nature, are dangerous because of the low oxygen
content of the atmosphere. There have been fatal and near-fatal accidents
in CA rooms. No-one should ever enter or even place their head inside
an operating CA room. People have passed out, fallen into the room and
died just a few feet inside the doorway. Never enter alone and never
open a door, hatch or window without having at least one other person
familiar with the hazard nearby. A store should be clearly labelled with
caution and danger signs and doors should be locked once CA conditions
are started.
In the UK, health and safety legislation forbids anyone to enter any room
or space in which the oxygen concentration is believed to be less than 18%
[19]. Breathing apparatus may be used provided the operator holds a cur-
rent certificate of competence. Low-oxygen alarm systems are recom-
mended for areas that can become potentially hazardous.
The symptoms of asphyxia below should be familiar to all personnel
operating CA stores [26]:
• 21 % oxygen Breathing, all functions normal

• 17% oxygen Candle is extinguished
• 12-16% oxygen Breathing increased and pulse rate accelerated. Ability
to maintain attention and to think clearly is diminished but can be re-
stored with effort. Muscular coordination for finer skilled movement is
somewhat disturbed.
• 10-14% oxygen Consciousness continues but judgement becomes
faulty. Severe injuries (burns, bruises, broken bones) may cause no pain.
Muscular efforts lead to rapid fatigue, may permanently injure the heart
and induce fainting.
• 6-10% oxygen Nausea and vomiting may occur. Legs give way, person
cannot walk, stand or even crawl. This is often the first and only warning
and it comes too late. The person may realise he is dying but he does not
greatly care. It is all quite painless.
• Less than 6% oxygen Loss of consciousness in 30-45 seconds if resting,
sooner if active. Breathing in gasps, followed by convulsive movements,
then breathing stops. Heart may continue beating for a few minutes, then
it stops.
Remember: CA stores contain less than 5% oxygen
High carbon dioxide

In some circumstances, such as ripening rooms or in cold rooms containing
respiring fruit or vegetables, the carbon dioxide produced by the fruit can,
if insufficiently ventilated, build up to dangerous levels. For example, levels
of carbon dioxide exceeding 5% are regularly obtained in banana ripening
rooms.
The upper limits for carbon dioxide in rooms for human occupation are
[19]:
Continuous occupation (Sh) 0.5%
15 minute exposure 1.5%
To ensure these levels are not exceeded holding rooms should be continu-
ously ventilated. If this is not practical the carbon dioxide level should be
monitored and the room ventilated when the carbon dioxide level is
excessive.
Fork-lift trucks
Because CA rooms are of sealed construction, the operation of fossil-
fuelled fork-lift trucks within the rooms when loading can cause carbon
monoxide to build up to dangerous levels [27]. The physiological effect of
carbon monoxide on humans is:
• 50ppm Safe for continuous exposure*

• lOOppm No perceptible effect
• 200ppm Slight effect after six hours
• 400ppm Headache after three hours
• 900ppm Headache and nausea after one hour
• 1500ppm Death after one hour
The UK Health & Safety Executive's maximum limit for continuous

exposure (8h) is 50ppm and for short-term (15 min) exposure is 300ppm
[19].
A propane lift truck producing 6% carbon monoxide in the exhaust is not
uncommon. Careful tuning can reduce this to less than 1% but this is still
dangerous and should not be used in unventilated areas. A properly work-
ing catalytic converter on the exhaust can remove 90-99% of the carbon
monoxide, making it safer to use in enclosed storage rooms. The use of
electric lift trucks in CA rooms is much preferred from a safety standpoint
but if propane-fuelled trucks are used they must be fitted with a functioning
catalytic converter. Petrol- or diesel-fuelled trucks should not be used
within a CA room or an unventilated cold store as the exhaust may contain
droplets of unburnt fuel which could contaminate the produce.
2.22 Store operating practice
The following is a summary of the necessary actions required for successful

CA storage. If there is any doubt on what action is required, further advice
should be sought from the local advisory service or a company with exten-
sive experience in the operation of controlled atmosphere.
Before start of season

• Check all gas sampling lines for leaks.
• Check all temperature probes for accuracy.
• Check all analysers and controllers are operating correctly.
• Check stores are leak-tight and pass the recommended pressure tests.
• Check scrubbers and nitrogen generators for leakage and correct
operation.
Before loading
• Check the fruit mineral analysis is acceptable (especially for long-term
storage).
• Check chemical drenches are made up to the correct concentrations.
• Pre-cool the storage chamber.
During loading
• Load and obtain conditions as rapidly as possible.
• Check that the store is loaded uniformly and that the store is full.
• Check the temperature probes are in the fruit bins and evenly placed
throughout the store.
After sealing
• Measure and record gas and temperature twice a day immediately after
sealing.
• Check analysers daily with fresh air.
• Calibrate analysers with test gas every two days.
• Take independent gas readings with a portable analyser directly from the
store at weekly intervals. If the difference is greater than 0.2% put fans
on high speed for 2h, recalibrate analysers and check again. If the error
is still present ask for service.
• Check fruit samples at monthly intervals for firmness, disorders and taste.
Before opening
• To reduce the danger of low oxygen atmospheres being a hazard to
staff, the stores should be safely ventilated using the fitted fresh
and foul air lines for at least 24 hours before the store doors are
opened.
• When the doors are opened, great care is needed and staff should not be
allowed to enter the store for unloading until they are certain the atmos-
phere is safe.
Despite the many precautions and care required, CA storage is used very
successfully throughout the world to allow year round availability of quality
fruit and vegetables.
2.23 Distribution of CA produce
Once the seal on a CA store is broken it is important to get the produce to

the market-place and to the consumer as soon as possible. For apples it is
best practice to ensure the fruit is sold to the end user within 10 days of the
opening of the CA store. For UK varieties of apples from long-term storage
at 3-5°C, the temperature can be reduced to O°C before transporting to
maintain quality through to the consumer. In all other respects, CA fruit is
transported and handled as all fruits, with the emphasis remaining on speed
to the end user and care in the handling to prevent bruising and physical
damage.
2.24 Future developments
Controlled-atmosphere storage remains a healthy industry with future ex-

pansion and growth likely to occur in the following three areas.
Greater variety of produce

Apples and pears continue to dominate the CA industry but in recent years
many other fruits and vegetables have been stored in CA with good com-
mercial benefit. This trend will continue as pressure increases for more
choice, year-round supply and lower chemical usage.
The optimum storage conditions for each crop have to be carefully evalu-
ated and many commercial crops are being stored without the detailed
factorial experiments that have optimised the storage conditions for the
major varieties of apples. This research work will need to continue to
ensure the maximum benefit is obtained and the danger of spoilage due to
inappropriate conditions is reduced.
Reduced use of chemicals

Consumer and media pressure continue to reduce the amount of chemicals
permitted in fresh produce. Post-harvest chemicals to prevent storage decay
are an important factor in the storage of many products. Controlled atmos-
phere can be used to improve the storage potential of produce enabling the
removal or reduction of the chemical treatment. In some instances lowering
the store oxygen and/or increasing the store carbon dioxide can increase the
storage potential and compensate for a reduction in chemical input. This is
an area where much research is continuing in anticipation of changes in
legislation over chemical usage.
Transport
Controlled atmosphere is very suitable for the transportation of fresh pro-
duce from producing to consuming countries. There has been a substantial
increase in the availability of refrigerated ships equipped with CA facilities
and it is predicted that most newly built refrigerated ships for the fruit trade
will include CA provision as standard [28].
CA is also very useful for the transport of smaller crops where CA con-
tainers are much more appropriate. This has been technically very success-
ful but currently has failed to achieve the quantity and frequency of use
that were originally anticipated. The cost of CA containers has remained an
obstacle to their universal application and until significant savings can be
made over air freight costs their use is unlikely to expand very rapidly.
Research continues in the application of CA for tropical and berry fruit in
anticipation of the availability of a large CA container fleet.
Acknowledgements
Information for this chapter has been obtained from many sources through-
out the CA storage industry whose help I gratefully acknowledge. Particu-
lar thanks for detailed comments are due to John Jameson and David
Johnson of HRI, East Mailing, Dr Robert Prange at Kentville Research
Station, Nova Scotia, and Des Chappel, consultant and long-time friend to
the UK storage industry.
References
[1] Fidler, J.e.. Wilkinson. B.G .. Edney. K.L. and Sharples. RO. (1973) The Biology of
Apple and Pear Storage. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. London.
[2] Wills. RB.H .. McGlasson. W.B .. Graham. D .. Lee. T.H. and Hall. E.G. (1989) Post
Harvest. New South Wales University Press. Kensington. New South Wales.
[3] Thompson. A.K. (1996) Postharvest Technology of Fruit and Vegetables. Blackwell
Science. Oxford.
[4] Genesis 41.
[5] Dalrymple. D.G. (1967) The Development of Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruit.
Pub!. Div. Mktg Utiln Sci .. US Dept. of Agriculture.
[6] Advancing Agriculture: A History of Kentville Research Station 1911-1986. (1986) Agri-
culture Canada. Research Branch. Kentville. Nova Scotia.
[7] Geeson. J.D. and Browne. K.M. (1980) Controlled-atmosphere storage of winter white
cabbage. Ann. Appl. BioI. 95. 267-272.
[8] McGlasson. W.D. and Wills. RB.H. (1971) Effects of oxygen and carbon dioxide
on respiration. storage life and organic acids of green bananas. Aust. 1. BioI. Sci. 24.
1103.
[9] Adamicki. F. and Kepka. A.K. (1974) Storage of onions in controlled atmospheres. Acta
Hort. 38.54-73.
[10] Smittle, D.A. (1988) Evaluation of storage methods for 'Granex' onions. l. Amer. Soc.
Hort. Sci. 113(6).877-880.
[11] Proceedings from the Sixth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference
(1993). NRAES-71. Vols I and 2. Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service.
Ithaca. New York.
[12] Kader. A. (ed.) (1992) Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops. ANR Publica-
tions. University of California.
[13] Johnson. D.S. (1994) Storage conditions for apples and pears. East Mailing Research
Association Review 1994-95. East Mailing Research Association. East Mailing. Kent.
[14] Sharples. RO. and Stow. J .R. (1985) Recommended conditions for the storage of apples
and pears. East Mailing Research Station - Report for 1985. East Mailing Research
Association. East Mailing. Kent.
[15J Hardenberg. RE.. Watada. A.E. and Chien Yi Wang (1986) The Commercial Storage of
Fruits, Vegetables, and Florist and Nursery Stocks. US Department of Agriculture.
Agriculture Handbook No. 66.
[16] Dover. C.J. (1989) The principles of effective low ethylene storage. Acta Hort. 258. 25-
36.
[17] Johnson. D.S. (1994) Storage of UK apples without post-harvest chemical treatment-
the problems and possible solutions. Proceedings of COST 94 Workshop, Milan, Italy.
pp.69-75.
[18] Kupferman. E. (1995) Postharvest handling of Anjou pears. Washington State University
Tree Fruit Postharvest lournal 6(2). 3-8.
[19] Health & Safety Executive (UK) (1996) Occupational Exposure Limits. Publication
EH40-95.
[20] Waelti. H. and Cavalieri. R.P. (1990) Matching nitrogen equipment to your needs.
Washington State University Tree Fruit Postharvest lournall(2).
[21] Bartsch, J. Creating a low-oxygen atmosphere with liquid nitrogen. Publication No. EF9,
Department of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
[22] Lidster, P.D., Lawrence, R.A., Blanpied, G.D. and McRae, K.B. (1985) Laboratory
evaluation of potassium permanganate for ethylene removal from CA apple storages.
Trans. ASAE 28,331-334.
[23] Wojciechowski, J. and Haber, H. (1982) Swingtherm - a new economic process for the
catalytic burning of flue gases. App. Catal. 4, 275-280.
[24] Tipping, F.T. (1974) The Determination of Oxygen in Gases. Presented at the Institute of
Measurement and Control Spring School of Process Analytical Instrumentation, March
1974.
[25] Bishop, D.J. (1981) The application of micro-processors to controlled atmosphere fruit
storage. Agric. Eng. 51-54.
[26] Henterson, Y. and Haggard, H.W. Noxious Gases and the Principles of Respiration
Influencing their Action. Reinhold, New York.
[27] Dilley, D.R. Precautions about Carbon Monoxide in CA Storage Rooms and Packing
Houses. Dept. of Horticulture, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
[28] Anon. (1992) Controlled atmospheres: a future reefer standard ship? Naval Architect p.
E.44l.
3 Automated cold stores
D. BRITT
3.1 Introduction
This chapter looks at storage technology within the cold/chilled warehouse

environment with a focus on mechanized automation, high-density dynamic
storage (HDDS) in particular, and its link to electronic data interchange
(EDI) and warehousing management systems. Beginning with a discussion
of the market characteristics for cold/chilled products, this chapter moves
on to discuss how cold/chilled material handling strategies fit these market
models and ends with examples of various material handling technologies
along with the advantages and disadvantages of each.
'What is for dinner?' At one time, the answer was simple - a single main
course, a side dish or two and a dessert. Nowadays, the question is often
answered with another, 'Who are you and where do you have to be when?'
With the vast assortment of frozen convenience food available and the
trend toward fragmented eating patterns, the bell that used to signal the
dinner hour has been replaced by the chime of the microwave: or, more
likely, by a chorus of chimes as the microwave door repeatedly opens and
closes from late afternoon to early evening and beyond. For many families
there is no longer any dinner in the traditional sense. Recent surveys show
that fewer than half of American families sit down together at a meal more
than twice a week. With the twist of a dial and the push of a button,
everyone from six to sixty can prepare their own meal. In response to home
technology, rapidly changing lifestyles and the resultant shift in eating
habits, individual portions of ethnic and specialty entrees, side dishes, snack
foods and bulk packs of portion-controlled meats have all found their way
into the household. At the same time, however, each eater expects his or
her meal to taste as if it had been home-cooked.
What is for dinner - or for that matter breakfast or lunch - is often a
frozen convenience food product that serves the family'S desire for fast,
healthy and wholesome individual meals that can be prepared in a micro-
wave. Ultimately, an efficient consumer response (ECR) initiative is driven
by these end-consumer habits. Just as home technology has redefined con-
sumer habits, manufacturers and retailers must redefine the way in which
they handle the products that serve that market. In order to respond to the
fragmented feeding patterns of the modern household, cold/chilled storage
technology must respond and adapt to meet these new demands.
The entry of the mass merchant into the frozen convenience food market
has changed the complexion of the industry even further. To accommodate
consumer habits, mass merchants now offer entire walls of bulk prepack-
aged frozen foods, often in the form of a single pallet of mixed product.
Goods that move slowly from manufacturer to warehouse to distributor to
subdistributor to point of sale will not get to market in time or in the proper
configuration to satisfy the mass merchant. Because of the huge buying
leverage of these retailers, the market model and the supply chain that
serves that market are changing.
3.2 'Push' model supply chain
The 'push' model supply chain, which is driven from the production end,
serves and reflects the characteristics of the traditional market. This model
favors the manufacturer and evolved in response to production goals,
rather than to the expectations of the retailer and end-consumer. Through
the use of extended production runs, high-volume manufacturers hoped to
cut unit load cost and increase efficiency in their production and distribu-
tion centers. These savings, in theory, would be passed on to the retailer.
However, since these production runs were geared toward manufacturing
goals rather than in response to actual retail sales, much of the product
ended up as excess inventory. Despite the realized production cost savings,
the manufacturer still had to manage the surplus. A common technique was
to offer promotional sales to retailers, thereby encouraging forward buying
and 'pushing' the burden of excess inventory to the retailer's warehouse. Of
course, this also left retailers faced with two purchasing options and a
difficult choice.
Based on projected market demand, a retailer could make a large ad-
vance purchase at the promotional price. Although risky, this could pro-
duce increased profit, assuming that market projections were accurate and
that the cost of managing the excess stock would not offset the pricing
advantage. In the second option, the retailer would pass up the promotional
pricing and order the product based on actual market demand. This ap-
proach, while avoiding the surplus inventory problem, also reduced poten-
tial profit and left the retailer vulnerable to the possibility that a product
might not be available when the market called for it.
In short, the traditional 'push' supply chain is characterized by each unit
within the channel serving its own needs without regard for the require-
ments of the other participants. The potential advantage to the manufac-
turer is reduced production costs and the retailer may realize increased
profit by purchasing in volume at a reduced price. The potential advantages
to each link in the chain depend on the ability to move the surplus inven-
tory; the inherent disadvantage is the need to manage the surplus product.
AUTOMATED COLD STORES 95
More importantly, any advantage is not shared - if inventory is viewed as

nothing more than a buffer for inefficiencies, then shifting that inventory to
another link in the chain is actually an attempt to gain a competitive
advantage at the expense of the other link. Regardless of the option under
which the shift is presented - volume pricing, promotional discounts or
whatever - the inherent qualities of a 'push' chain are in direct opposition
to any type of strategic partnering among its members.
3.3 'Pull' model supply chain
The 'pull' model, on the other hand, reflects a more equal partnership and
a shared advantage among members in the supply chain. Under the 'pull'
model, strategic alliances are formed in an effort to reduce the inventory
buffer for all partners in the chain. Following the ECR initiative, the ulti-
mate goal of the 'pull' chain is to benefit the end consumer. In addition to
minimizing total costs and asset investments within their own organizations,
successful retailers and manufacturers who align with the 'pull' model seek
added cost benefits by emphasizing integration of core processes across the
entire supply chain.
A 'pull' supply chain is consumer-driven and is based on fresh, accurate
market data and quick manufacturing response. In this model, the supply
chain works as an interdependent system, rather than as a chain of indi-
vidual links loosely connected at single points. Since the 'pull' concept
depends on market data gathered directly at the point of sale (POS),
electronic data interchange capability is required. POS data is gathered by
the retailer, shaped into buying profiles and transmitted up the chain to the
manufacturer or distribution center, who respond in turn with merchandise
of the type and quantity to match the consumer demand. As consumer
patterns stabilize and are identified, suppliers can start to adjust production
output to match the actual flow of merchandise off the retail shelf. The
optimum match between production and sales provides stock replenish-
ment at the retail level with a minimum of channel inventory.
In the ultimate 'pull' supply chain, retail orders are directly based on real-
time POS demand at the consumer level, with high in-stock levels at the
retailer and a steady flow of merchandise through the supply channel.
Although this type of chain is the most effective in meeting the ECR, it also
requires suppliers to meet short lead times and achieve high fill rates with-
out backorders. This in turn forces manufacturers to develop more efficient
production and distribution methods. In a true 'pull' chain, which is becom-
ing the industry goal, the retailer, supplier and manufacturer all share a
common desire - to couple production as closely as possible to verified
consumer demand, thereby reducing inventory levels throughout the entire
supply channel. The key to the evolution of a successful 'pull' channel lies
in the formation of strategic partnerships and the integration of core pro-

cesses across the entire supply chain.
In short, the advantages for all partners in a 'pull' supply chain are
reduced inventory and a corresponding reduction in inventory management
costs. Manufacturers can realize the same reduced production costs they
might enjoy under a 'push' model but the savings are gained through just-
in-time manufacturing and manufacture-to-order techniques, rather than
through large production runs.
3.4 Tools and barriers
The shift from the traditional 'push' to a consumer-driven 'pull' supply

chain is made possible by a number of technologies, including:
• Electronic data interchange (EDI)
• Point-of-sale (POS) data capture
• Universal product code (UPC) case marking
• Shipping container marking (SCM)
• Advance shipment notification (ASN)
Although all these technologies are proven and accepted as standard
industry practice, implementation in the warehouse is not as widespread as
it should be. For example, a 1994 Warehousing and Education Resarch
Council report indicated that in 1993, 70% of warehousing firms intended
to increase their use of bar-coding for the 1994 year yet at the conclusion
of the survey, only 35% had actually done so. The barriers, however,
are not technological. Instead, the biggest impediments to a restructuring
of the supply chain are inaccurate data, existing systems infrastructure
and entrenched business practices. In other words, manufacturers are
afraid of making poor decisions based on the wrong picture of market
demand, are saddled with a large investment in their present systems and
are reluctant to make a fundamental change in the way in which they do
business.
Inaccurate data is the most commonly cited and most easily identified
scapegoat. Note that the catch-all term 'inaccurate data' refers to data itself
and should not be misunderstood as applying to the means to handle data.
EDI can take place using a variety of technologies, all of which have been
successfully proven in cold/chilled warehousing applications. The successful
implementation of UPC case marking, SCM and ASN depends on a solid
EDI foundation. However, data itself, often generated by production or
shipping personnel, must be accurate to begin with. If not, the EDI pipeline
will simply transmit and reflect any inaccuracies. Successful EDI depends
on successful, accurate data generation and capture. Since the increasing
use of scanners and other data recognition/transfer tools takes the human
factor out the equation, data capture and transmission are approaching
accuracy levels not thought possible as recently as ten years ago.
Regardless of the benefits of effective EDI, the fact remains that product
does not move at the same speed, as was pointed out in a recent article in
Warehousing Management [1]. Using the infrastructure of existing systems,
some warehousers have been able to squeeze more efficient use out of their
facilities by selecting equipment and computer upgrades available from a
number of retrofit companies. The retrofit concept is relatively new and
generally involves integrating new hardware and computer controls with
the existing machines, often interfaced to an automated warehouse man-
agement system (WMS) of some sort. Although this concept has revitalized
numerous outdated automated systems, these warehouses still operate un-
der the traditional concept of equipment and personnel operating within
the cold/chilled environment. Systems of this type have difficulty serving a
'pull' -driven market, not only because of the hostile environment and in-
creasingly stringent regulations governing personnel exposure but simply
because they operate on point-to-point load movement and lack the high
density and dynamic storage characteristics of modern systems.
The final barrier to establishing a 'pull' supply chain appears to be en-
trenched business practices - the idea that each player in the chain is an
entity unto themselves, that strategic partnerships are incompatible with
self-interest and that the traditional concept of inventory management is
still economically viable. This is perhaps the most difficult hurdle to over-
come and is typified by the manufacturer who is reluctant to abandon the
traditional 'push' concept of the supply chain, even when faced with mount-
ing evidence that the new market will be driven by the retailer - mass
merchants in particular - in alliance with the end-consumer.
3.5 Changing expectations
As the supply chain leverage shifts to the retailer, merchants will exercise
that power by requiring increased performance from the manufacturing
and distribution sectors. The pressure for reduced lead times is unrelenting
and may be the most difficult requirement to satisfy, since many producers
state that they have already reduced lead times by up to 50% in the last few
years.
In addition, retailers are beginning to ask for just-in-time (JIT) produc-
tion and production-to-order, along with mixed builds on custom-sized
pallets. Advance shipment notification, case and shipping container mark-
ing, and full cross-docking capability are all becoming part and parcel of the
service required by the merchandiser. The ability to capture and transmit
data quickly and accurately, i.e. a dependable EDI network, is one of the
fundamental tools needed to answer this challenge.
Another tool required to satisfy a 'pull' market is a rapid reaction time

from the producer. The same speed and convenience demanded by end-
consumers will be reflected in the mass merchant's requirements from their
suppliers. Driven by the high and changing expectations of the consumer,
retailers will require increased performance from the supply chain, not only
in terms of speed and accuracy but also in the ability of the chain to supply
product in exactly the configuration that the retailer wants to see it. The
days when a manufacturer could offer a product in 'any color you want
... as long as it is black' are past. The characteristics of the new supply chain
require stricter data accuracy, increasingly short lead times, inventory fill
rates of 98% and higher, and the ability to supply mixed unit load builds.
Although EDI can provide the information base required for a quick re-
sponse, the warehousing infrastructure, i.e. the equipment itself, must also
be able to respond just as quickly and accurately. In other words, the
warehousing model must mirror the dynamic quality of the new market.
The dynamic storage concept is not new and has used varying technolo-
gies to produce a high-density warehousing system that can be best charac-
terized in terms of product flow rather than product storage. However, in
light of the shifting nature of the new market, implementation of these high-
density dynamic storage (HDDS) systems is not as widespread as might be
expected. Two of the previously mentioned barriers - existing system infra-
structure and entrenched business practices - probably shoulder most of the
responsibility for the gap between technological development and actual
utilization. In some instances, manufacturers may be unwilling to entertain
new concepts because of a heavy investment in existing systems and a
reluctance to make fundamental changes to the way in which they do
business. In other situations, manufacturers are simply unaware of recent
advances in storage technology, particularly those that have taken place
outside their home country.
Regardless of how they perceive the HDDS concept, manufacturers,
distributors and retailers must accept one undeniable truth - dynamic stor-
age produces dynamic goods. Consider a product that appears on the retail
shelf some twenty days after manufacture, while competitive product takes
twice or three times as long to reach the consumer. Not only does the
shorter stay in the supply channel result in a fresher, higher quality product
but it allows the manufacturer to make changes to that product based on
regional or seasonal preferences and have those changes on the shelf in half
the time it takes competitors to react.
The concept of the passive, easily manipulated consumer, in fact, is
representative of the traditional 'push' market. As the demands of the
rapidly growing retailer/consumer alliance shift the industry to a 'pull'
market, a more accurate statement might be that the end-user defines what
the manufacturer produces, as evidenced by the increasing requests for
manufactured-to-order product. Vendors who refuse to change the way in
which they do business may find that increasingly independent consumer

habits leave them with excess inventory that cannot be 'pushed' to demand-
ing consumers, newly aware of their power in the supply chain.
3.6 Changing technology
Until recently, warehousing concepts and technologies have not kept pace
with the demands of the new market. At the output end of the supply
channel, retailers clamor for faster inventory turns and a focus on material
flow rather than storage. At the input end, advances in production, packag-
ing and chilling techniques have responded to burgeoning consumer
demand for a diversity of high-quality product. Caught in the middle,
traditional warehousing technologies have been unable to develop a
flexible, responsive system that can become a value-added component of
the supply chain, rather than remaining a buffer for manufacturing
inefficiencies.
To further complicate the problem, the explosion of the new market has
produced a demand for more refrigerated space. Where new construction
costs are prohibitive, the emphasis has shifted to trying to squeeze more
productivity and density out of existing facilities - in essence, to do more
with less. At the same time that the market is demanding increased produc-
tivity, the manufacturers are trying to decrease labor costs. These seemingly
contradictory demands, which require vendors to store better and faster
while using less manpower, are difficult to solve, although the hybridization
of existing technologies is a step in the right direction.
Historically, material handling, including the cost of transportation to the
consumer, has been seen as an unavoidable 'cost' of doing business - a dead
weight expense that can become more than 50% of the overall product cost
and which is inevitably passed along to the consumer. The positive side is
that product costs incurred by material handling also represent a large,
specific target for potential cost savings. Assuming that the mold of tradi-
tional storage technology can be broken and supplanted with a new vision
of what material handling can be, organizations that can successfully inte-
grate the new HDDS technologies will realize an increased profit margin, in
addition to increased overall sales and a higher satisfaction level on the part
of the consumer.
The new storage technology must mimic the new consumer model, i.e. be
responsive, flexible, able to handle a manufacture-to-order philosophy and
capable of delivering product the way the retailer wants to see it, regardless
of how the product was configured when it went into the system. In the
same way that retailers are responding to the demands of the new 'edu-
cated' consumer, so must any warehousing/distribution system respond to
the requirements of a newly 'educated' retailer.
This is perhaps the single most important parallel that can be drawn
between the new consumer profile and new storage technology. With a
traditional point-to-point material handling arrangement (fork-lift trucks,
high-rise stackers and the like) the 'system' requires the user to tell it what
to do. The command may come in the form of multiple product orders
downloaded from a host computer, from a system operator at a remote
terminal or, at the lowest level of sophistication, from a machine operator
within the freezer itself. Once it has completed that task, the machine will
take on the next thing it has been told to do and so on. A collection of
independent machines, no matter how extensive, does not constitute a
system.
In a sense, this is an echo of the 'push' market, where the manufacturer
would try to induce, or 'tell', retailers to purchase excess inventory by
offering low-cost pricing. The retailer would in turn try to influence con-
sumers to buy that particular product, not because they had asked for it but
simply because they perceived it as a bargain. The 'push' market model
cannot be considered a true system either since it also represents a collec-
tion of individual 'machines' - manufacturer, distributor, transporter and
retailer - each acting on their own separate agenda.
In the 'pull' market, the balance of power has shifted to the consumer.
Stock ordering is now the retailer's business and more often than not the
replenishment process does not take into consideration the preferences of
the vendor but rather reflects the demands of the end-consumer. The retail-
er's ability to offer sufficient quantities of high-demand product at the most
opportune time hinges on the ability to order based on current information
and to expect order fulfillment in time to meet the sales window.
Using techniques such as POS data capture and EDI, the educated con-
sumer is now telling the retailer what they want and how much they will pay
for it, almost on a real-time basis, and the retailer, distributor and manufac-
turer are expected to respond in kind with case-handling capability, auto-
mated cross-docking and mixed pallet builds. This new market requires an
educated storage operation, i.e. an integrated technology that does not
need to be told what to do but only what the user wants. With the desired
result of the storage process in mind, a system of this nature then takes it
upon itself to determine the best way of producing that result.
In other words, a 'smart' warehousing/distribution technology says to the
user 'Don't tell me what to do, just tell me what you want and I'll decide the
best way to do it for you.' Because it operates on a broad base of long-range
expectations rather than on linear queues of individual commands, this type
of system never runs out of things to do. With its ability to work on multiple
sets of expectations at once, the new material handling system simply shifts
to a third or fourth new set of expectations as it completes the first, while
continuing to fulfil the second set. Never resting, always thinking and
constantly working to the mutual benefit of manufacturer and retailer,
systems of this nature are a fully integrated part of the 'pull' supply chain
and represent a true value-added resource for all partners.
Not only are new material handling solutions required, the very terms
storage, inventory and warehouse need to be redefined. Regardless of the
technology it utilizes, any material handling system still has to do three
basic things - receive, handle and dispense product. In the traditional
storage model, these processes exist outside the supply channel, essentially
forming a backwater in the flow of goods from manufacturer to consumer.
To effectively serve the new market, the process of receiving, handling and
dispensing material must be coordinated with production and distribution
not only with the daily volume of product but also with the long-term
logistic goals of the organization. 'Coordinated handling', in fact, may be a
more accurate phrase to describe the product flow requirements of the new
market.
In terms of the interfaces, host computer control, radio frequency (RF)
data transmission and EDI in general, these smart systems are a reality. The
problem, however, lies with the inefficiency of traditional hardware and
equipment control when operating inside the hostile environment of the
cold/chilled box. By the very fact that standard machine-in-aisle configura-
tions require room in which to operate, they 'honeycomb' the building by
taking away valuable storage slots, increase energy use and subject control
equipment to harsh conditions. Providers of new solutions to automated
cold/chilled storage would do well to focus on hardware and equipment
control innovations, making sure that new technology can interface to
current and projected EDI and computer requirements. Many manufactur-
ers have been reluctant to grapple with hardware-related solutions, often
because they mistakenly believe that new equipment will require new build-
ing construction at a cost that cannot be justified in terms of their return on
investment. The fact of the matter is that there are new hardware-oriented
solutions available that make use of the existing facility and which can be
classed as a capital investment.
Although automation and information technology provide the ability to
track the material handling processes and react quickly to changes in de-
mand, the actual process of physically moving product is still slow. There
are obvious limitations to the speed at which a piece of hardware can move
and it will never keep pace with the instantaneous transmission of data. No
machine will ever win the race against data transmission and simply adding
more and more like machines quickly reaches a point of diminishing
returns.
Traditional storage systems, which act in linear response to demands
rather than expectations, have tried to keep pace both by minimizing ma-
chine cycle time and by simply adding more and more equipment. The
inherent weakness of this approach is that each piece of equipment, regard-
less of speed or total numbers, still acts in a linear response to a sequence of
individual demands. One machine can only work on one demand at a time,
even when it is operating at speeds approaching theoretical limits. In addi-
tion, the three axes of motion, vertical, horizontal and lateral, which define
high-rise rack storage are all contained within a single piece of equipment.
Until all three motions are complete, the machine, regardless of its degree
of automation, is tied to its current task.
Some HDDS concepts, flow rack in particular, attempt to solve these
problems by removing the aisle machine from the storage box. In essence,
the rack itself becomes the machine, capable of indexing loads from input to
output. This approach produces high density by avoiding the honeycombing
caused by machines in aisles but still requires each lane to be loaded by
equipment such as fork-lift trucks, which require operators and are not an
integral part of the system. In addition, each lane remains a discrete mecha-
nism; there is no provision for lateral load movement inside the racks, which
creates a storage tunnel and limits the rack to first in, first out (FIFO)
storage. Depending on the loading sequence, these systems are capable of
rudimentary staging and can deliver unit loads to the output for order
fulfillment. Although the components of the order may arrive at the output
at the same time, their physical positions may be spread across the entire
output face of the rack structure, creating congestion at the shipping area as
fork-lift trucks move laterally from point to point to 'pull' loads.
Hybridization of different technologies produced the first wave of inte-
grated HDDS at a systems level. In this arrangement, systems from various
suppliers are combined to take advantage of the strengths of each technol-
ogy. For example, a flow rack may be coupled to an automated machine-in-
aisle freezer storage system to increase throughput and gain order staging
capabilities. In another case, a machine-in-aisle system may use a mobile
rack entry vehicle to allow deep-lane storage and increase density. How-
ever, true integration of different systems can be difficult and each compo-
nent technology still retains its original disadvantages, i.e. machine-in-aisle
systems don't make the best use of freezer space, flow rack is usually FIFO
output and traditional deep-lane storage is generally last in, first out
(LIFO). Tables 3.1 and 3.2 outline the characteristics of some high-density
technologies.
A more creative approach to equalizing product and data flow uses a
concept analgous to the parallel processing design used in computer tech-
nology. In other words, rather than using multiple linear machines, each
one working on its own list of demands, the new concept uses distributed
machine action, i.e. multiple machines acting in concert against a series of
expectations. For all practical purposes, the entire rack structure behaves as
one large machine.
As the user develops expectations, for example, a requirement for a
quantity of LIFO staged unit loads at a particular output slot at a particular
time, the system develops the missions required to meet the expectation.
Table 3.1 Conventional deep-lane storage approaches
Technique Advantages Disadvantages
Floor stack (LIFO/FIFO) Very high density Limited height, density

versus activity trade-off
Drive-in rack (LIFO) Very high density Low activity
Flow rack (FIFO) High density, high activity Limited lane length
Low indexing reliability
Table 3.2 Traditional automated deep-lane storage approaches
Technique Advantages Disadvantages
Rack entry vehicle High density Typically LIFO, low throughput

and turnover
Stacker cranelfiow rack High density, higher Rail pitch limits length
throughput Stacker limits throughput
Low indexing reliability in flow rack
Single tasks within each mISSIOn are then parcelled out to lower level
software routines, which in turn command the individual pieces of equip-
ment needed to complete the task. When a particular piece of equipment
has completed its portion of a task, it becomes free to take on a portion of
a parallel mission task, until such time as it needs to move on to a third
mission task or insert itself back into the flow of its original mission.
Many missions occur simultaneously and each piece of equipment can
shift among the mission tasks as needed. A key factor that makes this
possible is that each axis of motion is assigned to a particular machine type
- one type provides vertical motion at the input and output faces of the
racks, a second allows internal lateral travel across all storage lanes at
selected points inside the rack and a third handles horizontal storage within
lanes that run from input to output. The capacity for lateral movement
inside the racks prevents the storage lanes from becoming tunnels. Using
the lateral movement to shift loads from lane to lane, these systems can
LIFO stage an entire truckload of orders at a single output slot, so that fork-
lift trucks simply travel in a straight line from the pick point to the dock
door.
When accurate data is available, the key to getting the right product to
the right place at the desired moment is not machine speed but rather lead
time. In the material handling context, data capture and transmission can be
accepted as virtually instantaneous. When this data is used to anticipate
demand, the advance notice produces a truly proactive approach to manu-
facturing and shipping. Given sufficient lead time, a smart, agile material
handling system based on the distributed machine and parallel processing
concept requires only a few hours to assemble and stage an order, resulting
in the same day shipping service offered by industry innovators. When
projected requirements can be forecast over a longer period of days as well,
the best of the new systems can develop their own agenda, working on short
lead tasks immediately and performing the preparatory work for longer
lead orders in between the more urgent ones. In effect, the entire system
becomes one large variable speed machine with multiple 'outputs', or goals:
• Low-priority goals of rotating unit load stock based on product expira-
tion date, as well as packing unit loads to maintain maximum storage
density and energy efficiency
• A medium priority goal of assembling a string of unit loads in response to
an order
• A high priority goal of staging a preassembled order at an output slot for
a truck expected in a matter of hours
All these events occur simultaneously and are ongoing throughout the
course of each day. The 'machine' automatically shifts priorities in response
to the demand at the moment. During high-production cycles, the system
concentrates on accepting cases or unit loads from the production floor.
During hours when production is low, the machine focuses on grouping unit
loads required for specific orders. During peak shipping hours, the machine
concentrates on staging groups of unit loads for truck loading. Even with fill
rates in excess of 95%, the new distributed handling technology is capable
of delivering accurately staged orders to a single output point at the same
time the truck arrives and at a rate of 1.5 inventory turns per day.
Consider a cold/chilled automated handling and distribution system that
could, in the course of one day:
• Receive a stream of individual cases of mixed product
• Identify each case from UPC case marking
• Sequence those cases for order fulfillment
• Automatically build mixed case pallets
• Accept the resulting unit load for FIFO storage
• Move the unit load through multiple cooling zones
• Assemble strings of unit loads to fulfil multiple orders
• Stage those orders in a LIFO fashion for truck loading
• Deliver the truckload to a designated pick slot just as the truck arrives
• Indicate the pick sequence to the fork-lift truck driver
• Accept RF confirmation of the order contents based on bar code scans of
shipping container marking
• Download an electronic or hard copy manifest
• Provide data for advance shipment notification
• Continually rotate stock and balance inventory in service to future order
fulfillment
• Do all this without operator interaction, with the exception of fork-lift

truck drivers to pull staged orders and load the trucks
Systems of this type are a reality and represent the best that new material
handling technology has to offer. The following case studies take a look at
how some of the new technologies have been applied to cold/chilled stor-
age. The ideal system will incorporate the best features of each material
handling solution and marry them together to create a truly synergistic
system that becomes more than just the sum of its collective components.
3.7 Base level cold/chilled considerations
Before we look at some specific examples of automated cold/chilled storage

technology in operation today, we shall review some of the unique require-
ments of the cold/chilled warehouse user.
One of the most important of these requirements is the need to maintain
consistent temperature readings throughout the warehouse storage areas,
particularly when the facility includes multiple cooling zones at different
temperatures. Not only must temperature variation within each zone be
kept to an acceptable minimum, each zone must also maintain its own
temperature envelope without bleeding into adjacent zones. Any auto-
mated handling technology designed for the cold/chilled environment must
be able to accommodate these requirements as it charts flow paths through
the warehouse.
A second requirement is maximum efficiency from the cooling process.
With energy costs being what they are, any intrusion of the outside environ-
ment into the cold zone eventually adds to the cost of the product and,
because of condensation and icing, makes it more difficult to handle. In
addition, storage should be at the highest practical density to get the best
use of the cooling equipment. A cold/chilled automated handling system
must monitor product flow in and out of the building to minimize contact
with the outside and must have the capability of high-density storage to
achieve maximum cooling efficiency.
Other considerations are industry regulations defining how much weight
an operator can lift, which have a tremendous influence on case picking
operations. As allowable weight limits fall, the system must increase its
case-handling capacity to offset the reduced weight per case. An automated
system must be able to handle the increased flow and, ideally, be able to
integrate case-handling capabilities with unit load handling, order manage-
ment and coordinated staging.
Finally, an underlying goal of any cold/chilled automation is to reduce
operating costs. Regulations governing the amount of time an operator can
spend in temperature controlled environments translate into frequent
breaks and resulting lost time. Since an associated cost of all non-automated
and some automated systems is the requirement for manual operation or
intervention, a truly automated system designed for cold/chilled operation
must eliminate or at least reduce to a minimum the need for personnel
interaction.
The key to mechanized automation of the cold/chilled material handling
process and its integration to the supply chain is twofold. Most importantly,
the automation effort must be driven by the application, whether it be case
handling, unit load storage, rapid distribution or a special requirement.
Rarely will a single technology be adequate to fit the special needs of
every user. Secondly, the user who wishes to automate must keep in
mind that he is looking for a comprehensive material handling solution, not
a specific material handling technology. In other words, there may be
combinations of technologies available from various suppliers that can be
used together to fit the application. There may also be a mix of traditional
and new systems that will fit the bill. Ideally, the user can find a single
supplier who offers multiple technologies and integrated systems solutions,
from which to pick and choose the best and most cost-effective
combination.
If two or more of the following list of potential material handling con-
cerns apply, some degree of mechanized automation will help:
• Limited space for picking or staging operations, or for finished goods/
work-in-process (WIP) storage
• Redundant handling of product
• Shrinkage from loss, handling damage or spoilage
• High material flow rates and complex or variable routing
• Positive material tracking requirement
• Material security or physical quarantine requirement
• Workforce reduction or restriction
• Poor or unsafe environment for personnel
• Automated stock verification capability
3.8 Case-handling technologies
'Smart' conveyor systems
Operation. Through the use of advanced control technologies, conveyor-

based systems have been designed to offer an automated and registered
flow of cases in cold/chilled areas. What we see today are systems that will
receive cased products from production and automatically convey them
through a rapid freezing process. Once the desired product temperature is
reached the product is immediately released into a warehouse for storage or
directly shipped. This type of design varies but all designs serve the same
purpose of rapidly freezing product before releasing it.
Technology. Systems today vary in design but they all serve to receive a
load for rapid freeze and then release.
Problem. This technology tends to be FIFO in nature and requires an

extensive conveyor. Throughput is subject to the period of time needed for
product to reach its desired frozen storage temperature.
Carousel
Operation. A new approach to cold/chilled case handling utilizes an old

automation technology. Carousels have been used in many environments
over the years and have proven themselves valuable in making effective
use of vertical storage space. The idea is currently being applied to
temperature-controlled environments with mixed reviews. Although this is
an automated approach, it still may require operator intervention (Figure
3.1).
Technology. One of the most unique approaches uses the carousel in a

horizontal layout with an interface to a high-speed vertical lift. Here the
system will store and dispense cases in the horizontal carousel at relatively
high throughput capacities. Since the lift can feed to or receive from a
conveyor, this arrangement eliminates the need for manual intervention.
Figure 3.1 Carousel. © Copyright 1994 White Storage & Retrieval Systems. Inc. (used with
permission ).
The technology is similar to that used in automated storage/retrieval sys-

tems (ASRS), although the crane is stationary and the racking structure
revolves.
Problem. The major problem with these systems is that only one loca-
tion may be accessed at a time because of the restricted input/output (lIO)
points. The vertical carousel can only deliver to one location at a time and
the horizontal carousel design has a similar drawback.
Mini-load ASIRS
Operation. This type of automation technology is probably the most fa-

miliar in the industry. It involves a dedicated machine 'crane' in an aisle that
automatically stores and retrieves product from locations on either side of
the aisle. Traditionally there will be multiple aisles and one crane dedicated
to each aisle. Product is picked and deposited at the end of the aisle for
operator interface or directly to/from the conveyor.
Figure 3.2 Mini-load AS/RS.

Technology. This technology has not changed much over the years and
continues to prove useful in cold/chilled environments (Figure 3.2).
Problem. Although automated, systems of this nature can only offer ac-
cess to product on a per location basis, that is the crane can only deposit/
retrieve one load at a time. For high-production flows or shipping 'spikes',
these systems are used to aid in the building of orders before shipping time.
Loads are still required to be staged somewhere else. Also, because of the
complexity of design, maintenance tends to become a problem. Finally,
input and output points are limited, offering few alternatives for product
access if a crane fails to operate.
3.9 Unit load technologies
Radio-frequency and push-back racking
Operation. Although push-back racking is not an automated technology,

it can provide automated characteristics when used in conjunction
with radio-frequency (RF) data transfer systems, providing an acceptable
solution for conventional non-automated environments who wish to
gain the benefits of automation. In this configuration, RF terminals
on fork-lift trucks provide drivers with pick/deposit information and
locations. Accurate information from the RF terminals allows operation
inside the cold/chilled environment to be as productive as possible,
realizing a savings in time and personnel efficiency. The combination
of RF information transmittal and push-back racking also allows increased
storage density and makes better use of existing warehouse space (Figure
3.3).
Technology. RF providers vary but all work by transmitting information

via radio waves to remote terminals located throughout the warehouse. RF
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is proven and applicable for the cold/chilled environment. Push-back rack-

ing is simple and reliable and provides a quick solution to HDDS.
Problem. Although the combination of RF with push-back racking is a

step toward automation, it still relies on operators for execution of product
movement. The information flow is automated and the ability to store loads
in high-density fashion is achieved but the actual movement of material
must be done manually. This solution is most commonly implemented for
companies looking for a quick fix and who are unable to invest the amount
of money required for true automation.
Unit load ASIRS
Operation. Unit load AS/RS 'crane' technology has been utilized since the
1960s in cold/chilled environments in a number of successful configurations.
Two designs that are still commonly utilized today involve the ability to
store loads multiple-deep. These double-deep crane and flow-rack designs
make much better use of available space and can be considered the fore-
runners of high-density storage.
Technology. The first AS/RS technology utilizes an electrical 'satellite'

cart that is able to leave the crane upon arrival at a rack location and travel
into the racking structure underneath the loads. The satellite unit is then
able to be raised and lowered to pick up or deposit pallets into the racking
structure (Figure 3.4). The second design utilizes a combination of cranes
and a gravity flow conveyor. Here a crane would be located at each end of
the gravity flow-rack with one crane dedicated to the deposit of loads and
the second dedicated to the retrieval of loads.
Problem. The major concern with unit load AS/RS is available ceiling
height. Traditionally these systems are installed as new warehousing struc-
tures. The satellite and flow-rack throughput capabilities are limited by the
fact that a single crane must access each location to store and retrieve loads.
Satellite designs tend to be LIFO and flow-rack designs FIFO; there are few
instances where there are alternatives for change of flow.
Unit load HDDS
Operation. A major concern is to make the best possible use of avail-

able space in the cold/chilled warehouses. This need has led to what is
currently referred to as HDDS. Current technologies have continued
where AS/RS utilization of satellite units and flow-racking has left off.
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Attention has focused on better conveying loads within the racking struc-
ture, allowing for greater deep-lane capacity, and modular designs that will
accommodate installation into existing warehouses as well as new building
construction.
Technology. High-density storage technologies today include a unique

design that enables loads to mechanically 'walk' through the racking struc-
ture for receipt at the opposite end for shipping. Pressurized air is forced
through tubing that lies under the roller conveyor. As air is 'pulsated'
through the hose the rollers are lifted, causing pallets to roll forward toward
the designated output. In conjunction with AS/RS cranes, this technology
can in many cases offer a fully automated unit load system that requires a
minimum of manual intervention.
Problem. Although this system effectively reduces the cost of HDDS by

eliminating the high cost cranes and satellite units, throughput is low. Also
the system, much like flow-racking, is FIFO in nature. Low-temperature
installations include frozen foods and long-term storage of temperature-
sensitive chemical products.
3.10 Future technologies
The drive to fully automate the handling of loads in cold/chilled environ-

ments has effected the evolution of material handling technologies and now
offers single technology systems or hybrid system solutions that incorporate
the best features of multiple technologies.
The technologies of the future will need to integrate with user business
requirements and the requirements of the customer or client. Today's focus
on customer-driven orders and client-based order requests has forced the
need for material handling systems that not only will automatically respond
to the need to physically move loads throughout the cold/chilled warehouse
but also react and anticipate to future order, production and shipping
requirements. Such systems must be capable of interacting with the elec-
tronically exchanged data pertaining to orders, production and shipping
needs, and react accordingly by manipulating and 'shuffling' product to
provide ever-changing product flow demands.
3.11 Case handling HODS
Vertical and deep-lane case handling
Operation. Cold/chilled environments will require the ability to receive

case streams from production and control case output for direct delivery of
mixed order build. In the situations where throughput requirements are
high, bottlenecks caused by too few input/output points in a system must be
avoided.
A case-handling system of this type eliminates upstream accumulation by
handling the input stream either as batch runs of like product or as smaller
single runs of mixed product. Output case flow can be in full batches or
mixed unit load build. Both input and output case flows are managed by
computer algorithms, which adjust the flow according to real-time require-
ments. Case flow can also be direct from production to truck, resulting in
high throughput and eliminating the need for intermediate palletizing and
storage. Piece pick replenishment, case replenishment for flow racks, order
consolidation, order sortation and case accumulation are all within the
system's capability.
Technology. Both types of system offer true HDDS case handling coordi-
nated with production and distribution requirements.
The vertical case-handling system uses a rotating expandable coil fed by
a conveyor. As product enters the coil it expands to become a storage
column, essentially forming a vertical slipsheet holding the stored cases.
Case dispensing is the reverse of accumulation, with cases individually
dispensed to an outflow conveyor. The system can be standalone, or can be

integrated into other distribution systems or cross-docking applications
with conveyor, automated guided vehicles (AGVs) or palletizers.
The deep-lane case-handling system uses a walking beam device within
each storage lane, which indexes a string of cases forward toward the output
with a simple mechanical motion. Once fed by an input device that is part
of the system, each storage lane continually walks the cases forward without
manual intervention. Case output is through an output device, also an
integrated part of the system.
Problem. Each case-handling technology still requires an extensive con-

veyor. The vertical type of system is LIFO, while the deep-lane case handler
is a FIFO system. Current applications include the dairy and beverage
industries.
3.12 Unit load "DDS
Operation. A truly automated cold/chilled environment requires little or

no manual intervention in the warehouse. Pallets can be not only stored
and/or retrieved from the system but the system can automatically build
Figure 3.5 Pallet transfer system: A = vertical transfer lift, B = cross-aisle transfer, C = deep
lane transfer (used with permission of ACTIV Systems, Petrotech Inc.).
order shipments within the storage lanes or deliver pallets to designated

areas for robotic case pick.
The system connects to and interfaces with the company's computer
information network, allowing the system to anticipate material flow and
shipment requirements. Throughput paths and flow capabilities are able to
reach and surpass the warehouse's peak requirements. These systems may
be installed into existing storage space and provide the highest possible
density to take full advantage of all available space.
Technology. This HDDS system provides these capabilities by using

multi-level deep storage lanes, each lane having a mobile cart that moves
unit loads on standard pallets along the lane. Product is inserted at the
designated input storage level using multiple vertical lifts fed by floor con-
veyor. The handling system uses a second device to transfer pallets across
the storage lanes, allowing an individual load to emerge from the racks at a
different position from the initial storage lane. This allows internal unit load
shuffling for staging and order fulfillment. Output from the rack is in the
form of vertically arranged staging slots; each column of storage lanes can
act as an output slot (Figure 3.5).
Computer algorithms deliver orders of multiple unit loads at specific
single output slots, timed to match expected truck arrival at a specific dock
door and staged LIFO for loading. Since staging is coordinated with truck
arrival, product temperature remains constant. RF terminals indicate the
pick sequence, while EDI technology uploads a manifest to a host computer
and produces a hard copy for the carrier. The only manual interface is at the
output staging slots, where fork-lift truck drivers pull loads in response to
RF prompts.
This technology is usually installed in an existing facility, although new
facilities may be constructed as cost allows.
Problem. Initially expensive if judged on a misleading cost per pallet basis

but has an extremely rapid return on investment.
Reference
[1] Muroff, C.H. (1996) The '96 meltdown. Warehousing Management 3(4),27.
4 Refrigerant choice and energy use
N.J. COX
4.1 General backgronnd leading up to the adoption of CFCs
The development of halocarbon refrigerants was announced in April 1930

by Thomas Midgely. To demonstrate the 'safety' of the new compounds, at
a meeting of the American Chemical Society, Midgely inhaled R12 and
blew out a candle with it. While this demonstration was dramatic, it would
be a clear violation of safe handling and venting practices today! The
unique selling point of these new synthetic refrigerants over the substances
traditionally used up to this point was safety. There was a huge demand for
a refrigerant which was both non-flammable and non-toxic and could ap-
parently be vented with no harmful side effects.
Commercial production of R12 began in early 1931 and by 1963 refriger-
ants accounted for 98% of the total production of the organic fluorine
industry. Almost 50 years passed between the introduction of CFCs and
recognition of their harm to the environment when released.
4.2 Ozone depletion and global warming
Daily measurements of atmospheric ozone have been made at British bases

in Antarctica since 1957. In the early 1980s the regular pattern of seasonal
behaviour changed dramatically. Since then, progressive declines in the
depth of the ozone layer have been recorded. Two points are worth
emphasising. The first is that the atmosphere changed before our eyes from
one well-established state to a new state. The second is that this event was
completely unpredicted, despite the efforts of scientists who had spent
many years calculating the future effect of CFCs on the global ozone layer.
It is now universally accepted that the Antarctic ozone hole owes its
existence to the release of man-made halogenated alkanes such as CFCs
whose atmospheric concentrations increased significantly in the years lead-
ing up to the appearance of the ozone hole (Figure 4.1). The scientific
consensus on human-induced climate change has been led by a group of
scientists appointed by the United Nations. The group is known as the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). It published its first
assessment in 1990 and a second in 1995. The IPCC estimated that the
continued release of greenhouse gases would lead to a 0.3°C global tem-
Ultraviolet Free oxygen atom

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::,::",,!'~ ~p
CFC molecule
Xi,}i.,. : ; ~; ';
.:.:. . . .:.:..
A
..JJ
~
B
Ozone .
molecule ,.../" '"' Oxygen
~molecule
C
f${ 0--0
;V
.~
Figure 4.1 How ozone is destroyed. In the upper atmosphere ultraviolet light breaks off a
chlorine atom. The chlorine attacks an ozone molecule, breaking it apart. An ordinary oxygen
molecule and a chlorine monoxide molecule are formed. A free oxygen atom breaks up the
chlorine monoxide. The chlorine atom is free to repeat the process.
Incoming solar
radiation Reflected
~ ~ ~ ~ / back to space Re-radiated out/
~ ~ ~ X . to space
. ~~ / '- atmosphere '.:
Figure 4.2 The 'greenhouse' effect.
perature increase per decade, resulting in a 6cm sea level rise per decade.
The scientists also judged that global temperatures had already risen as a
result of human activities. Events have already overtaken the report. A
group of Pacific Islands, the Republic of Kiribati (formerly the British
colony of the Gilbert Islands), is already starting to disappear.
The problem of climate change brought on by the emission of heat-
trapping greenhouse gases is one of the most serious facing the planet
(Figure 4.2). In addition to the gradual warming implied by the pro-
jections of climate models, we are likely to see an unpredictable series of
worsening natural disasters resulting from the progressive heating of the
atmosphere.
About 64 % of man-made global warming is attributed to carbon dioxide
emissions, mostly from energy use and deforestation. The second biggest
source, about 19%, is from hydrocarbons such as methane, which is emitted
REFRIGERANT CHOICE 117
Table 4.1 Numerical estimates of global warming potential
Atmospheric Direct effect for time horizons of

lifetime
Type of gas Designation (years) 20 years 100 years 500 years
Carbon dioxide CO, 120 1

Hydrocarbon (HC) CH, 12.2 56 21 6.5
Hydrofiuorocarbon 125 32.6 4600 2800 920

(HFC) 134A 14.6 3400 1300 420
143A 48.3 5000 3800 1400
152A 1.5 460 140 42
32 5.6 2100 650 200
23 264 9100 11700 9800
Perfiuorocarbons 14 50000 4400 6500 10000
(PEC) 116 10000 6200 9200 14000
218 2600 4800 7000 10100
C318 3200 6000 8700 12700
Zeotropic blend 404A 14.6-48.3 4760 3260 1149
replacement for 407A 5.6-32.6 3620 1770 576
R502 507 32.6-48.3 4800 3300 1160
Zeotropic blend
replacement for R407C 5.6-32.6 3401 1525 494
R22 R410A 5.6-32.6 3350 1725 560
from domesticated animals such as cattle and also from pipeline leakages. It
is worth noting that both carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons also occur
naturally in the environment as a result of normal biological activity. The
third biggest source of global warming is from halocarbons, principally
CFCs, HCFCs and now HFCs. The IPCC scientists now attribute about
11 % of the human-made greenhouse effect to these gases. The balance,
about 6%, is attributed to nitrogen oxides.
Global warming potentials (GWPs) have been developed by the IPCC
to allow comparisons of the global warming impact of different green-
house gases. Different greenhouse gases break down in the atmosphere at
different rates, so their relative warming impact depends on the period
over which the comparison is made. The IPCC gives figures for 20, 100 and
500 years. These figures have been tabulated relative to carbon dioxide
which is given the value of one as a base comparison figure (Table 4.1). The
20 year time frame indicates the rate of climatic change affecting plants and
animals. The 100 year time frame is important for calculating sea level
changes. The 500 year time frame is of limited interest, however this is the
figure generally quoted by the chemical industry. It considerably under-
states the problem by averaging out over 500 years the environmental
impact of pollutants with an average atmospheric life time of less than 50
years.
4.3 Total equivalent warming impact
Global warming from refrigeration plant comes from two sources, direct
refrigerant emissions and indirect carbon dioxide emissions from power
stations generating the electricity to run the plant. The agreed way of
expressing total global warming impact from the use of refrigeration is by
considering the total equivalent warming impact (TEWI). This is simply the
total indirect and direct global warming effect integrated over the lifetime
of the plant.
The following four factors have a major influence upon the TEWI of a
refrigeration plant:
1. The energy requirement.
2. The refrigerant charge in the plant.
3. The refrigerant emission rate.
4. The global warming potential of the refrigerant.
Refrigerant losses are calculated from the plant refrigerant charge multi-
plied by the emission rate expressed as a percentage. 20% per annum is the
current average for the refrigeration industry as a whole, although 5% per
annum represents an average value which ought to be achievable by follow-
ing good practice.
The TEWI convention ignores the energy requirement for the manufac-
turing of refrigerants. This is a significant omission bearing in mind the
energy intensive nature of the integrated halocarbon manufacturing proc-
ess. For example, one site alone consumes over 1% of the UK's electricity
production. The convention assumes that at the end of the useful life of the
equipment 50% of the residual refrigerant is recovered, although refriger-
ant suppliers in the UK report that at present less than 5% is returned for
recycling.
The proportion of TEWI caused by refrigerant emissions is very system
dependent; it is low for systems utilising chillers and secondary fluids such
as brine or glycol but very much higher for direct expansion or pumped
liquid refrigerant systems.
Proposals to reduce leakage rates include the elimination of the use of
flared joints, the replacement of capillary copper lines with flexible stainless
steel hoses and the introduction of an offensive odour to the refrigerant so
that leaks are noticed and cured in a very short time.
4.4 Temperature glide
With the advent of refrigerant blends, a new term has appeared in the
industry, namely 'temperature glide'. This phenomenon can best be ex-
plained by first realising that the new blended refrigerants are a mixture of
two or more single component refrigerants which have different boiling

temperatures at the same pressure. Two further new terms are also
important:
Bubble point: is the temperature at which the refrigerant liquid just starts to
evaporate.
Dew point: is the temperature at which the refrigerant vapour starts to
condense.
With a single component refrigerant the bubble point and dew point coin-
cide but with zeotropic refrigerants there is a difference due to the different
boiling points of the constituents. This difference is called the glide value
for the refrigerant mixture.
The new mixed refrigerants therefore cause problems for service
engineers who must bear in mind these peculiarities when checking
suction and discharge pressures. Glide can lead to differential frosting
of evaporators as the temperature across the evaporator can vary by as
much as 6°C. Defrost sensors must therefore be sited near to the refrigerant
inlet.
Problems also arise for design engineers who must make sure that the
performance figures for evaporators and condensers are for the correct
refrigerant. Condensers and evaporators are generally larger than for single
component refrigerants and it is important to use externally equalised
expansion valves in order to obtain the correct superheat. Where a suction
liquid heat exchanger is specified, the phial of the expansion valve must be
fitted after the suction liquid heat exchanger.
When designing new systems it is possible to use temperature glide to
advantage, provided that counter-current evaporator and condenser heat
exchangers are utilised which allow co-current flow of the refrigerant liquid
and vapour mixture. By matching the refrigerant side temperature glide
with the service fluid temperature change, counter-flow tends to lower dis-
charge pressures and raise suction pressures so that the compressor does
less work to deliver the same amount of cooling. Power savings of up to
25% are achievable, although capital costs will be increased by a similar
order. This technology is equally applicable to halocarbon and hydrocarbon
refrigerants.
4.5 Refrigerant nomenclature
The name chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is applied to a substance formed by

replacing all of the hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon molecule with chlo-
rine and fluorine (or sometimes bromine).
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are similar to CFCs but they are
only partially halogenated and therefore retain some hydrogen.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are formed by partially fluorinating hydro-

carbons. They retain some hydrogen and are totally chlorine-free.
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are fully fluorinated hydrocarbons. They are
very stable, have excellent fire suppressing properties but have very long
atmospheric lifetimes.
Hydrocarbons (HCs) are naturally occurring organic substances which
are generally stable and unreactive, the exceptions being their flammability
and their ability to react with halogens.
In order to provide a similar three-lettered acronym the other natural
refrigerants are sometimes referred to as not in kind (NIK) refrigerants.
The chemical names for the halogenated refrigerants are long and
cumbersome, and therefore a numbering system was developed to identify
the different products. The number was originally part of the registered
trade name but was later donated to the industry by DuPont in order
to avoid confusion and proliferation of different numbers for the same
product.
The number assigned to each refrigerant is related to its chemical compo-
sition and the system has been formalised by the American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) under
standard 34. This internationally recognised system of numbering refriger-
ants is somewhat obscure but straightforward in application. The rules are
as follows:
• The number consists of four digits (leading zeros are dropped) with each
digit describing a characteristic of the molecule.
• The first digit is the number of carbon-to-carbon double bonds (in most
cases zero).
• The second digit is one less than the number of carbon (C) atoms.
• The third digit is one more than the number of hydrogen (H) atoms.
• The fourth digit is the number of fluorine (F) atoms.
• Any spare atoms are assumed to be chlorine unless otherwise noted, for
example when chlorine atoms are replaced with bromine the letter B is
used in the number, as in the case of R13Bl.
• Ordinary (non-azeotropic) mixtures are assigned numbers in the 400
series.
• Azeotropic mixtures are assigned numbers in the 500 series in order of
their commercial introduction.
• Miscellaneous organic refrigerants are assigned arbitrary numbers in
the 600 series. This includes hydrocarbon refrigerants which cannot be
identified by the regular numbering system because they contain nine or
more hydrogen atoms (as 9 + 1 cannot be represented by a single digit
number).
• Inorganic refrigerants are allocated to the 700 series, using the molecular
weight prefixed by the number 7.
Table 4.2
Refrigerant Refrigerant
type number Description Formula
CFC Rll Trichlorofluoromethane CCI,F

CFC R12 Dichlorodifluoromethane CCl,F,
CFC R1l5 2-Chloro-l,I,I,2,2-pentafluoroethane CF3CClF,
CFC R502 Blend of 48.8% R22, 51.2% R1l5
HCFC R22 Chlorodifluoromethane CHClF,
HCFC R402A Blend of 60% R125, 2% R290, 38% R22
HFC R134A 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane CF,CH,F
HFC R125 Pentafluoroethane CF,CHF,
HFC R23 Trifluoromethane CHF,
HFC R32 Difluoromethane CH,F,
HFC R143A 1,1,1-Trifluoroethane CF,CH,
HFC R152A 1,I-Difluoroethane CHF,CH,
HFC R507 Blend of 50% R125, 50% R143A
HFC R407A Blend of 20% R32, 40% R125, 40% R134A
HFC R404A Blend of 44% R125, 52% R143A, 4% R134A
HFC R407C Blend of 23% R32, 25% R125, 52% R134A
HFC R410A Blend of 50% R32, 50% R125
HFC R410B Blend of 45% R32, 55% R125
PFC R14 Tetrafluoromethane CF4
PFC R116 Hexafluoroethane C,F6
PFC R218 Octafluoropropane C,F,
PFC RC318 Octafluorocyclobutane C4 F,
HC R50 Methane CH 4
HC R170 Ethane C,H 6
HC R1270 Propene C,H 6
HC R290 Propane C,H,
HC RC270 Cyclopropane C,H 6
HC R600A Isobutane C4 H IIl
NIK R717 Ammonia NH3
NIK R718 Water H,O
NIK R729 Air Mixture
NIK R744 Carbon dioxide CO,
• Lower case suffixes are added to denote decreasing symmetry in isomers

or to denote inorganic gases with the same molecular weight.
The most commonly used examples are listed in Table 4.2.
4.6 HCFCs as interim solutions
CFC production in the European Union ceased at the end of 1994. Al-
though HCFCs also cause ozone depletion and global warming, their con-
tinued use is permitted as interim substances. From 1st January 1996 HCFC
use has been banned in new domestic refrigerators and freezers, car air-
conditioning and most importantly in road transport refrigeration, i.e. re-
frigerated trunkers. From 1st January 2000 the ban will be extended to new
distribution cold stores and warehouses. Although HCFCs will continue to
be available as service refrigerants for existing equipment for a longer
period of time, it would be prudent to avoid HCFCs in new developments
with a life expectancy of greater than, say, 10 years.
Notwithstanding these comments R22 is an excellent refrigerant for
chilled distribution stores. It has been proven for many years, has favour-
able thermodynamic characteristics and low energy requirements. How-
ever, certain consequences also arise concerning components and plant
technology. Refrigerant R22 has approximately 55% more refrigerating
capacity for a given swept volume, compared to R12, and has a higher
pressure level. The significantly higher discharge gas temperature is also a
critical factor compared to R12.
The use of R22 in low-temperature cold stores is more problematic due
to the high discharge gas temperature, especially concerning the thermal
stability of oil and refrigerant with the danger of acid formation and copper
plating, unless screw compressors are utilised. For these reasons it becomes
necessary to use blends containing R22 such as R402A, R403A, and
R408A. Before selecting a particular blend for a specific application the
advice of the equipment manufacturer, contractor and consultant should be
sought.
4.7 HFCs as the original long-term solution
Chlorine-free HFC refrigerants are the solution preferred by the chemical

industry to the ozone depletion problem. Capital costs can be five times
higher than the ozone depleting alternatives which they are intended to
replace. They also require the use of synthetic ester oils which, again, may
cost some five times more than traditional mineral oil.
The main HFC alternative to R12 is R134A. It has similar thermody-
namic properties, and the refrigeration capacity, energy requirement, tem-
perature and pressure characteristics are comparable. Unfortunately, the
ester oils which are needed with this refrigerant are hygroscopic and prob-
lems occur when the water content in the oil exceeds 100ppm. To compen-
sate, larger driers, and on hermetic systems larger crankcase heaters, may
be required.
A better HFC substitute for R12 is R152A. It too has very similar ther-
modynamic characteristics to R12. The GWP is extremely low, and its lower
molecular mass gives potential for energy saving. Ester oils may be used as
the lubricant, although R152A is partially soluble in mineral oil and could
be made fully soluble by the addition of a small proportion of isobutane
(R600A). Two problems arise with this refrigerant: it has low thermal
stability and it is slightly flammable.
A mixture of 86.2% R134A and 13.8% R152A is non-flammable and

shows an increase in coefficient of performance (COP) of approximately
2.7% over R134A. However, under the 1995 revision of BS4434, R152A is
classified as an A2 group refrigerant for which the same safety restrictions
as for ammonia apply. There is therefore no reason why chilled store
operators who wish to use HFCs should not adopt R152A as a practical
solution. The use of evaporative condensers will overcome the thermal
stability problem by avoiding the higher condensing temperatures associ-
ated with air-cooled condensers.
The solution to R502 alternatives has been more problematic. Three
very different and competing blends are being promoted by different
chemical manufacturers. R507 is a genuine azeotrope and therefore
most closely resembles the characteristics of R502. R407 A, on the
other hand, has a temperature glide of approximately 6°C which may offer
energy-saving possibilities in glide-optimised systems. Alternatively,
R404A has the benefit of being the most established of the blends and
(as with the old VHS versus Betamax videotape war) the most firmly
entrenched option may eventually win regardless of technical
considerations.
For cold store operators who wish to use HFCs without getting embroiled
in the 'which blend' battle, a much better option exists in the form of
pure unblended R32. Following the 'keep it simple' philosophy, why use a
blend when a single component refrigerant can do the same job better?
R32 demonstrates superior performance over all criteria other than
flammability and is classified as an A2 group refrigerant under BS 4434, so
the same restrictions as on ammonia would apply.
Problems arising with HFC alternatives to R22 are even more severe
than with R502 alternatives. Only one blend is commercially available,
namely R407C. The relatively high temperature glide of this refrigerant can
be used to advantage in glide-optimised systems but it is not universally
suitable, for example, in plants with flooded evaporators. Despite having
the advantage of several years' head start, R407C is likely to lose market
share rapidly to R41OA, which operates at 50% higher pressure (26 bar at
43°C) and 50% higher capacity than R22. Applications using R410A with
the compressors and components at present available are either not possi-
ble or possible only with severe limitations.
As with R502, chillstore operators may wish to adopt R32 as their R22
replacement, thus allowing one single component refrigerant to be used for
both cold and chilled applications rather than the confusing plethora of
blends currently on the market.
So is R32 the miracle refrigerant that the cold and chilled storage industry
has been waiting for? If only life were that simple! Unfortunately, however,
there are significant environmental problems associated with all HFCs,
including R32.
4.8 Environmental problems associated with HFCs
The greatest problem with HFCs is that they have potent global warming
potentials. For instance, R134A is now believed to have a GWP 1300 times
higher than carbon dioxide. It has been calculated that the release of only
1 kg of R134A into the atmosphere produces the same amount of global
warming as driving the average family saloon car for 4490km (2790 miles).
The Advertising Standards Authority in the UK has upheld four complaints
against a chemical manufacturer for advertisements concerning the envi-
ronmental impact of R134A. The IPCC have developed scenarios showing
that if HFCs are adopted as substitutes for CFCs and HCFCs, then they
could contribute up to 11 % of the total man-made greenhouse effect. This
contradicts claims by the chemical industry that the effect would be less
than 1 %.
Greenhouse gases are subject to control under the Framework Conven-
tion On Climate Change which was signed at the Earth Summit in Rio in
June 1992. As the convention stands, HFC emissions would have to be
reduced to 1990 levels by the year 2000. In 1990, HFC emissions were
practically zero. Furthermore, the UK has stated that 'HFCs are not to be
used where emissions are unavoidable if safe, practical and more environ-
mentally acceptable alternatives are available'. These statements sound
very much like an effective phase out, although government ministers have
been quick to state that this is not the case and that they expect emissions
to be reduced by voluntary means. The UK air-conditioning and refrigera-
tion industry has duly produced a declaration of intent which aims to reduce
emissions to less than 10% per annum. The question of implementation has
not been addressed and it is not clear that these measures are sufficient to
comply with the UK's convention commitment.
HFCs may be a source of acid rain as the products of degradation include
hydrofluoric acid and trifluoroacetate (TF A). Seasonal wetlands in urban
areas could be threatened within a few decades. Furthermore, the manufac-
ture of HFCs is directly linked to the production of organochlorines, a class
of chemicals that are persistent and toxic, and have been targeted for phase
out. For example, approximately 10% of the total R134A production
weight is toxic waste.
There is also concern that HFCs may not be genuinely ozone-friendly.
The production of HFCs uses the very same halogenated CFCs and HCFCs
which they are intended to replace. Emissions during the manufacturing
process are inevitable. For example, one UK plant for producing HFC 32 is
authorised to emit 15 tonnes a year of R22 by Her Majesty's Inspectorate of
Pollution. For this reason it is impossible to regard HFCs as ozone-friendly.
There is now a growing realisation that HFCs are not a long-term solu-
tion to our refrigerant needs because of their environmental unsuitability.
Luxembourg, a member of the European Union, has already effectively
banned HFCs and The Netherlands has indicated that it may soon follow.
The chemical industry is trying to develop possible fluorinated synthetic
refrigerants with low global warming potentials. Fluoroiodocarbons (FICs),
hydrofluoroethers (HFEs), fluoroamines and fluorosulphides are all being
developed as a third generation of alternative refrigerants. Development is
at an advanced stage with toxicology testing on live animals already under
way.
It would appear that the chemical industry is frantically fluorinating
everything in the laboratory in an increasingly desperate and, to date,
unsuccessful attempt to find an environmentally acceptable fluorinated syn-
thetic refrigerant. This begs the question: 'Why use unnatural synthetic
chemicals with unknown long-term effects for mankind, when nature has
provided us with a range of fluids which, provided they are used in a
sensible way, can satisfy all of our refrigeration requirements?' (The late
Professor G. Lorentzen, Norwegian Institute of Technology).
4.9 Natural refrigerauts aud 'not in kind' technologies
The German Federal Authority of the Environment has listed only five safe
refrigerants:
• Air
• Water vapour
• Carbon dioxide
• Hydrocarbons
• Ammonia
In theory our industry could cope with this very limited range of options. In
practice, however, any imminent government legislation imposing such
limitations would devastate the cold and chilled storage refrigeration indus-
try and threaten the integrity of the cold distribution food chain itself.
Clearly, a change on this scale needs to be managed over a long time frame
rather than as a knee jerk reaction to imminent legislation. To this end,
we need to engage in positive discussions with governments and environ-
mentalists. If we continue to ignore reasoned arguments, then we risk
attracting the attentions of the CA VE men (campaign against virtually
everything).
The obvious solution is to adopt 'not in kind' solutions on a voluntary
basis rather than to rely on HFC derivatives of existing systems until gov-
ernment legislation or pressure from environmentalists force us to do
otherwise. Why is this not happening already? First, the chemical industry's
marketing departments, which previously persuaded us to accept HCFCs as
part of the solution, rather than part of the environmental problem, are now
carrying out the same exercise with HFCs. Second, due to tight profit
margins and economic uncertainties, the equipment manufacturers adopt a

minimalist approach to research and development and are unwilling to
invest in NIK alternatives if they think we can be persuaded to accept HFC
derivatives of their existing products.
4.10 Absorption
Superficially, the market for gas-fired absorption refrigeration looks good.

Instead of CFCs, ammonia and water are used (the water and lithium
bromide machines used by the air-conditioning industry are unsuitable for
refrigeration as fluid temperatures below DoC are not achievable). Absorp-
tion chillers have few moving parts, reducing maintenance costs. Finally
they can use natural gas as their fuel when it is more competitively priced
than electricity.
In practice, however, absorption refrigeration still has some serious prob-
lems to overcome. Large users of electricity may be able to negotiate
favourable tariffs directly from the electricity generators. Coupled with the
fact that absorption systems are inherently inefficient, with typical COPs of
only 0.4 for single effect cycles and a maximum of 0.74 for double effect, it
is often found that the electrical vapour compression option offers the
lowest running costs. Furthermore, the electrical option almost invariably
offers lower capital costs and there is a wider range of electrically driven
equipment on the market.
However, the economics for absorption refrigeration look much more
Exhaust to / \
atmosphere 1J
Natural gas ¢
Air¢
Alternator ¢ Electricity
Heat recovered from

engine and exhaust Hot water
chiller
Figure 4.3 Principle of a combined heat. power and refrigeration system.

favourable when coupled with a combined heat and power (CHP) system.
By combining the on-site generation of electricity with the provision of
refrigeration, heating and hot water services, combined heat power and
refrigeration (CHPR) systems provide a total energy service which can
dramatically reduce overall running costs (Figure 4.3).
Software is now available to select the most effective system and for
many applications absorption is now a viable option.
A typical recent development in the UK is the provision of a single
packaged gas-fired chiller delivering 12kW of refrigeration as a water/
glycol mix at -5°C. This unit is particularly useful for chilling small stores,
extensions and loading bays where the operator does not wish to increase
the electricity capacity of the site but in all probability will have spare gas
capacity. Absorption chilling is also viable when combined with air cycle
freezing (Section 4.11).
4.11 Air-cycle refrigeration
Air-cycle refrigeration (ACR) based on the reverse louIe cycle, or Brayton

cycle, was conceived in the early 1800s and first applied as early as 1874.
Since that time ACR has found a niche market providing air-conditioned
pressurised cabins for high-altitude aircraft.
Air (R729) has a number of special performance characteristics which are
ideally suited to the cold storage of food products (Figure 4.4). For exam-
ple, when chilling or freezing meat using a conventional vapour compres-
sion system, both sensible cooling (temperature reduction) and latent
cooling (dehumidification) occur. The latter causes evaporative weight loss
from the meat which reduces its market value as meat is generally sold by
weight. The weight loss may be worth between 20 and 50 times the cost of
Cooling
water
Figure 4.4 The principle of air-cycle refrigeration.

the energy consumed in the cooling cycle. By using air-cycle refrigeration,

supersaturated air at low temperatures can be produced, extending the
range of conditions and enabling greater overall cost savings than when
using conventional refrigeration without damaging quality. At low tem-
peratures ACR becomes more efficient than vapour compression alterna-
tives and more rapid freezing rates can be attained.
Current designs of air-cycle applications based on aircraft air-
conditioning do not result in the levels of energy efficiency which ought to
be required by cold store operators. We therefore require modern efficiency
optimised designs. The key is to increase the amount of work recovered
between the expander and compressor. A most promising development
appears to be the use of pressure wave machines for this purpose.
The pressure wave machine has a belt-driven rotor consisting of small
chambers that are located concentrically around the shaft on a certain
diameter. On the left-hand side there is the housing for the compression
side and on the right-hand side, the expansion side housing. Both housings
have inlets and outlets. When the rotor is turning, the chambers pass the
inlets and outlets. Compressed air passing the compressor inlet is expanded,
giving its energy to the air that is to be compressed. This direct contact
energy transmission works with very few losses. It is possible to make use of
the very high-grade heat of rejection from air-cycle plant operating on
a cold store to drive an absorption chiller providing chilled water for
chillstores on the same site. The combined operation becomes highly effi-
cient and cost-effective.
4.12 Water vapour
Water vapour (R718) as a refrigerant is utilised in vacuum ice generation.

This process requires no evaporator or condenser. A centrifugal compres-
sor is used to subject a flash vessel containing water to a sub-atmospheric
pressure of 0.0061 bar. Flash evaporation occurs, producing a suspension of
microscopic ice crystals in water known as binary ice (Figure 4.5). This
vacuum process yields excellent COPs unmatched by any other refrigera-
tion cycle. The compressor vapour is liquified by spraying cooling water
directly into an empty condenser vessel, thereby avoiding the heat ex-
changer completely. The ice/water slurry can be used in place of chilled
water or stored overnight in an ice bank for use the following day.
Due to the very low volumetric capacity of water vapour refrigerant, the
compressors used in this cycle are physically very large and to date have
only been used for cooling capacities in excess of 760 kW, although systems
as small as 500kW are available. This process should be given serious
consideration for very large chill store applications.
Cooling
water
Water inlet
~
Mechanical or Condenser
thermal energy
Binary ice outlet Condensate out
Figure 4.5 Principle of a vacuum ice machine.
4.13 Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide (R744) has been called the forgotten refrigerant; it was
commonly used in the last century but fell out of favour in the 1930s. Recent
developments suggest that the time is now right for its reapplication with
modern technology.
As well as being environmentally friendly, carbon dioxide is both non-
toxic and non-flammable, and therefore has advantages over both ammonia
and the hydrocarbons. Furthermore, it is inexpensive and compatible with
normal equipment and lubricants. Its relatively high pressure is perfectly
adapted to modern machine design and gives a dramatic reduction in re-
quired compressor volumes and pipe dimensions. Its excellent heat transfer
characteristics at high pressure are yet another advantage. All this should
lead to a considerable reduction in equipment cost when a reasonable
production volume is attained.
Making use of the special properties of R744, it is possible to achieve the
glide in temperature which is required in applications such as central engine
rooms with remote and diversified cold and chilled chambers. The high
pressure differential and relatively small flash-gas volume allow the recov-
ery of the expansion energy in a compact expander.
Systems using R744 have been developed for commercial refrigeration
with heat recovery. They have the advantage of very simple controls and
robust evaporator liquid supply. Running costs are well below those of
conventional plant with heat recovery, providing there is a reasonable hot
water demand on site. This is due to better compressor and cooler efficiency
and because water temperatures approaching lOO°C can be achieved with-
out artificially raising condensing temperatures.
A perceived drawback of carbon dioxide is its relatively low critical
temperature of 31°C. For most applications this therefore implies a

transcritical refrigeration process. Transcritical refrigeration is loved by
refrigeration academics but largely shunned by refrigeration contractors on
the grounds that they do not really understand what is going on. In fact,
transcritical cycles operating on R744 in the pressure range 90-100bar are
especially efficient at hard-working conditions with low heat source tem-
peratures and high condensing temperatures.
Is R744 the miracle refrigerant that the cold and chilled storage industry
has been waiting for? Unfortunately, very few compressor manufacturers
supply units for operating pressures in the region of 100bar. The problem
may be overcome by using a blend of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons.
The carbon dioxide reduces the problem of flammability and the hydrocar-
bons reduce the problem of high pressure level. To achieve this the carbon
dioxide has to be mixed with hydrocarbons with significantly lower vapour
pressure. This leads to a high temperature glide which can be used to
advantage. Isobutane (R600A) and also prop an one (acetone) have been
proposed for this application.
4.14 Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons have very similar physical properties to CFCs, HCFCs and

HFCs; however, they have zero ozone-depleting potential and minimal
global warming potential. Hydrocarbons may be used as substitutes, and in
many cases as direct drop-in replacements, for R12, R502 and R22. There
are no particular material problems and hydrocarbons may be used in
hermetic and semi-hermetic compressors. Furthermore, hydrocarbons are
compatible with traditional mineral oil lubricants. Generalisation of min-
eral oil/hydrocarbon mixture viscosities suggests that an ISO grade mineral
oil 22 to 32 will best match present viscosities. Refrigeration plant operating
with hydrocarbons has been in operation worldwide for many years; they
are proven refrigerants. Due to favourable temperature behaviour, single
stage compressors can be used down to -49°C using hydrocarbons. Energy
efficiency is invariably improved when hydrocarbons are used in place of
traditional halocarbons.
With regard to an R12 replacement, the single component hydrocar-
bon which most closely matches the required physical properties is
cyclopropane (RC270). The trend, however, is towards using saturated
alkanes and it has been found that a blend of 50% propane (R290) and 50%
isobutane (R600A) gives equally good results.
For R502 replacement the single component choice would be propene
(R1270). This is one of the few hydrocarbons with a pungent smell; a useful
aid to leak detection! A blend of propane and ethane (R170) gives equally
good results using saturated alkanes.
R22 could be replaced with propane, although this would result in a slight
capacity reduction when used as a drop-in. When a blend of propane and
ethane is used, there is no capacity reduction.
The hydrocarbons outperform traditional halocarbon refrigerants in all
aspects other than one, namely flammability. It is this one single issue which
has to date prevented their widespread adoption. This is not entirely logical
as hydrocarbons are extensively used in the cold and chilled storage distri-
bution sector as liquid fuel for fork-lift trucks, ethene (ethylene) is used for
fruit ripening, mains gas is used as boiler fuel and the higher hydrocarbons
are used as fuel for vehicles. Furthermore, aerosols are stored in dry goods
stores without undue problems.
The use of hydrocarbon refrigerants involves risk, although it is possible
to understand the risks, identify mitigating strategies and consider how
the risks can be managed. In the UK risk analysis should be carried out
under the Construction (Design and Management) (CDM) Regulations
1994, which came into effect on 31st March 1995. The UK legislation
introduces two specific activities: development of a health and safety
plan and maintenance of a health and safety file. Health and safety
responsibilities placed on the client include the obligation to appoint a
competent planning supervisor who will obviously need to be familiar
with flammable refrigerants. More specific guidance can be obtained
from the updated BS4434: 1995 Safety and Environmental Aspects in
the Design, Construction and Installation of Refrigerating Appliances
and Systems. This standard defines hydrocarbon refrigerants as group
A3, that is flammable but non-toxic. It also defines cold and chill
storage applications as category C, that is areas where only authorised
persons who are acquainted with safety precautions have access. The
following is therefore specific to group A3 refrigerants in category C
occupancies.
• For refrigerating systems with the high-pressure side located in a special

machinery room or in the open air, the following requirements shall be
met:
(a) the system shall be at ground level or above
(b) if the charge exceeds 2.5 kg the electrical equipment within the cold
room shall be in accordance with BS 5345
(c) the refrigerant charge shall not exceed 25 kg
• For indirect systems utilising secondary refrigerants, the following re-
strictions apply:
(a) the system shall be at ground level or above
(b) if the charge exceeds 2.5 kg any electrical equipment sited within a
plantroom shall be in accordance with BS 5345
(c) there shall be no restriction of refrigerant charge, except as required
by local planning and building regulations
In practice this would imply that where simple split systems are employed
it is only the evaporator blower which needs to be in accordance
with BS5345. This can be achieved most economically be ensuring that
all electrical devices situated within 1 m of a potential leak have an
IP54 protection mode. Additionally, a hydrocarbon detector wired
through a contact or should isolate the electrics at a gas concentration
of less than 5% of the lower explosive limit (LEL). This is less onerous
than would be required, for example, for flammable goods stores.
There would appear to be ample opportunity for de centralised con-
densing units located either adjacent to or on the roof of cold and
chilled stores utilising hydrocarbon refrigerant charges of up to 25 kg.
It should be noted that 25 kg of a hydrocarbon refrigerant will
replace:
• 63 kg of R502
• 61kg of R22
• 62kg of R134A
• 67kg of R12
This should allow systems of up to approximately 50 horsepower
capacity.
It should be noted that the UK regulations are those with which the
author is most conversant. They will eventually be superseded by European
Union regulations. Readers operating outside of the UK should ensure
compliance with local rules and regulations.
Specimen risk assessment for hydrocarbon refrigerants (to comply with

UK regulations such as CDM)
Assessment of risk
Significant hazards Insignificant Low Medium High
1. Fire x
2. Explosion X
3.
Actions already taken to reduce the risks:
Compliance with BS 4434:1995. Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied

Petroleum Gases Regulations 1979. HSE Guidance Booklet HS(G)3
Highly flammable materials on construction sites.
Planning. Prior to starting work with HCs quantities will be estimated to

ensure that only mini urn quantities are ordered. A suitable fire-resistant
store will be provided for HCs. The store will be signed according to the
requirements of the regulations.
Physical. Cylinders used to store HCs will be marked accordingly to

show HCs are present, with a flashpoint of less than 32°C. Where HC
vapour is foreseeable, no means of ignition will be present. Areas
where HCs are stored or used will be kept clear of combustible material as
far as practical. HCs will not be used for purposes which are unauthorised,
such as starting fires, blowing condensers or external cooling of compressor
bodies.
Design. System to be designed for 'pump down' operation so that the

refrigerant is stored in the outdoor receiver during the off cycle. Condens-
ing unit electrical components to be located in a separate control box
designed to IP54 standard and isolated from the refrigeration system. A
substantial guard is required around the outdoor coil to reduce the
likelihood of mechanical damage. Safety labelling is required to the indoor
unit, outdoor unit and all compressors. All heating elements to have ther-
mal cutouts set below the flash point of the refrigerant (this to include
crankcase heaters and trace heating). The pressure relief device should not
operate so as to cause additional hazards to persons such as fire-fighting
personnel who may be in the area. Hydrocarbon leak detectors to be
installed. Additionally the low-pressure cut-out is to be wired through a
remote alarm system. The overall design of the system should not include
dead spaces where a leaked refrigerant that is heavier than air can
accumulate.
ManageriaUsupervisory. Management will ensure that storage facilities

are adequate and are maintained to the specified standard. During inspec-
tions, they will check to ensure HCs are being used properly and that the
correct fire precautions are being taken.
Training. Operatives using HCs will be given training. This will include
the use of fire extinguishers.
4.15 Ammonia
Ammonia is the only one of the original refrigerants which was able to
stand up to the onslaught from the halocarbons. It has been used for
decades in industrial refrigeration plants and its continued popularity
throughout the CFC era amply demonstrates its unique benefits in cold and
chilled storage applications. It has no ozone depletion potential and no
global warming potential. Its energy efficiency is at least as good as, and in
most applications better than, R22.
There are, however, a number of drawbacks. The high compressor dis-
charge temperature restricts the use of single-stage compression to evapo-
rating temperatures above ':"lQ°C, unless screw compressors are utilised.
Ammonia is not compatible with conventional lubricants and is highly
corrosive to copper. It cannot therefore be used with hermetic or semi-
hermetic compressors unless aluminium windings are used, and leakage
from shaft seals is difficult to eliminate. A Japanese manufacturer claims to
have overcome the shaft seal problem by using an air-tight can between the
motor's rotor and stator. No seal is needed and it said to be possible to
completely prevent leakage of ammonia.
Traditionally, cold and chilled store applications using ammonia have
been designed as flooded systems. A surge drum of liquid ammonia is
reduced in temperature by the compressor evaporating the vapour from the
top of the drum. This low-temperature liquid ammonia is then pumped to
the blower units. More recently, the development of ammonia-soluble lu-
bricants now allows fully automated operation and direct expansion evapo-
rators. These will be very similar to R22 systems, although pipe work and
materials will be predominantly mild steel, stainless steel and, to a lesser
extent, aluminium.
It is important to note the difference between the meaning of the
terms 'soluble' and 'miscible' in the context of ammonia compatible
lubricants:
• Soluble refers to the ability of ammonia gas to dissolve in liquid oil.
• Miscible refers to the ability of liquid ammonia to mix completely with
liquid oil.
Ammonia-soluble oils offer particular advantages in respect of refrigera-
tion plant operating costs. The coefficient of performance of refrigeration
systems is improved due to the increased heat transfer coefficients of evapo-
rators running continuously in clean condition with no oil or wax films.
Liquid ammonia and these oils are miscible so that in the evaporator the
mixture has a viscosity of the same order as liquid ammonia itself. This
means that there is no longer an oil pour point in the evaporator. The
advantages of this type of oil become greater the lower the evaporating
temperature of the system. The vapour pressure is low, helping to minimise
oil carryover, the lubrication properties of suitably formulated products is
excellent and the life is expected to be as long as the best synthetic non-
soluble products currently in use. The lower the temperature, the greater
the improvement.
As with synthetic oils used for HFCs it should be noted that these oils
may have a tendency to absorb water from the atmosphere if the containers
are left open and these should therefore be kept sealed.
The ammonia industry has an excellent opportunity to increase its mar-
ket share and to grow into a major industrial activity. It is apparent that user
industries are on the threshold of making major policy decisions and they
need to be persuaded to consider ammonia as their preferred refrigerant.
The question is 'When and how quickly will the ammonia refrigeration
industry change into a major global industrial player in the market sectors
which have been lost to halocarbons?' There is an urgent need to embark
on a sophisticated strategic plan for the promotion and wider acceptance of
ammonia technology as a valid commercial, and environmentally superior,
alternative to halocarbons.
It must be recognised, however, that there are three major obstacles.
1. The halocarbon chemical industry has fought a highly successful

marketing campaign for many years and will not easily relinquish market
share.
2. Any large-scale return to ammonia will be hampered by an acute skills
shortage among refrigeration engineers. Ammonia conversion courses
for halocarbon engineers are expensive, time consuming and intellectu-
ally demanding. So far very few have made the change.
3. Finally, there are the safety issues. Ammonia is both toxic and flammable
and must be kept away from people and products. In the UK new
projects will be covered by the CDM Regulations, accidents must be
reported to the Health & Safety Executive and BS4434: 1995 should be
adhered to.
BS4434: 1995 defines ammonia as a group B2 refrigerant, that is to say both
toxic and mildly flammable. Cold and chilled stores are defined as category
C occupancies. The following restrictions are also applicable to group B1
refrigerants, that is to say non-toxic, mildly flammable refrigerants such as
R32 and R152A.
1. Where the system is located in an occupied space where the number
of people is not restricted the refrigerant charge shall not exceed
10 kg.
2. Where the density of occupancy is lower than one person per 10m2 of
floor area, the refrigerant charge shall not exceed 50kg.
3. Where the high-pressure side is located in a plant room or in the open air
there shall be no restriction of refrigerant charge provided the refriger-
ating system does not extend to rooms where the density of occupancy is
greater than one person per 10m2 floor area.
4. For indirect systems utilising secondary refrigerants, there shall be no
restriction of charge except as required by local planning and building
regulations.
4.16 Secondary refrigerants
Modern designs for chiller plant include features such as plate heat ex-
changers, flooded evaporators and low-pressure receivers. Energy effi-
ciency has been enhanced to such an extent that secondary refrigerants can
now be utilised without adding to overall system running costs, whilst at the
same time keeping the refrigerant charge to an absolute minimum. Systems
providing up to 250kW of cooling are now available using less than 40kg of
ammonia.
For chill applications conventional corrosion-inhibited glycol and water
is fine but cold applications are more problematical.
Monopropylene glycol
This has the advantage of being food safe but below -30°C becomes unsuit-
able due to its poor heat transfer coefficient and very high viscosity.
Brine
Calcium chloride brine solution is the traditional low-temperature second-
ary refrigerant, however at -35°C its viscosity is high, heat transfer coeffi-
cient is low, pumping energy is high, it is corrosive and, worst of all, it is
hygroscopic to such an extent that if its concentration is not checked regu-
larly, freezing can occur due to inadvertent dilution.
Carbon dioxide
The use of liquified carbon dioxide under pressure as a volatile secondary
refrigerant offers an alternative solution. Liquified carbon dioxide can be
used at temperatures down to -50°C, although system pressures are much
higher than in conventional systems, particularly during the defrost cycle.
This system is currently undergoing trials by one of the major supermarket
chains at a test site in Kilmarnock, Scotland.
Silicone oil
Development work using these oils is currently progressing well. A super-
market chain is monitoring an installation in Horsham, England. It has
not yet been established whether running costs will be lower than for DX
systems.
Flo-ice
A solution of ethanol and water with salt additives may be passed through
a scraped surface evaporator to produce microscopic ice crystals in solution.
Temperatures down to -40°C can be achieved. The ice in suspension offers
a large cooling capacity and maintains a stable temperature. The liquid state
of the coolant provides good heat transfer characteristics and therefore high
energy efficiency. In some instances it may be possible to retrofit, exploiting
the existing pipework and other refrigeration plant.
Organic salts
Proprietary blends of organic salts, such as inhibited alkali-ethanate solu-
tions, are now available which combine the good thermal characteristics of
salt solutions with the anticorrosion properties of glycols. Viscosities are
significantly less than for traditional secondary refrigerants, resulting in a
reduction in the energy required for pumping. They may be used in systems
cooling to -55°C.
4.17 Refrigerants beyond the crisis
Table 4.3 lists refrigerants that fall into four major categories.
Table 4.3
Controlled Short-term Medium-term Long-term

CFCs HCFCs HFCs NIKs
High ozone depletion Low ozone depletion Ozone friendly Ozone friendly
High global warming High global warming High global warming Low global warming
Rll R123 R134A R718 (water)

R12 R40JA R134A R729 (air)
R405A R152A R717 (ammonia)
R409A R 744 (carbon dioxide)
RJ42B CARE 30 (HC blend)
R600A (isobutane)
RC270 (cyclopropane)
R13/R503 R23 R170 (ethane)
R14
R1l4 R124 R236FA R717 (ammonia)
R744 (carbon dioxide)
R500 R401B R134A R717 (ammonia)
R744 (carbon dioxide)
R502 R402A+B R404A R717 (ammonia)
R408A R407A+B R 744 (carbon dioxide)
R403A+B R507 CARE 50 (HC blend)
R32 R1270 (propene)
R13Bl R403B Rl25 RJ 70 (ethane)
R1270 (propene)
R22 R407C R717 (ammonia)
R410A R744 (carbon dioxide)
R32 R290 (propane)
CARE 50 (HC blend)
Practical drop in replacement refrigerants are shown in italic type.

4.18 Indirect global warming and energy conservation
Mention energy conservation and most people will demonstrate polite su-
perficial interest which rarely converts into concrete action. Governments
in particular are keen to tell other people to save energy, whilst making very
little effort themselves. UK readers may recall the phrase 'monergy' coined
on behalf of a mid-1980s Energy Secretary, Lord Peter Walker. For years,
ministers appeared on public platforms arguing that 20% of fuel currently
being consumed was wasted and that savings of £7 billion per annum from
the national energy bill were achievable. With inflation, the potential reduc-
tion for the nation soared to £10 billion a year but still very little was done
about it.
Even now, specifiers who are keen to be 'seen to be green' by using
natural refrigerants often fail to 'go the extra mile' by using energy-saving
devices which can offer a better reduction in global warming, whilst at the
same time paying for themselves out of the reduced cost of energy
consumption.
What is it that frightens users off? Undoubtedly, many users got their
fingers burnt in the early 1980s when the combination of unreliable equip-
ment, inexperienced contractors and overenthusiastic salesmen combined
to give the energy conservation industry such a bad reputation.
Although the technology has moved on from those dark days, users'
attitudes, unfortunately, have not. As an example, look at the heat recovery
condensing units which were developed for small chill store applications
such as public house beer cellars. Initially it was claimed that they were
less reliable than conventional plant. The industry responded with a
seven year warranty and maintenance scheme. Then it was claimed that
scarce capital resources could not be squandered on revenue-saving
projects. The industry responded with a five year lease rental scheme
whereby the equipment paid for itself out of the savings. Finally, it was
admitted that the real reason for the lack of interest in these products was
that the departments responsible for equipment procurement would not
benefit from the energy savings. Enlightened companies overcame this
problem by appointing energy managers with the authority to authorise
capital expenditure.
It is now possible, however, to cut energy costs by simply shopping
around and playing one energy supplier against another without having to
go through all the sweat of installing new equipment, altering practices,
retraining staff and consuming management time. The graph in Figure 4.6
shows how average industrial electricity prices have fallen over the last 35
years relative to the retail price index of all items. Although the data used
for this comparison are from UK sources, much the same may be expected
in other countries, where primary fuel costs are linked to OPEC prices and
similar retail indices apply.
110,-------------------------------------------------~
90
80
70
60
5~960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Figure 4.6 Average industrial electricity prices relative to the Retail Price Index (all items).
Index to 1960 = 100.
So is energy conservation a lost cause? Very definitely not! The concept

has been re-packaged and renamed as 'indirect global warming' and
will soon overtake both ozone depletion and direct global warming as the
main area of environmental concern. Governments have entered into
formal international treaties to reduce indirect global warming from
carbon dioxide emissions. To date these targets have been achieved by
environmentally dubious practices such as extending the lifetime of ageing
Magnox nuclear power stations and by switching from long-term fossil fuel
resources, namely coal, to short-term fossil fuel resources, such as natural
gas.
Since 1990 the UK has achieved the uniquely awful feat of becoming
year-on-year less energy efficient. This has reversed a pattern of a gradual
1 % average improvement since the end of World War II. This trend will
clearly have to be reversed; if not by voluntary means, then by government
legislation. We must look at the problems of ozone depletion and direct
global warming where industry failed to act in a responsible manner and
eventually governments were forced to legislate. We are clearly 'drinking in
the last chance saloon', but if we act now, legislation can be averted. If we
do not, and legislation becomes inevitable, then at the very least those
companies that have made an effort will have insulated themselves from the
inevitably damaging effects of legislation.
4.19 Energy conservation for cold stores
There are several routes available for the saving of energy in the running of
refrigeration plant. These can be described broadly as:
• Automatically corrected power factor correction
• Compressor motor control
• Electronic evaporator control system
• Floating head pressure and pack control
• Maintenance and monitoring
• Lighting
• Cold store door maintenance
• Heat recovery
• Use of cheap-rate electricity
• Automatic non-condensable gas purgers
• Refrigerated loading docks
• Selecting the right condenser
• Additional measures
Automatically corrected power factor correction

Electricity is not a commodity which can be stored and used as required, it
has to be available when required by the consumer. When generators run
on a low lead factor, the system is inefficient and the cost of electricity
correspondingly high. It is obvious then, that to obtain the best possible
economic advantage from electrical power both the generating and con-
sumer's plant should be operated at high efficiency. To help achieve this, it
is essential to have a good power factor throughout the system.
Any installation that includes the following types of machinery is likely to
have a low power factor which can be corrected with a consequent saving in
energy and charges.
• Induction motors which form the largest industrial load, i.e. fan motor,
refrigeration compressor motor, etc.
• Power transformers, i.e. battery chargers
• Neon signs and discharge tubes
• Welding machines
In inductive equipment like this, and where the current lags behind the
applied voltage, the power factor is referred to as a lagging or low power
factor, i.e. the supply authorities have to generate much more current than
is theoretically required and obviously the consumer will pay for more
power than is required to do the work. To overcome this, and at the same
time to ensure that the generators are not overloaded with what is termed
wattless current, the supply authorities often penalise consumers whose
power factor is low and often offer reduced terms to efficient consumers
whose power factor is high.
There are a number of ways in which the power factor can be improved.
The most popular is the addition of capacitors which have a leading power
factor, which improves the system efficiency. Each power factor correction
scheme will require individual consideration for the correct siting of the
capacitors and will depend on whether each piece of equipment is being
individually corrected or the plant as a whole. In the first case the capacitor
and motor will be as close together as possible. In the second case the
capacitors will be located at the mains intake position. Automatic switching
of capacitors is recognised as an ideal way of obtaining electrical and
financial benefits from the installation, the resulting economic savings
invariably provide a very swift pay back (often well under one year).
Compressor motor control

In the UK the Energy Efficiency Office (EEO) has carried out field tests to
assess the potential savings that can be achieved through the use of com-
pressor motor control technology. The results have been published in a case
study, part of the EEO's best practice programme.
The controller operates by sensing the loading on the compressor motor.
When this is below the full load capacity, the controller modulates the
voltage and current by switching them off 100 times per second. This
modulation has two effects: it reduces the core and winding losses, hence
improving efficiency, and it reduces the power input to the motor to match
actual requirements. Monitored results indicate savings of approximately
15%, with further cost savings being achieved due to reduced maximum
demand and improved power factor. Payback periods have been calculated
in the region of 1.9 years. One UK cold store chain has already achieved
reductions of £150000 per annum on their annual electricity bill by this
method. This represents over 6% of their total energy consumption.
Even greater savings can be achieved by utilising inverter-driven
variable-speed compressors. Part load efficiency is greatly improved as the
economiser operates even at low load. Step less control allows the optimal
volume ratio to be maintained at part load, eliminating losses due to
changed geometry. Inverters permit soft start with no current peaks, no
star/delta starter or contactor systems, and in addition both transformer
capacity and cable sizes can be reduced. Power factors close to one are
achieved, reducing the reactive effect and eliminating the cost of capacitor
banks.
Electronic evaporator control system

These allow evaporators to operate as partially flooded systems, as opposed
to convention dry expansion. This allows superheat to be minimised, which
increases the efficiency of both the evaporator and the compressors. It also
allows the use of floating suction pressure and enables monitoring of per-
formance data to take place. It can incorporate 'defrost on demand'. This

means that if a defrost is not required then it is omitted. The use of
electronic evaporator control systems alone can achieve energy savings of
between 15 and 20%.
Floating head pressure and pack control

This allows for the condensing temperature to float as low as 20°C, if
ambient conditions allow, instead of the normal 40°C. Lower night-time
temperatures can be set, thus maximising use of off-peak electricity tariffs.
The system also allows for evaporator fan cycling, i.e. when the required
store temperature is reached, fans are switched off, thus saving energy cost
and heat input into the room.
The pack controller will take over the loading and unloading of compres-
sors and is capable of selecting the correct compressor for the required
duty. This allows hour runs of the compressors to be matched and if un-
equal sized compressors are installed, then the correct combination of
compressors running at full capacity can be automatically selected, thus
minimising part load operation and the associated uneconomical running
costs.
In combination with the electronic evaporator control system previously
described, savings of between 40 and 50% have been achieved and con-
firmed by field trials.
Maintenance and monitoring

It is vitally important that refrigeration plant be properly maintained. This
saves energy as clean condensers and evaporators make for efficient plant.
For example, every 1°C rise in condensing pressure equates to between 3
and 5% more energy being consumed by the compressors. In order to
maintain optimum operating conditions for maximum energy saving, it is
necessary to comprehensively monitor all relevant parameters. By the use
of combined evaporator/pack controllers, the monitoring facilities are vast
and can also be remotely adjusted.
The following parameters all have a bearing on plant performance:
• Air-on temperature
• Air-off temperature
• Superheat temperature
• Defrost termination temperature
• Liquid temperature
• Compressor amps (individually)
• Cold room temperatures at different locations
• Room void temperatures
• Air-on and -off condenser temperatures

• Non-condensable gases
• External ambient temperature
• Suction and discharge temperature at compressor
• Pressure drop across driers
• Compressor safety circuits, i.e. oil pressure trip, high pressure trip and
low pressure trip
• Condenser fan trips
• Refrigerant leakage alarms
From the above, if remote monitoring is installed then the moment an

alarm sounds it can be automatically re-transmitted via the telephone net-
work to the refrigeration service company. The service engineer can inter-
rogate the controllers, find out exactly what the problem is and perhaps
rectify the fault over the computer link by, for example, initiating a defrost.
It also gives the refrigeration service company the opportunity to either
immediately send an engineer to site for an emergency call-out or delay the
visit for a minor fault such as a fan trip. This reduces the costs of aborted
and wasted call-outs.
Lighting
In cold rooms the lighting energy is paid for twice: first in the power used by
the lights to illuminate the room and, second, in the energy required by the
refrigeration plant to extract this energy. Lighting should therefore be
controlled to only operate when personnel are in the cold room.
Cold store door maintenance

Good cold store door maintenance is essential to avoid air leakage, espe-
cially in hot humid weather. This causes evaporators to ice up and, conse-
quently, extra defrosts are required. This adds extra heat into the room
which then requires cooling by the refrigeration plant.
Heat recovery
Heat recovery via a desuperheater is an extremely useful way of saving
energy but unfortunately on plants designed for maximum energy saving
and with floating head pressure control, the amount of waste heat available
can be negligible. Plants without this degree of sophistication would be
suitable for heat recovery and, if de superheaters are fitted into the dis-
charge line, then water temperatures in excess of 55°C may be achievable
using refrigerant R22. Using ammonia as the refrigerant, water tempera-
tures in excess of 70°C have been achieved. Obviously the quantities are
dependent upon the capacity of the refrigeration plant and the demand/
availability time profiles.
Use of cheap-rate electricity

This does not save energy but does save a considerable amount of money!
The idea is to set a lower store temperature to coincide with off-peak tariffs.
This allows a thermal store to be built up. When the off-peak tariff period
finishes, internal temperatures are allowed to rise slowly over approxi-
mately five hours to the day-time set temperature.
Automatic non-condensable gas purgers

These are essential on systems working under vacuum as they automatically
expel any non-condensables, such as air, from the refrigeration system. This
lowers energy consumption, increases safety, decreases breakdowns in hot
weather, reduces pressures and increases the life expectancy of the plant.
Refrigerated loading docks

On freezer stores the majority of the infiltration load can be pre-cooled by
the use of refrigerated loading bays at chill conditions. On large two-stage
systems the loading bay should be cooled by the intermediate circuit, thus
greatly increasing the COP of the plant.
Selecting the right condenser

Following government legislation requmng all cooling towers and
evaporative condensers to be registered and properly maintained, there has
been an inevitable decline in the demand for such systems. However, the
annual electrical consumption of refrigeration plant with wet condensers is
typically 14% less than for similar dry systems.
Whilst maintenance costs for wet systems are high, a tour of most cold
and chilled storage depots will reveal that air-cooled condensers seem to be
ignored and require much more maintenance than they receive. This re-
duces plant reliability and life, imposing financial penalties on cold store
operators.
With regard to capital costs, air-cooled condensers require a budget of
approximately £25 per kW of heat rejected. Evaporative condensers are
cheaper for capacities above 160kW heat of rejection. Costs are in the
region of £15 per kW for a 500kW unit.
If global warming and environmental issues are considered, evaporative
condensers would be a good choice for systems with more than lOOkW heat
of rejection. The future of evaporative cooling depends on innovative de-
signs achieving a reduction in maintenance costs. Ultraviolet radiation is

safer than chemical treatment and will reduce operating costs, if used in
conjunction with non-chemical electromagnetic scale control devices which,
whilst not changing the chemical composition of the water, protect the
system against the formation of hard scale. Alternatively, the use of ozone
offers the cooling tower operator an opportunity to treat cooling systems
in a more environmentally friendly way than chlorine- or bromine-based
oxidising biocides. Ozone treatment offers additional benefits relative to
enhanced health and safety aspects and reduced maintenance costs.
Evaporative condensers, particularly of the air-water froth contact type,
are likely to increase their market share at the expense of air-cooled
condensers.
Additional measures
When considering replacement of major components or complete new
systems, significant energy savings may occur if the designer addresses the
following issues:
• Low power evaporator fans
• Large evaporators
• Large condensers
• Efficient compressors
• Comprehensive performance monitoring
• Defrost regime
When looking at distribution stores generally, additional viable energy-
efficient areas include:
• Automatically corrected power factor correction to battery charging sta-
tions and induction motors
• Door switches to air curtains
• Strip curtains
• Lighting level controllers to ambient handling areas
• Time-clock control to cold store lighting
• Optimum start/stop on boilers
• Passive infrared controlled lighting
4.20 Conclusions
The environmental impact of the cooling, freezing and temperature-

controlled storage sectors of our industry can be minimised by:
• Energy efficient operation
• Responsible purchase of materials of construction
• Wider use of environmentally benign refrigerants

• Most importantly, by constant awareness of the overall effects of our
activities and the potential future risks that we could build into our
operations by purchasing plant and equipment which could be seen as
less than responsible.
Refrigeration engineers, armed with halocarbons, have saved more peo-
ple from malnutrition and provided more employees with the dignity of
decent working conditions than any other profession. The great challenge
as we approach the twenty-first century is to achieve even higher standards
armed only with the natural refrigerants. The rewards will be environmen-
tal credibility and bigger profits; two of the most highly prized attributes
sought by any industry today.
5 Store insulation
B.A. RUSSELL
5.1 Historical background
The need for insulation

During the early part of the twentieth century, the need for insulation of
storage areas become apparent following experiments in marine transport.
Before this, ship cargo areas were loaded with ice to keep products fresh
during transit. Soon refrigeration systems and insulated enclosures were
established to ensure that fresh produce would arrive at its destination in
good condition.
Various forms of insulation materials were used; the earliest were wood
chippings compacted between the ribs on the ships' sides and bulkheads
and lined with either timber boards or metal cladding. It was soon realized
that this form of insulation absorbed moisture to such an extent that even-
tually it became almost solid ice. Although the ships' sides and metal
bulkheads protected the insulation from the ingress of moisture, when the
refrigeration plant was turned off all surplus water was then absorbed into
the insulation, and subsequently formed an ice build-up once the store was
again reduced to temperature.
Earlier land cold storage relied primarily on a concrete structure and,
in some cases, when it became obvious that moisture penetration
through the concrete was also causing an ice build-up, cavity walls
were introduced. Consideration was not given at this time to an effective
vapour seal. Cork slab was the most effective insulant, but eventually
the insulated structure became ineffective due once again to moisture
penetration.
In situ cold storage

Before the introduction of cork slab, there were few materials which could
even be considered seriously in connection with cold store construction. For
many years cork slab was the only acceptable material, having been devel-
oped in Spain and Portugal for insulation to ships' holds and cargo areas
where more sophisticated refrigeration was being developed. Cold storage
manufacturers soon realized that this material, proven in marine applica-
tions, would be ideal for the development of in situ cold storage units that
were to form the basis of construction for industrial insulated enclosures

well into the mid-twentieth century.
Once it was realized that cork could be processed into easy-to-handle
slabs, and packed in sizeable containers for export, the cork-growing indus-
try of Spain and Portugal expanded rapidly, supplying the cold store indus-
try worldwide. The UK became one of the world's biggest importers of cork
slab, and cold store manufacturers soon adapted this material for various
uses in the design of in situ cold store construction.
Early design and techniques

These in situ, or 'built-in' as they were then known, stores were the most
common construction forms utilizing cork slab. They consisted of brick or
concrete structures built up from solid foundations and having a concrete
sub-floor and concrete roof. In many cases, self-supporting ceilings were
constructed (see Figure 5.1).
Walls and concrete ceilings were rendered with half-inch sand and ce-
ment to leave a smooth surface. When this rendering was dry, walls, ceiling
and floor would be treated with a vapour seal solution (vapour barrier). The
essential need for a vapour protection was recognized after the dismantling
of earlier stores, where the insulation was found to have absorbed moisture
through the concrete or brick walls. This had turned to ice once the refrig-
eration plant had been commissioned.
The vapour protection seal consisted of a bituminous rubber solution
applied to the prepared surface in two separate coats, by brush or trowel.
When this had 'cured' the cork slab was applied to walls and ceiling with hot
pitch and supported with timber grounds mechanically fixed to the walls. A
second layer of cork was then applied with all joints staggered and sealed,
ensuring no through joints. Additional mechanical fixings were made
through this second layer of cork into the first layer of timber grounds
(Figure 5.1).
The floor insulation was laid in a similar manner, but this would normally
be left until after the wall and ceiling finish was complete. This avoided
damaging the cork floor by scaffolding towers, etc. The most common finish
for the walls and ceiling was plaster (subsequently decorated), or a polar
white cement that needed no decorative finish. This would be trowelled
onto an expanded metal, fixed to the cork and timber grounds by means of
staples.
Other applications included glazed asbestos and galvanized or zinc-
coated steel sheeting fixed to additional timbers embedded in the
insulation. These materials became unpopular due to the method of
fixings and the numerous cover strips, etc., required to achieve an
acceptable appearance. Most cold store users favoured the cement finish
for its clean, smooth surface which could be easily redecorated every few
years.
STORE INSULATION 149
Timber joisted ceiling with
close boarding under
Bituminous
vapour seal
Plaster or polar white

cement finish
Figure 5.1 In situ or built-in store.
Normally the wall finish would terminate at a pre-determined height

above the planned floor level, to allow for installation of a cove or concrete
kerb.
Depending on anticipated loading, a suitable thickness of solid
granolithic internal flooring would be laid over the cork insulation, and
metal filings and granite dust would be incorporated into the top half inch,
trowelled smooth to provide a hard-wearing surface.
Conventional systems
During the late 1930s, developments in the frozen food industry created an
urgent requirement for low-temperature cold stores. Cork continued in use
primarily for insulating walls, ceilings, and floors of in situ stores, but a
considerable increase in thickness was necessary to accommodate the lower
operating temperatures required for the storage of frozen foods.
Prefabricated units were also constructed by the conventional system.

These consisted of timber frames secured together in modules of 1200mm
width, covered externally with metal sheets or timber boarding. Cork insu-
lation was fitted between the timber frames, and a bituminous paper or
solution was applied between the insulation and the external cladding to
form a vapour seal. The internal finish would normally be glazed asbestos
sheeting or steel cladding. Because of the difficulty of transporting these
very heavy units to site (the dense cork slab alone contributed greatly to the
weight), such prefabricated stores were rarely more than 6m high.
These early systems of cold store construction, generally accepted by the
refrigeration industry, formed the basis for the principles of cold store
design well into the 1960s and later, following the advent of panel construc-
tion, became known as 'timber and concrete stores'.
5.2 Modern developments
The end of the 1950s and early 1960s saw the development of two new
products - expanded polystyrene (EPS) and polyurethane foam (PU).
Polystyrene was developed primarily as a low-cost, low-density material
with thermal conductivity of 0.034 W/m2;oc. This proved to be a natural
replacement for cork board, as it was produced in board form with the same
dimensions as cork. The conductivity of cork slab insulation (density 8 to
9lb per cubic foot), as used in the construction of cold storage, was rated
0.26 to 0.28BTU/h/fe;oF. It was doubtful whether these values were
achieved in practice, due to the inclusion in the insulation of timber beams,
supports, and timber door frames, etc. With lower density polystyrene
weighing approximately eight times less than cork, the steel supports neces-
sary to carry a ceiling structure could be greatly reduced, making consider-
able cost savings.
As with all new materials, it was some time before polystyrene achieved
acceptance as a substitute for cork board; subsequently, as manufacturers of
cold storage became more innovative and panel production was developed,
expanded polystyrene became the alternative to cork in the design of mod-
ern cold store panel production.
Polyurethane foam (PU), initially used for insulation of domestic re-
frigerators and smaller commercial rooms, either in board form or foamed
in situ, was later developed through different applications for use in indus-
trial cold storage panels.
One method of production was to form the polyurethane into blocks or
buns from which different thickness slabs could be cut. These would then be
used in composite panels. Another method was to inject the foam directly
into a jig that contained the inner and outer faces of steel to form an in situ
foam panel. Once polyurethane was accepted in the cold store industry as a
good substitute for either cork or polystyrene, considerable advances were

made in new techniques and further applications using this material.
5.3 Insulation materials
Expanded polystyrene
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is one of the most efficient rigid insulation
materials available today and is widely and successfully used throughout the
cold store industry.
Derived from crude oil, by the combination of benzene and ethylene,
which produces styrene monomer, EPS bead is created by the addition of
catalysts and an expanding agent, pentane. In the bead form it is a sugar-
like material. During the process known as pre-foaming, the raw material
expands rapidly forming thousands of tiny cells within each head; these hold
the air captive and produce the EPS.
After conditioning, the pre-foamed bead is moulded to produce blocks
up to 7500 x 1350 x 650mm in size. From these blocks are cut sheets and
slabs in any required thicknesses to be used in the composite and continu-
ous laminate processes of panel production.
EPS is manufactured in the UK to BS3837: 1987. This defines the mini-
mum requirements for such aspects of its performance as compressive and
cross-breaking strength, thermal conductivity, water vapour permeability
and flame retardancy (see section 5.15).
Typical performance figures for SDFRA and HDFRA material used in
the manufacture of cold store panels conform to the minimum require-
ments laid down in BS3837. Extra heavy density materials (EHDFRA)
are also used extensively in the industry where heavy loads are required.
The letters FRA after the density denote flame-retardant additive or self-
extinguishing grade materials.
Extruded polystyrene
Extruded polystyrene is basically manufactured from the same raw material
as EPS, with the exception that extruded polystyrene for use in panel
production is a foam insulation board without a skin. Other forms of ex-
truded polystyrene are available, incorporating a skin, such as the heavier
density used for floor insulation purposes. It is manufactured by a continu-
ous extruding process which gives a rigid closed cell structure with unique
properties.
It is an ideal material for the use of panel production in the cold store
industry because of its high resistance to water absorption and its su-
perior mechanical properties. The high resistance to water absorption and
water vapour diffusion results from its closed cell structure and the
inherent resistance of the base polymer to water. The high resistance
to water absorption· enables the material to maintain a low thermal
conductivity.
The high tensile strength of extruded polystyrene makes possible a
good bond between the foam and the facing materials, and the high
shear strength reduces the risk of failure in the panel core material. Because
of its high compressive strength, extruded polystyrene, when bonded
to a steel face, reduces the possibility of impact damage and is thus
an excellent material for use in composite and continuous laminated
panels.
Polyurethane and polyisocyanurate

Rigid polyurethane (PUR) foams are highly cross-linked polymers with
closed cell structures which bubble within the material, with unbroken
walls, so that gas movement is retarded. The chlorofluoromethane gas is
contained within the walls and, as these substances have a much lower
thermal conductivity than air, such closed cell forms have significantly
lower thermal conductivity than any open cell foam.
However, to retain this low thermal conductivity the gas must not
leak away; consequently, rigid foam insulation must have at least 90%
closed cells and a density above 30kg/m3. Rigid foams are made by the
combination of a polyol and a liquid blowing agent, plus a catalyst,
plus a polyisocyanurate (PIR). 90% of polyols used are polyethers with
terminal hydroxyl groups, and the isocyanate used is di-isocyanato-
diphenylmethane.
Polyisocyanurate foams are particularly important because of their resist-
ance to high temperature and their relatively low combustibility. In the
manufacture of these foams, the polyisocyanurate is polymerized to pro-
duce an isocyanurate ring structure which is thermally stable. All estab-
lished polyisocyanurate foam systems are actually polyurethane-modified
polyisocyanurates.
The most economical method of making large quantities of slab stock
foam is on a continuous manufacturing basis. This tends to give a product of
high quality as it is easier to control the cell size and cell structure uniform-
ity. The foam reaction mixture is dispensed continually into a trough
formed by paper or a polyurethane film in a moving conveyor belt. The
trough is designed to accommodate the foam pressure on the side walls,
pressure that occurs just after the foam has risen completely. A flat-top
block is obtained by the use of a top converter, or by assisting the rise of the
foam by other processes. Blocks of any length and thickness up to a metre
high can be produced by this method. This is also the method used for
making polyisocyanurate blocks.
Phenolic foam
Closed cell phenolic foam is an exciting development which has come to the
market over the past five years. Developed in the United Kingdom by BP
Chemicals and Kooltherm, it has similar insulation properties to urethanes
and isocyanurates, if not better, with the additional advantage of better
flame spread characteristics and practically no smoke emission. This makes
it ideal for the insulation of the inside of buildings where many people may
be working. It is made by a continuous moulding process where each
mould, approximately 2 m long x 1 m wide, is passed through an oven,
where the phenolformaldehyde resin is catalysed, the foam rises, and then
cures. Again, panels of any length, width, and thickness can be produced
using this method. The material is slightly more expensive than urethane
foam and is meant for areas of high fire risk andlor areas where smoke
generation must be kept to a minimum.
In deciding which rigid foam is most suitable for panel production, one
must take into consideration the following characteristics:
• Tensile strength
• Thermal conductivity
• Moisture resistance
• Bond line between foam and facing materials
• Flame spread characteristics
Cork board (vegetable cork)

Cork is the outer bark of the cork oak tree, Quercus suber, grown princi-
pally in south-west European and Mediterranean areas, including Portugal,
southern France, Morocco, Spain, Algeria and Tunisia. These countries
have between 4 and 5 million acres of cork forest, with an annual yield of
300000 to 400000 tonnes of bark. Portugal is the largest producer, with cork
forests covering more than 11/2 million acres (equivalent to 10% of the total
cultivated area of the country).
Cork bark and cork products consists of minute air cells having a
diameter of about 62 !lm, with length just over twice the mean diameter.
Each cell is a 14-sided polyhedron and is completely sealed from the
next cell by a remarkably strong membrane consisting of five layers, with
a total thickness of approximately 2 !lm. In view of the very large number
of cells in the cork bark, the material is highly resistant to the flow of
heat because of the low thermal conductivity of the still air contained in the
cells.
When the trees are some 20 years old the outer bark, which varies in
thickness from 1 to 5 cm, is removed. The virgin cork so obtained is unsuit-
able for bottle stoppers, etc., but it can be broken into granules of various
sizes to be used for cork composition products and insulation. Subsequent
strip pings occur at 8-year intervals until the trees have lived their life span,
which may be anything up to 200 years. The third stripping, that is the layer
nearest to the tree itself, is used for the manufacture of articles that are
usually stamped out of the cork, such as bottle stoppers. It is the first
stripping which is of interest for the manufacture of thermal insulation
materials.
The granulated cork from the first stripping contains a natural resin
which, under the action of heat and pressure, can be used to bind the
granules firmly together. In the manufacture of thermal insulation, the
granulated cork is packed into moulds and heated at a temperature of
300°C to release the resin which, on cooling, bonds the granules in a
shape conforming to the moulds. The resin released during the 'baking
process' cannot be reused but the cork still retains its insulating properties
and damaged or reject moulds can be broken up to yield 're-granulated'
cork.
Granules of raw cork, exposed to high temperatures, expand slightly and
at the same time lose their natural resin. With the addition of bitumen the
granules can, under low heat, be moulded into pipe section and slabs for
low-temperature insulation purposes.
Glass fibre
Glass fibres for thermal insulation purposes are produced from a molten
mixture of sand, lime and soda. The mixture is allowed to flow through tiny
orifices in platinum bushes situated on the underside of the melting furnace,
and then subjected to a blast of superheated steam. The mixture is at
once broken into molten globules which in turn are drawn by air resistance
into fibres of controlled length and diameter. Control is effected by
the correct combination of melt temperature, steam temperature, and
velocity. The fibres fall on to conveyor belt, the speed of which governs the
thickness of fibre blanket. The fibres can be used in this form for loose
packing or in the production of mattress blankets, flexible pipe sections and
quilts. To produce a rigid slab, the fibres are bonded with thermosetting
resins.
5.4 Insulation applications
The application of insulation to cold store structures depends primarily on

customer preference. This normally depends on past experience, advice or
the customer's requirements in relation to cost, performance and return on
investment.
Structures may be internally or externally insulated. Internally insulated
systems require wall and roof cladding.
['1'-
I
Figure 5.2 Vertical panel fixed to sheeting rail.
Internal insulated systems with external wall and roof cladding

The steel structure (Figure 5.2) is designed to support not only the external
cladding of the building, but also the insulated panels to the ceiling that may
be suspended from the portals or clipped to the underside of either tied
portals or lattice beams. The vertical steel work would normally incorpo-
rate the lightweight horizontal sheeting rails to give additional support to
the wall panels (Figure 5.3a).
External insulation system

Insulated wall panels are fixed external to the steel structure, with the
external face of the panels designed to be fully weatherproofed (Figure
5.3b).
The insulation to the roof can be applied in two ways, either built-up
from a profiled steel sheet secured to the steelwork with the insulation fitted
in board form and a weatherproof cover over, or by laying insulated panels
over the steel frame, sealing all joints and then covering the whole area with
(al
plant
(bl
,~/.~~i7
I~=~~". ' l __
-~4//-- ~
====1
I
1_
,".~.. -"rr'~"'''T"-'-''-'-''''-'"''-'--''''''''''''''''"'''"-~.,.1'..;... _ ..,.,...."
:'1; i
• __ .~ ___ ..L.._ ! ~ _______ . '-'--_. : :i.~.!.~.;"t-~
(el
Figure 5.3 Types of insulation: (a) internal insulation systems with external wall and roof
cladding; (b) external insulation system; and (c) internal insulation system with roof and partial
external wall cladding.
a weatherproof membrane. In most cases the external membrane is then

covered with white stone pebbles that reflect the heat from the sun and also
act as a further support for the membrane itself.
The system of construction can also be used where static racking replaces
the steel structure.
Internal insulation system with external roof and partial external

wall cladding
This system, commonly known as a 'Dutch barn' construction, is designed
to save costs. The insulated ceiling panels are secured to the steel por-
tals but the wall panels are exposed to the elements, with the external
cladding forming a valance around the periphery of the store protecting the
external of the ceiling and the wall-to-ceiling joint from the weather (Figure
5.3c).
The external joints of the wall panels are designed to give maximum
weather protection and the external metal cladding will have a coating
designed for protection against ultraviolet rays.
5.5 Types of cold store panel
The most common forms of cold store panels are:
• Continuous laminated panels

• Composite panels
• Foam injected panels
• Continuous foam panels
Continuous laminated panels

The continuous laminated panel, originally designed in Australia and now
extensively used worldwide, consists of three layers of material bonded
together so that they behave as one entity (Figure 5.4a). The outer skins of
the panel are normally pre-coated galvanized metal which bears most of the
load of the panel. The thicker central core of insulation material stabilizes
the outer skins and prevents distortion under stress.
The advantage of this type of panel is the speed of production. Finished
panels can be produced at a rate of 4 linear metres per minute, and to
any required length using any of the rigid insulation materials mentioned
above. Because of its superior bond line, it has stronger structural
capabilities.
The continuous laminated panel, as with all composite panels, can be
produced to any given thickness. This is a great advantage when it is
considered that energy costs can be saved by increasing the thickness of the
insulation.
The production of this type of panel consists of two coils of steel or GRP
being fed through a series of rollers to produce a shallow profile to both
faces of steel. This provides additional strength to the panel.
The insulation board is threaded through the machine, passing a series of
temperature-controlled glue stations, where it is compressed between the
metal skins which are stressed, and the curing of the adhesive takes place.
During this process, further machining occurs, trimming the panel and
forming the edge joint. The panel length is controlled by an automatic cut-
off which shapes the ends of the panel into a rebate.
- =7-' " :.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 5.4 (a) Continuous laminated panel. (b) Discontinuous composite panel. (c) Foam
injected panel with lock. (d) Discontinuous foam injected panel. (e) Continuous foam panel.
Composite panels
Composite panels normally consist of a board insulation, sandwiched be-
tween two steel facings (Figure 5.4b). Alternative facing materials may be
used, such as ORP. The methods of manufacture can be either semi-
automatic, where the panels are first laminated with the insulation being
glued to the facing materials with a fast-drying adhesive, and then processed
through a series of rollers ensuring that sufficient pressure is applied to both
faces to form a positive bond, or by means of placing the panels after the
laminating process into either a vacuum or hydraulic press to achieve maxi-

mum adhesion. This system is commonly used because of the flexibility in
being able to use various forms of rigid insulation materials.
Foam-injected panels
These panels are formed by injecting polyurethane foam between the steel
faces to produce a modular type of panel that can be used either with a dry
joint or by incorporating a locking system (Figure 5.4c).
When utilizing a locking system for panels in industrial stores, one should
consider the effects of the locking device in relation to the foam material
taking into consideration the structural movement of the supporting
steelwork.
Foam-injected panels (Figure 5.4d) have been used throughout the world
for many years, mainly because of their superior thermal conductivity prop-
erties which allow the panel to be considerably thinner than those using
alternative insulation materials.
Continuous foamed panels

These panels (Figure 5.4e) are produced on a continuous line. Two coils of
steel are attached to the end of the machine and fed through a series of
rollers. During the process, one side of the panel is constructed with a deep
profile, with the other side left either flat or with a shallow profile.
As the two skins of steel are pulled through the machine, the two-part
polyurethane foam is released onto the bottom coil of steel. With the
injection of a blowing agent, it is agitated to allow the chemicals to mix to
form a foam which rises and bonds to the upper metal skin. During the
panel manufacturing process, the polyurethane continues to expand until it
reaches its required density and the edges of the metal skin travel through
a series of roll formers to produce the side joint of the panel. The panels are
then cut to length by an automatic cut-off mechanism. This type of panel
was produced primarily for the externally insulated panel system, where the
profile steel forms the external finish of the store.
5.6 Present-day design criteria
• Loads The structure and the insulated panel system should be designed
to resist the worst possible combination of forces considered below.
• Manufacture Stresses may be induced during manufacture due to the
curing or ageing of the insulation and the handling of the panels. Proce-
dures should be adopted to keep stresses within the design limits.
• Erection Care should be taken during erection, and procedures intro-
duced to ensure that no abnormal stresses are created. Wind pressures

can impose excessive stress on panels during erection, and considerable
care should be taken to ensure that the incomplete structure is properly
supported and that no undue pressure is placed on the supporting clips,
etc.
• Wind forces The completed structure will be subjected to considerable
wind forces. Consideration should be given at the design stage as to the
best form of construction, taking into account the location of the store in
relation to prevailing winds. Exposed panels on an exterior designed
system, complete with the fixing system, should be designed to resist wind
pressure in accordance with BS CP3 Chapter 5, part 2, 1972. The support-
ing structure should have no projections likely to damage the insulated
structure when subjected to the effects of positive and negative wind
pressures.
• Dead and imposed loading The structure, suspended insulated ceilings,
and load-bearing walls should be capable of supporting the maximum
combination of all loads. These should include:
(a) dry weight of insulated panels
(b) weight of structure and fittings included to support insulated panels
(c) weight of coolers and fans under working conditions
(d) weight of mechanical services
(e) external weatherproofing if applicable
Ceiling panels should also be designed for their ability to support 'walk-on
loads,' i.e. maintenance personnel.
British Standard BS6399: Part 1: 1984 states that the following loads are
appropriate for the support of walk-on ceilings and similar structures with
access: 0.25 kN/m2 uniformly distributed over the whole area or the area
supported plus a concentrated load of 0.9 kN/m2 so placed as to produce
maximum stresses on the affected members.
5.7 Internal pressure relief valves
Modern cold stores utilizing the latest panel systems available are usually
very effectively sealed. However, structural damage can be caused if consid-
eration is not given to the changes in pressure within the store created by
changes in internal temperatures.
Changes of internal pressure are generally dependent on the size of store
or the use to which it is put, together with the type of defrost system which
is introduced. These pressures can be safely relieved by the introduction of
pressure relief valves strategically positioned in the wall panels at high level,
opening and closing to ambient. Where stores are operating below O°C,
heater elements should be included within the valves.
The number and size of pressure relief valves for a particular store size is
normally calculated by the refrigeration engineer, based on the size of the

plant needed to maintain the operating temperature. To calculate the vent
area required to keep the pressure difference within allowable limits, the
following formula should be used:
A = O.063Q/ ~P(T +273)
where A is the required venting area, in m2, Q is the rate of heat production
or extraction in the cold store, in kW, Tis the cold store temperature, in DC,
and P is the allowable pressure difference from store to outside, in N/m 2•
Although the required vent area does not depend directly on cold store
volume, small stores are generally affected more than large stores for two
reasons:
• Larger size of cooling or heating equipment in relation to store size
• Reduced air seepage into or out of the store, due to the level of sealing
around the door gaskets
It is recommended that at least the following Q values should be considered
when determining the maximum possible value of Q to be used in the
formula:
• Maximum possible rate of heat extraction
• Maximum possible rate of heat input during defrost
• Maximum rate of heat input during any possible transient conditions,
such as might arise after a defrost if cold air were blown through a hot-
finned cooler
5.S The importance of vapour seals
Walls and roofs

One of the most important aspects of cold store construction is ensuring
that the insulated envelope is positively vapour sealed. Cold store users
have over the years learned to their cost what happens to the structure if an
effective vapour seal is not used on the warm side of the insulated panel.
Water vapour will attempt to flow from a region of high vapour pressure
area to a region of low vapour pressure, and if a barrier is not created to
avoid the ingress of water vapour, the insulation will eventually absorb this
moisture and, at low temperatures, turn to ice.
It therefore follows that the most important factors here are:
• Minimum permeability to water vapour
• Control of air vapour that may find its way through the joints of the
panels
The panel itself may be impervious to water transmission, like an external

steel-faced panel, but the joints between the panels must also be vapour
sealed, as must all junctions and joints between wall and ceiling and be-
tween wall and floor
The inside joint of the panel should have a higher permeability than the
panel insulation so that in the event of intrusion of water vapour, it will pass
through the joint and not permeate into the core material. It should also be
noted that no material used in the panel joints on the store side should
constitute a better barrier to vapour transmission than the vapour seal
material itself. The water-vapour-tight joint should therefore have a perme-
ability sufficient to prevent water or ice build-up in the insulation under the
working conditions of the cold store.
The panel joint itself must be able to survive the differential movement
between two panels and the sealant used must therefore have sufficient
elasticity to tolerate this movement without breaking down. The main
factors to consider are:
• The sealant must have a sufficiently low permeability to resist the vapour
pressure differential that will exist
• The sealant must have good ageing characteristics
• The sealant, if a curing material, should not cure so quickly that the
process has progressed too far before the whole joint has been sealed
• The adhesion qualities of the sealant are important. The materials should
be capable of maintaining good adhesion to the panel surfaces in all
working conditions and should also be compatible with any additional
cappings that are applied
• In some cases it may be necessary for the sealant to be not only a vapour
seal, but also water-tight. However, this should not be construed as being
sufficient to protect an external cold store roof without additional
weatherproofing
• The elasticity of the material should be such as to withstand the move-
ments of panels, whether by live or dead loads; e.g. movements caused by
thermal bowing and movements of the general steel structure to which
the panels are fixed
• Wherever possible, stores should be designed to enable the maintenance
engineer to inspect the vapour seal periodically. There should be suffi-
cient room between the panels and the external cladding for this purpose.
If this is not possible, the cladding should be easily removable to enable
repairs to be made
It must be understood that in all applications of cold store construction, the
effectiveness of the vapour seal depends on
• Use of the correct sealant

• Correct application of the sealant
• Protection of the sealant once the store is commissioned
Assuming that the sealant chosen meets all the physical and chemical
requirements, we then come to the human element.
The application of the sealant must be properly supervised. It matters
little if you are using the best material available on the market, if it is not
applied correctly and in the right quantity.
The most vulnerable area of the cold store is its roof, due to pedestrian
traffic. To protect the vapour seal at the joints on internal insulation sys-
tems, it is recommended that a metal cover strip is secured over the seal
to prevent scuffing by pedestrians which might cause the sealant to be
damaged.
It is unlikely, once the store is commissioned and the vapour seal tested,
that the wall or floor areas will show any signs of vapour seal deterioration
in the future. Any breakdown would normally be caused by mechanical
damage. However, as mentioned earlier, the external surface of the insu-
lated envelope should be accessible for periodic inspection.
The first signs of a vapour seal breakdown will be noticed on the internal
joints of the store. For example, during warm and humid weather condi-
tions with accompanying high dewpoint temperatures, the water vapour
migrating through the insulation will be chilled to its dewpoint somewhere
in the insulation and will condense to water. In the case of store areas above
freezing the insulation will remain wet; in a freezer ice will form, and build
up until it is visible on the internal joint.
At the first signs of ice or snow on the joint, the external vapour seal
should be checked and repaired and the ice or snow removed. If these
conditions are allowed to continue without repair the value of the insulation
and the structural stability of the panel will gradually decrease until it is
finally destroyed. Whilst some insulation materials are more impervious
than others, it should be recognized that with an external steel face to
the panel, the panel itself is impervious to water vapour transmission. It
follows that the only areas susceptible to the transmission of vapour are the
joints. It is generally acknowledged there is no known way to guarantee the
long-term performance of the jointing seals completely, so consideration
should be given both to the type of insulation used and to the design of the
joint.
The joint must be thermally continuous, and should have a higher perme-
ability than the insulation core. This is because the water vapour will take
the line of least resistance and if the joint material is as good or better than
the core insulation from the point of view of water vapour permeability,
then the entering vapour will permeate into the core instead of through the
joint.
The ideal joint is therefore one with a tight but dry straight-through joint,
which will give adequate thermal integrity and the passage of least resist-
ance to any intruding water vapour. That is not to say that stepped joints or
insulated tongues cannot be used, as long as they are applied dry. The
structural stability of the panel must be considered at all times.
Any water vapour that intrudes through this joint will continue to mi-
grate until it reaches the refrigeration coils, where it is deposited in the form
of ice provided that its path is not blocked by any seal having lesser perme-
ability than the panel insulation.
Floors
We have now dealt with the sealants used for vapour sealing the joints to
the walls and ceiling of the cold store, but we must appreciate that to
continue the vapour seal under the floor insulation is of equal importance.
The complete thermal envelope of the cold store includes the floor insula-
tion and the insulation must be continuous on all sides, so it follows that the
vapour barrier must also have all-round continuity.
We will now examine the continuity of this vapour barrier under the floor
insulation. To achieve an effective seal to the floor, 1200 gauge black
polythene laid over a smooth prepared cement floor is the best proven
material to replace the liquid vapour seals that were used in conventional-
style buildings.
The polythene is laid continuously over the full floor area before applying
the floor insulation. All joints should be lapped and bonded together. To
complete the envelope, the polythene must continue under the panels to be
bonded to the metal wall support plates (Figure 5.5).
Care should be taken when laying the floor vapour seal that there are no
projections or loose stones in the sub-floor that could penetrate the vapour
barrier. However, if a recognized extruded polystyrene insulation is laid
over the vapour seal, the risk of any moisture from the sub-floor permeating
through the floor structure is minimized.
5.9 Thermal bowing
Thermal bowing can be defined as the stress caused by temperature varia-

tion between the internal metal face of the insulated panel and the external
face. The degree of thermal bowing will depend primarily on the location
of the insulated enclosure. The maximum store temperature depends on
whether the panel is exposed directly to the sun or is protected by an
uninsulated external cladding.
It should be noted that when panels are installed on the external surface
of the steelwork or exposed to the elements, consideration must be given to
the fabric and the colour of the exterior coating. The skin temperature of a
panel SUbjected to ultraviolet radiation can be greatly reduced by utilizing
a particular colour. At the design stage the correct colour and material most
suitable for the installation should be established from the steel producers.
Ceiling panels, although subjected to thermal bowing, are generally not
Seal
Wall pane
Slip angle
fixed to panel,
0
o
..
Q
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. .: r
• ~o Q
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o,~.¥
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<3 • .., <] 0 ..
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o <l , <l • ~ 0 t:l 0 <l • wearing floor
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Wall base angle
secured to floor
~
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~I Heater mat
screed
IA ¥
(I (I (I ~
o t>" __ ~ 0 () 0 J .4- 0 ..I
Vapour seal
Heater cables
\ t
Figure 5.5 Detail of internal insulation systems for wall-lo-floor joint.
affected to the same degree as the wall panels. Modern methods of con-
struction usually allow the ceiling panel to be supported between the steel
structures of the building (Figure 5.6). The unsupported span of the panel
will depend on the thickness of the insulation, the gauge of the steel fabric,
and the bond line. The temperature difference between the internal and
external steel faces will cause the panel to bow upwards, but this is normally
counteracted by the weight of the panel. In some cases where panels are
designed to span over support steels, secondary stresses may be induced
and precautions should be taken in the method of fixing and the size of the
panel used.
It should be recognised that the effect of thermal bowing on wall panels
can be serious, and every effort should be made to minimize the risk of
structural damage. It is therefore important to ensure that the method of
~'):i:j:
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:..~::-:::::-:::-.~: . " .. ~.:-:.,~ ... :':~' '.:", .....
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Vapour seal Reinforced floor finish
Styrofoam floor insulation in 2 layers

Screed and heater mat Base slab
Figure 5.6 Typical store section - suspended ceiling.
fixing is adequate to accommodate the forces created by the differing move-

ments of the facing materials.
Panels are generally produced to extend the full height of the store, and
are normally supported at intervals by fixing to horizontal steel rails. How-
ever, if the conditions are such that by fixing through the panels the thermal
bowing affect cannot be properly restrained, then consideration should be
given to the panel design and the need to relieve the steel facing midway in
the height of the panel.
To minimize the effect of thermal bowing on cold stores with internal
insulated systems (Figure 5.3) a means of ventilation should be introduced.
Where there is a void between the top of the insulated panel and the
external roof, the area should be ventilated to reduce solar heat gain. The
ventilation system can be installed either by vents or louvres in the gable
walls, coupled with the ridge vents, or by introducing a fan to create forced
ventilation over the ceiling area. This also applies to the void between the
wall panels and external cladding.
5.10 Construction methods
It is important before commencing construction of the insulated enclosure

to establish the site conditions. As with all methods of construction the
following factors should be observed:
• Accessibility to site Access to site by established roadways or temporary
roads should be observed, and decisions made as to the type of vehicles
and plant most suitable for the transportation of panels and ancillaries to
the designated areas.
• Ground conditions Are the areas adjacent to the steel structure prop-
erly prepared to support scaffolding, mobile towers, scissor lifts, etc. that
are needed for the installation of the panels? Checks should be made that
the designated areas for the storing of panels and materials are prepared
and level to avoid anyon-site damage.
• Availability of services Before commencing work it must be established
when main services, such as electrics and water, may be installed, or
whether a portable generator will be available. It is also necessary to
establish a location for the site hut and canteen facilities for workers on
site. Arrangements should be made for a telephone to be available at all
times. It is important to maintain a high level of communication between
the site office and headquarters, and with suppliers.
• Safe working conditions Safe working conditions must be recognized
and understood by both management and workers on site. Safety equip-
ment should be available, and conditions on-site should comply with the
Health and Safety at Work Act 1984.
Internal insulated systems with external cladding to walls and roof

This sort of insulation system has been described in section 5.4. Before
planning the erection sequence of the panels, it is important to establish
that materials will be available from the supply factory at all times, to
ensure continuity of work, and to support the site programme.
In this method of construction, it is normal to commence construction
once the heater mat and sand and cement screed have been installed, and
the external roof cladding complete. As the panels are installed on the
inside face of the steel structure, the external cladding can be finished at the
same time.
Whenever possible, wall and ceiling panels should be installed in such a

way as to allow the refrigeration engineer to install the coolers. For exam-
ple, working away from the plant room, assuming that this is located adja-
cent to the coolers, wall panels will be erected in a U-shape: that is, back
wall first, then side walls and ceiling panels installed together. This reduces
the site time and allows the floor insulation to be laid also, making it
possible for all allied trades to follow on behind.
To support the wall panels, a heavy-duty galvanized steel angle is first
fixed to the concrete floor, level with the internal face of the main steel
structure. This angle is bedded in a mastic solution and extended approxi-
mately 150mm beyond the internal face line of the panel (see Figure 5.4).
The angle is secured well within the area designated for the periphery of the
heater mat. It is of paramount importance that this area should be checked
thoroughly before any penetration into the concrete is made that could
possibly cause damage to the heater elements or glycol system.
Before installing the wall panels, a strip of black polythene vapour seal is
laid to cover the base of the angle and to extend into the room. This will
form the continuity of the vapour barrier at a later stage. The wall panels
can now be installed making sure that the panels sit firmly on the black
polythene vapour seal and are sealed to the vertical upstand of the angle.
The first panels to be installed will be a wall corner. The joints will be
either rebated together, or shaped to form a mitre. It is important at all
times to ensure that these starting panels are perpendicular and that the
insulated joint is well fitted. Each corner panel is secured to the horizontal
steel supports and also fastened to the base section and sealed with mastic.
Once the first corner section has been positioned, the back wall adjacent
to the plant room can be installed. Whatever type of panel has been se-
lected, it is important that the joints between the panels fit tightly and the
vapour seal properly applied.
One method of ensuring a vertical tight joint is to remove the bottom
150 mm of internal steel facing once the panel is secure. This section should,
in any event, be pre-cut before leaving the factory (Figure 5.5). With the top
section of the wall panel cut into a rebate (Figure 5.7) exposing the insula-
tion and with the bottom 150 mm exposed, it is then possible to see at all
times that, if the joint of the panel is tight at the base and at the top, the
complete vertical joint, whatever height, will always be a good fit. As each
wall panel is erected, the vapour seal to the joints is also applied.
One important factor that should never be ignored is the fixing of the
panel to the steel rails immediately the panel is erected. This ensures not
only the safety of those working in the area, but, in the event that the
external cladding is incomplete, it also secures the wall panels against high
winds. Once the back wall has been installed and the next corner section
complete, it is then necessary to prepare the ceiling suspension units. These
can be installed by one gang while the other erectors are installing both the
Vapour seal tape under
metal angle
Aluminium angle with

snap on radius cove
Silicone sealant pointing
Figure 5.7 Typical corner detail.
side walls. As each suspension unit is fitted, the ceiling panels can be
installed. This allows for the wall and ceiling of the store to be fitted
simultaneously.
There are various methods of ceiling construction, depending on the type
of steel structure that is used. The main structural roof members are nor-
mally either:
• Steel or concrete portals
• Tied portals
• Lattice beam construction
In the case of steel or concrete portals, the ceiling panel supports will be
suspended by hangers. The length of the hangers depends on the angle of
the roof and will be cut or adjusted on site as the support channels are
aligned and levelled. These are normally positioned between 6m and 7m
apart, depending on the spacing of the main structural steel frames.
When the steel structure consists of either tied portals or lattice beams,
then the suspension units are clipped to the underside of the structural
steel ties.
The ceiling panels are next installed. The first panels are positioned with
one end on the suspension unit, the other end fitting into the rebate of the
wall panels. It is important at this stage to ensure that ceiling panel joints
line up with the joints of the wall panels.
As the ceiling panels are installed, the vapour seal to the joints is also
applied, as with the walls. At this stage, where the ceiling panels rest on the
wall panels, these joints are left dry and filled and vapour-sealed once the
insulated envelope is complete. It is important that these joints are left until
last as they require special attention. This detail will be described later.
The first part of the erection sequence is now complete, with the back
wall and the first bay of the wall and ceiling panels installed. At this stage it
is important that the internal corner angle between the wall and ceiling
panels is completely secured, together with the fixing of the suspension
units to the ceiling panels. In both cases the angles and suspension units are
fitted dry. In the case of the suspension units, a gap will be left between the
ends of the panel to be filled and scaled later.
Once the first bay has been completed, it is then possible for the ceiling
evaporators to be suspended and the necessary pipe work completed in the
area. The erection towers and lifts can then be moved to enable the erection
of the next two bays of panels to be completed.
Dependent on the site programme, it is now possible at this stage to
commence the installation of the door frames and floor insulation. It is
important to remember that the floor insulation and floor vapour seal can
only be laid once all services are completed to the underside of the ceiling
panels, i.e. no scaffold towers, etc. should be allowed on the floor insulation
until the internal floor finish has been laid in the area and cured sufficiently
to accept either mechanical or pedestrian traffic. The remaining panels can
now be completed to form the insulated enclosure.
Following the installation of the wall and ceiling panels, the next stage of
erection will include the completion of the floor insulation and vapour seal.
As the vapour seal is laid over the floor, ensuring that all joints are lapped
and bonded together and also bonded to the vapour seal projecting from
beneath the wall panels, the insulation can also be laid.
Internal insulation with external roof and partial external cladding

This system of construction is designed generally as for the internal insu-
lated system, with the exterior walls forming a weatherproof surface. The
wall panels are therefore designed to overlap the base concrete to form a
watershed, as for the external system of construction.
External insulation systems

The principle of the insulated enclosure remains the same as for the internal
system. Panel joints have to be properly sealed with the insulation and
vapour seal forming a complete envelope. With this system, the wall panels
are erected on the external of the steel frame and are constructed to form
a weatherproof unit. The roof insulation can either be a built-up system of
insulated boards, or can be constructed using prefabricated panels with a
weatherproof cover applied.
The external insulation system can also be applied to pre-erected racking
that would be constructed in such a way as not only to replace the main
structural steel, but also to reduce the overall cost of the cold store
considerably.
As with the internal system, the wall panels are erected first ensuring that
all the panel-to-panel joints, together with corner joints, are not only va-
pour sealed but also weatherproofed.
The roof structure, if constructed on a built-up system, normally consists
of sheets of profile steel fixed to the top of the structural steel with the
insulated boards laid above this. This is followed by sheets of compressed
board that will form the base for the vapour seal and weatherproof roof.
Where insulated panels are fitted, these replace the material used for a
built-up structure.
In this form of construction, the structural steel is designed to allow for
the roof insulation to be laid to falls. The wall panels forming the gable ends
extend above the roof insulation creating a parapet to which the vapour seal
and weatherproofing can be dressed to give continuity of the seal and
insulated envelope. Many types of material are used for the weather-
proofing of the external roof system. The most common material is butyl
rubber stretched in rolls over the complete roof area with the joints lapped
and fused together. The material is double-lapped over the parapet and
secured with a weatherproof capping to the wall panel, completing the
vapour seal. Layers of mineral felt can also be used in conjunction with the
butyl rubber to give additional weather protection. The exterior of the roof
is then covered with a ballast of stone pebbles.
Floor insulation
The most acceptable form of insulation used in floor construction in the UK
is extruded polystyrene foam slabs. Because of its superior compressive
strength and high level of moisture resistance, it makes an ideal material for
this application.
The extruded polystyrene is produced in approximately 2400 x 600mm
slabs and in thicknesses of 50mm, 75mm and 100mm. Unlike the extruded
polystyrene used in the construction of wall panels, this material is left with
a skin on both surfaces, giving additional moisture resistance and also a
more durable surface for floor applications.
Once the floor vapour seal has been applied, the boards of extruded
polystyrene are then laid in two layers with all joints left dry and staggered
to ensure no straight-through joints.
The first layer is laid in brick fashion, with the peripheral joint cut and
fitted tight to the insulation that is exposed at the base of the wall panel.
Again, working away from the back plant room wall once several bays of
the first layer of insulation have been applied, it is then possible to continue
with the second layer. The second layer should be applied like the first, with
the exception that the boards should be applied at right angles to the first
layer, i.e. first layer working away from the back wall and the next layer
across the room.
Normally, because of the consistent flatness and rigidity of this type of
insulation, it is not necessary to fix the layers together. However, should
there be any slight undulation in the concrete base slab causing the insula-
tion to stand proud of the adjoining slab, the slabs can be secured by fixing
the top layer to the bottom with beechwood skewers. In any event, it is good
practice to examine the completed floor insulation and apply skewers to any
area of insulation that may not be fitted tightly.
During the application of the floor insulation, it is possible to work
simultaneously on the exterior of the cold store and to fit the door
frames.
At this stage, all panel-to-panel joints will have been completed with the
vapour seal applied during the installation. Work remaining to be com-
pleted includes the finishing of the junction between wall and ceiling panels,
and the joint left between ends of the panels where they rest on the
suspension units. The easiest and most efficient way of filling these joints
is to apply polyurethane foam. Slab insulation can be fitted, but this is
time-consuming and does not necessarily guarantee the integrity of the
joint.
It will be recalled that the internal wall-to-ceiling corner angles were
fitted dry. It is therefore necessary when applying the foam to ensure that it
does not run out at this joint at the pre-expansion stage. The best method of
avoiding this is to cut strips of insulation approximately 50mm to fit tightly
into the bottom of this joint. The polyurethane foam can then either be
mixed and poured into the joint or applied direct from an aerosol canister.
The foam should be allowed to rise 50mm above the joint to allow for
cutting back to the exterior level. This also creates a good surface for
applying the vapour seal. A self-adhesive bituthene strip or mastic can then
be applied over the joint before fitting the metal protective angle. Consid-
erable care should be taken to ensure that this joint is properly fitted and
that the vapour seal is applied in the correct manner, with the vapour seal
and metal strip extending at least 50mm onto the roof panel and secured
with retaining rivets. The joint above the suspension unit should be filled
and sealed in a similar manner, and the vapour seal should be protected
with a metal strip.
Before leaving the exterior of the roof, all joints should be checked and
additionally sealed if required. Special attention should be directed to the
support detail of the suspension units. If steel hangers are used, then these
should be insulated to a height of approximately 300mm above the roof
panel.
If the external wall-to-wall corners have not been completed at this stage,
they should now be fitted with the appropriate vapour seal and protective
corner angle.
During the installation of the wall panels, apertures would have been left
to accommodate the doors. It is now possible to fit the doorframes into
these apertures, leaving the hanging of the doors until the internal floor
finish has been completed. It is important to ensure that the integrity of the
insulated envelope is maintained during the installation of the frames, and
that the reveals are fitted in such a way as to avoid cold tracking and the
consequent formation of moisture or ice.
The internal floor surface can now be laid, and then all doors can be
installed.
5.11 Underftoor heating
Any building designed to operate at temperatures which can cause the

formation of ice under the floor must be protected. It can be safely assumed
that any room operating at below O°C will require some degree of protec-
tion. This is dependent on a number of factors such as location (whether
internal to the existing building complex or external), geographical loca-
tion, actual room temperatures, type of operation, etc.
Four basic types of system are commonly used to protect the freezer
floors from frost heave:
• Circulated glycol system
• Low-voltage electric heater mat
• Structural raised base slab
• Vent systems
Whichever system is preferred, it is important to provide some means of
monitoring the underfloor temperature so that a potentially damaging situ-
ation can be averted.
Circulated glycol system

The circulated glycol system is the one most commonly used where the floor
area exceeds 1500m2 • The system comprises of a grid of plastic tubing laid
in loops and connected to a header pipe through which a warmed solution
of glycol is circulated (Figure 5.8). The circuits should preferably be in
continuous runs with no joints under the floor. The tubing normally consists
of 25 mm internal diameter polyethylene, which is supplied in approxi-
Finished floor and kerbs
Insulation
Concrete sub-floor
Figure 5.8 Circulated glycol system.
mately 300m rolls. The tubing is held in position with wire and fixed to the
sub-floor. It is then covered with a 75 mm sand and cement screed.
It is important that the tubing is tested prior to the pouring of the screed
and that the test pressure be maintained and observed during the entire
construction process.
The heat to warm the glycol is normally obtained from the central refrig-
eration system where a discharge gas heat exchanger can be utilized to
reclaim heat. A pump is then used to circulate the glycol solution.
As with all mechanical underfloor heating systems, a monitoring system
should be introduced to ensure that the temperature of the floor below the
insulation stays above freezing (approximately +5°C).
The glycol system is an economical form of underfloor heating once the
initial cost of installation has been absorbed. While it requires some space
for the heat exchanger, pump, monitoring equipment, etc., the header and
tube connections can be placed against the wall and easily protected.
Low-voltage electric heater mat

This system consists of a grid of electrical heater elements (Figure 5.9). The
cable consists of stainless steel wires protected by a heavy-duty PVC cover-
ing. The grid comprises individual circuits extending into a busbar chamber,
which is then controlled by a tapped transformer from the main electrical
supply.
Once the grid of wires has been secured to the sub-floor, all circuits
should then be tested. The wires are then further protected by a 50 mm sand
and cement screed. It is of great importance that once the screed has been
Finished floor and kerb
Insulation
Vapour seal
,.,.--:c-:--c;-:;-:;-:--;-f-::---:-...,.,....,c---c-7:c::-::--:-=',--,--;~:,-,-,--,-"--;--c---J-__ E Ie c tric he ate r mat
SuO-floor
Figure 5.9 Low-voltage electric heater mat.
laid, all circuits are again tested to ensure that no damage has occurred
during the laying of the protective screed.
When setting out the grid for the heater cables, it is important to ensure
that the peripheral wires are positioned well inside the line of the wall
panels, to prevent any possible damage caused by the fitting of the wall base
channel.
The low-voltage heater mat system is a good choice for stores with a floor
area of less than 1500m2 •
Structural raised base slab

Mechanical underfloor heating can be ignored if the cold store base is
constructed on concrete or dwarf walls, allowing for a ventilated space
between the slab and ground level through which ambient air can pass
(Figure 5.10). This system is normally applicable when the site needs to be
piled to support the cold store construction.
Vent systems
The gravity vent system, which is more common in the USA than in the UK,
is a series of tubes placed under the sub-floor slab (Figure 5.11). The tubes
are placed on a slope of approximately 1 in 50 to induce drafts; that is, as the
air cools it falls to the lower end of the tube and warm air replaces it. The
tubing is generally 100 to 150mm PVC positioned at approximately
1200mm centres.
With this system, however, there are a variety of theories as to the best
Finished floor and kerb
Insulation
Vapour seal
Suspended slab
Ventilated space
Figure 5.10 Structural raised base slab.
,f4--'Fini:,hed floor and kerb
_-I.>sulation
_-llaoelU' seal
r---t,ase slab
~~~~~~~~~~~~_-IJPn'iI"';nn pipes
set into sub-base
Figure 5.11 Gravity vent system or forced draft vent system.
depth for the tubes below the internal wearing surface, and also the slope of
the tubes.
The advantage of this system is that it is simple and can be normally
constructed by any contractor. The disadvantage is that it requires con-
sistent maintenance to ensure that the vents remain open, as they are
subject to blockage by vermin, dirt and ice. The gravity vent system is
certainly not recommended for larger cold stores but can work well in very
small stores.
The forced draft vent system is supplementary to the gravity vent system,
and should be used only in very small stores. The problem of not having
sufficient air and heat flow in the gravity system can be solved with the
addition of a properly sized blower located in a warm area. The tubes
should be sloped in the direction of the air flow to allow condensate to drain
out. This system, as with the gravity system, can only be effective with
constant maintenance ensuring that the tubes are always kept clear.
5.12 Specification for internal floor finishes
Generally the most commonly accepted internal floor finish to cold stores is
reinforced (granolithic) concrete. However, an alternative to this is a rein-
forced (monolithic) concrete; the only advantage is a marginal saving on the
overall cost of the store.
Whichever floor wearing surface is chosen, it must:
• Possess a hardwearing and low-dusting surface
• Be capable of withstanding intermittent and rapid changes in tempera-
ture without cracking
• Be level within the tolerances necessitated by a racking installation and
mechanical truck operations
The wearing floor shall be capable of transmitting onto the insulation and
the base slab without undue stresses the maximum load and point loads
from racking installation, mezzanine floors, FLTs, etc.
In the case of mobile racking, heavy-duty EPs should be fitted below the
concrete directly under the tracks that support the wheels.
The specification for the internal wearing floors shall comply with the
following requirements:
• The general requirements of CPllO, Part 1: 1972.
• The general requirements of the recommendations for concrete floors
published by the Cement & Concrete Association.
• The aggregates shall be granite or satisfy the requirements of BS882:
1993 for heavy-duty concrete finishes. Concrete shall be made with spe-
cially selected aggregates of a hardness, surface texture and particle
shape suitable for use as a wearing surface.
• The concrete mix shall have a minimum cement content of 330 kg/m3 and
a minimum crushing strength of 3SN/mm2 after 28 days.
Construction joints should be arranged beneath racks where fitted and, as
far as possible, out of the way of gangways used by FLTs. Where this is not
possible, precautions should be taken to provide a joint with similar resist-
ance to wear as the remaining area of the floor.
A kerb or similar protection should be constructed around the perimeter
Table 5.1 Cooling the store to temperature: a typical schedule
Day I 16°C Day7 -4°C

Day 2 SoC Day8 -8°C
Day 3 IOC Day9 -12°C
Day 4 IOC Day 10 -18°C
Day S IOC Day 11 -20°C
Day 6 -2°C Day 12 -29°C
of the wearing floor. The kerb should be structurally connected to the floor
by allowing the metal reinforcement to be returned at right angles into the
kerb. The gap between the kerb and the insulated panels should be sealed
after the store operation temperature has been reached, or be covered with
a cover strip that allows for the movement of the kerb during the tempera-
ture pull-down.
The wearing floor shall be allowed sufficient time to cure prior to tem-
perature reduction or loading. Care should be taken to prevent expansion
of the wearing surface prior to cooling, as expansion joints are generally not
provided.
Sealant finishes are sometimes applied to the wearing floor to reduce
dusting. The sealant should be applied in accordance with the maker's
instruction and should be of a type which does not cause lingering taint.
Cooling the store down to temperature

Once the internal wearing floor is cured, a cooling-down period should be
observed. Cooling should be slow to prevent the floor cracking, and care-
fully controlled as the temperature approaches O°C, to promote drying
prior to cooling below O°c. A typical cooling programme is shown in Table
5.1.
5.13 Insulated doors
All insulated doors to the cold store should be designed with insulation
equivalent in value to that of the wall insulation and, in the case of large
doors, they should be constructed in such a way as to minimize the effect of
bowing caused by the temperature difference between the internal and
external surface of the door.
Doors should be constructed using a rigid frame or a heavy-duty metal
channel and should incorporate a thermal break between the internal and
external temperatures (Figures 5.12 and 5.13).
Doorframes should be made of material not only capable of supporting
the door but also constructed to ensure the integrity of the walls to which
the frames are fitted.
ALUMINIUM DOOR
DOOR BLADE SURROUND
THERMAL
PVC THERMAL
ALUMINIUM EXTRUDED
DOOR FACE FRAME
INSULA
NYLON FIXING BOLT WALL PANEL
DOOR REVEAL
ANGLE
MINIUM EXTRUDED
DOOR BACK FRAME
Figure 5.12 Section through typical door jamb.
The most common form of door insulation is polyurethane. As this

insulant has a superior thermal conductivity value, it allows the doors to be
of minimum thickness, thus reducing their overall weight.
The doors should incorporate a heavy-duty gasket to form an effective
seal. In the case of sliding doors, the gaskets should be resilient enough to
absorb the pressure of closing and also any drag caused by the sliding
operation.
There are various types of cold store doors:
• Main sliding doors
• Main automatic sliding doors
• Horizontal automatic bi-parting doors
• Vertical slide doors (manual or automatic)
• Hinged personnel and fire escape doors
L 150 L
r Outside
Freezer
[75x50x3
[alum cill ang~e
I HTR gasket [
External step to slope

away if exposed to rain
J
Figure 5.13 Typical detail of hinged freezer door.
Wherever possible all doors should be fitted on the exterior warm side of
the cold store. Where stores are operating below O°C all doors or door-
frames should be provided with heater elements to prevent sticking due to
ice build-up (Figure 5.12).
Heater elements should be transformed down from the main supply, be
free of fixings, and be insulated in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations.
Threshold heaters should also be installed in the wearing surface of the
floor and have separate connection to that of the doorframe heaters (Figure
5.14).
Doors fitted on the outside of a weatherproof wall should have a metal
canopy fitted over the door head to protect the gasket and heaters from
weather conditions.
All door furniture should be corrosion-resistant and large enough to
ensure the easy operation of the doors.
Automatic sliding doors are not acceptable as a means of escape unless
they have a manual override and can be opened manually in the event of
Threshold DOOR BLADE

Freezer heaters
Loading Dock etc
back-to-back galv'd
steel angle
Floor finish r--:-t----.T--;-:---;-~--r-=--:t--'";--"~-;-:--;-~-7"":--=~~""'~

\
L-
BRC
Screed
I
500 - - - - - . . ,
Figure 5.14 Typical detail of sliding freezer door.
power failure. The locks to these doors should isolate the drive mechanism
when the door is locked. A safety mechanism should also be fitted to
avoid injury or damage to produce should the door accidentally close.
All doors required for means of escape should be easily and immediately
operable from the inside at all times, and should be identifiable to all
operatives.
Door protection
The main sliding doors to the cold store should be protected from damage
by FLTs. The most common form of protective barrier is steel tubing
constructed as a goalpost on the exterior of the door. The steel goalposts
are manufactured from 1 m high x 150 mm diameter steel tube. Into these
tubes are fitted the actual goalpost assembly produced from 75-100mm
steel pipe. This pipe is then cemented into the 1 m high steel bollard. The
whole assembly can either be bolted to the floor or set into the main
concrete sub-base.
The protection posts should be positioned so that the bottom 1 m high
bollards, together with the head of the goalposts, extend into the clear
opening by approximately 25 mm. This ensures that the FLT driver can use
these as a guide to avoid hitting the door reveals when the door is in an open
position.
A further protective barrier can be extended from the goalpost assembly,

approximately 1 m high, to the extent of the door when it is in the open
position. A single 1 m high steel bollard can also be fitted to the interior of
the cold store directly in front of the internal door frame positioned again
25 mm into the opening. All steel protection barriers should be identified by
being painted in black and yellow stripes.
5.14 Erection plant
It is important to ensure that during the erection of the cold store, the
correct equipment is used and that it is designed and erected to conform to
the appropriate safety standards. The general erection equipment should
be:
• Rough terrain FLT

• Smooth-wheeled FLT
• Mobile scaffold towers
• Heavy-duty mechanical scissor lifts
The rough terrain FLT should be capable of off-loading and transporting

panels and ancillaries over rough ground to the designated areas.
The smooth-wheeled FLT is for use inside the building and for travelling
over a smooth floor, with maximum load, without damaging the heater mat
protective screed.
Dependent on the size of the store to be built, mobile towers should be
installed to enable speedy erection of the wall panels. These should be
erected by the supplier and should be designed, when fully erected, to
comply with the appropriate safety standards. Outriggers shduld be fitted at
all times to ensure maximum stability of the tower when erected to full
height. The working platform of the mobile towers should be fitted on all
sides with handrails positioned above the waist height of the tallest man
working on the platform.
The use of mechanical scissor lifts, with controls from the working plat-
form, for fitting ceiling panels will reduce the erection time considerably.
These lifts are fitted with all the appropriate safety features. However,
operatives should be properly supervised in the handling of this equipment
and should keep well clear of all moving parts during the ascending and
descending of the lift.
On external insulated stores it may be necessary to erect fixed scaffold-
ing. Men working near the edge of the roof should at all times be fitted with
safety harnesses.
All plant and erection equipment used on the installation of cold stores
should comply with the Safety at Work Act 1984, and the erection teams
should familiarize themselves with all aspects of safety on site.
5.15 Technical data
The insulation thicknesses, shown in Figure 5.15 are based on ambient

temperatures of +20°C. The graph does not take into consideration struc-
tural strength requirements of insulated panels, which require additional
thickness to provide a span performance that can cope with the worst
possible combination of forces.
British and European refrigeration experience shows that the most
economic thickness of insulation permits a mean maximum heat flow
through the total surface area of walls, floor and roof of a cold store,
approximating 8kcal/m2/h. American practice over the last ten years has
demonstrated that considerable cost savings can be made both in capital
cost of the refrigeration plant and energy saving by increasing the thickness
of insulation.
200
180
160
E 140
E-
en
en 120
Ql
c
-'"
<..l
£ 100
c
0
~
80
:.;
en
E 60
40
20
0
5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30
Temperature (0C)
• Polyurethane CFC free ri:l Polyisocyanurate 88 Extruded polystyrene

EJ Modified phenolic • Polystyrene ~ Mineral fibre
Figure 5.15 Comparison between insulation thicknesses.

Table 5.2 Physical properties of insulation materials
Physical Expanded Extruded Phenolic

property polystyrene polystyrene Polyurethane Polyisocyanurate foam
Maximum 0.037 0.027 0.023 0.023 0.020

thermal
conductivity
at lOoC, W/mK
aged value
(30 days)
Maximum 110 300 100 100 100
compressive
strength at
10% strain
(kPa)
Water vapour 5.0 1.7 5.5 8.5 5.5
permeability
(ng/Pasm)
Apparent water 4 0.2 4 4 7.5
absorption
maximum
(% vol)
Surface spread Class 0 Class 0 Class 0 Class 0 Class 0
of flame when
incorporated in
steelfaced panel
(UK Building
Regulations
1992)
Some physical properties of insulation materials are given in Table 5.2.
5.16 Regulations and standards
UK requirements
Lloyds Register of Shipping Within the UK, Lloyds Register of Shipping

Type Approval has been accepted as the recognized standard for the manu-
facture and construction of cold store insulated panels. Cold stores required
to be built to Lloyds Standards must conform to Rules and Regulations for
the Classification of Refrigerated Stores, Container Terminals and Process
Plants, January 1988 edition.
The development of Lloyds Type Approval has been considerable, espe-
cially during the last ten years, during which improved standards have been
brought about by dramatically increased costs involved in the insurance of
cold store buildings and by adaptations to modern distribution and storage
needs. In addition, the value of goods stored in cold stores has increased
considerably and any failure on the part of the insulated envelope greatly
increases the insurers' liability. The major areas of interest to the assessors
are as follows:
• Panel specification This area includes a physical assessment of the panel

components, including assessing the value of the properties of compo-
nents after manufacture. Within this category are the mid-span loading
and deflection details, as well as the long-term structural effect of load on
both horizontal and vertically installed panels.
• Construction details Included within the area of construction details
are: jointing systems; door leaf and frame construction; internal and
external vertical corner detail; ceiling supports; external wall detail; wall-
to-ceiling and wall-to-floor jointing arrangements.
• Ancillary construction details The interest of the surveyor has been
expanded to include the assessment of ancillary components related to
the construction of the insulated envelope. The type and specification of
mastics, as well as edge jointing details, are now part of the investigative
process. The expansion of the surveyor's investigation to such ancillary
items is a departure from the traditional concentration on manufacturing
technique, which was a standard initially introduced by Lloyds Register
of Shipping when Type Approval was first developed. Lloyds Refriger-
ated Store Certificate, known as the Maltese Cross, will be assigned when
the relevant parts of the cold store have been constructed, installed and
tested under special survey, and found to be in accordance with the rules.
British Standards Institution The BSI is the independent national body for
the preparation of British Standards. It is the UK member of the Interna-
tional Standards Organization and UK sponsor for the British National
Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission.
In preparing a British Standard Specification, committees are formed
from institutions, advisory boards, professional associations and govern-
ment bodies, which, because of their technical expertise, are responsible for
the preparation of standards.
Consultants and architects familiarize themselves with all appropriate
standards when designing a cold store complex, and whenever possible
manufacturers and contractors will conform to whatever standard is
applicable.
The Institute of Refrigeration The Institute of Refrigeration plays a major

part in both refrigeration and insulation services, and through its member-
ship of engineers and allied trades has produced the Code of Practice for the
Design and Construction of Cold Store Envelopes, Incorporating Pre-
Fabricated Insulated Panels, 1986 edition. This incorporates the appropriate
legislation and also the British Standards Codes of Practice for the con-
struction of cold stores.
International Association of Cold Storage Contractors (IACSC)

The IACSC (European Division) is preparing a Standards and Practices
Manual related to cold store construction. These standards will be for
informational purposes only and will not form the basis of a government
regulatory document. The standards make the assumption that a competent
designer has been engaged, who will select the system style and components
best suited to a particular project. On that assumption the standards will
then provide the following general requirement:
• The ability of the insulation contractor to provide the appropriate mate-
rials and system to satisfy the architect.
• Requirements by the architect that the construction will conform to
design and that the insulation and components will form an envelope
relative to the trueness of planes, and will withstand the wind forces
imposed on the completed installation, together with dead and imposed
loads created by mechanical services and weather conditions.
• Normal practices used by contractors in installing the insulated
enclosures.
European requirements
The development of building codes for the construction of cold store build-
ings in Europe was initially absorbed in the general building industry con-
struction requirements. In many countries building material tests have been
utilized to assess insulated panels. The German 'funnel fire test', for in-
stance, relates to a variety of insulated materials used in general construc-
tion and not necessarily specifically to the insulated panel technology
available for cold store construction in Europe today. For this reason, the
Lloyds Register of Shipping Type Approval is rapidly becoming a standard
throughout Europe, because it assesses panel strength, vapour seal and
insulation values under low-temperature conditions.
In the continual development of building codes for the cold storage
industry in Europe, it is likely that Lloyds Register of Shipping Type Ap-
proval will become the norm, and will be accepted and recognized on a
broad basis, especially since Europe has begun to move rapidly into one
market.
US requirements
There are no standards of construction in the USA equivalent to those
published in the United Kingdom. System design and selection are left
entirely to the architect, in contrast with the UK where standards are fairly
well set in terms of design criteria, and do not allow much in the way of
variation.
Building codes Cold store insulation systems in the USA must meet the
requirement of local building codes. These codes relate to the following
requirements:
• When foam plastics are used, they must have an acceptable level of flame
spread, fuel contribution and smoke development properties. They must
also be covered with facing materials that will guarantee a bond line and
the structural stability of the panel.
• When panels are used as exterior wall or interior partitions, they must
meet strength requirements for transferring wind loads to steel frames.
Generally, they must transfer the wind load to the steel frame without
bowing under the load more than 1I240th of the length of the panel. An
example of this might be that a panel spanning 6 m vertically between
supports should have a bow less than 28 mm when subjected to an ap-
proximate 100 kg/m2 wind load.
Conference of Building Officials During the late 1960s, insurance compa-

nies in the USA took an interest in establishing a building code for the
construction of refrigerated warehouses which, at that time, was related to
general building materials and fell under the auspices of the Conference of
Building Officials (CBO).
The CBO established a variety of tests primarily for investigating the
fire properties of insulated panels. The best known of these were the
'corner tests', which were undertaken by a variety of testing institutes
normally related to the major insurance underwriters. Factory Mutual
Research and Underwriters Laboratory - both independently estab-
lished research facilities - were the two major testing facilities utilized
in the USA for the Establishment Fire Testing Certification. Results
established by fire tests undertaken by these two major research
institutes were accepted by most insurance companies as documen-
tation sufficient to establish the fire properties of various insulated
panels.
In contrast to the Lloyds approach, the Factory Mutual and Underwriters
Laboratory approach related only to the fire properties of panels and not
necessarily to the jointing and construction techniques, nor their long-term
insulating value. Whenever general acceptance of building materials was
necessary, these fell within other areas of the International Conference and
appropriately insulated panels were often compared with other more gen-
erally used building materials.
5.17 Current development trends
Industry needs
Considerable developments have occurred over the last 25 years in the
design and construction of cold stores, and users have discovered to their
cost that insulated structures will deteriorate if the wrong material is
chosen.
Generally, if the insulated structure remains intact and free of ice for
many years, it usually means that the integrity of the panel joints has
remained constant and that the vapour seal has not broken down. It there-
fore suggests that the bondline between the insulation and the inner and
outer skins of metal will remain unbroken as long as it remains dry and free
of ice.
Fire performance Recent highly publicised fires within the food industry
have led to greater concerns regarding the fire performance of insulated
composite panels. In the UK the minimium standard for surface spread of
flame to the Building Regulations is CLASS 0 for internal linings, including
composite panels. Fire retardent grades of insulation should also be incor-
porated within the panels. The International Association of Coldstorage
Contractors (IACSC) and the Cold Storage and Distribution Federation
(CSDF) are addressing this issue in conjunction with the leading auth-
orities asscociated with fire safety. Reference should be made to the fol-
lowing publications: IACSC Guidelines for the Design and Construction of
Insulated Envelopes for Controlled Environments and CSDF publication
The RFIC Guide to the Management and Control of Fire Risks in Tempera-
ture Controlled Structures of the Refrigerated Food Industry.
Potential problems We have dealt earlier in the chapter with various types
of insulation recommended for panel construction. Some cold store users
have a preference, normally based on previous experience. However, we
should look beyond the need for a particular insulation material and con-
centrate on the real problems experienced by the operator.
Assuming that the thickness of insulation has been calculated cor-
rectly, taking into consideration that this is largely based on experience
from relating the capital cost of the actual insulation to the running
cost of absorbing the conducted heat by refrigeration, we should then
establish that the areas most likely to cause problems within the construc-
tion are the vapour seals, and the structural integrity of the panels and
doors.
Without doubt, the most common problem experienced over the years is
the breakdown of the insulated envelope due to water absorption in the
panel which then freezes at low temperature. Large ceiling areas have been
known to collapse well within their expected life due to the insulated core
being almost solid ice. The weight of the panels has been known to exceed
the design weight by as much as five times.
If the insulated core is faced on the external side with steel, then the only
area where water vapour can penetrate is the joints between the panels.
This suggests that the most important factor in the cold store design is to
ensure a positive vapour barrier combined with a structurally sound panel.
The importance of doors should not be neglected. The cold store opera-
tor will be forever frustrated if the wrong doors were chosen. It is important
to establish the number of door openings per day, as this is a deciding factor
in the choice of automatic or manually operated sliding doors.
Doors should be kept closed at all times when not in use, and considera-
tion should be given to the fitting of PVC strip curtains on the interior of the
door opening to reduce the level of moisture entering the store while the
door is in operation.
To ensure that the cold store user obtains the correct specification for his
particular application, he should be aware of all new developments in the
industry appertaining to panel design, and should satisfy himself, by ex-
changing information with manufacturers and contractors, that what is
proposed meets with the United Kingdom standard codes of practice.
Structural alterations
When it is necessary to make structural alterations to existing cold stores,
consideration should be given to the following points:
• Has the existing system proved satisfactory?
• Can the store be extended or altered without detriment to the stability of
the existing structure?
• Can the alterations be carried out with the minimum disturbance to the
existing operation?
Consultations with contractors at the early planning stage can prove to be
very cost-effective, with advice given on recent developments which could
overcome difficulties that may previously have been experienced.
Alternative finishes for cold store panels
Steel finishes The finishes available for steel-faced panels as produced by

the British Steel Corporation are:
• Colourcoat Pvf2 This is used mainly for roofing and cladding applica-
tions. The Colourcoat system for external use consists of a single weath-
ering layer on top of the primer and pre-treatments which are applied to
the galvanized substrate. The coating is resistant to chemical and solvent

attack and has good heat resistance. The good colour retention makes
later extensions to the building less conspicuous. Colourcoat Pvf2 has a
life expectancy of over 40 years if the weatherside of the material is
properly maintained.
• Colourcoat Plastisol This is more commonly used for panel construc-
tion as it can be used on both sides of the panel and on either internal or
external insulation systems. Colourcoat Plastisol is a PVC coating on
a galvanized substrate and, as with all Colourcoat materials, can be
supplied in various colours. It has a similar life expectancy on the
weatherside to Pvf2 .
• Stelvatite This differs from Colourcoat in being an organic film lami-
nated to the steel by an adhesive. It has a hard-wearing surface and is
normally used on the internal face of the panel. It is more commonly used
as a 'Foodsafe' finish when the application is likely to be in contact with
fresh meats and poultry.
• Silicone polyester This was developed primarily as a low-cost cladding
and roofing material with a medium-term life for worldwide application.
The coating has good resistance to ultraviolet light and heat, but care
should be taken in its use near the sea or in hot humid conditions.
• Architectural polyester This is a flexible economic cladding material
with a medium-term life in most non-aggressive environments. As with
silicone polyester, if this material is given regular maintenance, its life
expectancy can be increased considerably.
Steel colours On externally insulated systems of construction where skin

temperatures significantly affect the level of thermal bowing to the insu-
lated panel, consideration should be given to the colours available and the
choice of colour that will best reflect the sunlight. It is generally acknowl-
edged that light tones are better for external use, not only for the roof but
also for the wall cladding. By using the colours recommended by the steel
manufacturer, you will not only prolong the life of the cladding but also
improve the effective 'U' value.
Materials suitable for extreme climatic conditions

When designing an insulated enclosure for more extreme climatic condi-
tions, it is well to establish the following:
• Dimensional stability of the insulation if exposed to excessive heat
• Suitability of external cladding for the particular environment
• Necessity for fully galvanized steel fixings and ancillaries.
Generally the methods of construction should not differ from those in the
UK as long as adequate protection is given to the components that are
exposed to extreme conditions.
Thermographic scan
Once the cold store has been reduced to temperature, it is possible to
establish any heat leaks between the panel joints and the panels themselves.
An infrared camera is used to detect leaks. The scan should be interpreted
by the insulation contractor, preferably under the direction of an independ-
ent specialist firm who can obtain the appropriate certification. The scan
should be carried out from the interior of the store, which should be free
of all racking and at the operating temperature with the doors closed and
the fans off. The store should have been at operating temperature for
approxomately 48 hours before the start of the tests. The panel joints and
the panel should be separately scanned and the instrument used should be
accurate to ±O.l°C. The scanning technique does not give quantitative
values, but effectively indicates zones in which rectification work, particu-
larly at joints, can be observed.
6 Cold store doors
T. FENTON
6.1 Introduction
Doors are one of the most important features of a cold store yet sometimes
the least thought about at the initial design stage. Their main function is, of
course, to allow the free and easy passage of goods and personnel yet still
retain the integrity of the insulated enclosure.
In the early days, doors were manufactured from timber frames infilled
with cork, clad with wooden boards and hung on large strap hinges. They
were restricted in size, extremely heavy and very cumbersome to operate,
resulting in poor productivity, and they were often left open with disastrous
results in terms of energy loss. Maintenance was also a problem as the
weight of the doors meant they would eventually sag, drag on the floor,
become even more difficult to operate, and rub away the floor gaskets
allowing ice to form under them.
Modern doors are a far cry from their early predecessors being made of
lighter materials, designed to seal more efficiently and often power oper-
ated. Due to improved technology, specialist door companies have evolved
that can give expert advice at the store design stage, and also supply and
install door systems to meet the exacting demands of today's cold store
industry. Using a reputable specialist not only results in gaining the best
possible advice, but it can also ensure ongoing commitment to service and
repair of the product for future years of trouble-free operation.
6.2 Air infiltration
When a cold store door is opened, the dense cold air spills out along the
floor and the lighter, warmer, outside air flows in to replace it at the door
head (Figure 6.1). Once inside the store the warm air rises and, as it is mixed
with the cold air of the room, it releases moisture which turns into ice.
Warm temperatures outside during summer months and the longer the
door is open, will increase the amount of warm air drawn into the store,
making the problem of ice formation more acute.
Most of the ice will form on the surfaces of the walls and ceiling adjacent
to the door opening but some will form on the refrigeration coils, thus
reducing their effectiveness and increasing running costs. It is therefore
COLD STORE DOORS 193
warm air movement
cold air movement
Figure 6.1
very important to have doors which will open and close quickly and steps
should be taken to ensure they are not left open longer than it is absolutely
necessary for the safe passage of personnel and product.
The doors should also have an efficient sealing gasket all around the
frame and across the threshold to eliminate the ingress of warm moist air
when they are closed. The frames of a freezer door should incorporate a
heating cable to keep the local temperature above ooe, as otherwise the
sealing gaskets will freeze to the frame and eventually become damaged or
ripped away when the door is opened. If the heating cable is not main-
tained, and allowed to fail, this will have a serious effect on the efficiency of
the door. Damage to the gaskets will allow ice to form, which in turn will
push the door away from the frame, allowing even more moist air to enter
and creating a chain of events which will eventually stop the door from
operating altogether.
6.3 Door construction
Modern doors are usually manufactured by one of two methods: by inject-

ing polyurethane foam into pre-formed door skins or by means of insulated
panels. The first method is normally adopted for hinged doors and smaller
sliding doors, as the size is restricted by the hydraulic presses required. The
inside and outside door skins are pressed from sheet metal; the material is
typically O.63mm thick Stelvetite* or O.8mm stainless steel. The two sec-
tions are 'clipped' together with the seam running around the edges and
held in position by a nylon strip which acts as a thermal break and houses
the sealing gaskets. The assemblcd parts are then placed in a hydraulic press
so that the skins are prevented from distorting while a two-part poly-
urethane insulation foam is injected into them. The amount of insulation
used is carefully monitored to ensure that no voids remain. Voids would
result in a weak door with reduced insulation properties. The insulation is
normally injected at the hinged side of the door with bleed holes situated at
the bottom to allow for controlled expansion. The polyurethane insulation
securely bonds the skins together, forming a strong and ridged door panel
ready to accept the furniture and fittings.
Door frames are also manufactured from sheet steel either infilled with
polyurethane insulation for face mounting to the structure or formed into a
channel section to fit around an insulated wall panel. If the doors are for low
temperature, a heater cable should be incorporated within a groove with a
removable coverplate for maintenance purposes. Flexible seals are fitted all
around the door to nylon retainer strips which will allow their replacement
in the event of damage. Hinges should be manufactured from rust-proof
material and have a rising action when opened to prevent wear to the
bottom gaskets. Door handles should allow emergency escape from inside,
even when locked on the outside, and the latch mechanism should be
designed to hold the door firmly closed, thus maintaining a constant pres-
sure to give a good seal against the frame. Hinged doors should not be too
wide or they will sag and for openings over 1200mm wide pairs of doors
should be considered. The disadvantage with pairs, however, is the diffi-
culty of maintaining a good seal at the centre where the two leaves come
together. For this reason they are not recommended for low-temperature
use. As far as possible hinged doors should only be used for personnel
access, emergency escape and situations where it would be impossible to
install a sliding door because of the lack of space to the side of the door
opening, as shown in Figure 6.2. Hinged doors can be fitted with overhead
door closers, which should be mounted on the outside of the cold room, but
they are not normally automated.
As stated previously, sliding doors are usually constructed from insulated
panels and only the smaller ones are constructed using the previously
described injection method. This is because doors built from panels can be
repaired more easily if damage occurs to the door blade and also they can
* Stelvetite is the trade name of a plastic-coated, galvanized, steel sheet commonly used in the
UK.
Figure 6.2
be built to much larger dimensions as there are no restrictions due to size of

press required. It is important a sliding door has a strong edge frame as this
prevents the door from bowing, thus ensuring a good seal all round and
reducing the possibility of damage, as it gives strength to the edges, which
are the most vulnerable part of the door. The edge frames are generally
manufactured from aluminium extrusions or stainless steel folded sections
which are larger than the actual thickness of the door panel, see Figures 6.3
and 6.4. The framework should be securely joined together at the corners,
the bottom section being removable to allow replacement panels to be
introduced. A series of horizontal panels, usually 1200mm wide, make up
the doorblade and these are joined together by tongues and grooves sealed
with a silicone bead on both sides. Once all the panels are in position the
bottom section is fitted; this should incorporate the guiding system for the
door. Nylon retainer strips are fitted around the perimeter to maintain a
thermal break and house the sealing gaskets, which should be flexible and
hard-wearing. The panels are pre-manufactured with either polyurethane
or polystyrene insulation clad both sides with steel sheet. Finishes include
foodsafe 0.63 mm Stelvetite and 0.8 mm stainless steel. It is recommended
that polyurethane insulation panels are used for door construction as these
Figure 6.3
Table 6.1
Store temperature Insulation

Type of store (0C) thickness (mm)
Chill rooms o 60
Freezer rooms -30 120
Blast freezers -40 165
are not only much stronger than polystyrene but have superior insula-
tion values. Table 6.1 gives recommended thickness for various store
temperatures.
The frames of hinged doors can be made from sheet steel infilled with
polyurethane insulation for face-mounting or formed into a channel section
to fit around an insulated wall panel. Low-temperature door frames should
be designed with a thermal break and are sometimes provided with a four-
sided frame incorporating a sill member, which should be let flush into the
floor and house the heating cable. Alternatively, if a sill is not provided, the
heating cable should be laid in the floor directly in line with the bottom
sealing gasket.
Although the door-blade design is most important, a sliding door is only
hanger brackets--+-~
edge frame
insulation panels-
sealing gasket------.'--+~~
guiding system--------.~
o
o
0
Figure 604 Vertical section.
as good as its running gear and special attention to this detail cannot be
over-emphasized. There are many systems available but without doubt the
ones which allow the door to move down and in at the final closing position,
by virtue of the door blade's own weight, are the best. This is normally
achieved by having a running track angled at 45° and nylon bearings
running on the top surface. The bearings are located at each corner of
the door blade on special mounting brackets which allow adjustment.
Indentations are formed in the track and when the door comes to the closed
position the nylon bearings roll into the indentations and the door makes
a movement down and in to seal perfectly against the frame and floor.
Because this action only takes place at the final moment of closing, there is
very little wear and tear on the gaskets, unlike systems in which the tracks
are gradually bent towards the frame and sill, wedging the door against the
frame with consequent abrasion to the seals. For manual operation, a lever
handle lifts the door out of the indentations and back on to the track, thus
releasing the door seals in one movement. Once on the track, the door can
be easily slid open and closed. This positive closing action also helps to
prevent the door from being left slightly open, ensuring no leakage.
When choosing a rail system the following should be considered
• Is the track designed to give a good positive sealing action without undue
wear to the sealing gaskets and will it be strong enough for its usage?
• Does it allow the door to be adjusted easily and accurately in all
directions?
• Are the runners durable and will they allow free running?
• Will the handles, both inside and outside, allow easy opening of the door?
• Can the system be locked and does it have an emergency release facility?
• Do the moving parts require little maintenance and can they be easily
replaced in the event of damage?
• What automatic systems are available?
Door openings should be made as small as possible yet big enough to
allow the largest loads to pass through safely and without damage to the
frames and doors. It is recommended that the following allowances should
be made when determining the size:
Width = Maximum load width + 800mm
Height = Maximum load height + 300mm
If doorways are approached at an angle, as for example in corridor situa-

tions, then the above allowances should be increased. Personnel doors and
emergency escape doors are normally 800 to 1000mm wide by 2000mm
high.
6.4 Automatiou
Doors which are frequently used, especially where fork-lift trucks are em-
ployed, need to be automated. This not only reduces operating costs due to
the time saved by more efficient handling (by virtue of the fact that the
drivers do not have to dismount from their trucks) but it also ensures the
doors are opened for the shortest possible time. Doors which are not
automatic are often left open for long periods with a resultant loss of
valuable refrigerated air and, more importantly, deterioration of stored
product. Automation can often pay for itself over a reasonably short time
and the options available will therefore be examined here.
Short stroke
pneumatic
cylinder
Door
Track
Figure 6.5
The two most common types of drive in use today are pneumatic and
electric; hydraulic versions are not favoured as they can prove troublesome
and messy due to oil leakage. Pneumatic drives are very reliable and come
in two basic forms: 'launch' type and continuously driven systems. The
launch type (see Figures 6.5 and 6.6) consists of two short-stroke cylinders
mounted at each end of the track commanded by a five-way valve with
electric solenoids. Limit switches detect the position of the door when
either fully opened or closed. When the door is operated, a signal is sent to
the valve directing air to the first cylinder, which pushes the door open for
approximately 200mm allowing it to free-wheel along the track and be
arrested by the second cylinder when fully open. To close the door, the
procedure is reversed and the door is projected back and arrested by the
first cylinder. This system is extremely reliable and does not require a
sensitive safety edge on the door as it is not fully driven and can always be
stopped at any point along the track. One other advantage is that, because
the door is not connected to the automation, if it is hit and jumps the track
no damage occurs to the mechanism and it is a simple matter to realign the
door.
In the second type of drive a long pneumatic cylinder can be utilized to
continuously drive the door along the track, this again being commanded by
short stroke pneumatic cylinders
~ ~
I~ --:JF- .-+-.
t +
1\ /
....,
•
open
door closed
.---+
~
~
't'
•
close
door opened
Figure 6.6
a pneumatic valve with electric solenoids. A sensitive safety strip must be

located on the leading edge of the door to reverse the action should a
person or obstacle be encountered. Safety strips are always susceptible
to damage as they are positioned on the vulnerable leading edge of the
door and it is most important to maintain them. Electric automation
systems are continuously driven by either belts or chains through a three-
phase reversible motor, or the motor can be mounted above the track
driving the door through a rack and pinion arrangement as shown in
Figure 6.7. In all cases a safety edge is essential and a photocell across the
Figure 6.7
door opening can also be an added safety feature, reversing the closing
action should a person or object break the beam. Limit switches are re-
quired to indicate the open and closed positions of the door, but may prove
troublesome by not giving positive signals. The latest automation, however,
can be controlled by microprocessors, eliminating the need for these
switches and therefore proving more reliable. The microprocessor counts
the number of revolutions the motor is required to make for the door to
travel to the fully open or closed positions and this information is stored in
its memory. Furthermore, it can control the operating speeds and allow the
door to slow down prior to fully opening or closing, giving a much smoother
operation and reducing shocks to both the door system and supporting
structure.
6.5 Controls
All the aforementioned automated door systems can be operated by one of

the following methods. The simplest way is to mount push buttons on each
side of the opening but this is only recommended for pedestrian traffic.
Where fork-lift trucks are employed, pull-cord switches should be mounted
to the ceiling or the structure above, enabling the drivers to operate the
doors without having to dismount from their vehicles. The siting of the pull-
cord switches should be carefully considered to allow sufficient time for the
door to open before the truck arrives at the opening (it should be borne in
mind that most fork-lift truck drivers do not as a matter of course slow
down when approaching an opening). Pull-cords should be manufactured
from a smooth, strong material to avoid them becoming entangled with the
masts of fork-lift trucks.
Alternatively, sensitive induction loops cut into the floor can detect when
vehicles pass over them and send a signal to open the door; again, the
position relative to the door opening is most important. These loops will
only sense a metal object like a fork-lift or hand-pallet truck, not plastic
containers or pedestrians. If this is a problem, then infrared or radar detec-
tors can be mounted above the opening to detect movement of any object
or person and open the door. Care should be taken as some of these units
do not work successfully within a cold store environment. The main disad-
vantage with loops and detectors is that they will pick up cross-traffic not
necessarily wanting to use the opening, for example on a loading bay or in
a corridor situation where a number of doors are in line. Special loops and
detectors are available that can rule out cross-traffic but they are more
expensive and are not always the answer because sometimes the approach
to a door has to be from the side, and the detectors are not able to deter-
mine the intended route.
Other options include hand-held or fork-lift-truck-mounted transmitters
which can be programmed to open an individual or a series of doors. The
rule when choosing a method of operation is 'keep it simple' and always
consider pull-cord switches where possible as they are far more reliable.
Many a complex system has been abandoned after a few months in favour
of the good old-fashioned pull-cord switches.
All the above systems can incorporate 'timer close', i.e. once the initial
signal is received the door will close when a predetermined adjustable
time has elapsed. If during the timing-out period a further signal is
received that indicates door use, the timer will be reset. Timers should not
have a long delay and a range of 0 to 30s is recommended. The main
disadvantage with timer close is that the operatives do not control the
closing action and can be caught unaware that the door is about to close,
causing an accident or a costly collision with the door. Audible and/
or visual alarms are therefore recommended in these cases to warn of
an impending closure; this is particularly important when push buttons or
pull-cord switches control the door. In these instances, rather than have
the timer close the door, it could be connected to an audible alarm which
would sound if the door is left open for longer than, say, 20s. The operators
will then get into the habit of closing the door rather than having to put
up with the annoying noise (if they do not, at least the management are
warned and can take the appropriate steps to ensure the doors are not left
open).
100 Inside frame width 100

t t T t
t 150 T t 150 T
Figure 6.8 Horizontal section.
6.6 Installation
Cold stores are now almost always built from pre-manufactured insulated
panels, which are not intended to carry heavy loads, and are either free-
standing or supported by steelwork at various intervals. This steelwork is
not always where the door openings are located and it is now normal
practice for doors to be mounted directly onto the panels. Various systems
have been developed with frames designed to strengthen the panels around
the door apertures and act as a true surface against which to seal the door
(Figure 6.8). The frames can also be arranged to support the track, which is
important to prevent it sagging on the relatively weak panels. These systems
are not recommended where doors are in excess of, say, 2000mm wide by
4000mm high and independent steelwork, preferably tied back to the main
structure, should be specified in these cases. Again this is where working
with a reputable door specialist is invaluable. It should always be remem-
bered that a good door poorly installed is a bad door, and the saving of a few
extra items of steelwork could be a costly mistake. Doors which are not
supported correctly will not seal well and will eventually drop, resulting in
operational problems which are not easy to rectify.
Wherever possible always mount doors on the outide face of the cold
store, especially freezer rooms, as the low temperatures can play havoc with
motors, switches, bearings, etc. and severely affect their operation. Doors
fitted inside are also likely to receive far less attention and maintenance
because it is more uncomfortable for engineers to work in such low tem-
peratures and the work is frequently rushed.
6.7 Protection
It is important to protect the door and door opening using steel bollards or
'goalpost' frames, which should be securely fixed to the floor and not to the
Removable section
J Goalpost-type protection
1
Figure 6.9
• right
•
• •
correct positioning of protection posts
door in fully open position •
• wrong
•
•incorrect positioning of protection posts

• •
Figure 6.10
wall or door frame (Figure 6.9). They should be removable to facilitate

repairs to the doors and brightly painted to make them highly visible. On
many occasions they have been wrongly positioned; they should be sited so
that the centre line of the posts lines up with the edge of the door frame.
Very often they are incorrectly fixed outboard of the opening, which does
not afford the door and frame full protection (Figure 6.10). Correctly in-
stalled protection posts form a necessary part of a well-designed door
opening and their importance cannot be over-emphasized in helping to
protect a most vital part of a cold store operation.
6.S Special doors
Apart from hinged and sliding doors, there are situations where doors of a
specialized nature are required and some examples of these are described
here.
In abattoirs and meat-processing plants it is often necessary to have
continuous meat rails passing through door openings for the handling of
carcasses. There are several ways of solving this problem and Figures 6.11
and 6.12 illustrate two of the more common methods. Figure 6.11 shows a
split-track arrangement with a 'top hat' section to allow the passage of the
meat rail and its supporting steelwork. To enable the door to slide open,
additional bearings are required to support it across the break in the track
and the top hat section is normally sealed with PVC flaps. If the door is to
be automated Figure 6.12 shows a more suitable method. The door track is
continuous and a slot is formed in the door panel to allow it to slide over the
meat rail. These solutions are, of course, only suitable for chill room appli-
cations and for freezer rooms the meat rail has to be adapted to allow it to
swing out of the way so that the door can close and seal effectively all round.
A specialist firm should be consulted in these situations.
Vertical doors, as illustrated in Figure 6.13, are the answer where a series
Length of track = (inside frame width x 2) + 500 mm

+
Iia I
--;~
-I-
• ... rouI
l~ _. -_.- - -_. -- _._- V
600 mm
minimum T
1 Door in
opened
1: pOSition
0> __ 0_· • ________ . __
'OJ
~
Q)
E
£ Q)
"0
'iii
E:
~ 1400 mm
+ +150
Figure 6.11 Front view.
Length of track = (inside frame width x 2) + 500 mm

+ +
+300f
•
-
• 1:]
-<~
•
,---- ._-- ------ - --,
E
Ol
0Qi 600 mm 1 : Door in
: opened :
!
.L: E minimum T
ro Ol
0Qi • • !o_o?~~~~io~~o_.!
~ .L:
Ql
E
.§
Ql
"0
°iii
-=
• •
150, , ~ 1400 mm + ,150

Figure 6.12 Front viewo
of doors are required next to each other, for example in freezer tunnels and
loading bays. They can be manual with counter-balanced weights or springs
but it is necessary to build in safety devices to stop the door from crashing
down in the event of failure of these mechanisms. Generally such doors are
automated with two pneumatic cylinders, like the ones illustrated, or pow-
ered by electric motors. Folding doors can also overcome these problems
but they tend to be very complicated and susceptible to damage. They
should certainly not be considered for freezer stores.
It is advisable to look at the overall plan of a store with a view to
designing the layout to avoid lateral space problems wherever possible and
it should be remembered that doors of a highly specialized nature are
expensive and difficult to maintain in good working order.
Fast-acting doors, constructed from PVC or polyester material, which
roll up and close rapidly (Figure 6.14) are also quite popular where open-
ings are used intensively. They are driven by a three-phase reversible elec-
tric motor and can be controlled automatically by induction loops or
infrared detectors, ensuring they are only open for the minimum amount of
time. Bi-parting horizontal types are also available but are more expensive
Figure 6.13
and less suitable due to the difficulty of sealing against the floor. These
doors are, of course, not insulated but, because of their fast action, can be
very efficient in conserving energy; however, a secondary insulated door is
worth considering to seal off the opening during the night or slack periods
when the opening is not in use.
Crash doors, manufactured from rubber or PVC, which swing in both
directions and are self-closing by means of spring hinges can also be used
for smaller chill rooms. These flexible doors are not energy-efficient due to
the lack of insulation and should not be considered in hygienic food
processing areas as they soon become dirty and cannot be cleaned easily.
For these situations glass-fibre-reinforced polyester (GRP) doors, encapsu-
lating an insulated core, are a favoured solution. Figure 6.15 shows this type
of door in a hospital kitchen where a chilled environment is being main-
tained. They can be single- or double-swing and fitted with protective
rubber bumpers to prevent damage from trolleys, etc. The doors are
moulded from GRP with a seamless construction, which is extremely strong
and durable, and the hygienic surface can easily be washed down. The
frames can be manufactured from GRP, aluminium or stainless steel and
fire-resistant versions tested to BS 476 are also available.
As an additional barrier to the main doors, strip curtains are sometimes
used. These consist of flexible PVC strips which are overlapped and hung
Figure 6.14
from an overhead rail. For freezer stores low-temperature material should

be specified to prevent the material becoming hard and brittle. To enable
them to swing out of the way the curtains must be hung clear of the floor
and therefore they are not fully effective as a total barrier to air flow. Other
disadvantages are that they can become entangled with the trucks and torn,
Figure 6.15
can dislodge loads and can catch the drivers, with a chance of causing an
injury; this all adds up to them being unpopular with personnel.
6.9 Safety and maintenance
Safety should never be jeopardized in any way, and all door openings
should allow safe access at all times. Cold and chill stores should have more
than one method of escape and doors must have emergency devices on the
inside to override any external locking. Fire exits must be clearly marked
and kept free at all times, and the temptation to store anything in front of
their access must be avoided. Panic bars should be tested, and escape doors
opened at regular intervals, to ensure they work easily and are not frozen
into position.
Automatic doors require routine checks by a competent person to ensure
they can be operated manually in case of power failure and that their safety
systems are functioning correctly. If any problems are identified they should
be rectified as quickly as possible and if safety is compromised the door
should not be used until all repairs are fully completed. It is for this reason
that it is always advisable for cold stores to have more than one opening for
the movement of product and that service contracts are arranged to include
regular checking of the doors. Preventative maintenance is the best way to
avoid potential problems. All too often doors are neglected and, provided
that they keep opening and closing, are not attended to until someone has
an accident or they stop operating altogether.
There are no current regulations covering the safety of manual doors but
legislation is currently being drafted by EC Directives in the form of CE
marking and details were likely to be available in late 1996. Automatic
doors, however, should be in accordance with BS 7036: Parts 1 and 2 and
fire-resistant doors tested to the requirements of BS476: Part 22.
6.10 Conclusions
As can be seen from the foregoing, modern doors can be highly sophisti-
cated pieces of equipment playing a major role in the successful running of
a cold store complex but they are not always given the attention to detail
they deserve. One of the author's mentors used to jokingly inform him that
'the best door was a wall', which serves as a reminder that, once built, a wall
can generally be forgotten whereas a wrongly specified door can be a
constant source of trouble.
Finally let us remind ourselves of the most important points when select-
ing a door system: safety, reliability and efficiency. Financial implications, of
course, especially in today's economic climate, often affect decisions but be
sure that extra investment in this crucial area will certainly be repaid many
times over during the economic lifetime of a well-built cold store.
7 Refrigeration plant
A.J. PITT
7.1 Introduction
Refrigeration may not have been the most spectacular development in

mechanical engineering but its impact on society is very significant. In the
UK the Industrial Revolution transformed the country from a mainly agri-
cultural nation to a manufacturing one and this accentuated the need for
preservation and transportation of food. As urban growth developed, it
became increasingly difficult to feed the nation from the produce of the
traditional rural economy. Country people who could afford it enjoyed
fresh meat and those living by the sea had easy access to newly caught fish.
Those in towns, however, were dependent on horse-drawn transport, and
preservation by smoking, salting or pickling developed. Taste was often
improved by spices but the demand for highly spiced food diminished in the
eighteenth century. The need for food preservation, however, increased.
At the turn of the nineteenth century, food preservation was achieved
by heating in a sealed glass jar and then allowing the contents to cool.
Tinplate cans evolved from this process, adding the advantage of not being
breakable.
The preservation properties of ice have been common knowledge for
a long time but it was not until the mid-nineteenth century that develop-
ments in mechanical refrigeration started. Initially, simple single low-
temperature systems were used to transport perishables from areas of
production to those of major population. James Prescott Joule and William
Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) really started mechanical cooling by
demonstrating that the expansion of gas in a vacuum resulted in reduced
temperature.
Many of the early installations of equipment were on board ship, where
mechanical plant gradually replaced the use of vast quantities of blocks of
ice. Both Britain and Australia keenly pursued the idea of refrigerated
transport for meat. This is not surprising, as Britain had too little meat and
Australia too much; furthermore, there was a vast distance between them.
The Americas also had surpluses of meat for export and the advent of
mechanical refrigeration brought them great benefit. Hitherto, meat had
been largely regarded as a waste product. Because there was not a suffi-
ciently large market for meat in their own relatively lightly populated areas,
the producers bred their beasts for wool and hides and scrapped the car-
casses. Any price the farmers could obtain was therefore a gain to them
instead of the former 'dead loss'.
It is worth noting that, of all the food preservation mechanisms available
today, refrigeration is the only one that is expected to provide 'as fresh'
results. Salting, pickling, smoking and even canning are accepted with their
concomitant changes in flavour and texture.
In general, refrigeration is defined as any process of heat removal. More
specifically, it is that branch of science dealing with the process of reducing
and maintaining the temperature of a space or material below the tempera-
ture of the surroundings. The rate at which heat must be removed from the
refrigerated space and material in order to produce and maintain the de-
sired temperature is called the heat load. In most applications this is the sum
of the heat that leaks into the refrigerated space through insulated walls,
ceiling and floor, the heat that enters the space through the door openings
and the heat that must be removed from the product in order to reduce its
temperature to the desired conditions. Heat given off by people working in
the refrigerated space and by motors, lights and other electrical equipment
also contributes to the load on the refrigerating equipment.
The ability of liquids to absorb high quantities of heat as they vaporize is
the basis of the modern mechanical refrigerating system. As refrigerants,
vaporizing liquids have a number of advantages over melting ice. The
process is more easily controlled, the rate of cooling can be predetermined
and the vaporizing temperature of the liquid can be governed by controlling
Figure 7.1
REFRIGERATION PLANT 213
Figure 7.2
the pressure at which the liquid vaporizes. Moreover, the vapour can be
readily collected and condensed back into the liquid state so that the same
liquid can be used over and over again to provide a continuous supply of
liquid for vaporization.
The first systems used cold air as a refrigerant. Figure 7.1 shows an early
cold air machine. At low temperatures, however, this was not efficient and
vapour compression machines utilizing carbon dioxide or ammonia soon
became available. Figure 7.2 shows an early NH3 compressor. Although
ammonia was, and still is, a very efficient refrigerant, its toxicity and un-
pleasant smell have limited its use in many applications. Neither carbon
dioxide nor ammonia were really suited to the smaller refrigerating com-
pressor and the use of methyl chloride as a refrigerant became widespread.
This was the original halocarbon. It worked at low pressures, was readily
available and could be used in a system exposed to copper and brass. Its
flammability and toxicity could be tolerated due to the small quantities used
in any system. However, for larger systems some other medium was neces-
sary. This led to the development of more acceptable refrigerants and so the
CFCs appeared. The CFC refrigerants R12, R22 and R502 became widely
used in cold stores, the choice depending on systems design, compressor
selection, required temperature, efficiency, availability, cost and size of
application.
The production of CFCs is now prohibited under the Montreal Protocol.
This has arisen because of the widespread acceptance that their escape into
the atmosphere contributes to a breakdown of the ozone layer which
protects the earth from harmful radiation. In time, with the in situ
replacement of refrigerants and the installation of new plant, the use of
CFCs will effectively cease. This has posed enormous problems for
manufacturers, installers and users alike. An immense amount of effort has
been expended in developing alternative refrigerants and technologies and
a healthy debate continues as to the best short- and long-term solutions.
This topic is considered in greater detail in Chapter 4 but later in this
chapter some of the implications of CFC and HCFC phase-out will be
described.
Most industrial refrigeration systems operate on the vapour compression
principle which, as already stated, utilizes the latent heat of vaporization of
a fluid to extract heat. It is well known that when a liquid is heated its
temperature increases. This continues until it reaches its boiling point. If the
heat input is continued, all of the heat is utilized in transforming the liquid
to a vapour. The temperature remains constant until all of the liquid has
boiled away and at that point the temperature of the vapour starts to
increase. Thus in a domestic kettle the water temperature increases to
lOO°C, boiling then commences and this temperature will not increase until
all of the water has boiled away. If this procedure is repeated at the top of
a mountain the water will boil at a temperature lower than lOO°e. Con-
versely, at the bottom of a deep mine the boiling point is higher than lOO°e.
This effect is caused by the change of atmospheric pressure acting on the
surface of the liquid; the higher the pressure the higher the boiling point. It
can be seen, therefore, that the boiling point of water (or any other liquid)
can be varied in a predetermined way by altering the pressure at its surface.
It is also the case that different liquids have different boiling points at the
same pressure. Thus, by selecting a liquid with a suitable boiling point at an
acceptable pressure, and then maintaining that pressure, almost any desired
boiling point can be achieved.
Kettles are normally heated over a flame or electric hotplate but they
could be heated on a coil of pipe through which, say, oil at 120°C was
pumped. In this case, the oil, in giving up some of its heat to the kettle,
would cool down slightly. This is directly analogous to a domestic radiator
in which the circulated water is cooler at the outlet than the inlet. Whilst we
would not normally think of it in these terms, the water in the radiator, or
the oil in the heater, is being cooled or 'refrigerated'.
In real refrigeration systems the effect is much the same except that the
fluid and working pressure are selected to provide a low boiling point. The
heating medium need only be at a higher temperature than this to boil
the fluid. Like the hot oil it will cool down, giving up its heat to the
refrigerant in the 'kettle'. The refrigerant which is boiled off in the 'kettle'
or evaporator is pumped away by a gas compressor. This is controlled in
such a way that the pressure in the evaporator is maintained at a level

corresponding to the desired boiling point. The suction gas is then com-
pressed to a much higher level, such that its boiling point is, say, +30°C. (It
may not be obvious but the boiling temperature of a liquid at a given
pressure is synonymous with the condensing temperature at which the
vapour can be cooled and condensed back into a liquid.) At this higher
pressure the refrigerant vapour is fed into a condenser which can be cooled
either by air or water. The vapour is condensed back into a liquid, still at a
high pressure. The high-pressure liquid is then expanded through a throt-
tling device and its pressure reduced back to the level prevailing in the
evaporator. This low-pressure liquid is then metered into the evaporator to
replace the liquid 'boiled off' by the refrigerating process. The whole cycle
then repeats itself on a continuous basis.
A simple system, therefore, consists of the following main components:
• An evaporator, which provides a heat transfer surface through which heat
can pass from the refrigerated space, or product, into the vaporizing
refrigerant
• A compressor, which removes the vapour from the evaporator and raises
the temperature and pressure of the vapour to a point such that the
vapour can be condensed
• A condenser, which provides a heat transfer surface through which heat
passes from the hot refrigerant vapour to the condensing medium (usu-
ally air or water)
• A refrigerant flow control, which meters the proper amount of refrigerant
to the evaporator and reduces the pressure of the liquid entering the
evaporator so that the liquid will vaporize in the evaporator at the desired
low temperature.
A suction pipe conveys the low-pressure vapour from the evaporator to the
compressor, and a hot gas or discharge line delivers the high-pressure, high-
temperature vapour from the compressor to the condenser. A liquid line
carries the liquid refrigerant from the condenser to the flow control device.
Other components and pipes are normally included but the above describes
the main items. More complex systems, refinements and developments of
such systems are covered in detail later.
Equipment has changed considerably over the years and electric motors
are almost invariably used to drive the compressor(s) rather than the earlier
steam engines. However, in view of the modern emphasis on reducing
power consumption, increasing consideration is being given to using steam
turbines, gas turbines or gas and diesel engines. This is particularly the case
when a combined heat and power installation is being considered or an
integrated approach is being taken to site energy usage. The turbine drives
in particular are now much easier to implement with modern rotary com-
pressors (Figure 7.3). These are rapidly replacing the older reciprocating
Figure 7.3
compressor designs, particularly where long life and low maintenance costs
are important.
Early cold store coolers were simply lengths of pipe fixed to the cold store
walls and ceiling through which cold brine was pumped, the refrigeration
effect being by convection. Similarly, 'atmospheric' condensers were used
where water fell by gravity over coils and pipes. Changes took place in the
refrigeration of perishables and brine grids were augmented in many in-
stances by the addition of fans to provide a more even temperature distri-
bution. This was then gradually superseded by the introduction of ducts to
distribute the cold air through the storage space. This change in method
required corresponding improvements in the design and insulation of the
refrigerated environment.
The development of a wider range of primary refrigerants led to systems
being introduced for direct cooling of air as an alternative to secondary
fluids and brines. With the use of these primary refrigerants it is imperative
that the total system is installed gas-tight.
Now, with both evaporators and condensers, it is most common for air to
be forced over, and through, coils by electrically driven fans. Alternatively,
in the case of condensers, a shell-and-tube vessel may be used, supplied with
water that is re-cooled in a forced-air cooling tower.
Since the early days of cold storage, eating habits have changed consider-
ably and today plant is used to pre-chill, blast chill, freeze and store fresh or
frozen produce. These processes can involve refrigerating air, water, brine
or glycol, or lowering the temperature of metal for contact cooling and
freezing. Modern standards demand close temperature control during
processing and so, in many instances, from raw materials through the retail
outlet and into the home, refrigeration is used. Developments in refriger-
ated transportation have also dramatically affected the food industry, with
once 'local' products now becoming available world-wide. Whole new mar-
kets are being created. This has resulted in the growth not only of long-term
cold stores but also of 'distribution' depots. The emergence of supermar-
kets has brought new ideas in distribution and multi-temperature compo-
site stores are now common.
System, and therefore temperature, control and monitoring have also
come a long way. Exacting standards now have to be maintained in the
continuous pursuit of quality. Temperature constraints are imposed
throughout the whole of the cold chain and any failure to comply can
prove to be very expensive to those who do not meet the required
conditions. Electronics have taken over from electromechanical devices
and current systems can easily cope with controlling and maintaining
a whole group of different stores located anywhere, by the use of
dedicated connections or the public telephone system. A temperature
rise or plant failure in a store in Australia can be immediately identified
at the store, or the manager's home, and also at head office in, say,
London if need be. The days of operatives manually checking and
logging plant conditions are coming to an end. The cold store plant of
today is a far cry from the early days of refrigeration of the last century
(Figure 7.4).
7.2 Refrigeration systems
Refrigeration systems are categorized by the method in which refrigerant is

fed to the evaporator.
Direct expansion
The flow of refrigerant through the tubes of the evaporator (which may be
either an air cooler or liquid chiller) is metered by a modulating control
valve (usually a thermostatic expansion valve) so that sufficient refrigerant
is injected to provide dry and superheated refrigerant vapour at the evapo-
rator outlet (Figure 7.5). This superheated vapour is returned to the
compressor.
Figure 7.4
""'-" HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID
" - HIGH PRESSURE GAS
THROTTLE
VALVE
""'-" LOW PRESSURE LIQUID
EVAPORATOR
COMPRESSOR
BRINE IN -6'C BRINE OUT -8'C
Figure 7.5 Direct expansion refrigeration system.

LIOUID
FROM
CONDE SER
SUCTION
TO
COMPRESSOR
Figure 7.6 Natural flooded refrigeration system.
Natural flooded
The evaporator contains a bulk of liquid refrigerant either inside or sur-
rounding the evaporator tubes, in order to fully wet the heat exchange
surface. The flooded evaporators are characterized by having a free liquid
surface and incorporate a vapour separation device to prevent the
entrainment of liquid refrigerant in the suction vapour to the compressor
(Figure 7.6). No arrangements within the flooded evaporator are usually
made for superheating the suction vapour, although this is available in some
designs.
Pump circulation
Where lengthy refrigerant distribution pipework and/or specialized process
evaporators (for example, plate freezers) are necessary, liquid refrigerant
pump circulation systems are used. These incorporate a liquid reservoir,
generally termed a 'surge drum' or suction separator, and refrigerant liquid
pump to deliver liquid quantities at least double the quantity evaporated
(and sometimes as much as 15 times the quantity evaporated) in order to
maximize the usage of evaporator heat exchange surface and overcome
pressure losses (Figure 7.7). Both vapour and liquid are returned to the
liquid reservoir where the surplus liquid is separated for recirculation to the
evaporators and the disentrained vapour is drawn into the compressors.
SUCTION
TO
COMPRESSOR
LlOUID
FROM
CONDENSER
Figure 7.7 Pump circulation refrigeration system.
Secondary systems
As an alternative to pump circulation a secondary (or brine) system can be
used. The refrigerant evaporator is used to cool a secondary fluid which is
then pumped through distribution pipework to the point of use, e.g. an air
cooler or tank jacket (Figure 7.8). Whilst this introduces an additional
temperature difference which can reduce the coefficient of performance
(see later) this is often offset by the absence of suction line pressure drop
which exists in distributed direct expansion and pumped systems. It does
offer the major advantage of dramatically reducing the primary refrigerant
charge and containing the refrigerant in a central engine room where leaks
can be better detected and controlled.
7.3 Power comparisons and running costs
A number of hybrid systems have been developed, particularly with the

advent of electronically motivated control valves and control circuits, with
the object of combining the advantages of the different refrigeration sys-
tems. In addition, the refrigerant compression between suction and delivery
pressure can be split into two stages, thus maintaining an intermediate
pressure. This improves the efficiency of the compression process although
usually at the expense of capital cost. With screw compressors a similar
effect can be achieved by the use of 'economizing'. This involves sub-
REF RIG ERA nON PLANT 221
REFRIGERANT
CONNECTIONS
PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER

Gl~COI. CHILLER
GlVCOI. TANK
Figure 7.8 Secondary glycol system.
cooling the main liquid line by the expansion of some of the liquid and
returning the resultant gas to an intermediate port in the compressor part
way along the rotor and, therefore, part way through the compression
process. With either method there is the potential that the intermediate
pressure may be utilized to provide refrigeration at a second temperature
level.
The choice between single-stage compression, two-stage compression or
economizing is dependent upon:
• The choice of refrigerant
• The design, evaporating and condensing temperatures
• The preferred compressor type
• The compromise between capital cost of plant and running costs
The criterion for judging performance of a refrigeration system is known as
the coefficient of performance (COP) and for the vapour compression
refrigeration cycle it is the ratio of the refrigeration load (kilowatts at the
evaporator) and the power input to the compressor:
COP = Refrigeration load
Power input
Within limitations of economical factors, the design engineer should obtain
the highest value of COP, i.e. for a given refrigeration load, the engineer
designs towards the most economical work input. Factors which affect the
value of the COP are:
• The temperatures of the low-temperature region containing the evapora-

tor (this should be as high as possible) and the temperature of the coolant
for the condenser (this should be as low as possible)
• The temperature difference required for the heat transfers in the evapo-
rator and the condenser
• The system pressure losses
• The compressor efficiency
• The refrigerant
These factors have not changed over the years but modern equipment and
techniques have enabled improvements in efficiency to be made:
• Mean suction pressures can be raised by utilizing plate heat exchanger or
enhanced surface evaporators which facilitate very small temperature
differences
• The 'glide' exhibited by some non-azeotropic blends can also be
utilized to raise the suction pressure if counter-current flow can be
used
• The controllability of modern rotary compressors means that tempera-
ture control can be improved and the mean suction pressure is, therefore,
higher
• Electronic expansion valves allow the delivery pressure to fall to the
lowest attainable level rather than being artificially elevated to maintain
a minimum pressure difference across the expansion device
The typical range of values of compressor COP for chill storage and cold
storage/freezer applications are given in Table 7.1 but these can only be
used as approximate guidelines (the higher the COP, the lower the running
costs ).
7.4 Use of waste heat
The heat extracted from the cold spaces, plus the heat energy of the work
done by the compressors, cooler fans, etc., is ultimately rejected through the
condensers. There are three phases of this heat rejection:
• De-superheating of the hot vapour, typically from 80-120°C for piston
compressors and 65-80°C for screw compressors to the condensing tem-
perature. This de-superheating phase represents between 10 and 20% of
the total heat rejection.
• Condensation or latent heat change at the condensing temperature (gen-
erally between 30 and 40°C in temperate climates, depending upon ambi-
ent conditions). This latent heat change represents between 80 and 90%
of the total heat rejection.
• Sub-cooling of the condensed liquid yields only 2-4% of the total heat
REFRIGERA nON PLANT 223
Table 7.1 Typical values of COP
Refrigerant COP
Chill storage HFC blend 3.4-4.0

R717 3.8-4.6
R134a 3.6-4.3
Cold storage
Single-stage compression HFC blend 1.5-1.8
R717 1.4-1.7
R134a N/A
Compound compression HFC blend 1.7-2.0
with intercooling R717 1.9-2.2
R134a 1.6-1.9
Based upon:
Evaporating Condensing temperature Suction discharge
temperature pipe pressure losses
Chill storage -6°C 35°C, ambient 26°C IOC
Cold storage -36°C 35°C, ambient 26°C 1°C
It is important when comparing COPs to establish whether the data has been limited to
compressor performance or whether it is truly a coefficient of system performance with all
pumps and fans forming part of the refrigeration system. When evaluating secondary systems
in comparison with primary systems the coefficient of system performance is especially
important.
rejection and for purposes of waste heat recovery in this context may be
ignored.
Typical applications for waste heat recovery are:
• Glycol solution heating for circulation through underfloor grids in the
cold stores (Figure 7.9)
• Water heating for washing, cleaning, etc. (Figure 7.10)
• Background heating for workshops, cartons or dry stores (Figure 7.11)
The attainable temperatures for the waste heat fluid are not high since the
bulk of the heat rejected is at the refrigerant condensing temperature. For
example, with a condensing temperature of 3SoC and a SoC temperature
differential for the waste heat exchanger, then water heating is only possible
to 30°C to recover this bulk heat. Higher water temperatures from waste
heat recovery to SO°C may be obtained but by using the smaller de-
superheating phase of heat rejection.
In appraising any heat recovery system the designer needs to recognize
that the refrigeration plant may not work at its design rating for much of its
life and consequently the values of heat rejection will be lower. In particular
it should be recognized that there is usually less demand for refrigeration
during the winter months and, consequently, less heat available for recov-
ery. Thus the heat recovery scheme may need to be supplemented by
alternative heat sources.
Condenser
Liquid
refrigerant
to
evaporator
Refrigerant
hot vapour
from
compressor
Figure 7.9 Underfloor heating to recover waste heat.
CONDENSER
HOT
WATER
TANK
LIQUID
HEAD
REFRIGERANl TANK
TO
EVAPORATOR
REFRIGERANT
HOT VAPOUR
FROM
COMPRESSOR
Figure 7.10 Water heating to recover waste heat.

LIQUID
REFRIGERANT
TO
EVAPORATOR
SPACE
BACKGROUND
REFRIGERANT HEATER
HOT VAPOUR
FROM
COMPRESSOR
Figure 7.11 Background heating to recover waste heat.
It is quite feasible to recover all of the heat rejection and obtain higher
temperatures, up to 80-90 o e by using a high-temperature heat pump. How-
ever, in many countries this application seems unnecessary as prime fuel
costs are not yet prohibitive.
In modern systems in which the delivery pressure is allowed to 'float' to
its lowest attainable level the amount of waste heat available is correspond-
ingly reduced. The design must, therefore, be a compromise between main
system efficiency and availability of waste heat. It is rarely cost effective to
artificially elevate the delivery pressure simply to increase the availability of
heat.
7.5 Defrosting methods
Four principal methods are employed for air cooler defrosting:

• Electric defrost with heaters arranged in the air-cooling coil is the most
effective form of electric defrost heating and is best suited for use
with smaller ceiling-mounted air coolers when the heating power load is
not excessive. It can be applied to larger coils provided due account
is taken of convection losses. However, the system can be expensive to
run especially if peak-rate electricity tariffs cannot be avoided (Figure
7.12).
Defrost
control
Figure 7.12 Electric defrost.
Hot gas t
Liquid Suction
for refrigerant to
defrost from condenser compressor
Figure 7.13 Hot gas defrost.
• In hot gas defrost, the heat which would normally be rejected by the
condenser is diverted to the air coolers. The air cooler being defrosted
then acts as an auxiliary condenser. Hot gas defrosting is generally con-
sidered to be more efficient, in power terms, than electric defrosting
Condenser
Four
way
valve
Figure 7.14 Reverse cycle defrost.
although coil block temperatures achieved during defrosting are lower.

Hot gas defrost is the most economic system to operate since the defrost-
ing cycle on one cooler is concurrent with the refrigeration cycle on other
coolers (Figure 7.13).
• During reverse cycle defrost, the roles of condenser and evaporators are
reversed by changeover valves. All air coolers are defrosted simultane-
ously. This system is generally less costly to install than hot gas defrost
but results in a greater rise in cold store air temperature during the
defrost sequence and since the compressor and condenser must be oper-
ating to effect a defrost, running costs will exceed those achieved with hot
gas defrost (Figure 7.14).
• With an adequate supply of water at woe, water defrost can be very
effective but its application is generally limited to rooms above -4°C and
for blast freezers where the temperature can be raised above freezing
without serious inconvenience. The air coolers need to incorporate a
water sparge arrangement with adequately sized collecting tray and
drains which must be trace heated. The arrangement of the water
headers and pipes within the cooled space is obviously critical, as they
must be completely drained after each defrost. Running costs are limited
to pump and trace heater power input and water supply charges (Figure
7.15).
Figure 7.15 Water defrost.
7.6 Monitoring and controls
Even after the introduction of high-speed reciprocating compressors, con-

trol systems were still usually very simple. Sophisticated control systems
were either very expensive or unreliable. As labour was still relatively
inexpensive it was the norm for refrigeration engine rooms to be well-
manned and for most control functions to be manually controlled.
In theory, the use of the most sophisticated computer available - the
human brain - should result in unbeatable operational performance. In
practice, however, operators become tired and make mistakes, and obtain-
ing properly trained staff can be difficult. The use of manual control there-
fore often leads to poor temperature control and operational efficiency.
The trend of reducing costs by reducing manning levels has exacerbated the
problem and the results of inefficient operation have become increasingly
important with rising energy costs.
Present-day plants therefore incorporate a high degree of automation in
order to minimize manual intervention. Thus, for example, manual regulat-

ing valves have been replaced by a variety of automatic devices such as
thermostatic expansion valves (now electronic), pilot-operated floats, mo-
torized valves, etc. Treatment of cooling tower water is usually achieved
with automatic dosing plants, and initiation and termination of defrosting
are likely to be by devices sensing ice build-up or air cooler air-side pressure
drop.
Automation of this type enables manning levels to be successfully re-
duced and more efficient and repeatable operation to be achieved. How-
ever, the revolution in microprocessor technology has resulted in ever more
sophisticated control systems becoming available at prices which are low in
relation to the achievable costs savings. This, allied to the parallel develop-
ment of plant monitoring, has opened the way for completely unmanned
refrigeration systems.
Most compressors and compressor packages are now supplied with an
electronic control system as standard. These replace the older relay
panels and provide greater reliability, flexibility of function and more accu-
rate control. They can be PLC-based or proprietary microprocessor systems
but almost invariably they will have the capability of linking to other sys-
tems. This, therefore, facilitates the use of higher level control strategies
for:
a. all of the refrigeration plant
b. all of the site utilities
c. the whole site.
Most of the larger refrigeration contractors have the capability of offer-
ing systems tailored for use on a particular site. Obviously accurate control
of temperature, humidity, etc. is very important but the real secret to
achieving unmanned engine rooms, maintaining plant efficiency and reduc-
ing maintenance cost is monitoring. Without permanent trained staff it is
essential that all important plant parameters are recorded and monitored
automatically. At its simplest level this could entail using chart recorders or
data loggers to record all relevant product and plant parameters. These are
usually equipped with alarms so that a warning is given if a temperature or
pressure goes outside design limits. Whilst there are many proprietary data
loggers available the monitoring of sophisticated refrigeration equipment
requires specialist expertise and purpose-designed systems such as the J &
E Hall Fridgewatch.
At this simple level, to make maximum use of the data, the monitoring
system needs to be analysed by a trained person to establish trends and
inefficiencies. This can be simplified by bringing the data to a central point
(say in the refrigeration engineer's office) on a Pc. The data can then be
manipulated using proprietary software to tabulate, assess trends, produce
reports, etc. An alternative is to feed the information off-site, via a modem,
to a service organization. This obviates the need for a trained engineer on-
site and a maintenance agreement can be established, with the plant being
monitored remotely. There is effectively no distance limit for such monitor-
ing and almost any number of sites can be monitored at a central point. In
addition, diagnostic computer programs are available from contractors and
consultants which assist in the analysis of data, assessment of efficiency and
planning of preventative maintenance. It is not unusual for a well-designed
monitoring system to achieve savings of more than 5% in running costs and
potentially greater savings in maintenance costs. Such savings are large in
comparison to the cost of the monitoring system.
7.7 Maintenance
Whether a plant is monitored manually or automatically it is essential that

the equipment is properly maintained in order to minimize operating cost,
ensure optimum performance levels and minimize downtime.
Too often in the past, preventive maintenance was considered an expen-
sive luxury and equipment was only looked at when it broke down. This
approach leads to unnecessary catastrophic plant failures and expensive
interruptions in production. Thankfully plant operators are now more en-
lightened and greater emphasis is being given to preventive maintenance.
Traditionally this was a question of a disciplined approach to checking and
repairing (or replacing) plant items on a time interval basis; the timing
being decided by experience or manufacturer's recommendations. Al-
though this can sometimes be reasonably cost-effective it can also result in
carrying out unnecessary maintenance or, worse, failing to prevent a cata-
strophic failure occurring between maintenance intervals.
The systems outlined in the previous section can greatly assist in predict-
ing failures by trend analysis thus allowing pre-emptive maintenance to be
carried out. These techniques can be augmented by health monitoring. This
term is used to cover a range of techniques designed to directly monitor
critical items such as bearings, wear parts, etc. The techniques include
vibration analysis, lubricating oil particle analysis and noise measurement.
It is possible, therefore, to only change a bearing when it is sufficiently worn
to warrant it.
7.8 Current development trends
Emphasis on rotary compressors

Just as the high-speed veebloc compressors superseded the slow-speed
monoblocs, modern screw compressors are rapidly replacing reciprocating
compressors. This trend began with larger-capacity machines but now ex-
tends down to the smallest industrial sizes.
Screw compressors have existed since the 1950s but it is largely the
increased emphasis on operating costs and efficiency which has led to their
increased use today. The ability to have infinitely variable capacity reduc-
tion enables very close control to be achieved. This can often result in
operation at a higher suction pressure and hence a better coefficient of
performance. Compared with reciprocating compressors, screw machines
have fewer moving parts; this contributes to greater reliability. It is not at all
uncommon for screws to operate for 25000 hours without inspection, some-
thing that would not be achievable with modern reciprocating machines.
The reliability is very good and downtime for maintenance, when required,
is also much reduced. This is especially true of the newer single-screw
compressors. With these machines complete overhauls can be undertaken
without disturbing either the drive motor or any pipework. For lower duties
the smaller semi-hermetic compressors are being replaced by scroll com-
pressors. These are likely to dominate the smaller commercial end of the
market.
Variable-speed drive motors

Varying the speed of the motor driving a compressor or pump is an elegant
method of controlling the duty performed.
Motors using direct current have been used for a long time, for example
for railway traction. They operate over a very wide range of speeds and
torques but the maintenance requirements of the carbon brush gear and
commutators, which are an essential part of the design, have discouraged
their industrial applications.
Unfortunately, the induction motor, which is extremely common, effi-
cient, simple and reliable, operates only at a fixed speed determined by the
supply frequency and the number of poles. An induction motor can be
wound in such a way that the number of poles can be varied by altering the
way the windings are connected. This will make it run at one of several
speeds. There must be an even number of poles (N and S) so the selection
of speeds that can be achieved is rather limited. Where this limitation does
not matter, for example for condenser fans, this is the cheapest and most
common method of achieving variable speed.
With the spectacular developments in the semiconductor industry it is
now quite practical to consider converting the normal 50 (or 60) Hz supply
into a supply where the frequency can be varied continuously from 0 to well
above 50 Hz. A normal induction motor running on such a supply becomes
a true variable-speed motor. It is necessary to vary the supply voltage at the
same time to avoid the motor magnetic circuit saturating at low speed but
the electronics can be arranged to do this. It will also be necessary to
incorporate some form of high-speed overcurrent protection. A semicon-

ductor device can be damaged in a shorter time than a fuse takes to operate.
Such a variable-speed drive has a number of side benefits. By 'ramping
up' the speed of the motor from standstill, the surges and wear and tear
associated with the conventional forms of motor starting are avoided. This
is often referred to as a 'soft start'. By running at a frequency in excess of
the normal 50Hz, extra output can be obtained from the compressor, etc.
being driven. Drives are widely available with ratings from a fraction of a
kilowatt to 1 MW.
Although the cost of semiconductor variable-speed drives has fallen over
the years, they are still expensive compared with fixed-speed drives. The
above benefits may therefore not justify the use of variable-speed drives.
Electronics
The development of micro-processor hardware and software continues
unabated. The ever-increasing computing power available at reducing spe-
cific cost means that control and monitoring systems are increasingly
sophisticated and cost-effective. The advent of inexpensive CD ROM pro-
vides the possibility of multimedia storage of complete plant instruction
manuals and greatly assists the storage and retrieval of archive and trending
data.
The use of fuzzy logic (an extension of multi-valued logic) and learning
programs will enhance the ability of diagnostic programs and help to offset
the reducing number of trained engineers in the industry.
Heat exchange
The rapid development of plate heat exchangers for refrigeration use has
provided a number of significant improvements over shell and tube designs:
• Smaller physical size
• High heat transfer coefficient, giving small approach temperatures
• Low susceptibility to fouling
• Low refrigerant charge
Early concerns over refrigerant leakage have now been overcome by the
use of brazed PHEs, welded plate pairs or all welded exchangers such as the
plate-and-shell exchanger. PHEs are rapidly becoming the norm for liquid
cooling and as refrigerant condensers.
Refrigerant
The biggest development of all has been in refrigerants and this is covered
in detail in Chapter 4.
7.9 Safety and quality
BS 4434 Specification for Requirements for Refrigeration Safety was origi-

nally published in 1969, prepared under the authority of the Refrigeration
Industry Standards Committee. It was modelled on a draft ISO Recommen-
dation on Refrigeration Safety, R1662. The American Standard ASAB9.1:
1964 was also used for reference.
In 1979, BS4434 was revised to include all changes up to that date. The
revision was prepared under the direction of the Refrigeration Heating and
Air Conditioning Standards Committee as BS4434: 1980. The standard
continued to include relevant technical data obtained from the Interna-
tional Standard Recommendation ISO/R1662.
BS 4434 was revised again in 1989 and subsequently a further revision was
published at the end of 1995. This latter version will allow the adoption of
new refrigerants and practices not considered in the 1989 version.
A European safety standard, EN 378, is in the course of preparation but
at the time of writing only one of the planned thirteen sections has been
finalized. On final publication this will eventually supersede BS 4434.
In addition, many countries have their own national standards or codes of
practice. In particular, in the UK, the Institute of Refrigeration have issued
codes of practice designed to complement the national and EU standards.
These include codes for the design, construction and installation of ammo-
nia and non-ammonia systems and a code specifically for cold store refrig-
eration. More recently a new code has been produced for the minimization
of refrigerant leakage.
Apart from the standards and codes specifically targeted at refrigeration
users and suppliers there is an increasing number of broader regulations
and legislation which impact the industry in the UK. These include the
Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Containers Regulations 1989,
the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994, COSHH,
the Machinery Safety Directive, Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive
and the Low Voltage Directive.
Safety has always been vitally important but never has it had such a high
profile. The industry has had an extremely good safety record over the
years. With the current rapid changes in refrigerants and technologies,
engineers of all persuasions need to remain vigilant if standards are to be
maintained or improved. Refrigeration systems need to be not just safe but
demonstrably so. This can only be done if plants conform to all of the
relevant standards and codes.
A good quality plant must be safe but it must also perform to specifica-
tion, be reliable and should be cost-effective in lifecycle costing terms.
Purchasers, therefore, need to ensure that plant is not only designed in
accordance with the relevant standards and codes but that it meets
their essential requirements and due regard has been given to efficiency of
operation and low-cost maintenance. It is unlikely that this will be achieved

by a supplier which does not operate a recognized quality assurance system
such as IS09000 and, preferably, ISO 9001, which includes the design
activity.
7.10 Reacting to the environmental challenge
Undoubtedly the greatest change in the industry in recent years has been
the need to react to the environmental problems of ozone depletion and
global warming. These have focused attention on the necessity of giving
greater consideration to how our activities impact on the environment and
to take commercial decisions to reduce this impact. Such decisions largely
concern changes of refrigerant, changes of technology and reduction of
operating power.
The phase-out of CFCs and HCFCs is described in detail in Chapter 4.
However, the implications are varied depending on whether an end-user is
purchasing for the first time, whether existing plant contains CFCs, HCFCs
or an ozone-benign refrigerant and whether the plant is at the beginning or
end of its useful life. In addition both direct and indirect global warming
should be minimized. Let us consider these various scenarios in turn.
New plant
Other than in very exceptional circumstances CFCs should not be consid-
ered for new plant. Likewise, HCFCs are being phased out and the present
dates are likely to be brought forward, therefore they should not be used in
new plant unless the plant life is planned to be very short.
The present-day choices fall into the following categories:
• HCFCs
• Naturally occurring substances such as ammonia, carbon dioxide, and air
(sometimes called natural refrigerants or not in kind refrigerants)
• Hydrocarbons
• Blends of HFCs and/or hydrocarbons
In choosing between these categories, the end-user and the contractor or
consultant have to find a compromise between first cost, operating cost,
global safety, ozone depletion potential (ODP), global warming poten-
tial (GWP), total equivalent warming impact (TEWI), local safety
(flammability, toxicity), technical suitability and reliability. Overlaid on
this, the system should be designed to have minimum leakage and be easy
to service. It is no surprise that many end-users and the less competent
contractors and consultants find this a daunting task. The following con-
siderations should be taken into account.
HFCs. HFCs have zero ODP but do have positive, and in some cases
large, GWP. For this reason they are viewed by some as interim solutions.
Users may wish to take this into account, particularly if they are formulating
long-term policy.
Natural refrigerants. Air-cycle refrigeration is expensive to run and there-

fore on straightforward commercial grounds and in consideration of indi-
rect global warming it is only likely to be used in special circumstances.
Ammonia is very cheap and overall is one of the most efficient refriger-
ants available. It would be the refrigerant of choice for almost all refrigera-
tion uses if it were not for its toxicity and flammability. These factors can be
readily catered for in a well-designed plant. It is used for many industrial
applications with an extremely good safety record, and has been for over
100 years. With the advent of modern safety systems and standards it is now
being more widely applied in applications such as comfort air-conditioning
and supermarkets. This is particularly easy when a secondary refrigerant is
used and the ammonia charge is very small and contained in a controlled
engine room. It has zero ODP and GWP.
Carbon dioxide was for many years the standard refrigerant for marine
use. Whilst very efficient it operates at very high pressures (up to 50bar or
more). The high cost of compressors and components to accept these pres-
sures will probably prevent it making a comeback unless it can be success-
fully blended to reduce pressures. There is, however, strong interest in its
use as a two-phase secondary refrigerant.
Hydrocarbons. These give very good thermodynamic performance and

have already become firmly established in the white goods sector. A high
level of flammability is the only drawback. This is likely to be acceptable on
chemical or petrochemical sites but will limit its use in many applications.
Blends. HFC blends still have positive GWP and a number of them con-
tain flammable components. This has given rise to concerns of differential
leakage resulting in a flammable mixture. It is now generally accepted that
in most normal circumstances this cannot happen.
All non-azeotropic blends exhibit 'glide', i.e. boiling and condensation
take place over a range rather than at a fixed temperature. This can compli-
cate efficient design particularly where the temperature of the cooled me-
dium is only being reduced over a small temperature range. Where the
cooling range is large and counter-current flow can be affected, the glide
can be used to improve efficiency although at higher first cost.
Regardless of refrigerant, strong consideration should always be given to
using secondary systems. This reduces the refrigerant charge and contains
it. This is a major advantage in controlling leakage of flammable or expen-
sive refrigerants.
j Existing Refrigerant I
I
QlM[
zeroOOP CFC HCFC
zero GWP
I I
Identify plant reliability and
No change
I remaining useful life
I
I
I I
Is life less than two
years
I ILife greater than I
Retain HCFC
two years and review
annually in the
light of new
I replacements
and legislation
Continue with CFC
until planned
replacement with
zero OOP product
Retrofit with
HFC, Blend or
Hydrocarbon
Figure 7.16
Existing plants
Many users of refrigeration are so bemused by the plethora of HFCs,
HCFCs, blends, etc. that they do not know where to start in deciding what
to do with existing CFC or HCFC plant. Whilst the detail can be complex
the overall decisions can be simplified by the use of a 'decision tree' (Figure
7.16). The only complex decision to be made is which retrofit refrigerant
should be used. Here again the user should consult a reputable contractor
or consultant to obtain impartial advice but some of the considerations can
be readily identified:
• It is usually impossible, or at best very expensive, to retrofit with natural
refrigerants, therefore these would not normally be considered.
• Hydrocarbons may provide a good retrofit solution where either the
charge is low or the flammability can be accommodated. There is now a
sufficient range of straight and blended hydrocarbons to provide a good
match with existing CFCs or CFClHCFC blends. In most cases the retro-
fit would be straightforward with no requirement for oil change.
• Retrofitting with HFCs has become fairly routine; it involves minor ad-
justments to control, possible replacement of TEVs and filter driers and
an oil change to ester-based lubricants. The latter involves multiple
flushing but is usually straightforward. In addition, elastomers should be

checked for compatibility and the advice of the compressor manufacturer
sought in case an alternative shaft seal is required. The most common
such change is R134a for R12, which gives almost identical duties and
power.
• Some, so-called transitional, blends contain HCFCs. Whilst, perhaps, not
requiring an oil change there is little point in changing from one banned
substance to another and so these should not be considered. Totally HFC
blends are subject to the same comments as for straight HFCs. In addi-
tion it should be noted that the temperature glide may reduce the suction
pressure and hence both the duty and COP. Different blends have differ-
ent amounts of glide and if duty is critical this may be a determining
factor.
Regardless of which refrigerant is to be used the biggest change required
is one of mental attitude. Amongst all of the commercial and technical
constraints, due consideration must be given to the environmental effect of
our actions. This is certainly a question of personal conscience but more and
more it will be governed by standards and legislation.
8 Electrical installations
M.CARR
8.1 Introdnction
Many may think that the electrical installation required for a temperature-
controlled storage facility is basically the same as that for most other
industrial buildings. Certainly, the wiring and safety aspects have to comply
with the same regulations and stores have to be illuminated to the same
ambient level. There are, however, important differences. Materials per-
form differently at -25°C from the way they do at normal temperatures.
Certain plastics may crack, standard lights are less efficient, and without
care the cold store could freeze the ground on which it is standing and
cause foundation problems. Environmental conditions in chill stores can
cause humid atmospheres with condensation forming on cold surfaces.
Higher than normal protection of components against the effect of
condensation is required and some components cannot be electrically
employed.
As with any installation, there is a wide exposure of personnel in the
working environment to the electrical services, each person making de-
mands on power, lighting and emergency systems. In the temperature-
controlled storage industry, a high percentage of overheads is represented
by electrical consumption. Sometimes the energy bill can represent 40% or
more of the cost of running a cold store, even without the capital costs of
installing electrical services. The temperature-controlled storage industry
cannot afford to economise on the electrical installation, which is a small
cost when compared with the total value of chilled or frozen food products
that will eventually be stored. This does not mean, however, that the costs
cannot be restrained and different ways in which energy costs can be saved
by the use of prudent energy management techniques will be considered
later.
The ever-increasing developments in electronic control systems,
computers and communication systems have given cold store managers and
engineers some of the tools that they can use to increase efficiency and
lower cost in their temperature-controlled facility operations. These ad-
vanced systems, however, bring with them their own problems and make
their own demands on the electrical installation. Clean earths and dedicated
circuits, for example, are needed to help protect delicate electronics from
the effects of high voltage mains which are used in other parts of the system;
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS 239
voltage regulators and uninterruptible power supplies become essentials,

not luxuries.
Electrical systems playa crucial part in the safety of a site. Functions such
as emergency lighting and fire alarm systems are important on any site,
particularly so with cold stores where there are the added dangers of work-
ers being trapped at low temperature or at risk from toxic gases. The
electrical system plays a vital role not only in protecting the plant but also
in saving human life.
Although the increased sophistication in electrical and electronic appa-
ratus is creating tremendous benefits in safety and cost-saving, its inherent
complexity demands the highest standards of engineering and installation.
Many professional and statutory bodies have requirements that must be
adhered to within a temperature-controlled facility.
All in all, a well-designed and engineered electrical services installation
will provide the cold store operator with a safe, pleasant and economic
working environment in which to store and distribute product. A badly
designed installation, which does not recognise the individual needs and
mode of operation of the cold store operator, can induce higher than
necessary energy costs, poor standards of safety and labour and personnel
problems.
This chapter will discuss the general considerations of electricity supply
and distribution, including tariff structures, and how to obtain the best from
them. It will continue with a general overview of how a cold store works and
then go on to specific problems of lighting, safety, security, stand-by power,
control systems and energy saving.
8.2 Electricity: the starting point
Generation
Electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed at an alternating
current (AC) at 50Hz in Europe and 60Hz in the United States.
The most common generating plants are powered by coal, oil, nuclear
and, increasingly in the UK, natural-gas-fired stations. In the UK under
privatisation and liberalisation of the electricity generating and distribution
markets there has been a considerable recent investment in new power
stations, including those using 'alternative' green sources of energy. As
clean-air legislation demands additional cost of cleaning waste sulphur
emissions from traditional coal-fired stations, investment is being directed
to highly efficient natural-gas-fired stations which employ new combined
cycle technology: first natural gas is employed to directly power gas turbines
to drive generators and, second, the waste heat from the gas turbines is
utilised to produce steam which drives a secondary generator.
As UK electricity distributors are now obliged to source a percentage of

their generated electricity from 'green' power stations, this has seen an
impetus to hydro-electric, wind-powered, and waste-burning, e.g. chicken
litter/straw mixture, generating facilities. Research continues into solar
powered and wave/tidal powered schemes.
Transmission and distribution
In the UK the national grid has electricity transmitted at voltages as high as

750kV for minimum energy losses. This is transformed via intermediate
transmission voltages to local substations at 11 kV. For the majority of
electrical consumers it is then further transformed to 415 V three-phase or
240V single-phase; nominally 400V three-phase and 230V single-phase
under European harmonisation.
For many industrial consumers, however, with high electrical demands,
such as those imposed by refrigeration plant in temperature-controlled
facilities, electricity may be sourced at 11 kV. When consumers invest in
their own 11 kV network one or a series of substations can be installed,
transforming the electricity down to 400V nominal three-phase where the
energy is required, e.g. adjacent to refrigeration plant rooms, thus saving on
the capital investment and energy losses associated with large 400V distri-
bution networks.
Many large industrial consumers of electricity supplement their National
Grid direct electricity supplies with combined heat and power (eRP) plants.
These mini power stations typically employ natural gas to drive gas turbines
with gas oil as a security back-up fuel. They can have considerable eco-
nomic advantages, particularly where a constant electrical demand means
the eRP plant is operated at or near full power for the majority of the time
and equally where the waste heat generated can be employed continuously
to satisfy a manufacturing process. The economics of such an investment
may include selling of surplus electricity back into the national grid. The
characteristics of the temperature-controlled storage and distribution facil-
ity, i.e. high electrical demands to overcome high summer temperatures and
low winter time demand, cannot, unfortunately, take advantage of present
eRP technology.
Temperature-controlled storage and distribution facilities, however, do
frequently have a requirement for standby generating plant to provide
either 100% of site electrical demand or power for essential services only in
the event of a mains power outage. Standby generator sets provide the
operator with the potential for managing the cost of the electrical energy by
running the set to generate site requirements during times of peak tariffs or
to avoid exceeding agreed maximum demands from the electricity supply
company.
Tariffs
With the liberalised electricity generating market electrical consumers with
an electrical demand of just 100kW can now seek competitive quotations
from tens of electricity generation or distribution companies, including the
two largest generators National Power and Powergen, and the regional
electricity companies, once the regional electricity boards. The alternative
tariff structures available from these electricity providers are too numerous
and complex to discuss in detail and, of course, vary with time. The one
truth in managing the cost of an operator's electrical supply is that the more
control of electrical energy the consumer can exert then the lower tariffs
that can be secured.
Tariffs extend in complexity from a day and night tariff with agreed
maximum demand availability to purchasing electricity on the national
electricity pool. The pool is a system in which electricity prices are set on a
daily basis for 48 half-hourly periods in the following 24-hour period. This
tariff structure reflects the marginal price of each additional kilowatt hour
unit of electricity generated and distributed, and understandably the unit
price fluctuates considerably due to demand over the year and between
different times of the day. It is also subject to supply side constraints such as
power stations being shut down for repair or maintenance. Nevertheless for
a consumer who can fully control electrical demand this can result in con-
siderable savings over a fixed tariff structure.
The temperature-controlled storage operator will always have a fluctuat-
ing demand for electrical power as ambient temperature varies; however,
there is a significant difference in the way a chill store operator and a low-
temperature cold store operator can manage electrical demand. A cold
store operator with a low-temperature store working at between -25 and
-29°C has the flexibility to control temperatures between a wide acceptable
band and, relying on the thermal mass of the frozen product and store, may
shut down the refrigeration plant entirely to avoid high tariff periods of the
day. Cold store operators therefore seek a tariff which rewards them for this
flexibility.
Some cold store operators, with the assistance of advanced metering and
refrigeration control systems, have chosen to subscribe to the pool tariff.
Chill store operators, on the other hand, have very little control of their
electrical demand as it is largely determined by the ambient temperature at
that particular instance. The one positive note in the chill store operator's
negotiations with electricity providers is that demand is biased towards the
summer months when other consumers nationally tend to reduce demand.
Metering
Metering of electrical supplies has seen leaps in technology, hand in hand
with the liberalisation of the electricity industry and the 'separation'
of electricity providers and distributors. It is now commonplace to purchase

electricity from a generator and have it distributed to the site by a regional
electricity company. In these instances both the provider and the distributor
need to record electricity consumption so the costs of distribution can be
passed on to the electricity provider. With the pool tariff system meters
need to record consumption in half-hour periods and the client needs to
plan in the same way to manage electrical demand. Electronic metering
therefore is now linked to computers via telephone and radio communica-
tions links.
8.3 Control systems: computerised refrigeration
The general trend in control systems for industry is towards greater compu-
terisation, and temperature-controlled stores are no exception. Control
systems can be divided into three classes:
• Protection equipment
• Operating controls
• Monitoring systems
Protection devices are not only for the safety of personnel but also protect
the refrigeration equipment, much of which may be operating at high
pressures. The compressor, for example, is the heart of the refrigeration
system. This will have protection devices such as high-pressure cut-outs,
high-temperature cut-outs and oil pressure switches. Some of these ma-
chines are self-lubricating and so may have to run for some time before the
oil pressure reaches the required level; if the pressure fails to reach this
level, an oil pressure switch is needed to stop the compressor.
A programmable logic controller (PLC) now usually forms the brain of
any refrigeration system, controlling its component parts of compressors,
evaporators, condensers and ancillary refrigerant vessels, valves and
intercoolers in the correct sequence to maintain the desired range of tem-
peratures within the temperature-controlled zones. The PLC controls the
plant on pre-set parameters determined by the operator, such as tempera-
ture bands, energy costs at various times, sequence of plant selection and
defrost times. The PLC largely controls the plant, acting on data received
from room temperature sensors, pressure transducers in various parts of the
refrigerating system and level detectors in refrigerant vessels.
Many composite distribution centres now have several chambers at dif-
ferent temperatures, including +lOoC and +lSoC, not for safety legislation
compliance but for ensuring the quality and longevity of the product. In
these instances the temperature within a chamber must be raised above
ambient for a significant portion of the year. The refrigeration system is
often expanded to incorporate equipment such as gas boilers or electric
heaters to raise the temperature of refrigerant passing through the evapora-

tors. The PLC control system commonly picks up this equipment too.
Until the last few years mechanical relay and timer technology was com-
monplace, even in new refrigeration control systems, however, now the low
cost of PLCs and their considerable advantages in terms of reliability and
flexibility for revising operating procedures has seen them come to the fore,
except for the smallest and most basic refrigeration systems.
To ensure compliance with food safety legislation, independent monitor-
ing systems that record temperatures within cold and chill store chambers
are now frequently installed and operated on a day-to-day basis, not by
the site refrigeration or electrical engineer but by the Quality Assurance
Department. Independent monitors are employed as a check on the refrig-
eration system's own chamber temperature monitoring equipment and
control system. Of course the quality assurance department would also take
hand-held electronic probes and manually record temperatures within the
product being stored or distributed.
Increasingly operators are introducing SCADA (supervisory control and
data acquisition) packages into the monitoring and control of facilities.
These systems are usually PC-based and allow the operator to control the
refrigeration plant via the PLC either locally or remotely from a PC with
advanced graphic reproduction of plant status and data logging/analysis.
Temperature recording and control

There are now usually two different systems of temperature monitoring in
a temperature-controlled store. The first monitors temperature to directly
control the refrigeration (or heating) plant; the second is an independent
temperature monitoring system employed as a record of store temperatures
for quality assurance purposes to ensure that the temperature requirements
of the 'cold chain' food distribution system have been maintained.
There are three basic types of temperature recorder:
• Capillary probe
• Chart recorders (period and continuous)
• Microprocessor-based proprietary systems
The simplest temperature recorder is the capillary probe, which fits through
the cold store wall and operates a visual indicator. This is non-electrical and
non-mechanical, rather like a normal thermometer.
Period chart recorders may be simple temperature recorders that store
information either as a seven-day or four-week circular chart that gives an
overview of the chart period. A continuous chart recorder produces much
longer records, although the visible section may be quite short.
Temperature chart recorders have changed dramatically in recent years
as more and more manufacturers take full advantage of microprocessor
technology which enables analytical data to be downloaded into very

sophisticated computer control systems. These allow the different needs
of cold and chill store operators - for different degrees of accuracy,
numbers of probes, high and low alarm values, product recovery trends - to
be met.
Notably in chill store environments, not only average temperatures have
to be considered, but also maximum and minimum temperatures. The
lowest temperature in a store is that on the 'Air-Off' side of the evaporator
and the warmest is on the 'Air-On' side of the evaporator. If there is too
great a differential between the air-off and air-on temperatures, delicate
products such as salads and fruit could be damaged due to low tempera-
tures, whilst other products' temperatures may rise above the average store
temperature.
A state of the art, independent monitoring system should have the fol-
lowing features for effective use:
• A low-temperature setting which will prevent the freezing of chilled
products and stop energy wastage by running freezers at too low a
temperature
• A high-temperature setting to provide early warning of potential food
loss
• Alarm delay timers to avoid nuisance alarms. If the temperature returns
to normal parameters within the delay time, then no alarms are issued
• During defrost the temperature monitoring system should receive a
signal from the refrigeration control system to lock out the alarm
function associated with the probes adjacent to the evaporator being
automatically cleared of built-up ice by warm refrigerant or heaters.
Upon completion of the defrost cycle the alarm function should be
reinstalled.
Present-day monitoring systems also have the capacity to monitor plant
failure, door-opening events and refrigerant gas detection equipment, as
can programmable logic controllers.
Programmable controllers
Energy costs are a substantial part of running refrigeration equipment for a
cold store and it is essential that the temperatures of the stores are closely
regulated, particularly at the low end of the range. If the desired tempera-
ture is -29°C, the cost of running it even a degree or two lower is signifi-
cantly greater. By using temperature transducers via an analogue-to-digital
converter in the programmable controller, highly accurate temperature
regulation can be achieved.
Analogue devices can be installed to measure build-up of ice in the
coolers and provide auto-defrosting. The programmable controller can

measure this and carry out the defrosting at the most convenient and
economical time. One potential problem with defrosting is that if the heater
on or within the drain taking the defrosted water away from the cooler fails,
then the drain will become blocked with ice and water may escape into the
store. This water may then re-freeze and create a major problem. With a
programmable controller, current-sensitive devices can be used to monitor
the current on the drain heater and sound an alarm if the heater fails.
A programmable controller can be used to provide maximum demand
control by shutting off equipment in a predetermined order when a pre-set
maximum demand level is approached. Similarly, it can run the plant to give
the best use of electricity tariffs. A programmable controller can provide
event recording, either on a printer for hard copy records or onto a screen
for instant monitoring. The event recorder provides a timed message which
gives equipment starting and stopping times, values of temperature and
pressure, and alarm messages. The alarm message feature is particularly
useful. If an alarm message is received, the previous read-outs will provide
a state-of-the-plant report at the time the fault occurred and this can help in
finding out what went wrong. The controller can be used to ensure that
running times of the compressors are prioritised and monitored to identify
when normal servicing and major overhauls are required.
One problem with some types of plant is that a high level of liquid
refrigerant within the surge drum can produce a potentially dangerous
condition. When the controller receives such a high-level signal, it can take
appropriate action, such as shutting down all or part of the plant and giving
an alarm signal. Low levels can be used to shut down refrigerant pumps.
The controller can also be used for data logging to provide, for example,
a four-hour log showing minimum/maximum values of temperature and
pressure, the number of alarms during the period, the electricity consumed
and average values of all of these; at the end of the day these could be
collated as a 24-hour log.
The future for the cold store industry is clearly towards more and more
microprocessor-controlled equipment. The greatest trend is towards re-
mote, centralised control, where a number of plants are monitored via
telephone lines from a central location. This means that it is no longer
thought necessary by many operators to have a skilled engineer on each
site. Instead, a maintenance contractor could monitor the sites by a callback
telephone modem link, visiting only for maintenance and fault rectification.
There is also a move towards greater capabilities of the programmable
controller such that the gas detection equipment, chart recording, alarm
systems, control gear for the drives and other ancillary equipment of the
plant may all be incorporated in a composite control panel located away
from the plant room (Figures 8.1 and 8.2).
- .....
-
_1_-
.1
Figure 8.1 Composite control and distribution panel at a large distribution depot. Fed by two
transformers, the incoming circuit breakers are situated either side of the control desk, with an
off-load bus coupler between them. The copper bus bars are top-mounted in the ventilated
enclosure, and the heavy plant and distribution loads are split to both sides of the control
centre thus balancing the transformer loading. All cables enter and exit via floor ducts, the
covers of which can be seen.
SCADA systems
The term 'supervisory control' is a higher level of control that interfaces
with PLCs and/or proprietary controllers to provide a user-friendly opera-
tor interface. Data acquisition is the collection of historical analogue and
digital input or output data.
Technological advancements in computer software and hardware are
revolutionising SCADA systems. Multi-tasking operating systems provide
reliable high-speed real-time SCADA systems, which are vital when con-
necting to PLCs and proprietary refrigeration control systems.
Using a SCADA system allows an operator to make on-line system
adjustments to a PLC program without direct programming software.
Therefore all operating parameters (set-points, time periods, on-and-off
status) of automated equipment or a process can be changed and seen on a
Figure 8.2 Detail of the control desk shown in Figure 8.1. A programmable logic controller is
used for the central refrigeration plant control and overall monitoring. A VDU gives a graphic
display of temperatures and pressures throughout the system. a printer records events and a
keyboard gives the site engineer access to the system. An electronic gas detection system can
be seen behind the printer and. above it. two strip chart temperature recorders. The whole
control package is grouped to provide the engineer with convenient display and access to
information.
screen, showing a logical graphical layout of plant and equipment instantly.

Each screen shown can be made up of data from one or more controllers
and from one or more locations on a particular site or a number of sites.
With significantly more computing power available, the control engineer
can envisage more complex operations, with a view to optimising return on
plant investment. Higher levels of integration between management sys-
tems, supervisory systems and device controllers can be envisaged to give
the potential for optimum use of a company's resources. Linking SCADA
systems to other software packages enables managers and workers to access
plant historical data, leading to greater energy monitoring of a site, high-
lighting areas of wastage.
Within the refrigeration industry SCADA systems are a new technology
and therefore approached with a certain amount of caution by mechanical
engineers. To overcome the single point reliance on a SCADA PC, the
flormal approach is to have dual traditional controls and monitors such as
indicating lights, meters and gauges. This dual monitoring approach has
been already dispensed with by some clients and its practice will disappear
as familiarity and experience on the use of SCADA systems increases.
Computers for office and plant

With the increased use of sophisticated electronic computer and communi-
cations equipment within a cold store environment it is essential to be
aware of the problems that can be created within such systems due to their
installation alongside heavy power networks.
High-voltage cables produce electromagnetic and radio frequency inter-
ference which can corrupt and destroy data on a computer cable. Heavy
electrical equipment being turned on and off can cause sudden jumps or
falls of power on the mains, called spikes. DC control systems for the likes
of cranes or conveyors can cause distortive harmonics on the network.
Variations in the National Grid can cause brown-outs and, of course, total
power failure (black-outs), causing computer systems to crash.
To avoid these problems, the following solutions are available but should
be integrated into the electrical installation at the earliest stage:
• Many types of communication cables should be screened to protect them
from the effect of electromagnetic and radio frequency interference
caused by adjacent high-power electrical services. Means of doing this
include screening of data communication cables with metallic foil or
braid. Such cables should also be run with physical separation from
adjacent parallel power cables.
• A separate network of dedicated or clean earth cable connections to
computer equipment can reduce the risk of earth faults from other equip-
ment on the network being transferred to the computer and thereby
risking the loss of operation.
• To protect sensitive electronic equipment from fluctuations in the power
supply, manufacturers often build-in permanently programmed EPROM
memory chips which do not lose their memories even in the event of a
total power failure. However, such EPROMs often cannot be used to
protect software and data being processed at a given time and considera-
tion should be given to improving the quality of the power supply by
stabilising the supply voltage and protecting against spikes. Devices
called voltage regulators are used to achieve this function, as also do the
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems discussed elsewhere in this
chapter. UPS systems contain batteries and provide power for full opera-
tion of the electronic equipment for a predetermined time. For electronic
systems with very low electrical loads, such as PLCs, such battery-backed
power supply units can be built into the equipment or be a maintenance-
free, low-cost, stand-alone unit. For PC computers and upwards, higher
cost voltage regulators or UPS systems must be considered.
8.4 Lighting: comfort and safety
Lighting plays two roles in any installation. First, it has to create an environ-
ment in which people can work without hindrance and at a high standard of
efficiency. Secondly, a safe level of lighting has to be available when all

other power has failed or there is an emergency such as a fire or a dangerous
leakage of refrigerant; in such a situation lighting that people usually take
for granted can become a lifesaver.
Whatever type of lighting is used it has to be suitable for operation
at very low temperatures; it has to be able to start and run efficiently at
-30°C. Any lamp failures and blow-outs must be contained, as shattered
glass could ruin the stored food that the plant is designed to protect.
Plant rooms that contain ammonia refrigerant must be equipped with
hazardous area luminaires that cannot spark off explosive concentrations of
ammonia.
General lighting
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) in the
UK gives guidance on recommended light levels for a variety of different
activities and for different buildings, including cold stores. Large cold stores
are generally lit to between 200 and 300 lux; although average illuminance
figures are generally quoted, the Code says that care should be taken in
lighting the exit and entrance areas to avoid sudden changes of illumination
between day and night.
Certain foodstuffs, such as meat, which have to be visually inspected
regularly, require a light source close to that of daylight, which is essential
to ensure that abnormalities can be identified; a coloured light source may
be next to useless.
Loading bays and sorting areas are often illuminated to higher intensities
and sometimes with improved colour rendering for inspection of goods
before dispatch. Typically, each loading door will also have stop/go traffic
lights so that the driver will not drive off while loading is in progress, and a
small spotlight arranged to shine into the back of the vehicle to help with
the loading and unloading.
When installing luminaires it is advisable to consider the different types,
their light and output performance, life expectancy and reliability. Tung-
sten, in today's terms, is inefficient and does not last very long in the
majority of applications. It is, however, suitable as a loading bay spotlamp
as this is used only irregularly. It is cheap, and quick and easy to replace
and, most importantly, it illuminates instantly. On the other hand, in the
cold store, the lights may be illuminated most of the time and so what is
needed here is something that is very cost-effective; the same may apply to
emergency lighting which often is on all the time.
Within the cold store environment, the main objective of lighting is cost-
effectiveness within the parameters of colour rendering, life expectancy and
reliability at low temperatures. The two most common forms of light source
currently used are fluorescent-type fittings and high intensity discharge
(HID) fittings.
The two most popular types of HID lighting are mercury vapour lamps
and high-pressure sodium (SON) lamps. Others include low-pressure so-
dium (SOX) and metal halide lamps - a derivative of the mercury vapour
lamp.
Fluorescent tubes are designed to produce various colours and light
outputs so the cold store operator can set the colour rendering of the tube
according to its replacement cost and energy consumption. Fluorescent
luminaires are generally used in cold store locations where exceptionally
good colour rendering is important for repacking or inspection of products
or where low ceilings, typically 3 m or less, make the HID lamps unusable
because of the glare caused by their very bright light source.
At heights above 4m, the HID lamps become more economical than
fluorescent types, as far fewer luminaires need to be installed for a given
level of illumination; running costs are also lower. Present-day cold stores
are mainly constructed with internal heights of 10m and above and there-
fore the HID lamp type is the most common. Mercury vapour lamps have
been available longer than SON types, but although these have preferable
colour rendering (their cold blue/white light is closer to daylight than the
light produced by SON lamps), they have a significantly less efficient light
output and are rarely used nowadays.
In the majority of bulk cold stores, SON fittings are the most popular
choice giving a pleasant golden orange/white light and low running costs
(Figure 8.3).
The selection of the type of light source to be employed often requires
comparison of initial installation and operating costs of the various lamp
and luminaire types. Consideration must be given to positioning within the
store. With the introduction of very high racking, including mobile types,
the number and location of light fittings are essential in ensuring adequate
lighting levels at both the top and bottom pallet, regardless of where a
mobile racking aisle has been opened.
A trend in ambient non-food storage areas is to illuminate racked aisles
automatically when personnel enter each aisle and maintain the illumina-
tion for a limited time period only. This control is activated by infrared or
microwave beams which sense movement controlling lighting circuits either
directly or via contactors. Another alternative with mobile racking is to
operate luminaires within a given aisle only as the mobile racking parts to
reveal the aisle. Such systems require a light source with immediate illumi-
nation characteristics in order that personnel entering the aisle have the
design level of illumination. Fluorescent or tungsten-halogen luminaires
only can achieve such instant full output upon activation. Ambient tem-
perature non-food stores have the flexibility to employ a variety of fluores-
cent luminaires, including types with exposed tubes and large polished
aluminium reflectors specifically designed to illuminate narrow aisles at
heights up to 10m. Food storage area luminaires require protection to
. -- "- ----- ---
Figure 8.3 A typical low profile HP SON T fitting for use in low-temperature rooms. When
ceiling mounted, it is well clear of the masts of fork-lift trucks. The control gear is self-
contained and housed in a detachable tray at the rear, connections are made by an internal
plug and socket so that the controls of a faulty fitting can be quickly changed, and bench repairs
carried out in a warm environment. The fitting is shown. in this photograph, with its clear visor
removed for clarity. The visor is essential when the fitting is in operation in the store.
prevent glass being widely dispersed about the product in the event of a
lamp breakage and so require covers over the lamp. Unfortunately such
covers decrease the efficiency of these luminaires so significantly at heights
above 6 m that their use is uneconomic.
Cold and chill store heights are increasing all the time as material han-
dling techniques improve, making the use of fluorescent luminaires and
automatic aisle lighting generally uneconomic. Of course the same auto-
matic systems can be employed to achieve high intensity discharge lamped
luminaires such as the popular SON types discussed above. However, after
striking the output of the lamp increases over several minutes before reach-
ing full output. The dilemma in these circumstances is setting a safe illumi-
nation level of, say, 250 lux but 'tempting' the operator to enter the aisle
with fork-lift trucks at a far lower level of illumination. Even supplementary
tungsten-halogen lamps installed within the luminaires to provide instant
light are not powerful enough to provide more than a small fraction of the
full output of the HID lamp.
The introduction of fully mechanised crane-based, automatic storage and
retrieval systems with 20m and higher racks is providing new challenges for
lighting engineers to provide illumination for safety and maintenance pur-
poses at economic costs.
The 24-hour operation of modern distribution depots with early morning
dispatches throughout the year makes high demands on the external serv-
ices within the complex: parking facilities - often with refrigerated vehicle
sockets - fuel pump islands, vehicle washes, weigh bridges and maintenance
workshops. To support this level of activity, higher and higher standards of
external lighting are required. No longer is a token level of lighting for
security purposes adequate for effective operation of these depots. Indeed,
compared with the minimum recommended illuminance for car parks at
5 lux, many operators now specify external lighting for operational areas of
301ux, rising to 100lux in critical areas.
Again, SON-type fittings are generally considered the best value for
money for external lighting and have the power to deliver the high levels of
illuminance now called for (Figure 8.4).
Emergency lighting
Guidelines for emergency lighting in the UK are set out in BS5266: Part 1:
1988. This covers everything from why emergency lighting is required to
battery systems, wiring methods, servicing and keeping a log book. The log
book is important for fire officers, for example, to check that the system
overall meets with stipulated requirements. The log book must include
details of completion certificates, alteration certificates, periodic inspection
and test certificates, dates and notes on each service, inspection or test,
details of defects and remedial action taken and details of alterations to the
system.
Emergency lights in sub-zero stores cannot be the conventional self-
contained type with the battery pack inside because the battery will not
operate effectively at such low temperatures; it will not be able to charge
and discharge properly. It is usual practice to have one or a series of DC
Figure 8.4 A distribution depot during night operation. External illumination is important
and, at this site, is provided by 400W HP SON fittings on the walls of the building and on poles
at the perimeter. Twin fluorescent fittings under the canopy provide illumination to the rear of
the vehicles. Note the security, closed-circuit. television cameras mounted on the corner of the
office building; their operation is enhanced by even, shadow-free, illumination.
battery systems or an AC inverter system supplying remote store fittings.

Store fittings are usually tungsten bulkheads, or spot lights for DC systems
and fluorescent or SOX for inverter systems which are either maintained
(on all the time) or non-maintained (come on only in an emergency).
Central batteries would always be located in ambient temperatures, typi-
cally in roof voids or plant areas, and give an output of 24-48 V DC in case
of DC systems and 1l0-240V AC in the case of inverter systems.
Some of the primary lighting fittings may be on a separate circuit that will
be activated if a generating set is installed to provide back-up power during
a mains failure. The problem here is that SON and mercury lights need a
restrike period after switching off; this can be anything from 90s to 20min.
With an AC inverter, SOX lights would probably be used as these give the
maximum light for the minimum input power (Figure 8.5).
8.5 Alarm systems: protecting life and property
In the UK wiring should comply with lEE Wiring Regulations (16th edi-
tion) BS7671 and the Electricity At Work Act 1989, both of which are
Figure 8.5 View of the mezzanine floor of a low temperature (-29°C) distribution store. A
high level of lighting for order picking is provided on the mezzanine by the use of fluorescent
fittings mounted on suspended trunking. In the background are the top two levels of five-high
pallet racking and pallet lifts. The pallet storage area is illuminated by high bay, HP SON
fittings over the aisles. Also visible, left of centre and extreme left, are polycarbonate, battery-
operated, maintained, tungsten emergency lighting over the walkways. Ceiling-mounted
smoke detectors can also be seen.
comprehensive documents which require specialist interpretation by elec-

trical engineers backed up by software packages to calculate equipment and
cable sizes within an electrical network.
BS4434: 1996 gives general requirements for refrigeration safety. It has
quite a broad scope covering new refrigeration systems, extensions and
modifications of existing systems, and used systems which are being rein-
stalled and operated on a new site. It applies to any refrigeration system in
which the refrigerant is evaporated and condensed in a closed circuit.
Fire alarms
The most important fire alarm document in the UK is BS5839: Part 1: 1988,
the code of practice for installing the servicing fire detection and alarm
systems in UK buildings. This is a comprehensive document covering
everything from general design considerations to specific details about how
to calculate the number of smoke detectors needed.
When engineering any new fire alarm system it is essential to consult the
local building control officer who, with advice from the fire officer, will
consider the proposals for fire alarms and emergency lighting in conjunction
with the overall architectural design of the building. The building control
officer will consider the likely risks in the building, the evacuation routes,
the number of personnel and their assumed knowledge of the building and
its risks. Agreement must be made on the level of life protection that the
fire alarm system must achieve and the equipment, e.g. controls and associ-
ated alarm sounders, smoke and heat detectors, that will ensure this protec-
tion. Of course, the building insurers are also highly influential in the design
of the fire alarm system considered by the fire officer but are usually
concerned with property protection rather than life protection.
The most basic form of fire alarm component is the manual call point, or
break-glass unit, which an individual activates in the event of witnessing a
fire. Other means of fire detection incorporated into a building are smoke
and heat detectors. All fire detection devices are connected to a fire alarm
panel which, in the event of its activation, operates sounders to initiate
evacuation signals throughout the building. The fire alarm panel may also
incorporate an auto dial facility to automatically call out the fire brigade in
the event of an emergency or a mimic panel to notify security staff in the
gatehouse who would initially investigate the emergency.
The cold and chill store environment imposes additional demands on the
selection of fire alarm components and the interface between the fire alarm
panel and the refrigeration plant. Chill stores often produce humidity which
demands the use of weatherproof components such as manual call devices
and sounders. Smoke detectors in chill store environments are prone to
condensation rendering them unreliable. In low-temperature cold stores
local condensation problems can occur causing ice and rendering devices
unoperational; also many components are not warranted to operate at
-25°C.
Standard break-glass units are not recommended under food environ-
ments unless a method of preventing wide dispersion of the shattered glass
is incorporated. Smoke detection is not widely incorporated into chill or
cold stores; however, with the introduction of multi-level mezzanine pick-
ing areas building control may demand such protection. One proven form
of smoke detection in chill and low-temperature environments is the air-
sampling method by which small samples of air are automatically extracted
from the store via plastic tubes and fed to a panel in an ambient environ-
ment which then measures the ionisation of the sample. If smoke or com-
bustion particles are detected in the sample chamber the unit signals an
alarm to the main fire alarm panel.
Refrigeration plant rooms employing ammonia refrigerant are hazardous
areas and any fire alarm equipment to be located within this environment
must be intrinsically safe.
Fire alarm emergency conditions are universally enunciated by sounders;
however, in cold and chill stores their job is made much harder by having to
overcome the noise generated by the evaporator fans. For this reason fire
alarm systems are often interlinked to the refrigeration control system to
shut down plant in the event of an emergency. Furthermore, the air move-
ment caused by evaporator fans may aid the spread of any fire.
In some facilities the personnel working within the stores are cocooned in
enclosed fork-lift cabins with radio data systems advising them as to the
location of pallets and their routing instructions. In such circumstances
supplemental visual fire alarm beacons will aid the communication of the
alarm.
Fire alarm systems may be interlinked with an extinguishing system such
that, upon activation of a sprinkler system, the fire alarm system would
automatically issue evacuation signals. Water sprinklers are, of course, not
suitable for a cold store operating at -28°C. Extinguishing systems using
carbon dioxide or other inert gases may be used for some areas such as the
computer room to put out a fire without harming the equipment.
Every fire alarm event should be logged; the fire officer makes frequent
random visits and will want to see the log. According to the British Stand-
ard mentioned earlier, the log should include not only genuine alarms but
also practice, test and false alarms. Faults, service tests and routine atten-
tion should be recorded immediately, as should periods of disconnection. If
the alarm has been caused by a call point or automatic detector, the location
of that device should also be recorded.
Latest generation addressable fire alarm systems which are computer-
based provide full automatic logging facilities of events and allow the op-
erator flexibility in re-programming the operation and in the maintenance
arrangements of the system.
Gas and vapour detection systems

Cold stores use various refrigerant gases as part of the refrigeration system.
The gases act as the medium through which heat is exchanged. Typically
either ammonia or one of the varieties of freon is used.
Ammonia gas is an extreme irritant that can kill if it is inhaled; it is also
explosive at certain concentrations. If there is a leak of ammonia it is vital
to have a system to protect personnel and property. An ammonia detection
system can be used to trigger an alarm. This should happen in two stages.
The first alarm stage is for when there is only a low level of gas in the
atmosphere at 0.5% volume of ammonia in air, and the alarm would initiate
an audio-visual signal and start flame-proof extractor fans automatically. At
the second stage, when the gas level is approaching a potentially explosive
gas to air mix at 1% volume of ammonia in air, the system would shut down
the mechanical plant and non-explosion proof electrical services within the
detection area completely, to prevent any sparks being created. Ventilation
to extract the ammonia leak continues to operate during the second stage
alarm condition.
Freons are fluorocarbon-based gases which are being substituted by
blended synthetic refrigerant gases of which there are several different
types. They are not directly injurious to people or property but in the event
of a leak their density means that they reduce the level of oxygen in the air,
causing asphyxiation. Also, under certain conditions, these odourless gases
can produce toxic gas, heat or acid fumes, thus turning comparatively
harmless products into killers. Freons are proven to cause damage to the
ozone layer and restrictions on their use are time-limited. On larger sites
ammonia currently tends to be the more popular refrigerant although it
requires greater skill and care in its initial engineering and maintenance.
Gas and vapour detection systems will be one of two types. The first
checks for potential explosive build-up of gas and the other for levels that
could be high enough to contaminate some of the food products in the store
or affect personnel working in the environment. Food, especially when
unwrapped, can absorb small concentrations of ammonia, which directly
affects its taste and can make it unsaleable. It should be possible to detect
between 10 and 20 parts per million, but at this level of detection there will
be a lot of spurious alarms, including those from hydrogen given off by fork-
lift truck batteries. Means of detecting low levels of ammonia are not wholly
reliable at present, particularly at low temperatures, and additionally are
very costly. The development of electro-chemical cells offers future poten-
tial for accurate low-level gas detection.
For many years the traditional sensor was the Pellistor, a heated platinum
wire in a circuit that gave an electrical response to a change in resistance
caused by burning gas. These devices, however, were not wholly reliable.
Semiconductors offer an improvement, as these exhibit massive changes of
resistance when exposed to gases other than those found in clean air and
their use meets the approval of registration bodies.
The use of microprocessors has heralded an era of remote monitoring for
gas leaks. This is already evident in chilled areas in supermarkets and is
becoming more common in cold stores. It is possible to have a totally
unstaffed refrigeration system with no engineering personnel on site, the
gas leak detection system feeding its signal through the microprocessor
which in turn would feed it to a remote location.
Whichever system is used it is essential that the gaseous dangers are
assessed and the requirements of approving bodies are met before the
design of the plant is finalised.
Trapped personnel alarm systems

All cold stores under BS 4434 should have an easy-to-find call button at low
level by the door that can be operated in an emergency. This has to be run
by a battery that is independent of the rest of the electrical system. Early

designs of call points incorporated a heater to prevent freezing up but
modern plastics are now available which allow the alarms to operate at very
low temperatures. The call point should be well lit, using the emergency
lighting, and clearly labelled. When activated, the call button will send an
alarm to a central control office and set off flashing lights outside the
particular store to make it easier to locate the trapped person. On remote
control plants it is possible for the alarm signal to be sent along a telephone
line to alert the central controller.
Security systems
Cold stores may store goods with an extremely high value and, like any
large building with few people about, present a potential security problem,
although they do have the advantage that they operate 24 hours a day in
many cases.
The easiest entrance for an intruder would probably be the emergency
exits at the back of the store; these are generally unstaffed and out of sight
from the rest of the site. Closed-circuit television is the most common
method of surveillance for areas such as these and it can operate at a low
level of illumination, say 1 to 2 lux, or even, when equipped with infrared
sensors, in total darkness. The problem is that a security guard staring at a
bank of screens all day can easily miss something, especially as months or
years can go by with nothing happening. It is thus wise to link the television
circuit to a video recorder so that any break-in would then be captured on
film.
The emergency exits, and indeed all doors, should have standard alarm
systems fitted. These should either be on their own battery system or linked
to standby power; it is not uncommon for a power failure to bring the
intruders out.
8.6 Cold store installations: specific requirements
Refrigerated vehicle sockets

When frozen goods are transported, large refrigerated vehicles are em-
ployed that carry refrigeration plant, which is powered from the truck itself.
When the truck arrives at a site it may not be possible to unload immedi-
ately and the trailer may be left standing in the yard, perhaps for a whole
weekend. For this reason, cold stores tend to have a large number of special
sockets in the yard that can be used to power a vehicle's refrigeration
system.
For small trucks, 16A three-phase sockets are normally adequate but for
larger trucks sockets can be up to 32A three-phase. They are normally five-
pin, triple-pole neutral and earth (TPNE) or just triple-pole and earth
(TPE) sockets. Some of them have phase rotation switches to compensate
for different wiring systems on different trucks. All should be earth-
leakage-protected sockets and are mainly interlocked with the plug heads in
order that the socket cannot be made live without the plug being inserted.
The requirement for large numbers of such sockets is often not antici-
pated when initially designing a cold store's electrical installation and, since
each socket can draw in excess of 20 A three-phase, the implications for
the electrical capacity of the cold store are obvious. To avoid the cost of
building additional electrical capacity into the store, some cold store opera-
tors let the trailer vehicles use their own diesel power motors but this can
lead to problems of noise pollution, especially if the plant is near residential
areas, and in any case the economics of diesel engines versus electric motors
favours the use of electrical sockets (Figure 8.6).
Figure 8.6 A typical vehicle parking area with power sockets for the truck-mounted refrigera-
tion units. Vehicles reverse onto 'bump kerbs' to either side of the island and plug into socket
outlets. Each socket is enclosed in a weatherproof housing, mounted on a robust post and
protected by a substantial hood. Each socket outlet has electric shock protection provided by
an earth leakage circuit breaker. Feeds to the sockets are provided from a local distribution
board mounted in the weatherproof housing in the foreground. This housing has an anti-
condensation heater and integral lighting.
Frost heave protection

Cold stores can affect the environment and in particular the ground
underneath them. A large block of cold air at -25°C or below is difficult to
isolate. If no care is taken an 'ice block' may build up below ground and
damage the foundations of the building or cause frost heave of the cold
store floor.
Large plants generally have a network of heated glycol-filled pipes below
the floor insulation to prevent the ground freezing. Such systems recover
low-grade waste heat from the refrigerant plant and therefore are very
economical to run but at a significant capital cost. For smaller plants, this is
often not practical and electrically heated mats are used as an easier alter-
native. These underfloor mats can either be mains powered or run at low
voltage via a transformer. The obvious advantage of using mains power is
that the transformer is not needed. The disadvantage of using mains power
is that in the event of mechanical damage or wet conditions, the mains could
be transferred to the steelwork of the building. This is relevant because
there is a long-term reliability problem with mains heaters and it is not
uncommon for there to be a separate heater in the core of the cable to act
as a back-up.
The low-voltage system provides an electrically energised source of heat
which consists of wires laid on top of the site concrete. Over this grid, or
heater mat as it is called, is floated a sand and cement screed. On top of this
will be the vapour sealing and floor insulation. The core of the system is a
high-grade stainless steel wire working at temperatures only a few degrees
above the temperature of the concrete slab to which it is fixed. The wires are
energised from the low-voltage output of a step-down transformer. Such a
low-voltage system can be operated without insulation but sheathing on the
wire does give added protection to the system and makes it easier to
terminate individual heating elements.
Large, low-temperature chambers often have exposed steel columns
which can transfer the sub-zero temperature down through the cold store
floor to the ground; these too may need to be heated. A similar problem
may occur where columns pass through an insulated ceiling into a roof void.
Sometimes heaters are used here to avoid condensation and frost build-up
on the columns in the void.
Door opening/closing systems

For every second that a cold store door is open, the store warms slightly and
it costs money to cool it back down. Despite this, the most common method
of opening and shutting doors is with a pull switch. This has obvious prob-
lems; for example, a fork-lift truck driver picking up a pallet near the door
may be tempted to leave the door open during the visit. One solution may
be putting a timer on the door so that after a few seconds the door shuts
automatically. This type of system is normally backed up either by a plastic
strip curtain behind the door to stop some of the air change, or by blowing
air across the opening to cut down air movement into the store. Neither is
a substitute for any method that would close the door more quickly. It is not
practical to set the timer at a lower setting because different drivers with
different types of load take different times to negotiate the exit. Doors are
very vulnerable to damage by fork-lift trucks.
One very useful device is to install induction loops in the floor that create
a magnetic field which changes when a metal object, like a fork-lift truck,
crosses it; this creates a signal that can be used to open or close the door.
Some operators even use a complex double-loop system that will discrimi-
nate between a driver going past the door and one actually trying to go
through the door. It is also possible to use a radio transmitter and receiver
system which lets the driver operate the door from the cab.
With the introduction of SCADA systems into temperature-controlled
storage facilities, it is possible to record the frequency of operation of each
door and the duration of each open-close cycle or only those that exceed a
given cycle duration.
Standby power
The major application for standby power is not the low-temperature refrig-
eration system itself; this normally has enough thermal inertia within the
system that it can survive for some hours with no power without warming to
an unacceptable level. Sometimes low-temperature stores can survive for
days if lights are off and doors closed. The exception would be chill stores,
where the temperatures are higher and the products in-store are more
temperature-sensitive. Some vegetable products stored in chill stores, such
as potatoes, naturally produce heat. Temperatures in chill stores can change
quickly and some form of standby power would probably be needed very
quickly to continue operation after a power failure.
The best known type of standby power is the generating set. A generator
set must be sized to satisfy at a minimum the essential loads the facility has,
including provision for the starting of large compressors. A generating set is
at its most efficient when operating close to the top of its range, so tight
matching is important. Further points to note are that generating sets are
inherently noisy and may require sound attenuation equipment, and that
different sets have different start-up times. A generating set normally takes
about lOs to be run up to full speed. It is then introduced to the loads in a
staggered fashion, either manually or automatically. If it is done automati-
cally, predetermined priorities of load, such as computers, lighting of of-
fices, etc., must be established. Any delay, even as short as lOs, would be
disastrous for a computer system; even a fraction of a second of loss of
power can kill and lose all the programs being run at the time. In this case
the answer is to have some form of uninterruptible power supply.
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) comprises four elements - the
rectifier and battery charger, storage battery, inverter and by-pass and
transfer switch - which are set up between the mains and the load. All
connected systems are powered by the battery and the mains is used to keep
the battery charged. This has the added advantage that it filters out spikes
and other interference and can keep the power running long enough for the
generating set to come on-line. During normal operation, the rectifier
converts the AC input power to DC which supplies the inverter and keeps
the battery fully charged. The inverter then converts the DC to a regulated
and clean AC to send out to the computer. If there is a power cut, the
inverter draws its power from the storage battery. When the power comes
back on the rectifier automatically goes back to its recharging role. Single
units are available from under 1 kV A and up to 400kV A. Parallel, redun-
dant and multimodule configurations can take the capacity up to 2.5 MV A
or higher.
Energy saving
More than 40% of the running costs of a cold store can be spent on energy
and therefore any means to save energy are welcomed by cold store opera-
tors. The most obvious method, as mentioned earlier, is to run the refrigera-
tion plant mostly at night during off-peak electricity times. Further, a
generating set could be used to run the plant during peak tariff periods. If
running on a maximum demand tariff, a computer-controlled system should
be used to switch off non-essential circuits as usage approaches the maxi-
mum demand figure. The system could do this either automatically or by
sounding an alarm to warn the operator that systems will need to be shut
down. The operator can then manually shut down certain systems.
The designer of the refrigeration system has to take into account the heat
generated by the lighting system: the lights put heat in and it costs money to
get that heat out again. Automatic door closing such that doors are open for
a minimum time when fork-lift trucks go through is also desirable. The
longer doors are open, the more heat gets into the cold store.
The efficiency of power generation equipment and the main compressor
motors on the plant is improved if the power factor of the network is as near
as possible to unity.
There are different approaches that may be taken to improve the power
factor, including installing fixed-value capacitor banks connected to com-
pressors and multi-step capacitor units on the main incoming supply which
switch in and out of circuit to retain an acceptable power factor over various
load demand patterns.
ELECTRICAL INST ALLA nONS 263
8.7 Conclusion
There is no doubt that the biggest revolution in cold store control, that of
the change from electromechanical relays to the modern computer and
programmable controller systems, has already happened in most present-
day installations. As well as giving cost savings and ease of use advantages,
these systems are flexible and can be expanded easily with few problems.
SCADA systems are now being introduced into the bag of cold store
operators' management tools, giving detailed information on the operation
of the temperature-controlled facility and providing automatic recording
and interpretation of data. Preset alarms can be communicated to remote
locations and engineers at these terminals adjust the controls of the refrig-
eration plant and other facilities.
9 Racking systems
R.G.D. SHOWELL
9.1 Introductiou
A racking system is one of several constituent parts of a warehouse system

and can only be fully defined when all the other parameters of a ware-
housing operation are considered. It is totally dependent on what the
user requires from the operational warehouse unit. At one end of the
scale is a system that is 'all things to all men' and at the other end is a
system dedicated to one customer with a fixed long-term requirement.
Neither of these extremes is generally acceptable commercially and
therefore the warehouse system becomes a compromise: in part tailor-
made to suit individual customer requirements and in part with an eye to
possible future changes. The more flexible the system is to cope with chang-
ing demands, the more effective it is. There is, however, always a cost
penalty for this flexibility, be it in higher capital cost or lower operating
revenue.
This chapter describes the racking and storage systems currently avail-
able and compares a range of solutions that is available for a medium-sized
warehouse requirement.
9.2 Standards
Racking systems are covered by different standards and codes of practice in

different countries of the world. As the UK is part of the EU and there is a
move towards harmonisation of standards within the EU, it is important
that the possible effect of future standards is also considered.
Currently the following bodies have codes or standards in operation in
their respective countries.
France: SIMMA (Syndicat des Industries de Materials de Manutention; Syndi-
cate of Materials Handling Industries)
Holland: GSF (Group Stellingen Fabrikanten; Group of Racking Suppliers)
Germany: RAL (Reichs AusschuB fUr Lieferbedingungen; National Com-
mittee for Conditions of Supply)
UK: SEMA (Storage Equipment Manufacturers' Association)
Belgium: No code
Spain: No code
RACKING SYSTEMS 265
Generally there are two types of code for each product: a code which
covers the design criteria to be used by the manufacturers and a code to
cover the use, which includes pallet clearances, erection tolerances and
floor level tolerances. Eventually these individual country codes or stand-
ards will be replaced by common FEM (Federation Europeenne de la
Manutention) codes. There will generally be two codes for each product
group.
At a plenary standards meeting under section 10 held in Brussels in
September 1995, a decision to move forward with a common FEM stand-
ard, covering the design of racking and shelving systems, was taken. It will
be designated FEM 10.2.02. This standard will supersede all national codes
and standards for the design of pallet racking. The code for provision and
use of storage equipment will follow in the next 2 to 3 years and will
probably be designated FEM 10.2.03.
FEM 10.2.02 was published as a Pre-Norm from January 1996 and it is
anticipated that by October 1998 at the latest it will move from Pre-Norm
to Norm status. During the Pre-Norm period any European manufacturers
that experience major problems complying may request that modifications
be made to the standard. As FEM 10.2.02 is more comprehensive than most
of the country codes and standards presently in existence, all static racking
and shelving systems currently on the market will undergo change to a
greater or lesser extent. Manufacturers will have to consider a greater
complexity of loadings when specifying racking systems. This may have an
adverse effect on the pricing of racking systems, when compared to the
present designs on the European market.
FEM 10.2.02 will be for static racking and shelving only. Other storage
racking concepts (such as mobile racking) will be covered later by other
standards currently being considered. Ultimately a CEN (Comite
Europeen de Normalisation (European Committee for Standardisation)
standard will be produced and it is hoped that FEM 10.2.02 will be accepted
as a Euro Norm until a CEN is agreed.
FEM 10.2. 02
FEM 10.2.02 classifies racking systems into groups. These groups are deter-
mined by the type of handling equipment that is proposed to be used. In
some instances it is suggested that the clearances between the loads stored
and the racking structure should be increased from that which is currently
the accepted norm. This could result in a reduction of the number of pallets
in a given area and an increase in the cost of the racking system.
FEM 10.2.02 also suggests that only after detailed discussion between the
storage system provider and the customer should these clearances be
reduced.
The load is the parameter which dictates everything. This must be
defined, and all the advantages and disadvantages of the deviations from
the norm should be fully understood.
9.3 Basic unit of storage
Any racking system is dependent on an understanding of the basic unit of

storage and how it interfaces with the components of the storage systems. It
is imperative that this is correctly defined as it will form the basic element
in the design of any storage system. This is shown diagrammatically in
Figure 9.1.
Most storage operations have to take into account a number of options
before arriving at a workable unit of storage. For a racking system to be
really viable, it is necessary to analyse and define the 'unit of storage' far
more precisely. The following further information must therefore be
considered:
• Load to be stored
- Is it boxed/bagged/loose/crushable/dense?
- Does it overhang the pallet? If so, by how much in every direction?
- Will the load settle in storage and lean outside the basic pallet dimen-
sions? If so, by how much?
- Does the load require restraining in some way (stretch-wrapping or
banding)?
- Does the restraining increase the load size (as with converter sets)?
- How heavy is the load in its most dense form?
- Is the load to be 'broken down' in the storage area or off the premises?
- What is the period of time that the load is to be in store?
• Storage platform (pallet)
- Is the pallet for use within the plant, within the UK, within the EU or
world-wide?
- Are the pallets reusable or one-way?
Figure 9.1 The unit of storage. HI = height including pallet; DI = depth; WI = width on entry
face; L1 = load.
RACKING SYSTEMS 267
- Do the pallets have to comply with standards, e.g. CSDF/UKAFFP

(Cold Storage and Distribution Federation/UK Association of Frozen
Food Producers) and BS2629: Part 3
• Storage area (size)
- What are the internal dimensions of the room to be used?
- What are the positions and use of the doors? Are they for mechanical
handing equipment, pedestrians or other uses (e.g. fire exits)?
- What are the future developments which might restrict the layout of
the racking systems?
- What is the operating temperature?
• Storage area (use)
- Number and range of products to be stored
- Throughput
- Single-use or multi-use from the area (e.g. bulk handling during the
day, case picking at night)
As the racking and mechanical handling system is dependent on the load
to be stored and the storage platform, it can influence the storage area. It is,
therefore, important that the above questions are answered and statements
confirmed before the racking system or systems are considered.
The unit of storage shown in Figure 9.1 should now be redrawn as in
Figure 9.2. From this revised load envelope, the size of racking system can
now be determined; it should be determined using the FEM standard which
is applicable to the storage systems being considered. The standard lays
down maximum and minimum parameters where applicable. Some major
UK cold store operators have recognised this fact and have developed their
own standards. These go a long way in meeting the proposed FEM
recommendations.
Figures 9.3 and 9.4 show the typical dimensions for a static pallet-racking
system where the handling equipment is not fitted with automatic horizon-
tal or vertical positioning equipment. The following points should be noted
when considering Figures 9.3 and 9.4:
Figure 9.2 Revised unit of storage. H2 = maximum height, including pallet; D2 = maximum
depth; W2 = maximum width on entry face; L2 = maximum load.
Xsj1 ~ j1xs
Beam height Yn
from floor (mm) X5 (mm) Xs Y3 (mm)
0-3000 75 100 75
0-6000 75 100 100
0-9000 75 100 125
0-12000 75 100 150
Figure 9.3 Front elevation of pallet location in a reach or counterbalance operated system
(class 400). X6 = clearance between adjacent pallets or loads, whichever is the greatest, and Xs
= clearance between the pallet/load and rack structure. Y3 = clearance between the underside
of the pallet support beam and the top of the load at its maximum when handling equipment
is not fitted with automatic height selection equipment.
• Reducing the clearance between the pallet and the load will increase the
incidence of damage to both product and racking. It will also increase the
pallet placing and retrieval time.
• Mixing pallet types within a racking system can result in a higher inci-
dence of pallet failure, unless adequate design precautions are taken.
• Using sub-standard pallets will result in pallet collapse, leading to prod-
uct and racking damage.
• The type of storage facility that is required must be planned together with
all the financial implications.
• If the handling equipment is remotely controlled, coupled with high loads
(2m) on narrow pallets (Euro pallets), then this must be considered. A
i'
x
r------:-:X-:-
I
y
1--------1
.
;
1 ~-t---1
o
Two-way entry pallet
o
x y z (X1 + Z+ X1)
750 600 100 1600

900 700 100 1900
1000 750 150 2150
1200 900 150 2550
Four-way entry pallet
o
x y Z (X1 + Z+ X1)
750 700 75 1575

900 800 75 1875
1000 900 100 2100
1200 1100 100 2500
Figure 9.4 End elevation view of pallet location in standard racking system. X = overall depth
of pallet; Xl = overall depth of load; Y = dimension over outside of pallet beams; Z = clearance
between back to back of pallets or loads; D = dimension over front to front of pallets or loads.
Quoted dimensions of X, Y, Z and D are in mm.
load that has passed through a load profile station and then is subjected
to harsh handling might well have developed a lean by the time it is
inserted into its storage position.
9.4 Storage concepts
The following are the racking systems in use in temperature-controlled

storage today:
• Block stacking
- free-standing
- with converter sets
- post pallets
• Pallet racking
- wide-aisle static adjustable pallet racking (APR): counter-balance
truck operation
- narrow-aisle adjustable pallet racking (NAPR): reach truck
operation
- very-narrow-aisle adjustable pallet racking (VNAPR): turret truck
operation
- drive-in/drive-through pallet racking
• Live storage
- first in, first out (FIFO)
• Double-deep static racking
- last in, first out (LIFO)
• Pushback racking
- last in, first out (LIFO)
- gravity roll forward
- mechanically brought forward
• Powered mobile
- adjustable pallet racking (PM APR): counter-balance truck operation
- adjustable narrow aisle pallet racking (PM NAPR): reach truck
operation
- very-narrow-aisle pallet racking (PM VNAPR): turret truck operation
• Crane
Block stacking
Free-standing. Pallets of product are stacked on top of each other in rows,

usually no more than six deep. Suitable only for large numbers of identical
product loads of rigid construction on first-class pallets in a long-term
situation. Probably limited to three or four high, e.g. drums of frozen juice.
RACKING SYSTEMS 271
Figure 9.5 Diagram of a post pallet.
The lower layers of product and/or its packaging must be capable of sup-
porting the additional weight of the upper pallets.
Converter sets. This consists of a standard pallet usually 1 m x 1.2 m four-

way entry onto which is erected a steel frame, which provides rigidity for
supporting subsequent levels of pallets. The load of the upper levels is
transmitted directly to the floor by the steel framc. This is a labour-intensive
system, as it is usually necessary to fit an empty pallet with a converter set
before the load is hand-balled on the pallet. Allows loads to be stored four
or five high. It is essential that the converter sets are kept in first-class
condition as the whole weight of the stack is carried by the lowest. When
used five-high in a block stacking situation, it produces very high point loads
on the floor.
Post pallet. With this system an all-metal pallct with corner legs is used
(Figure 9.5). These provide a more rigid load platform for storage five-high.
Used extensively in the meat trade. They require considerable storage
space when not in use. They are relatively expensive.
A plan of the typical dimensions used in a block stacked system is shown
in Figure 9.6. This is based on the forks entering through the l.2m face. It
assumes that the load does not overhang the pallet in any direction. Loads
can be handled with a counter-balance truck or a reach truck. The typical
dimensions of a chamber equipped with this type of system are shown in
Figure 9.7.
1300 mm 1 PALLET /LOAD + CLEARANCE

I (52") I
101.:
r O O ' 1 0 0 0 m m PALLET/LOAD
J") + CLEARANCE
00
00
00
6.350m
(21'-0")
o
1000mm
0--+
10 0--+ 50 CLEARANCE BETWEEN
PALLETS/LOAD
L
I 1200mm 1200mm _
-1--+_ 100mm CLEARANCE BETWEEN
PALLETS/LOADS
t
FORK ENTRY FACE
Figure 9.6 Typical dimensions of a block stacked system (plan view).

RACKING SYSTEMS 273
32600 BETWEEN KERBS

6350 3600 12700 3600 6350
-6 DEEP .. 12 DEEP . ~
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294 588 PALLETS 294
PALLETS / LEVEL PALLETS
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!
Figure 9.7 Typical block stacked installation for use with a counterbalance truck handling the
pallet on the 1200mm face. Hatched region indicates the area to be left clear so that the truck
can move from one aisle to another in the event of door failure. Dimensions are in mm.
Pallet racking
In order to obtain the optimum operating efficiency from any of the follow-
ing systems, it must always be remembered that racking is only one element
of a storage system. It should be considered along with handling equipment
and a warehouse or stock management system. All the systems are based on
a skeleton framework of fixed or adjustable design to support the loads.
Terminology. The abbreviations in the following descriptions are in line

with the terminology used in FEM 10.2.02. The following terms are used in
the description of the various systems.
Bay: a module between upright frames.
Run: a series of bays connected lengthwise.
Single-sided run: single depth of rack, usually accessible from one side only.
Double-sided run: two runs built back to back.
Levels: the number of storage levels in the height.
Aisle: space giving access to picking or loading faces.
Gangway: space for movement or transport but not giving direct access to
picking or loading faces.
Wide-aisle adjustable pallet racking (APR) and narrow-aisle adjustable pal-

let racking (NAPR). The difference in terminology of these systems dic-
tates the pallet handling equipment. An APR system is for use with a
counterbalance truck and a NAPR system is for use with a reach truck.
Both these systems are classified as Class 400 by FEM. Pallets are sup-
ported, usually in twos or threes, side by side on horizontal beams. As each
load is free-standing on the racking, there is only a requirement to ensure
that the load is stable on its own pallet. This system provides instant access
to any pallet, is cheap to install, but very expensive in the amount of space
required for each pallet. Can be adjusted vertically in increments of 50, 75
or 100mm to accommodate different pallet heights.
The system usually consists of two components (Figure 9.8):
• End frames which can have either welded or bolted racking. Both types
are available and should comply with FEM requirements. The upright
struts have pre-formed holes or slots at regular intervals up their outer
faces. These holes or slots are usually pitched at 50/75/100mm and pro-
vide the fixing and method of adjustment for the pallet support beams.
• Pallet support beams are in pairs and are usually pre-formed and fitted
with end connectors which locate in the holes or slots in the end frames.
A room using this system would need an additional 1 m clear height when
compared to an equivalent five-high block stacked system. This additional
vertical height is to accommodate the depth of the pallet support beams and
the clearance between the top of the pallet and the underside of the support
beams. Pallets are normally handled with reach or counterbalance trucks.
The first- or ground-floor pallet can be handled with a pallet truck.
A plan view of a typical static NAPR system is shown in Figure 9.9. Fork
entry is through the 1.2m face and load does not overhang the pallet. The
RACKING SYSTEMS 275
a)
fork
~ntry
Figure 9.8 Static adjustable racking. (a) End frame; (b) pallet support beam.
aisle width assumes the use of a reach truck as this normally requires less
space than a counterbalance truck for manoeuvring.
Very-narrow-aisle adjustable pallet racking (VNAPR). This system is for

use with a turret truck. FEM classes are 300A for racking systems with man-
up turret trucks and 300B for systems to be used with man-down machines
not fitted with pallet positioning aids such as closed circuit television
(CCTV). Pallets are supported in the same manner as in APR. The load
requirements are the same as in the basic design of the APR structure. The
major difference is that the aisle between each run of racking is up to 30%
31750 BETWEEN KERBS

1050 JOQ9_ 27700
I I
S 20 PAL ET~ L~VEL
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S 20 PALLETS LEVEL
Figure 9.9 Typical static pallet rack installation for use with a reach truck handling the pallet
on a 1200mm face (plan view). Capacity with five levels is 3030 pallets. Dimensions are in mm.
narrower than for APR. The cost penalty for this is that a special purpose
truck is needed to place and retrieve the pallets from the racking. The truck
moves much faster within the racking than a reach or counterbalance truck
but is not normally used outside the racked area as it becomes slow and
cumbersome.
RACKING SYSTEMS 277
Pallets have to be brought to and retrieved from the racked area by a

feeder truck (counterbalance or reach). An area is set aside for this opera-
tion. This is known as a P&D (place and dispatch) station and is usually the
first pallet stack in each run of racking. The P&D is designed so that it can
be approached by the feeder truck on the end of the rack and from the side
or storage face by the narrow aisle truck.
A typical pallet storage sequence is as follows:
• A pallet is brought into the storage area by the feeder truck and placed
on any vacant P&D station corresponding to the aisle that the pallet is to
be stored in.
• The narrow-aisle truck then picks up the pallet with forks entering the
pallet face that is 90° from the face used by the feeder truck.
• The narrow-aisle truck with the incoming pallet then moves down the
narrow aisle placing the pallet in the first suitable position on either side
of the aisle (determined by the warehouse management system).
• The reverse procedure is used for pallet dispatch out of the storage area.
VNAPR is more expensive to install than APR and NAPR but has better
cube utilisation. It requires specialised handling equipment which will dic-
tate that long narrow chambers are the most cost-effective. On average a
store has to be 150mm higher than required for an equivalent APR system
and the floor has to be laid to ±2 mm in 2 m.
A typical plan of a VNAPR system is shown in Figure 9.10. Fork entry is
through the 1 m face and the load does not overhang the pallet.
Drive-inldrive-through pallet racking. This system uses a form of racking

which allows each pallet to be supported individually but gives a similar
cube utilisation to block stacking. Drive-in dictates that the loads stored will
be last in, first out (LIFO). Drive-through enables a first in, first out (FIFO)
operation to take place.
The system generally uses racking uprights fitted with pallet support rails
cantilevered from the side of the uprights (Figure 9.11). These rails run
from front to rear and form the required storage levels. The uprights are
fixed to the floor and tied above the top pallet level. The structure is also
braced above the top pallet level. Lanes are therefore formed down which
a truck can be driven to access each level of pallets. All levels in each lane
have to be filled or emptied at the same time, which, in turn, means that
each lane must contain the same product.
The difference between drive-in and drive-through is that with drive-in
each block can only be accessed from one side, whereas drive-through can
be accessed from both sides with no structural impediments in any of the
lanes. As drive-through usually requires a higher level of strength to be
derived from the steelwork above the top pallet, it is therefore less cost-
effective than drive-in. A simple solution is to place two drive-in install a-
30650 BETVEEN KERBS
1300 i
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1800
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Figure 9.10 Typical very-narrow-aisle static rack installation for use with a turret truck,
handling the pallet on the l000mm face (plan view). Capacity with five levels is 4900 pallets for
a man-up solution and 4760 for a man-down solution. Both schemes include 70 pick and
dispatch. Dimensions are in mm.
RACKING SYSTEMS 279
(a)
(b)
fork
~ntry
Figure 9.11 Drive-in drive-through pallet racking. (a) End frame; (b) pallet support rail.
tions back to back when access is required from both sides and FIFO is not
important.
Either a counterbalance or a reach truck can be used with this type of
installation but care is needed to ensure that the truck mast will pass
between the pallet support rails, and the load guard will pass underneath
the lowest support rail. Also, the base of the truck must not damage the
floor fixings in the frame feet. In some instances modifications can be made
to the trucks to enable them to operate satisfactorily. It is recommended
that a floor-mounted truck guidance system is fitted. This is usually in the
form of an upturned channel section in which the rack uprights sit. A
radiused lead-in is usually incorporated at the same time. This additional

feature will not only protect the rack uprights from being damaged by the
fork-lift trucks but will also help to speed up the operation of the system.
As the load on each pallet is transmitted through the outermost pallet
members on two parallel sides only, it is imperative that the pallets are well
made and in very good condition.
The floor level within the drive-in installation must be to within ±3 mm in
l.5m. As the load has to be lifted to the correct level before the truck enters
the racks, this will slow the throughput rates.
Drive-in is more expensive than APR to install but has a cube utilisation
of about 80% of block stacking.
Some drive-in systems will fit into the same height as a VNAPR system
(i.e. 1-I.5m higher than a blocked stacked system).
A typical plan of a drive-in installation is shown in Figure 9.12 with the
fork entry through the 1.2 m face.
Live storage
First in, first out (FIFO). Live storage systems have the same lane configu-
ration as drive-in racking, except that each level of pallets is supported on
a shallow sloping roller or wheel conveying system. Pallets are placed on at
one end and roll down the sloping track to accumulate at the other. The
type of rollers or wheels will largely depend on the weight of the loads to be
stored and the condition of the pallets.
Some systems will require special slave pallets which are captive within
the system. The slave pallets have to be recycled from the output end to the
input end by handling equipment.
On longer lane installations, pallet-separating devices should be fitted to
reduce the line pressure. Retardation devices will also be needed near the
output end to control the forward speed of the first two or three pallets
placed in each lane.
The floor level need only be to within ±3mm in l.5m. However, the
structure should be fitted with adjusting feet under each end frame upright
to ensure that the designed slope is maintained.
The cost per pallet will be of the order of two to three times as expensive
as an equivalent drive-in system.
As the pallet lanes have a 3-6 0 slope between input and output end, a
higher chamber will be needed than any of the previous systems described.
This increase in height is a function of the depth of the system. For a 12-
pallet-deep installation, the height of the chamber for a five-high system will
need to be 2.5-3.0m higher than an equivalent block stacked system. Han-
dling equipment can be either counterbalance or reach trucks.
For a typical plan view of a live storage system with the fork entry
through the 1 m face see Figure 9.13.
RACKING SYSTEMS 281
31800 BETWEEN KERBS
6250 340q 12500 340( 6250
-
6 DEEP
. 12 DEEP
. -
6 DEEP
~1
(f)
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264 528 PALLETS 264
PALLETS / LEVEL PALLETS
/ LEVEL / LEVEL
DRIVE IN OR
DRIVE IN DRIVE THROUGH DRIVE IN
~
I I
Figure 9.12 Typical drive-in racking installation for use with a reach or counterbalance truck
handling the pallet on the 1200mm face (plan view). Capacity with five levels is 5280 pallets.
The centre block can be either drive-in or drive-through; the outer blocks are always drive-in.
Hatched region indicates area to be left clear so that the truck can move from one aisle to
another in the event of door failure. Dimensions are in mm.
Double-deep static racking

This is basically the same racking structure as APR except that the
pallets are stored two deep from any access aisle, i.e. 50% of all the
pallets can be accessed immediately. The main advantage over conven-
22200 BETWEEN KERBS
3600 15000 3600

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. 12 DEEP
.
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/ LEVEL
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Figure 9.13 Typical FIFO live storage system for use with a counterbalance truck handling the
pallet on the lOOOmm face (plan view). Capacity with five levels is 3000 pallets. Hatched region
indicates area to be left clear so that the truck can move from one aisle to another in the event
of door failure. Dimensions are in mm.
tional static racking (APR) is that 30% more pallets can be stored in a given
area.
There are three main disadvantages. First, a special double-reach attach-
ment is needed on the FLTs used. Few trucks can be modified in this way
RACKING SYSTEMS 283
without considerable loss of load carrying capacity. Second, for truck

stability reasons, the truck outriggers must pass under the bottom pallet.
This means that all pallet levels are supported on beams. Thirdly, as
the driver cannot see the rear pallet at the higher levels, it is usual to
fit CCTV equipment to the truck and pallet support beams within the
racking to ensure that misplaced pallets do not fall between the racking
beams.
The overall height of a store has to be increased by 500mm when com-
pared to an equivalent static installation. The ground floor (first pallet)
cannot be handled by a pallet truck.
A typical double reach installation handling on the l.2m face is shown in
Figure 9.14.
Pushback racking
Last in, first out (LIFO). These are relatively new systems on the market
that have the same basic structure as the live storage system. Pallets are
placed either on rollers, guides, chains or platens and pushed away from the
input face by the next pallet. There are two basic systems: gravity roll
forward (up to four deep) and mechanically brought forward (up to 12
deep). Because the pushing force is provided by the handling equipment,
there is a limitation on the depth of the system. If a reach truck is used it will
probably be limited to three or four levels and no more than four deep. A
counterbalance truck is likely to have the increased stability to work a
mechanically brought-forward system.
Cost indications, building heights and handling equipment are the same
as the FIFO system. However, there is a floor-space saving as a common
access gangway serves for both input and output operations.
A typical plan of a LIFO live storage system is shown in Figure 9.15.
Powered mobile racking
Powered mobile adjustable pallet racking (PMNAPR). The racking design

concept is the same as APR. The major difference is that all but one of the
access aisles between the racks are eliminated. The racks are mounted on
power-operated bases which move them to the left or right giving immedi-
ate access to every pallet. Rails which are set into the floor have to be level
to ±2mm in 2m.
Safety bars/skirts are provided down each side of the mobile racks to stop
them should they meet an obstruction.
Control of the racks ranges from simple push-button stations on the ends
of the racks, to control systems mounted within the heated cabs of FLTs
and even remotely controlled by the warehouse management systems. With
30500
8ETWEEN~
2100 ,340q
25000
-I
- I S 38 PALLETS / LEVEL
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- S 38 PALLETS / LEVEL
Figure 9.14 Typical double-deep static rack installation for use with a specially adapted reach
truck handling the pallet on the 1200mm face (plan view). Capacity with five levels is 3880
pallets. Dimensions are in mm.
this type of system the time needed to move the racks to form a new aisle
need not be considered, as the movement can be initiated as the FLT leaves
an open aisle. Considerable development work has been done in recent
years to see that the latter systems meet all the necessary safety require-
RACKING SYSTEMS 285
13600 BETWEEN KERB
l 5000 3600 5000
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Figure 9.15 Typical LIFO live storage system for use with a counterbalance truck handling the
pallet on the looOmm face (plan view). Capacity with five levels is 2000 pallets. Dimensions are
inmm.
ments, ensuring that racks are not moved until the open movable aisle is
proved to be free of obstructions.
This system gives immediate access to every pallet. The increase in stor-
age capacity over a static pallet rack system is likely to be better than 85%
for a given storage area. Another advantage is that the FLT travelling
32225 BETWEEN KERBS
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Figure 9.16 Typical powered mobile rack installation serviced by two reach trucks handling
the pallet on the 1000 mm (plan view). Capacity with five levels is 5523 pallets.
RACKING SYSTEMS 287
Figure 9.17 Cold store equipped with power mobile racked system.
distance is reduced by up to 50%, which in turn reduces the cycle time for
each pallet handled.
If a sequential pallet placing/retrieving warehouse management system is
used, then the effect of the time taken to move the racks is insignificant.
A reach truck is usually employed with this type of installation. It is also
common practice to make the moving access aisle wider than normal (3.0-
3.4m). It has been proved that by adding 300-600mm to the minimum aisle
width recommended by reach truck manufacturers, the incidence of prod-
uct and racking damage is reduced dramatically with a corresponding in-
crease in the work rate from each lift truck. The luxury of a wide access aisle
can easily be justified with this system when installed in a controlled-
temperature store.
Pallet movements of in excess of 25 pallets per hour per reach truck are
achieved in some modern cold stores. Over 65% of new cold stores are now
built incorporating powered mobile racking as the preferred storage system.
30650 BETWEEN KERBS

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Figure 9.18 Typical very-narrow-aisle mobile rack installation serviced by two narrow-aisle
trucks handling the pallet on the lOOOmm face (plan view). Capacity with five levels is 7000
pallets, including 70 pick and dispatch positions.
RACKING SYSTEMS 289
Figure 9.19 Cold store equipped with powered mobile very-narrow-aisle racking.
Refining the layout and store size with this system is critical in order to
achieve the optimum cube utilisation along with the throughput required.
The building should be fitted around the storage system and not the other way
round.
Order picking can be carried out from the first or ground level but the
layout has to be very carefully considered.
Mobile systems give a fast turnaround of bulk stock and are effectively
used for first-level picking of medium- to slow-moving lines or as a random
back-up storage system for a fast-moving order-picking area.
This system requires a similar height chamber to that for a drive-in
installation.
It is more common to handle the pallet on the 1 m entry face than the
1.2m face , as this produces further equipment economies coupled with a
greater number of pallet positions available in any open aisle. A typical
layout for a powered mobile rack system using reach trucks handling pallets
Table 9.1 Summary of the physical capacities of the layouts (theoretical)
Powered
Block Static Very- Very- Powered mobile
stacking racking narrow- narrow- Drive-in/ Double- mobile very-
(wide (narrow aisle aisle drive- Live deep narrow- narrow-
Note aisle ) aisle) (man-up) (man-down) through storage static Push back aisle aisle
No. of pallets stored (1.3) 5880 (9) 3030 (8) 4900 (7) 4760 (7) 5280 (8) 3000 3880 2000 5523 (8) 7000
Cubic volume of (2) 17700 19424 25510 25510 19895 15310 19266 9380 20270 25245
store (m')
Volume per (2,4) 3.01 6.41 5.21 5.34 3.77 5.10 4.96 4.69 3.67 3.61
pallet (m')
Rating based on (5) 10 8 9 4 7 6 5 3 2
volume
Floor area per 1.77 3.37 2.70 2.76 1.94 2.32 2.55 2.13 1.89 1.86
pallet stack (m')
Rating based on area (6) 10 8 9 4 6 7 5 3 2
Handling equipment 1.5 4 3.5 1-1.5 1 2 1.5 3.5
costs compared to
counterbalance trucks
used in block stacking
Note (1): Includes all gangways. aisles. racking structures and recommended pallet clearances.
Note (2): Excludes any additional height needed for air circulation above the top pallet.
Note (3): All layouts are five-high.
Note (4): All layouts are based to 1000mm (40") x 1200mm (48") x 1675mm (66") load size.
Note (5): Volume of store (including gangways, aisle and clearance) divided by capacity.
Note (6): Footprint area of one level of pallets (including gangways, aisle and clearance).
Note (7): Likely effect on capacities when complying with FEM.
Note (8): Reach truck operation.
Note (9): Counterbalance truck operation.
Table 9.2 Summary of the physical capacities of the layouts (practical)
Very- Powered
Block Static Very- narrow- Powered mobile
stacking racking narrow- aisle Drive-inl Double- mobile very-
(wide (narrow aisle (man- drive- Live deep narrow- narrow-
Note aisle) aisle) (man-up) down) through storage static Pushback aisle aisle
Theoretical no. (1,3,4) 5880 (9) 3030 (8) 4900 (7) 4760 (7) 5280 (8) 3000 3880 2000 5523 (8) 7000
of pallets stored
Loss due to type of 44 10 10 10 41 39 25 39 10 10
storage system (%)
Practical no. of (4) 3292 2727 4410 4284 3115 1830 2910 1220 4970 6300
pallets stored
Volume per (2,5) 5.38 7.12 5.78 5.95 6.39 8.37 6.62 7.69 4.08 4.01
pallet (m')
Practical rating based 3 8 4 5 6 10 7 9 2
on volume
Floor area per pallet (6) 3.16 3.75 2.98 3.06 3.29 3.80 3.40 3.49 2.10 2.07
stack (m')
Practical rating based 5 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 2
on footprint area
Note (1): Includes all gangways, aisles, racking structures and recommended pallet clearances.
Note (2): Excludes any additional height needed for air circulation above top pallet.
Note (4): All layouts are based to 1000mm (40") x 1200mm (48") x 1675mm (66") load size.
Note (5): Volume of store (including gangways, aisle and clearance) divided by practical capacity.
Note (6): Footprint area of one level of pallets (including gangways, aisle and clearance).
Note (7): Likely effect on capacities when complying with FEM.
Table 9.3 The relative merits of different racking systems (asterisks denote rating out of 5)
Very-
Very- narrow- Powered Powered
Block stacking narrow- aisle mobile mobile
Static aisle (VNAPR) Double- narrow- very-narrow-
Free- Converter Post racking (VNAPR) (man- Drive- Live deep aisle aisle
standing sets pallets (NAPR) (man-up) down) Drive-in through storage static Push back (PMNAPR) (PMVNAPR)
Cube utilisation
Theory (1,3) *** *****
Practice (2,4) *'*
Pallet ** *** *****
accessibility
Stock rotation ***** ***** *****
No. of product *** *****
lines
Lack of product ****
damage
Inventory
control
Handling (5) (6) (6) (5) (7) (7) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (7)
equipment
System type LIFO LIFO LIFO RA RA RA LIFO FIFO FIFO LIFO LIFO RA RA
Note (I): Includes all gangways, aisles, racking structures and recommended pallet clearances.
Note (2): Excludes any additional height needed for air circulation above top pallet.
Note (4): All layouts are based on IOOOmm (40") x 1200 (48") x 1675mm (66") load size.
Note (7): Turret truck operation.
RA ::::: random access.
Table 9.4 Economic factors for each racking system
Narrow- Powered Powered

Block stacking Narrow- aisle mobile mobile
Static aisle (VNAPR) narrow- very-narrow-
Free- Converter Post racking (VNAPR) (man- Drive- Live Double- aisle aisle
Note standing sets pallets (NAPR) (man-up) down) Drive-in through storage deep static Push back (PMNAPR) (PMVNAPR)
Area of store (1) 80 80 80 39 60 57 75 75 70 55 70 85 88

covered (%)
Increase in (2) 0 0 0 IOOOmm 1150mm 1150mm 1200mm 1200mm 2500mm 1250mm 2500mm 1200mm 1200mm
store height (36") (42") (42") (48") (48") (100") (52") (100") (48") (48")
over five high
block stacking
Suggested 6 6 6 10 36 36 4 8 6 10 20 30
minimum depth
of pallet runs
Suggested 6 6 6 30 80 80 10 20 20 30 4 60 80
maximum depth
of pallet runs
Cost range/pallet Good
stored (£) pallets
Low (3) and 40 46 20 26 26 32 36 95 22 88 56 67
High (3) loads 70 100 24 32 32 46 52 165 29 165 92 115
Suggested floor 8.5m 8.5m 8.5m 9.5m 9.65m 9.65m 9.7m 9.7m 11m 9.75m 11m 9.7m 9.7m
to top of top
pallet (1675mm,
5'6" high) five
high
Note (I): Includes aisle gangways and clearances.

Note (2): These dimensions are added to line 6.
Note (3): Cost range/pallet stored (£) includes storage equipment only (1996 prices).
on the 1 m face is shown in Figure 9.16 and a typical cold store so equipped
is shown in Figure 9.17.
Powered mobile very-narrow-aisle adjustable pallet racking (PMVNAPR).

In basic concept this system is the same as the PMNAPR. The major
differences are first that the moving aisle is only 1.6-1.8m wide, to accom-
modate the use of a very-narrow-aisle turret truck, second, guiding surfaces
are incorporated within the mobile base design for the guidance of the
trucks and, third, P&D positions are placed at one end of every mobile
rack.
All the controls for initiating the movement of the racks are mounted
usually on the FLT. Again safety features are incorporated to ensure that
the racks cannot be moved until the open aisle to be moved is proved clear.
The system is best installed in long narrow chambers with 60 pallets or
more per level per rack. Pallet movements in excess of 45 pallets per hour
per narrow-aisle truck are achievable with this system.
A typical layout is shown in Figure 9.18 and a 5000 tonne store equipped
with powered mobile narrow-aisle racking is shown in Figure 9.19.
9.S Comparisons of racking systems
Tables 9.1-9.4 compare the different types of racking systems, summarising

their physical capacities (Tables 9.1 and 9.2), relative merits in practical
terms (Table 9.3) and factors of capacity and cost which affect their overall
value for money (Table 9.4).
10 Mechanical handling
J. ROPER
10.1 Today's market
The strongest influence today in the logistics of delivering perishable foods

- fresh produce, chilled or frozen products - is without any doubt exerted
by the major grocery retailers. The standards of quality, hygiene and tem-
perature control they now demand are reinforced by current and pending
UK and EU legislation. In practice, it means an even tighter food suppy
chain with deliveries to supermarkets taking place within narrow and speci-
fied 'time windows'. Every link in this chain must therefore have the opera-
tional and technical capability to respond immediately to the slightest
change in market demand - whether in volume, kind of product or delivery
destination.
This has had a significant effect on the way that perishable, as well as
ambient, foods are now distributed, which has also fundamentally influ-
enced the handling methods and equipment used in cold and chill stores
and controlled-temperature facilities of all kinds. The demands of just-in-
time (JIT) deliveries, low inventories and moving products quickly through
these centres mean that cost-efficient mechanical handling methods and
equipment must, as never before, be tailored exactly to the nature of the
particular operation, i.e. to the goods handled, their volume and the speed,
frequency and other individual requirements of the customer.
These market-led developments resulted in the major UK grocery
retailers building a network of regionally sited composite distribution
centres (CDCs), the first of them opening in the late 1980s. They are
equipped to handle, all under one roof, ambient, fresh, chill, and frozen
products in separate chambers. Goods are received, sorted, stored, order-
picked and loaded for delivery to supermarkets. Movement through these
vast centres, particularly of chilled foods and fresh produce and increasingly
now of frozen products, is very rapid. It has called for more comprehen-
sive application of computerisation and information technology in all
phases of handling operations, and for the most cost-efficient, ergonomi-
cally designed and operator-friendly racking and mechanical handling
equipment.
However, distribution is a dynamic process constantly adapting to chang-
ing conditions. Today's methods and solutions are not necessarily those of
tomorrow. There are already signs that these maximum capacity composite
distribution centres are by no means the final answer, especially with the
emphasis still firmly on reducing inventory to an absolute minimum
throughout the supply chain. In fact, faster and more cost-efficient delivery
can sometimes be achieved in bypassing CDCs and using dedicated 'hubs'
and distribution centres.
A flexible approach to handling operations is therefore always necessary,
especially when it concerns perishable foods. It means being able to choose,
from a very wide range, the optimum system and mechanical handling
equipment in order to meet very different and individual needs. This may
be long-term bulk cold storage, an intermediate assembly hub or distribu-
tion centre for chilled and/or frozen foods, or a multi-temperature compo-
site distribution warehouse.
Virtually the complete range of fork-lift trucks can be equipped for use in
different low-temperature operating conditions. Maximum space utilisation
and minimum operating costs are obviously very important in this high-cost
environment, so the correct choice of lift truck is a vital factor. It is also
worth bearing in mind that for chill operations down to about -1O°C, a
standard unconverted and battery-operated truck can be perfectly accept-
able. Conversion to low-temperature operation will, of course, always give
greater versatility of usage.
The basic principles of good industrial truck design still apply. However,
to meet these changing conditions of operation, manufacturers have intro-
duced innovative new models and ancillary equipment that provide the
desired flexibility at an economic cost. Trucks are ergonomically designed
to provide maximum work output, fully recognising that this also depends
on driver comfort, health and safety. Trucks are selected to integrate per-
fectly into a particular operation in order to maximise the volume of goods
handled and to minimise operating costs.
Leading suppliers of industrial trucks for operation in temperature-
controlled storage and handling conditions have therefore responded to the
needs of the market in a way that also anticipates many of its likely future
developments.
10.2 Cold store operation
A number of industrial truck manufacturers have traditionally been

specialist suppliers to companies that work in controlled-temperature
environments: the vital links in the logistics of the perishable food distribu-
tion chain. The suppliers' cold store engineered trucks - powered pallet,
counter-balanced, high- and low-level order-pickers, combined pallet han-
dling and order-picking trucks, reach trucks, high-density reach trucks,
narrow aisle, very narrow aisle (VNA) - in the past were often easily
identified by distinctively painted livery (Figure 10.1). These suppliers
MECHANICAL HANDLING 297
Figure 10.1 Cold store reach trucks in operation.
have over the years become very familiar with the specific needs of success-
ful fork-lift truck operation in low-temperature conditions. There is now
no need for them to use any distinguishing marks as such on a cold store
truck because virtually the whole range is available to customers and con-
version to dedicated low-temperature usage is a perfected engineering
process.
The cold store truck is, of course, battery-operated because this generates
less heat in these extreme working conditions; its two main enemies being
temperature and humidity.
Consistently low, or for that matter extremely high, temperatures will
produce fundamental changes in the characteristics of most materials. At
-28°C, for example, oil becomes the consistency of treacle. For this reason
low-viscosity aviation-type oil, which is unaffected down to -56°C, is always
used in cold store trucks. Plastic and polypropylene cables solidify and
become brittle in low-temperature conditions, with vibration leading to
shattering and cracking. All cables in a cold store designed truck are there-
fore insulated with silicon-based rubber in order to retain pliability. All
hydraulic seals are likewise of silicon-based rubber. Only high-quality steel
is used for truck masts in these low-temperature conditions. The normal
grade of steel becomes brittle and will experience stress fractures. There is
never any question of 'building down' to a specification. High-quality mate-
rials and construction are absolutely essential for all trucks operating in this
hostile working environment.
Guarding against the ingress of any moisture to the hydraulic system can
be dealt with by fitting an air filter, which must be regularly checked and
changed, or by sealing the system and having an expansion chamber (or
'breather bag') that fits into a truck's hollow leg. The latter method ensures
that any moist air intake is diverted to the breather bag and requires very
little attention. All electrical components are sealed or silicone-coated, and
proximity switches are enclosed and triggered internally. Condensation
will, however, inevitably appear on a truck that is working in and out of a
chill or cold store. To ensure that this condensation does not freeze, the
truck should stay outside the cold store when not actually working and
should be completely dry if it is going to re-enter for a long spell. Truck
maintenance and servicing, as well as battery re-charging, should be carried
out in ambient conditions. Batteries can, of course, be removed in the cold
store and then taken out for this purpose.
Standard epoxy powder paint successfully withstands low-temperature
cold store conditions. Other materials used in cold store industrial truck
construction today include polycarbonate (for cab windows) and stainless
steel. Stainless steel can double the life of a cold store truck and also mean
much lower maintenance costs. However, its use will add considerably to
the initial capital cost. In practice, stainless steel has been proved to be cost-
efficient for hand-pallet trucks, ride-on and pedestrianlride-on stackers that
are used to handle food products in a temperature-controlled, highly saline
environment. Stainless steel is also used to a limited extent in other trucks:
for example, for stainless steel axles. A number of other important new
features have recently been introduced to enhance all-round protection of
the cold store truck, as well as its driver, in this harsh operating environ-
ment and these are described later in this chapter.
10.3 Trucks for all reasons
The range of industrial trucks for cold store operation is a very com-
prehensive one. It includes powered pallet trucks, counter-balanced trucks,
high- and low-level order-picking trucks, combined pallet-handling and
order-picking trucks, reach trucks for various storage/retrieval situations,
including high-density storage, and narrow-aisle and very-narrow-aisle
trucks. In fact there is a truck ideally suited to every kind of controlled-
temperature handling operation and this therefore ensures its cost-
effectiveness.
Today's cold store truck is also simpler mechanically, meaning that there
is less to go wrong, with maintenance procedures correspondingly faster
and easier to carry out. It is often equipped with a number of electronic aids
as standard items: power steering, height indicators and selectors, television

cameras mounted on the forks, and automatic testing of all functions when
switched on and before driving away. These are some of the ergonomic
features that clearly distinguish it from its predecessors, enhancing its ver-
satility and work-rate to the advantage of the driver. Radio data communi-
cations systems have become more sophisticated and are more universally
applied, especially in high-volume materials handling and storage opera-
tions, as has computerisation of more functions. Cheaper ways have also
been introduced to automate some truck functions, including wire-guidance
for very-narrow-aisle trucks and order-pickers. Enclosed and heated cabs,
with the driver-comfort they offer, are now frequently specified. Lifting
capacities and speeds have also increased and today's cold store truck has
many innovative ergonomic features that provide significant added benefits
for the driver.
The industrial truck today is a key element in the logistics plan of any
cold store or distribution centre. Selecting the right trucks for the operation
is therefore vital to its cost-effective running. This selection process will
need to take account of a number of important factors.
The dimensions of the building concerned, the nature of the operation
and the handling capacity required are fundamental to the overall logistics
plan. As a result considerations in choosing the type and number of fork-lift
trucks will be the projected daily or weekly number of pallet movements in
and out of the temperature-controlled facility, shift patterns and hours in
each shift, the number of single-cycle truck and pallet movements and
double-cycle movements (to determine work rates), and truck battery con-
sumption per work cycle. In very-narrow-aisle operations, the number of
work cycles per transfer from one aisle to another will have to be included.
The time the truck spends in the storage area and in travelling to another
part of the cold store will also come into the overall calculation. Service and
maintenance downtime, now reduced to a minimum, will need to be calcu-
lated. In addition, driver on-board administration by radio data terminal
will cut down on the time required for this activity.
Other factors to be considered are the size and weight of loads to be
handled, the most appropriate type of racking system, the effect of sprin-
klers on its height, clearance above and between loads for irregular items,
width of racking uprights and vertical pitch to determine beam level, and
the number of aisles and their minimum width. All have a direct bearing on
selection of the correct industrial truck. It follows that well-trained drivers
are the essential complement to this handling and storage equation.
Planning the optimum method of mechanical handling cannot therefore
be reached in isolation, every aspect is interlinked. Maximum utilisation of
the expensive controlled-temperature environment is essential and the way
that this is done depends on the specific requirements of the operation
involved. It is therefore, as already emphasised, necessary to decide at an
early stage on the optimum number of trucks and drivers that will ensure a
smooth-running and cost-effective daily, weekly and annual throughput.
As a general rule, where there is block stacking of loads and therefore
wider aisles, small counterbalanced trucks or narrow chassis reach trucks
can be used for the main handling operation. For pallet racking - adjust-
able, narrow aisle, drive-in/drive-through - narrow-aisle trucks or VNA
trucks are employed. Combined pallet-handling and order-picking trucks
are well-suited to servicing live storage. Double-deep static racking neces-
sitates the use of reach trucks with telescopic forks. Where powered mobile
racking has been installed, either adjustable or narrow-aisle, narrow-aisle
trucks should be specified.
All of these storage and handling methods are applied in long-term bulk
cold storage, distribution cold stores and multi-temperature facilities. Block
stacking and live storage are also frequently used in chill stores with conver-
sion of trucks to low-temperature working conditions advisable if maximum
versatility in usage is desired.
Powered pallet trucks are frequently employed as 'workhorses' in many
of these controlled-temperature facilities. Different models are designed
for the walking operator: with optional flip-down driver platform for flex-
ibility of usage, rider-seated for long distance transportation, and wire-
guidance for use without a driver. All should include ergonomic features
that increase work-rate as well as minimise driver fatigue. They have very
tight turning circles for the maximum manoeuvrability needed in loading
and unloading temperature-controlled trailers, and in cold store and load-
ing bank operations generally. Excellent traction is essential for safely
negotiating loading ramps and for the slippery surfaces encountered in cold
stores. Some have low-level and second-level order-picking capability and
the ability to carry pallets, roll cages (frequently used in chill store opera-
tions) and other irregularly shaped loads.
The cold store engineered powered pallet truck, able to operate in tem-
peratures down to as low as -35 D C, will have sand-blasted surfaces with
double priming and double top-coating in epoxy powder paint. All primed
surfaces must be covered with a rust-protecting agent. Castor wheels and
fork roller axles and sleeves will be of stainless steel with all wheel bearings
and bushes greasable. The hydraulic system will probably have a nickel-
plated lift cylinder and will be connected to an air bag to avoid any moisture
mixing with the oil. This eliminates the possibility of corroded particles
jamming the hydraulic valve. All electrical component micro-switches and
relays should be to full cold store specification, with Crouzet- and Burgess-
type switches fitted. The control handle may have a heating element, elec-
trical cables will be of special flexible type and Crouzet-type micro-switches
will be fitted to the hydraulic valve actuators. The ignition control lock may
be replaced by a key log system. The drive wheel will have treaded rubber
bonding for cold store application.
The powered pallet truck guided by an operator walking at the rear has
the advantage of compact size, battery power that enables near-continuous
operation, and excellent stability handling loads up to around 2000 kg or
more. It may also have electronic speed control, with stainless steel axles
fitted for harsh operating conditions. This truck can provide an efficient
shuttle service from and to the loading bank and cold or chill chamber, as
well as undertaking many other short or relatively long distance operations.
Heavy duty models with flip-down platform will enable the driver to ride on
or walk and guide the truck, depending on the prevailing conditions. In
state-of-art models, ergonomy for the driver is incorporated in easy-to-
operate controls and EU-required safety guards. Conversion to a driverless
wire-guidance system may be the solution where increased materials flow
and the layout and operational features of the cold store justify this. Savings
in driver costs - the single biggest labour cost in running a cold store - are
an important additional benefit.
Rider-seated pallet trucks are frequently specified for cold store opera-
tions where large daily volumes of goods are handled at relatively high
travel speeds over longish distances. There may also be regular entry and
exiting of low-temperature chambers. The driver will usually be standing or
seated in an open or enclosed cab. Whatever option is chosen, ergonomi-
cally designed controls should be incorporated. A narrow chassis is advan-
tageous where working with block storage and in congested or confined
areas.
Order-picking trucks that are fully protected for low-temperature use
may have stainless steel axles. All control cable connections will probably
be crimped rather than soldered, and grease and lubricants will be for cold
store operating conditions. The hydraulic circuit will have a breather bag or
air filter and all electrics and micro-switches will be cold store protected.
The increasing number of frozen and chilled food product lines, shorter
order lead times and narrower delivery 'windows' to supermarkets mean
that fast and accurate order picking is essential. So order-picking trucks -
whether for low- or high-level operations, of very-narrow-aisle or walk-
through design, or for combined pallet handling and order picking - must
include excellent ergonomic features in order to maximise their productiv-
ity (Figure 10.2).
Order picking at low levels can be accomplished by the driver of a
powered pallet truck with or without an elevating fork unit. An elevating
platform and/or elevating forks can provide for second-level picking. It is an
obvious ergonomic asset if the controls are adaptable to individual drivers
and the driver compartment is roomy and clear of any obstruction. It is
equally important for there to be ease of access for servicing, repairs and
battery changing in order to minimise downtime. Speed must always be
consistent with safety.
Safety and efficiency are important requirements when working at height
Figure 10.2 Low-level order picker.
with a high-level order-picking truck. The truck may have an operator's

cabin with elevating forks or there can be access from the cabin to a large
platform. The risk of repetitive strain injury (RSI), an ever-present hazard
in fork-lift truck operations, will be eliminated by intelligent ergonomic
design. For example, the distance between cab and load carrier should be
minimised so that order picking for the operator is an easy physical process.
Visibility, good lighting, electronic controls and individual adjustment
within the cab for different operators will enhance safety and productivity.
The ability to travel horizontally and simultaneously to elevate the cab will
also significantly increase productivity without placing unnecessary strain
on the driver.
The term 'reach truck', which essentially serves to differentiate its design
construction from the counter-balanced fork-lift truck, has many variants.
This type of truck is often employed in controlled-temperature facilities
for the important reason that they enable high utilisation of costly
low-temperature storage space. Reach trucks also permit stacking to
maximum height. These state-of-the-art machines are ergonomically

designed from the drawing board onwards, taking into full account the
importance of driver comfort, safety and efficiency, and the direct bearing
this will have on productivity and therefore on overall operating costs.
(There are control systems that will keep separate records of lift time and
driving time, as well as total operating time, as additional aids to monitoring
costs.)
Low-temperature protection measures should include stainless steel
axles, a heated seat (unless the cab is enclosed), the usual cold store oils and
greases, anti-skid covering to cab, floor and pedals, closed circuit 'breather'
system, support arm with cut-outs to eliminate ice and waste material, etc.
collecting, low-temperature seals in hose reel and swivel coupling, sealed
gauges and ignition switch (the heat generated by the lift motor should be
used to heat the thyristor panel).
Ergonomics playa major part in reach truck design because anything that
eliminates driver strain in the somewhat stressful cold store environment
must increase productivity potential: for example, drive and lifting func-
tions that are electronically monitored. Lifting to heights over 8.S m puts big
demands on a driver's field of vision. A 'see-through' mast and overhead
guard, plus a cab tilt system (Figure 10.3) will eliminate a great deal of this
strain, as will programmable lift speed and fork-mounted surveillance cam-
eras with an in-cab monitor. In the low-temperature environment, these are
tangible requirements for safe and efficient operation. Narrow chassis mod-
els are especially suited to drive-in racking operations or where block
stacking means that two machines have to pass each other.
For maximum utilisation of the cold store cube, very-narrow-aisle storage
layout is increasingly seen as the answer in terms of both cost and operating
efficiency: less floor space is needed, with maximum use made of it. With
the ever-increasing number of frozen and chilled food product lines now
stocked by supermarkets, wholesalers, catering suppliers, etc. this system
can make good sense for distribution cold stores. Productivity and work-
rates will increase correspondingly. A VNA pallet truck can be extremely
versatile, handling any type of pallet, picking up loads on either side from
the floor with its independently turning forks and stacking them in the same
manner to heights in excess of 10m. The inclusion of electronic systems that
can continuously monitor lift height, acceleration and braking will, of
course, increase safety, ergonomic function and therefore efficient opera-
tion. Where storage and handling conditions suit this, VNA trucks can be
equipped for a wire-guidance system that will further increase productivity
levels. Other VNA trucks are designed for easy and fast order picking
at high level. Display panels in front of the driver can give continuous
and exact details of truck speed, platform height, weight of the load and
so on.
For all VNA truck operations, an on-board control system will enable
Figure 10.3 The BT reflex reach truck with tilting cold store cab.
two-way radio communication via base station with a host computer. This
will ensure optimum utilisation of the cold store space, including efficient
stock rotation and up-to-date recording of all relevant information.
Where maximum use of storage space, with its inherent cost-savings, is
the first priority even before speed of stacking and retrieval, it can make
sense to stack loads two deep on either side of the stacking aisle. This could
be applied in a long-term cold store or even where product is stored for
more than a week before delivery takes place. It requires a truck with an
extending fork to reach the second layer of racking. If the fork can be
locked when not extended, the truck will also be able to operate in a
conventional single-deep stacking role. When the first-level pallet and rack
beam are off the floor, the truck's low reach leg will be able to pass
underneath, so that the extending forks can reach in to the second-depth
pallet. However if the first-level pallet is resting on the floor, the truck
cannot get flush with the racking. In this situation, the combination of an
extending mast and forks will enable double-deep stacking and retrieval.
Stacking heights of over 10m are possible.
The most efficient use of storage space combined with maximum speed
and efficiency in handling loads is undoubtedly the aim of every company
with temperature-controlled warehouse space.
The system of high-density storage may not suit an intensive order-
picking operation that involves many different product lines but where
appropriate, for example in storing pallets of similar products, this system
can contribute substantially towards minimising total handling costs, as well
as helping to maintain more efficient temperature control. Drive-in racking,
double-deep storage and VNA solutions come into this category. Another
method of servicing high density storage is to use shuttle cars that are
satellites of a host fork-lift truck, connected to it by wire. It means, though,
that for every shuttle unit there must also be a fork-lift truck. Recent
developments in this field have included the introduction of a radio-
controlled module which is operated by remote control from the driver of
the fork-lift truck. With these unit loads stored in specially designed deep
tunnels, a high density of storage is achieved. The system can be operated
by any type of fork-lift truck; moreover one truck and one driver can service
several units at the same time. The radio-controlled shuttle unit with its
load is directed on rails to the furthest storage location available in the
tunnel, with a load retrieved in the same way.
As regards construction standards of fork-lift trucks, the European
Union's Truck Directive was supplanted on July 1st 1995 by a very
broadly based Machinery Safety Directive. Manufacturers already
complying with the former will automatically comply with the Machinery
Directive which became mandatory on January 1st 1996.
10.4 Lifecycle cost-efficiency
The aim of any materials handling operation must always be the highest
possible cost efficiency. This entails detailed planning from the very start,
with an analysis of total lifecycle costs expressed as the average cost per
annum over the life of the operation. These costs will include the cost of
capital equipment, the operating costs of services and energy, and the cost
of the labour force. Productivity will depend on selecting the right materials
handling solution, overall systems planning and the performance of the
mechanical handling equipment itself. A direct comparison of totallifecycle
costs and handling capacity and productivity will provide the ultimate meas-
urement of the cost per job done, i.e. of a pallet handled or of an item order
picked.
A major cost and efficiency factor in all of this is the productivity of the
fork-lift truck driver. Independent research has shown that savings in driver
costs are the most significant contribution in reducing overall handling costs
in a cold store. The ability to increase productivity expressed as work/man
hours is therefore a key to greater cost efficiency in any controlled-
temperature handling situation. For example, it has been found that of total
lifecycle costs for a typical materials handling operation, fork-lift trucks
account for 10-25%, maintenance including energy for 5-15%, and driver
costs for up to 70%. A 20% saving in warehouse maintenance costs may
influence totallifecycle costs by only 1-3%. A saving of 20% in the capital
cost of trucks saves only 2-5% overall but a 20% saving in driver costs
(productivity of driver plus truck) can save up to 16% in totallifecycle costs.
Even allowing for the much higher energy costs in operating a cold store,
any savings that can be made in driver costs will have a very significant
effect in reducing overall costs.
Choosing the best storage and handling solution is, of course, extremely
important. The first step, however, in ensuring driver cost savings is to
decide on the optimum number of trucks and drivers required. Other
factors with a direct bearing on truck operating costs include battery chang-
ing facilities, dimensions and weight of loads, dimensions of the building,
and an optimum route plan to minimise handling time (this can be en-
hanced by on-board electronic communication systems).
The most decisive influence on fork-lift truck handling capacity and
therefore on operating costs is truck and driver performance. Performance
should be firmly wedded not only to the quality of materials and technical
engineering in the truck's construction but also to the essential ergo no my
of its design. This has a direct effect on the driver's work rate. It is
also an established fact that RSI is a major cause of driver absenteeism.
Ergonomic truck design therefore plays a major role in eliminating this
possibility as well as ensuring driver health, safety, comfort and operational
ease.
There are logistics planning systems available today that, with the aid
of appropriate software, can analyse the optimum requirement of a
particular materials handling operation and compare different pallet-
handling and order-picking solutions. The next step is calculation of
handling capacities that can be achieved, with a projection of totallifecycle
costs for different solutions. Detailed information is made available,
for example the number of single-cycle pallet movements, number of
double-cycle pallet movements, work cycles per transfer in a VNA cold
store, the time a truck spends in the storage area and in travelling to another
part of the cold store, etc. With the input of other vital information, it is
possible to predict the exact numbers and types of fork-lift trucks required
to service an operation and to achieve the volume of materials flow that is
needed.
10.5 Case studies
Optimum utilisation of energy-consuming low-temperature storage space,

speed in all handling operations including entering and exiting the cold/chill
store, stacking, retrieval and order picking are some of the demands that
have to be met by mechanical handling equipment in this unfriendly work-
ing environment. The demands put on truck and driver are correspondingly
heavy. Trucks must be of the highest quality in design and construction.
Drivers should be well-trained, alert and knowledgeable about the capabili-
ties of their vehicles, the characteristics of the working environment and the
perishable nature of the products they are handling.
There is great diversity in controlled-temperature operations. An excel-
lent example of big-volume frozen foods handling, storage, order picking
and distribution is that of Iceland Frozen Foods' operation from its head
office and cold store at Deeside, Clwyd. This big hub operation handles well
over 1000 pallet loads of frozen foods daily in and out of the Deeside cold
stores, delivering to Iceland retail stores throughout the northern half of the
UK. Much of the product is in the cold store for only two to three days, with
very little product being there for longer than seven to ten days.
Pallet loads are received at 14 enclosed docking ports and unloaded from
reefer trailers onto the loading bank by electrically powered ride-on pallet
trucks. In this materials handling operation, ride-on pallet trucks are used
to ensure a constant flow to and from the -23°C low-temperature cold
chambers.
Before going into store, all pallet loads are quality control checked,
temperature probes being inserted between product cartons. The pallet
load is scanned and its bar-code reading is input on the cold store 'map'.
Enclosed-cab high-lift reach trucks, as many as 11 at peak, equipped with
radio data terminals for receipt and transmission of instructions, stack the
pallets in five-high adjustable pallet racking or pick modules which are com-
posed of four-high, two-deep live storage racking. This live storage racking
is fed by reach trucks at the back face; the pallets roll forward for order
picking at the front face. Each pick face has the facility to indicate order
quantity and acknowledge cases picked in this paperless 'pick to belt' opera-
tion. Conveyors take products through a series of accumulation conveyors
and merge systems before passing through a sorting system that individually
sorts and completes the 'shopping list' for each retail store delivery. The
palletised loads are then shrink-wrapped ready for pick-up by ride-on pallet
trucks to load on to controlled-temperature vehicles for final delivery.
Another example of fast turnround of frozen foods is the cold store
hub operation of Brake Bros (Frozen Foods) Ltd at Hemsworth near
Pontefract. This is one of three hub sites operated by this major supplier to
the catering trade. From each of these distribution centres, frozen products
and convenience foods are distributed to some 30 satellites for onward
delivery to customers: hotels, hospitals, restaurants and the like.

Hemsworth, with approximately 1000 pallet locations, acts as both a hub
delivering to satellites and a satellite for the immediate area.
At Hemsworth frozen products are off-loaded from controlled-
temperature trailers to a loading bank held at +2 to +4°C by seven cold store
protected powered pallet trucks. Pallet loads are taken into one of two cold
store chambers at -23°C: both these chambers are equipped with powered
mobile racking. Other pallet loads enter the loading bank on a conveyor
system from an adjoining vegetable processing plant at the rate of 29
pallets/hour. Pallet loads are stacked five-high in one chamber (lifting to
8.5 m beam level, with overall product storage height of 10m). In the second
chamber, they are stacked six pallets high, with lift height of 1O.5m and
product storage height of 12 m. This operation is performed by six high-lift
narrow-aisle reach trucks. Other pallet loads are deposited in a break bulk
area for order picking. Each cold chamber has three picking aisles 2.8 m
wide for lift truck access and a cantilever overhang to accommodate a
further 100 bulk pallet spaces. Pallet loads for dispatch are retrieved by the
narrow aisle reach trucks and loaded via the pedestrian-guided powered
pallet trucks on to controlled-temperature rigid distribution vehicles or
semi-trailers.
The powered mobile racking has a safety kick-bar at its base to stop the
racking moving when accidentally touched. This bar can be damaged when
a fork-lift truck goes flush with the racking to stack or retrieve a pallet.
Designing the truck forks' carriage to be mounted 100mm further forward
has given the extra clearance needed at ground level. Chassis modifications
have also ensured absolute stability of the truck.
Market demand has led to an increase in the number of frozen food
product lines handled by Brake Bros, as well as growth in the total volume
handled. This means more order picking and more sorting at the hub
operations. The advantage of very narrow aisle racking in these circum-
stances would be in the extra number of pallets, and therefore product lines,
accommodated. Aisle width could be reduced to 1.6 m, perfectly suited to
very narrow-aisle fork-lift truck operation. Enclosing the truck cab, with
radio data communication between driver and cold store office, can also
increase productivity.
In the handling of large volumes of fresh produce and chilled products, as
experienced by Wincanton Limited, one of the UK's leading distributors,
speed in order picking and assembly is critical at both distribution hub and
retailer regional distribution centre. Hundreds of order-picking trucks may
be required to ensure the efficient unloading, sortation, order picking and
loading at one large distribution centre. With produce handling tempera-
tures of +7 to +8°C, dairy products at 0 to +5°C and cooked and fresh meats
at 0 to +2°C there may not be a requirement for cold store converted trucks.
However, in a multi-temperature operation such as a retailer's regional
distribution centre, cold store converted trucks are a must. It should be

borne in mind that, depending again on the nature of the operation, most
cold stores are at an air temperature down to -30°C. However, as long as
product temperature does not rise above -18°C in transit, this conforms to
UK and EU regulations and ensures complete product safety.
10.6 Ergonomics
Operating in very low temperatures in a harsh environment places great

strain on both the fork-lift truck and its driver. The very nature of the
operation handling perishable foods also demands a high rate of productiv-
ity and therefore a combination of speed plus efficiency. To achieve this in
these working conditions, the driver's comfort, safety and ease in control-
ling every manoeuvre are of paramount importance. Maximum work out-
put allied to minimum fatigue and risk of RSI are accordingly integral to the
design and function of every new fork-lift truck feature. This is now recog-
nised as a key area in cost-effective cold store operations. Driver costs, it
must be remembered, are the biggest single item in the total life cycle cost of
the complete operation and RSI is known to be one of the most frequent
causes of absenteeism. Operator skills and proper driver training are there-
fore very important. It has been estimated that 30% of maintenance costs
are directly attributable to driver error, poor training or driver abuse of
truck, equipment or stock.
Truck design therefore has a major influence on productivity levels in a
cold store. Not only should it take excessive strain out of all the driver's
actions, it must also help to make the truck's operations even more effec-
tive. In other words, it will apply ergonomy to every aspect of driver and
truck activity. Some of these design features will include easy-to-reach and
-operate hand controls that can be positioned exactly for height, rake and
lateral distance from the driver's body, a cab seat and pedals that are fully
adjustable for individual driver comfort, an easily read instrument panel
with perhaps the added feature of digital display indicating direction of
travel, condition of battery and warning signals, clear all-round visibility,
and low noise level (Figure lOA). Driver back and neck strain have long
been associated with fork-lift truck operations so anything that can lessen
the strain in lifting to progressively greater heights will make a valuable
contribution to driver well-being and operational efficiency. Examples of
this are an electronic height indicator or a truck cab that automatically tilts
after a certain lift height has been reached. Cameras mounted at fork level
and linked to in-cab monitors will help in achieving pinpoint accuracy. This
degree of close control and manoeuvrability is particularly valuable in the
cold store environment.
Electronics can bring other ergonomic benefits: for example, in taking
Figure 10.4 Ergonomic driver controls.
virtually all the effort out of steering, including a 3600 turn. The number of
steering turns needed for any manoeuvre can also be made automatically
adjustable to the speed of travel. The same effortless electronic operation
can be applied to the steering arm or wheel on, for example, a low-level
order-picking truck. Electronically controlled forks will give deadline accu-
racy in positioning without noticeable effort by the driver. Steering, accel-
eration and speed can all be programmed by an on-board microcomputer
and associated electronics to suit different handling and storage situations.
Everything, in fact, can be designed so that the driver will be able to give
total attention to the exacting job of handling loads in low-temperature
conditions.
Truck cabs, including enclosed and heated cabs, are now more spacious
and incorporate numerous features for driver comfort and safety. Every-
thing is, or should be, within easy reach: controls, storage compartments,
hi-fi system and on-board computer terminals. When fatigue is minimised,
productivity will increase, and unit handling costs will decrease, without
extra pressure being put on the driver.
First-class driver training programmes are fundamental for cost-efficient
and safe fork-lift truck operation in the controlled-temperature environ-
ment. They must also include on-going instruction on new models and
equipment. Basic rules will be second nature to an experienced driver; for
example, always looking in the direction of travel, having forks of reach and
counter-balance trucks tilted and 15 cm above ground level when moving,
reducing travel speed on wet or slippery surfaces, being constantly alert for
overhead obstructions, never carrying passengers and, of course, ensuring
that the charger is off when connecting or disconnecting batteries. It is
important to avoid condensation from freezing on a truck working in and
out of a cold store so when not actually at work, it should remain outside the
cold store chamber.
The ergonomically designed fork-lift truck operated by a properly
trained and well-motivated driver is undoubtedly the best guarantee of
maximum productivity in a well-planned materials handling operation.
10.7 Communications
Handling, storage and distribution instructions and records in today's per-

ishable food supply chain now rely far less on pages and pages of paper-
work. They depend to a very great extent on information technology and
the continuous electronic data interchange (EDI) of information between
supplier, distributor and retailer. This helps to reduce handling time and
increases accuracy and efficiency in all sectors of the distribution chain.
Operations are speeded up and costs reduced. Response to market demand
becomes almost immediate.
In terms of a cold store's mechanical handling operations, technology has
led to the introduction of on-board control and information systems for
fork-lift trucks, ensuring greater speed and accuracy in pallet storage and
retrieval. Voice communication by radio is now used to a much lesser
extent. The convenience of a two-way speaker system is often employed,
however, to communicate with the driver of an enclosed-cab truck.
On-board control and information systems consist of radio data terminals
on the truck, one or more mobile units, establishing a two-way communica-
tion link via a base station with the host computer. This enables drivers both
to request and receive movement information and instructions from the
host computer, which holds details of each product and pallet location in
t~le cold store. The on-board units comprise powerful microcomputers,
robust keyboard and message display screen, and can be used in conjunc-
tion with bar-code readers and label printers to identify the pallet load,
even from an enclosed cab.
In practice, this means that the host computer is advised of each pallet's
contents after off-loading at the cold store. Exact instructions on the most
suitable location in the cold store chamber are relayed to the fork-lift truck
driver via an in-cab visual display unit. With the task completed, the driver
then requests further instructions. If a pallet is to be removed or order-
picking is required, the computer will select the most suitable stock and
again relay instructions to the fork-lift truck driver where to retrieve an
appropriate pallet load for order-picking or conveyance to the loading
bank. Time spent by the truck in transit is therefore minimised, with
optimisation of productivity and cost-effectiveness. The driver is also
spared the frustration and sometimes wasted effort in seeking a correct
pallet location.
In this way, a complete and up-to-date record is kept, and immediately
available, of store occupancy and turnround. Cold store space is utilised to
the best advantage, with proper stock rotation and accurate information
recorded for management use. Appropriate software packages are avail-
able for this purpose.
Still on the theme of 'imparting instructions', it is also a fact that today's
cold store fork-lift truck driver is in very much closer command of the
machine than ever before. Electronic controls and the accompanying ease
of operation have fine-tuned communication between driver and machine
to create the most effective and flexible combination possible. In the right
conditions, risk, mistakes and fatigue are seldom experienced and produc-
tivity is greatly enhanced.
10.8 Rental benefits
Long-term rental of key equipment is a concept that has become estab-

lished in many industries. Its advantages for the client company include
predictable costs, avoidance of asset depreciation as well as the problem of
final disposal, and the freedom to concentrate exclusively on core business
matters. Perhaps less well-known are the added benefits that can accrue by
renting direct from the equipment's actual supplier. With the cold store
fork-lift truck this can bring even greater peace of mind.
A voidance of unscheduled downtime is a major preoccupation of every
cold store manager. Absolute reliance on the fork-lift trucks used in the
cold store's materials handling operations is therefore essential. This means
that correct servicing and maintenance must be carried out regularly and
on time and that replacement, or additional, vehicles are immediately
available. The supplier is expert in these matters and therefore in the best
position to provide direct, immediate and knowledgeable service back-up
and appropriate spare parts. The supplier has a vested interest in ensuring
that the equipment is the best available, operates to maximum efficiency at
all times and that service standards are of the highest order. Both the
supplier's good name and retention of the client's business are at stake.
It is important to think carefully before entering any form of rental
agreement. For example, a leasing agreement is normally made with a
finance company, not with the equipment's supplier. The equipment's suit-
ability and on-going operational efficiency are therefore not of prime con-
cern to the leasing company. Moreover it is important to make sure that any
long-term rental agreement is a genuine one; again, preferably with the
original supplier rather than a finance house. The agreement should always
include service support as part of the contract. This is not always the case.
Payments by the customer should be fully inclusive and not dependent, for
example, on levels of truck utilisation. All servicing and spare parts should
be included for a predictable monthly charge regardless of the level of
normal usage. Trucks can be held 'off-balance sheet', with all payments
being tax-deductible. It should also be possible to accommodate changes in
a customer's requirement during the agreed rental term. If a charge has to
be added, it will be an advantage when this can be spread over the rest of
the term to be run. In the same way, when a contract has to be terminated
early, the supplier's charge for this is usually lower than with a standard
leasing agreement.
Many years of dealing with the requirements of the cold storage industry
enable lift truck suppliers with rental schemes to anticipate the need, for
example, to undertake regular service visits at times that suit the customer's
own schedules. Breakdowns can be dealt with rapidly and efficiently, and
there are no problems in immediate machine replacement. First-hand
knowledge of equipment developments will ensure upgrading as and when
necessary. Repairs due to bad handling or similar causes do not normally
result in truck replacement but other guarantees on speed and efficiency of
service, regularity of preventative maintenance and replacement for genu-
ine reasons are usually included in the best supplier rental packages. In
certain circumstances an engineer of the supply company can be based
permanently on-site. It pays, in other words, to rent from companies that
understand the equipment as well as the finance!
10.9 The future
The shared interest of cold store fork-lift truck manufacturers and their
customers in putting to use valuable design and development lessons
learned from operating practice is probably the best assurance of future
technological innovation, as are the constantly changing conditions in which
perishable foods are stored, handled and distributed. Quicker turnround,
more product lines, lower stock-holding levels, faster and more efficient
distribution, and minimising of handling costs are all already happening. In
the world of food manufacture, processing, cold store operation and distri-
bution to caterers, wholesalers and retailers this tempo of change will
probably increase. This holds no fears for companies with continuous re-
search and development programmes and the ability to put them into
practice because an effective and cost-efficient engineering solution will
always be found to any truck or handling problem in a controlled-
temperature environment. Less predicable are new regulatory measures, on
truck design, driver conditions, food handling practice and the environ-
ment, that governments may in the future introduce. The technical solution
will never be a problem but the circumstances in which it will operate are
harder to foresee.
The endless variety of materials handling operations, involving different
products and load configurations, mixed storage, widely differing supply
chain time-cycles, building shapes and operating conditions, are a very good
reason why cold store specification trucks will always give the most flexible
and adaptable solution - driver plus machine still provides the widest range
of materials handling possibilities!
11 Vehicle movement and loading bay design
A.K. THOMSON
11.1 Introduction
This chapter considers the overall requirements for efficient, safe and
smooth handling of vehicles on cold store sites. The general conclusion is
that, whatever regimes and layouts are adopted on the site as a whole, the
loading bays should be subject to a 'total package' design approach, thus
obtaining the optimum conditions for operational efficiency, safety and a
fast turnround of vehicles. The 'coming together' of vehicles and ware-
houses, of all types, is not a new requirement and, over the years, design and
development of equipment for bridging between them (and protecting that
bridge) have progressed as rapidly as the other technologies involved in
specialist warehousing.
The refrigerated facilities in the logistics chain have always had their own,
unique, problems, the major one being the deleterious effect of ambient
air that may enter, with the goods, into the temperature-controlled area.
Apart from the obvious heat load that this imposes on the refrigeration
plant, the secondary effect of moisture precipitation is, perhaps, the most
troublesome.
It is rare, nowadays, for the interface between vehicle and cold store to be
into areas that are maintained below freezing point. Most loading and
unloading docks are held at around +soC and provided with a significant
level of cooling. This is a technique that has developed to achieve two main
objectives:
• To remove a major heat load before it reaches the low-temperature
regime (where power costs are higher per unit of refrigeration).
• To 'dry out' the loading dock in order to avoid condensation and the
associated hygiene and safety risks of wet floors and other surfaces. This
requirement will be considered in more detail, after the requirements of
getting the vehicles to the dock have been discussed.
11.2 Vehicle movement
In planning the loading and unloading of vehicles, at any warehouse, design

responsibility starts with the provision of suitable roadways and associated
access as soon as the vehicles reach the boundary of the site. Access roads
must be planned to minimise the chances of accidents and provide adequate
waiting areas, safe and clear routes for pedestrians, visitor access and a
secure (perhaps monitored) staff route between workplace and staff car
park. Consideration should also be given to the provision of safe and easy
access for disabled staff and visitors.
Staff and visitors traffic, depending on the number of shifts worked, tends
to impose only a few movements per day but heavy vehicles may be arriving
and departing over working days that are effectively 24 hour operations.
For this reason, it is common to separate these traffic patterns by placing all
private car parking outside the security perimeter and confining the on-site
traffic to the load-carrying vehicles.
Access requirements to any site must take into account:
• Type and size of vehicles
• Traffic flow on the public roads leading to the site
• Type of public road, i.e. single carriageway or dual carriageway
• Pedestrian access
• Local authority restrictions
Regarding the latter point, there is increasing pressure in the UK from local
authorities for vehicles waiting to be 'booked-in' to be accommodated
within the site boundary and not to be parked on adjacent estate roads. This
has led to site layouts where the security gate is placed well into the site, on
the circulation road around the buildings.
Mention of the circulation road around the buildings brings a fundamen-
tal point to mind. Before going on to consider detailed requirements of
roadways, etc., it is well worth considering an extremely elementary aspect
that (perhaps because it is so elementary) is often missed.
Because of their inherent safety, 'one-way' systems around warehousing
sites are now the norm, vehicles are booked in, given destinations at load-
ing/unloading docks, and sent on their way into a circulatory system that
will, ultimately, bring them back to the exit from the site without significant
changes of direction or cross-traffic problems.
The choice between clockwise or anticlockwise circulation is seldom
given much thought in planning the overall layout of a site, perhaps existing
entrances are accepted without question, or 'architectural' appearance is
the starting point, but it is an unfortunate fact that many sites are bedevilled
with the wrong direction in their one-way system.
In countries with right-hand drive vehicles (such as the UK), a clockwise
circulation around the site means that, when reversing onto a loading port,
the driver has a clear view of the port from his cab. Approaching from the
other direction, however, he needs to either use his mirrors (slow and
inaccurate) or swing out at right angles to the dock and then reverse under
visual control. Obviously, the reverse applies in countries with left-hand
VEHICLE MOVEMENT 317
~,)/ (JI--I~
~£:~g -::- •..•. . i
I ~
:1
Apron
47 m (155 It)'"
Figure 11.1 Diagram showing relative manoeuvring space for berthing from clockwise and
anti-clockwise traffic movement. Right-hand drive vehicles shown, i.e. UK.
drive vehicles, where anticlockwise circulation is the optimum. This may

seem academic at first glance, but just a minute or two in placing a vehicle
accurately at its designated port is multiplied during peak periods to the
point where congestion occurs for no apparent reason.
Gates and approaches to roadways

The recommended minimum widths at gates are:
4.9m (16') for one-way traffic
8.5 m (28') for two-way traffic
lO.4m (34') if pedestrian passage is included.
A 'Y'-type connection to public roads may be acceptable if a single access

point to the site is necessary, although the waiting area, security gates, staff
car park, visitors' facilities, etc. may have to be configured to suit this simple
arrangement.
Roadway surfaces
Roadways within the site should be evenly laid and structurally sound for
the heavy loads imposed by concentrated use of vehicles with wheel loads
that reflect axle loadings up to (at present) lOtonnes. This may mean that
roadways within a site are specified to higher standards than the trunk roads
that serve them. This should not inhibit the design of site facilities. It may be
acceptable for the trunk road that serves the depot to be coned-off whilst
repairs take place but no such leeway exists within the site. Trucks must
move.
Internal truck roads should be slightly 'crowned' and provided with

drained outlets. Maintenance routines should guard against development of
ruts and pot-holes as these irregularities can cause damage to both products
and vehicles.
Roadway width
A one-way system around a site (as preferred) requires a roadway minimum
width of some 3.67m (12'). However, if a two-way system is unavoidable,
the roadway width will increase to 7.32m (24') plus a painted centreline and
a pedestrian lane with a physical barrier; all of this may total 8.5 m (28').
Turning circles
Normally articulated vehicles can turn through 1800 in less than a 10m
radius. Fully loaded trailers, however, are far from stable (even at low
speeds) and it is better to design on outside bends of 15 m radius. This
limitation also keeps the costs of maintenance (tyres, suspensions and road
surface) down to practical levels.
Traffic control
A site speed limit should be clearly displayed at all times. Incoming vehicles
should have a waiting area designated in the approach lane(s) to the docks.
The waiting area will be sized by an estimate of the worst case scenario,
assuming programmed deliveries (or scheduled dispatches) falling out of
sequence with the availability of loading/unloading berths. This estimate
can only be based upon the historic, or projected, activities of the site.
The loading/unloading area

The loading/unloading area (the 'apron') is directly in front of the loading/
unloading platform (the 'dock') and these terms will be used here.
The apron should extend a minimum of 16.75 m (55') in front of the dock
and 1 m (3') each side of the dock. It is common for the apron to be
concreted but if asphalt is used, a concrete strip should be laid to support
the steel bogey wheels of uncoupled trailers. Such a strip should start 7.9m
(26') from the dock and extend to 9.8m (38') from it.
To assist accurate positioning of vehicles to the loading ports, yellow
guide lines may be painted on the apron to approximately 9m (30') from the
dock face. Steel wheel guides and yellow painted bollards are further assis-
tance to accurate vehicle positioning.
Provision should be made for drivers to have easy access to the loading
bay area. Steel ladders, or concrete steps, with a safety tread and handrails
should be placed at each end of the dock or, in the case of long docks, at
every fifth vehicle port. These access steps should be painted in bright safety
colours or coding.
During winter months provision must exist for the rapid removal of ice
and snow from the apron and disposal of melt water. Adequate lighting
should be provided to the whole apron area, as longer working hours will
extend to the hours of darkness.
Side-loading versus end-loading

Although curtain-sided vehicles and trailers are still in use, their usefulness
remains confined to the reception and despatch of single (or few) pallets,
where access to mid-points in the load is essential and temperature control
is not a requirement. A major problem with side-loading, even for dry
goods, is the space needed at each side for the fork-lift trucks. Two end-
loading vehicles can be positioned in the space required for one side-
loading trailer. Unless there is a specific need for single-pallet retrieval,
side-unloading should be avoided if possible. This trend towards end-load-
ing is recognised by the vehicle body builders, who now make curtain-sided
vehicles and trailers that also have full-sized end doors.
It is obvious that the requirements of temperature-controlled distribution
mean that few goods can be transported in, or handled from, curtain-sided
vehicles and the end-loading, rigid, vehicle (trailer or container), with its
own refrigeration system, is the norm for which loading/unloading docks
should be designed in the cold storage industry.
From what has been stated so far in this chapter, a well-conceived cold
storage depot should expect to have:
• Easy access from public roads, followed by
• On-site waiting area, followed by
• Registration, and introduction to
• A one-way circulation system, giving the drivers a clear view of
• A substantial, well-marked, apron and loading/unloading dock
Now we must consider the loading/unloading berths themselves and look
to the specific needs of temperature-controlled operations. It may be that
deliveries of different products are required at different points on the
building periphery but it is most common that dispatch (even of composite
loads) is made from a single dock area, as this simplifies checking and order
build-up. All such berths and docks, wherever positioned, are subject to the
same design criteria.
Dock width
Today's inter-city (trunker) vehicles are 2.5 m (8') wide and, even though
many drivers are capable of positioning their vehicles within close toler-
ances, the cost of mistakes (damaged hinges, sprung doors, scratches and
damage to the ports themselves) is an important on-cost to the operations

of the depot and logistics chain. The centres of loading ports, for today's
trunkers, should not be less than 3.76m (12') with 4.27m (14') as a desirable
mean. A centre of less than the minimum will certainly impose serious
operational penalties.
Flush loading bays

Most refrigerated facilities built today place the outside wall of the loading
dock flush with the face of the loading platform, thus sharing a common
foundation or ring beam. This places the insulated doors close to the pe-
riphery of the building and requires only the port seals to project into the
apron area. If these port seals are weathertight, the expense of large over-
head canopies is avoided.
The approach to loading ports

If it is possible, the approach road to the apron should fall gradually around
the site so that, on arrival at the apron, vehicles are not required to reverse
down an incline to the ports. If this is impossible, due to site constraints, a
sloping apron is inevitable. This brings its own problems.
Gradients should never exceed 1: 10. Should a gradient approach this
figure in areas where ice or snow may reduce traction, the apron should be
heated by the use of electric cables or warm water pipes (perhaps using
waste heat from the refrigeration plant) embedded in the concrete of the
apron. Apart from the traction problems in severe weather, a sloping apron
introduces other problems at the interface with the building and in me-
chanical handling of the goods carried. Dock seals, buffers at the vehicle
deck and dock levellers can be arranged to compensate for a sloping apron
but such design adjustments are just treating the symptoms; it is better not
to have the illness. The cost of land in development areas is such that
manoeuvring space in front of the apron (to allow a level apron and a gentle
slope to the vehicle circulation route) is rarely an option. This is an issue
that is often ignored when projects are initially evaluated.
'Saw-tooth' loading bays

When the distance from the desired loading/unloading platform to the
vehicle circulation route is less than the length of the vehicle to be serviced,
the 'saw-tooth' dock design permits an effective operation. Once again, its
effectiveness depends upon the driver being on the 'right' side of the vehicle
and the clockwise/anticlockwise routing around the site is critical once
more. The optimum angle for saw-tooth docks is 45°; less than this uses too
much space.
Figure 11.2 'Saw-tooth' loading bays. Shown for clockwise (UK) traffic.
11.3 Loading dock height
Even when 'dedicated' vehicles are used for the bulk of operations, the
loading docks will need to accommodate a wide range of vehicle sizes and
shapes. So diverse is the choice of basic vehicles, a depot may be faced with
suppliers' vehicles that represent all of the options available. Flexibility
in acceptance of bed heights is paramount: all docks should be able to
accept any vehicle, the cost in time and administration of diverting certain
suppliers' trucks to 'special' ports is an on-cost that is frequently
overlooked.
The platform level in the loading dock is pre-set by the building design
and this is the obvious starting point. To this working platform all vehicles
are presented and the following points should be noted
• Some vehicles, due to heavy suspensions, large tyres or special floors, will
be above the nominal platform level
• Other vehicles will be below the nominal platform level
• Refrigerated vehicles (even when built onto similar chassis) will be be-
tween 100 and 150mm (4 to 6") higher than standard models
• Containers mounted on standard flat-bed trucks will be even higher
• Because vehicles have road springs, they may be below platform height
when loaded and, as they are unloaded, may rise above platform height
Dock levellers (or adjustable bridges) are used to accommodate these
variations.
For many years now the standard dock height for cold stores has been
accepted as 1370mm (4'6") and this has not changed significantly because
dock levellers have been specified, over the same period, that were able to
accommodate all the vehicle bed heights (and movements) that were pre-
sented to them. However, there is no room for complacency in this respect.
Changes in vehicle design, legal restrictions, international standards and
green issues may influence future vehicle dimensions. New stores should
have some flexibility to ensure that loading/unloading systems are not ren-
dered obsolete in a few years: time.
The bridging incline

Recent European standards recommend that dock levellers should provide
working inclines not greater than ±l2.5% (7°). This may be taken as a
starting point for dock leveller design.
Steep inclines increase the work loads on personnel and mechanical
handling equipment alike. Powered pallet trucks will require more mainte-
nance and the energy consumed will increase.
11.4 Temperature control
Apart from the need to maintain hygienic conditions whilst handling food-
stuffs, cold stores with refrigerated loading platforms are doubly sensitive
to ambient air ingress as this (for most of the time) has to be cooled down
and de-humidified. Although permanent adjustable dock levellers fit rea-
sonably well into their frames, it is good practice to use weather-seal pit-
edge angles to minimise air ingress via the dock leveller pit. However, the
main cause for concern is the gap that can be created between the rear
doors of the parked vehicle and the door to the loading platform; some kind
of seal must be provided that allows traffic to and from these two doorways
via a 'tunnel' that excludes (as for as possible) ingress of ambient air.
11.5 Buffers, restraints and doors
The reversing vehicle will, sooner or later, impact with its target loading
port and the building structure around it. The means to absorb impact loads
must be part of the port design to ensure that damage to the building or the
permanently installed equipment of the port is avoided. To reduce acci-
dents caused by vehicles departing whilst loading/unloading operations are
continuing, vehicle restraints may be installed.
The final item of the port assembly is the door that forms part of the
insulated enclosure of the refrigerated facility. This door is, usually, of the
vertical lift type and seals at its base onto the dock leveller. The door
operating mechanism should be interlocked with the dock leveller mecha-
nism (if both are powered) to avoid accidental damage caused by raising the
leveller against a closed door.
11.6 Ancilliary eqnipment
In addition to the items mentioned so far a well-designed loading dock

package should include a basic internal/external communication system,
such as red and green stop-go lights for the drivers (operated from inside
the dock) and a port mounted spotlight that can illuminate the vehicle
interior.
11.7 The loading bay as a total package
Before going on to consider the options and designs available for levellers,
seals, buffers, doors, restraints, etc., it should be emphasised that great care
must be taken to ensure that permanently installed equipment at loading
bays is properly selected, compatible, safe and easy to operate.
Once the client requirements are established, and this in itself may need
careful questioning, there are obvious advantages in having the overall
responsibility for a safe, efficient and coordinated loading bay design with a
single and experienced team. It is difficult not to see loading bays as a total
package.
Dock levellers
Dock levellers consist of a steel platform with either a hinged or a telescopic
lip which makes a bridge from the loading dock into the vehicle and, when
not in use, is parked flush with the floor of the dock. The levellers may be
mechanical or hydraulically powered but must be able to 'float' up and
down with the vehicle suspension during loading or unloading and compen-
sate for the side tilt of an unevenly loaded vehicle. In general their rated
working load capacity is around 6000 kg (6 tonnes) but heavier units can be
supplied to special order.
Almost all goods now handled at refrigerated docks are palletised. To
remove or load palletised stock swiftly and safely the operators must have
a good working width of platform to operate both sides of the vehicle.
Narrow dock levellers can be dangerous and cause operators to slow down.
Standard widths are 1.83m, 2m and 2.13m (6', 6'7" and 7')
The length of dock leveller platforms varies from 2.43m (8') to 3.04m
(10') with a normal lip projection of 400mm (1'4") but longer platforms and
lips are available when existing dock heights are too low for an acceptable
gradient. It should be remembered, however, that extending a standard
design may reduce its rated capacity; this should be checked against the
intended mechanical handling equipment.
The original leveller pit design took the loads through the concrete
pit floor and this design is still in use. However, 'top hung' designs are
more common now as they suspend the leveller from integral pit angles
and allow a 'letter box' opening below in which to position a lowered

vehicle tail-lift.
Getting a vehicle close to the buffers is vital, projections from the vehicle
or the building, or just bad reversing, must be taken into account. Badly
positioned vehicles can take away the safe landing protection of the lip
entry into the vehicle. The use of telescopic lips with 600mm to lOOOmm (2'
to 3'3") horizontal moving lIps can overcome such problems.
Special finishes, such as galvanizing, are available where appropriate,
together with anti-skid coatings and (for low-temperature use) foamed
insulation on the underside of the platforms.
Mechanical levellers have platform hold-downlftoat devices, lip lugs, sup-
port legs, maintenance struts, manual return to dock level devices, gravity
fall of lip behind buffers when the vehicle moves off, a night security locking
device and counterbalanced springs to store energy for manual operation.
Hydraulic levellers include much of the same but have push-button opera-
tion, automatic return or push-button return to dock level, a 'panic valve'
device that will halt and fully support the leveller if the vehicle moves away,
an automatically extending lip and a full range of interlocks to other dock
equipment. (Recent European regulations require an emergency stop but-
ton on the control panel for operator use.)
Edge or front-of-dock levellers

On the rare occasions when a cold store needs to handle only a single size
and type of vehicle (fully dedicated fleets), considerable savings in first costs
of levellers and pit construction, and internal space savings, can be made by
the use of edge or front-of-dock levellers. However, they can only cope with
a small variation in bed height and are not suitable for high-speed fork
trucks. As the vehicles park further from the building wall, they also need
extended weather-sealing arrangements.
Dock levellers must never be used outside their vertical operating ranges
or load-carrying capacities, they must be compatible with the loading equip-
ment to be used and tolerant of the ambient conditions inside and outside
the building. To ensure that levellers are correctly specified, the selection
should take into account:
• The required working load capacity

• The full range of vehicle bed heights, including the future possibilities
• Comparison of the required dock leveller working range with the maxi-
mum gradient capability of the loading equipment
• Loading equipment operating speeds
• Loading equipment ground clearances
• Weather conditions at the facility
• Characteristics of each dock leveller type
VEHICL E MOVEMENT 325
Figure 11.3 Typical dock buffer designs.
Seiection of dock buffers

A loaded articulated vehicle weighing just 18000 kg (18 tonnes) and revers-
ing at 1.6kph (Imph) will strike the first dock obstruction at 68000kg
(15 OOOlb) force. This level of shock loading would soon damage a steel-
reinforced concrete loading platform, to say nothing of vehicle and cargo
damage. A well-designed, good quality, buffer with some 100mm (4")
projection could reduce this impact force by 90%.
Buffers may be solid rubber, steel springs or a combination of both.
However, due to the rise and fall of the vehicles on their suspensions and
other factors, it is advisable to seek a simple and robust solution to this
problem that is compatible with the other fixed equipment.
Hydraulic scissor-lift tables

Before going on to consider port seals, we should discuss the use of lift tables
as they too can be installed in much the same way as dock levellers and
would require much the same protection. Although their most obvious use
is to access a vehicle from ground level, where they retract into a pit, lift
tables are increasingly being installed at one of the many loading ports along
the apron of large depots. This allows the safe handling of palletised loads
from the occasional vehicle that may be out of range of the standard dock
levellers. Such an installation would also provide the facility of a goods lift
into the building, avoiding the cost and space needed for a concrete ramp.
Unlike the dock leveller, scissor-lift tables travel vertically upwards or
downwards under hydraulic power, with full-rated loads on their platforms.
A large choice of capacities, platform size and stroke (vertical travel) are
available. Goods, operators and pedestrian trucks are always level during
travel and the only gradient to negotiate is the hinged lip from the platform
into the vehicle. 'Dead man' push-button controls are usually mounted,
flush with the handrails, to enable the operator to inch the table to the
desired level.
Port seals
As stated earlier, refrigerated depots require a higher level of sealing
around the loading ports than dry goods warehouses. These particular
needs, together with the high usage factors of the distribution depots
that form such a significant part of present-day cold storage chains,
have led to the ready acceptance of some designs and the rejection
of others. The following sections define the characteristics of the sealing
systems most commonly applicable to temperature-controlled loading
ports.
Foam dock pads. These consist of open-cell polyurethane foam blocks

bonded to wooden or galvanised steel backings and covered with a coated
industrial fabric, normally black and with a bright guide strip sewn or
welded on the side pads to assist vehicle placement. The pads are mounted
directly onto the building wall at the sides and head of the door to suit the
vehicle configuration.
Side pads are normally 30S mm (1') wide and, for the standard European
maximum vehicle width of 2.S m (8'3"), are placed to provide a maximum
opening width of 2.3 m (7'6").
Head pads may be fixed or height-adjustable. If fixed, their vertical
dimension may vary between the 305 mm of the side pads and twice this
figure, so that different vehicle heights can be accommodated. Adjustable
head pads, although less common, can be used where a wide range of
vehicle heights is expected. Extra heavy wear pleats can be provided on the
side pads to minimise damage caused by abrasion as the vehicle moves on
its suspension during operations. Dock pads can be inclined on the building
face to suit a sloped apron, again to minimise wear.
The projection of dock pads from the face of the building is normally
30S mm (1') and it is vital that a heavy-duty buffer is used with at least a
IS0mm (6") projection. With this type of seal, the building structure must
be strong enough to withstand 600 kg/m2 from compression by the vehicle
reversing onto the buffers. Dock pad assemblies provide less than perfect
seals when local projections exist at the rear of the vehicle (such as 'fold-
back' hinges) and it is usual for short canopies to be installed above them
for weather protection.
Inflatable dock shelters

This type of port seal has grown in popularity for cold store use as the
earlier designs and materials of construction have improved. Their housings
protrude slightly further from the building line and allow the vehicle to be
positioned at the dock without contact with the sealing material. Once the
vehicle is in position, and stationary, the seals at the outer edge of the
Head pad
Insulated
Side pads door
.-/
-- --~-
{" ..
--------7'-, .. -
-",
,
-I"~
.
Hydraulic ---':;~~ - -- -- ,
lip cylinder
(a) (b)
,, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ J ' (c)
Figure 11.4 Loading port assembly with foam pad seals: (a) side elevation, (b) front elevation
and (c) plan.
housing are inflated and close onto the roof and sides of the vehicle. The
major advantages of this design are:
• Abrasion and tearing of the shelter fabric is minimal as interlocks with
other dock systems (doors, traffic lights, restraints, etc.) can ensure that
vehicles do not move in or out when the seal is activated
• The seal to the vehicle is not affected by end protrusions, such as hinges,
or size irregularities
,....•I
Head .
• .• I Outline of
air
bag side air
bags
Insulated
door
.. ~
Support
frame
(a) (b)
" ,
Side air bags -.----tt-

!r:~.~~- .._-----n~~
Outline of head I ....~"··-·---·----·--·~
air bag (c)
Figure 11.5 Loading port assembly with inflatable seals: (a) side elevation, (b) front elevation
and (c) plan.
These shelters are slightly larger than other types as they include internal
housing for the low-pressure fan and space for the automatic deflation and
retraction of air bags. The air bags conform to the shape of the vehicle and,
as the head air bag is under power for drop and retraction, a wide range of
vehicle heights can be accommodated. Typical overall sizes of standard
inflatable shelters are 3.6m wide x 3.6m high, with a 750mm projection into
the apron (11'10" x 11'10" with a 2'6" projection) Refrigerated vehicles with
'fold-back' doors may add 300mm (1') to the effective width onto which the
Figure 11.6 Loading port assembly with combination seals.
side air bags must seal and wider units, at 3.8m (12'6"), are available. These
units increase the width into which the vehicle reverses from 2.9 m to 3.1 m
(9'6" to 10'2")
Combination foam dock pads with inflatable head seal

This arrangement is a useful option when the overall width of the dock seal
must be kept to a minimum but a wide range of vehicle heights is antici-
pated. However, for refrigerated docks, the use of weather-protection cano-
pies may still be required with this configuration.
Vehicle restraints
A significant number of industrial accidents still occur on, or around, load-
ing docks. To minimise the risk of premature departure of a vehicle, whilst
the dock leveller is still in use, or a similar breakdown in communication
between dock operator and driver, a mechanical link between dock and
vehicle can be used.
Vehicle restraints are, mostly, hydraulic and are designed to hook onto
the under-run bar at the rear of the vehicle. Present designs may be
mounted on the reinforced leveller pit wall or, in cases where tail-lift
slots are used, on the apron in front. Designs are under development that
will extend their usage to a wider range of applications, including tail-lift
vehicles.
When connected to a vehicle, restraints can withstand forces up to
13600kg (30000Ib) and may be interlocked with other dock equipment,
lights and an audible alarm to alert personnel if it is not safely attached.
Loading dock doors

Last, but not least, of the major components of an integrated port system
are the doors that close off the refrigerated dock from the ambient air of the
apron. These doors are normally mounted on the inner face of the insulated
panels that line the dock area and are guided vertically to open and close.
If there is height available below the insulated ceiling of the dock, a simple
vertical travel is used but if insufficient height is available an 'up-and-over'
design is used. The latter design requires the doors to be made in horizontal
sections that are flexibly hinged together so that the top sections of the door
can be turned by curved guide tracks to run horizontally below the ceiling
panels.
Whatever principle is used to lift and 'park' the opened door, it is unlikely
that manual operation will be acceptable in a busy depot. Apart from the
time and physical effort involved in manual operations, automatic powered
systems allow the use of electrical interlocks with other port functions that
enhance efficiency and safety. Doors may be made from steel or aluminium
clad sections but they should contain an insulating core that provides a U-
value between 0.4 and 0.2 W/m 2 re and have double-glazed vision panels at
eye level.
11.8 The total package loading bay
As was stated earlier in this chapter, (and perhaps, now, more clearly
understood by the reader) loading bays at refrigerated facilities are a
unique blend of techniques that are condensed into small, but vital, areas.
The vehicle management into and around the site may be optimised, the
reception, holding and retrieval of stock may be perfect, storage and order
assembly may be conducted in ideal conditions and so on, but the total
site efficiency can stand, or fall, on the performance at the loading bays
themselves.
Figure 11.7
A fully integrated loading bay design should encompass all the require-
ments of peak stock movements, environmental control, vehicle character-
istics, mechanical handling equipment and safety regulations, and, at the
same time, provide operatives with a sense of being in safe control of their
workplace.
Automated control of dock levellers, inflatable seals, port doors, vehicle
restraints, traffic lights, etc. means that safety and operational functions can
be given a level of in-built control that reduces operator error and increases
security. A single composite control panel at each port can sequence opera-
tions, override faulty inputs, display status, provide communication to ex-
ternal drivers, show alarm warnings and contain a key-operated override
for manual control; the whole being tailor-made for the site, although part
of an integrated package.
Further reading
Euro (draft standard) p.r. EN 1398 Dock Leveller Standard (1996)

Index
Absorption refrigeration 126 Cross docking 47

Access roads 316-17
Acid rain 124 Deep lane storage 102-3
Air cycle refrigeration 127,213 Defrost controls 245
Air infiltration 192 Defrost systems
Alarm systems 253-7 electric 225
Ammonia (NH,) 133 host gas 226
ATP agreement, the 51 reverse cycle 227
Automatic doors 198, 260 water 227
Distribution depots, see Regional
Bar coding 96 distribution centres
Binary ice 128 Distribution vehicles 47
Block stacking 7-8, 270 Dock levellers 36, 321, 323
'Breather bags' 298
Brine 136 Electricity tariffs 240, 241, 262
Building construction Electronic data interchange (EDI) 44, 93,
codes of practice 5 311
general 3 Electronic point of sale systems
insulation 167-73 (EPOS) 34, 95
Emergency lighting 252
Carbon dioxide Energy conservation 138, 140
control of 84 Ethylene 58
measurement of 79 measurement of 81
as a refrigerant 129, 235 removal of 76
removal 73 Eutectic plates 50
as a secondary refrigerant 136 Expanded polystyrene (EPS) 150-1,171
solid 31 Expansion bags 62, 64
Carbon scrubbers 74 Extruded polystyrene 151
Carcass meat 8, 9
Carousels 107 Fire performance (of insulated
Case handling 105, 112 panels) 188
Construction (Design and Management) Fire exits 209
Regulations, (CDM) 131,233 see also Emergency lighting
Chamber layout 4, 11 Flo-ice 136
see also Racked layouts Fork lift trucks
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 119 counterbalanced 23, 300
Clean earths 238 heated cabs 299
Coefficient of performance (COP) 221-3 leasing of 313
Cold store 'pull-down' times 178 lifecycle costs 306
Combined heat and power (CHP) narrow aisle 300
systems 127, 215, 240 pedestrian 22, 300
Compressors reach 24,38,302
rotary 215, 230 rental 312
variable speed 141,231 ride-on 23, 300
Condensers, selection of 144 tilt cab 303
Controlled atmosphere 57, 61 turret 38
Controlled ventilation 57 Framework Convention on Climate
Cork board 153 Change 124
Corner posts 9, 271 Freezing frames 19
INDEX 333
Freezing meat 28 Organochlorines 124

Freight Transport Association (FT A) 51 Oxygen
Frost heave 35, 173, 260 control 83
Fuzzy logic 232 measurement 78
removal 69
Gas storage 56 Ozone depletion 115,234
Glass fibre 154
Glass fibre reinforced plastics (GRP) 50, Packaging 27,42-3
207 Pallet
Global warming 115 converters 17, 271
Global warming potential (GWP) 117,234 disposable 16
Goalposts to cold store doors 181, 203 frames 11
Greenhouse effect 116 location systems 25
posts 17, 271
Hand stacking 6 racking
Heat load 212 damage 287
Heat recovery 138,143 narrow aisle (NAPR) 274
High density dynamic storage very narrow aisle (VNAPR) 273
(HDDS) 93, 98, 113 wide aisle adjustable (APR) 274
High voltage power supplies 240 see also Racking systems
Humidity 67 standard 16
measurement 81 strapping 18
Hydraulic seals 297 Palletainers 20-1
Hydrocarbons 130, 235 Panels, insulated
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) 119, composite 158
122,234 continuous laminated 157
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) 120, 124,235 foam injected 159
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) 120
Induction loops 202, 261 Phenolic foam 153
Insulation thicknesses 183 Plate heat exchangers 232
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Polyurethane foam (PU) 150,193
Change 115 Polyurethane foam, rigid, (PUR) 152
Power factor correction 262
'Just-in-Time' (JIT) systems 32,42,45,97, Pressure relief valves (sotre) 160
295 Pressure swing adsorbtion 71
Primary distribution 2, 45
Lighting 41, 143,248-53 Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) 242
Loading bays 'Push/Pull' supply chains 32, 94-5
buffers 322, 325
dock width 319 Rack entry modules 14, 102
doors 330 Racked layouts 273-88
gradients 320 Racking systems
port seals 326 drive-in 14,277
'saw tooth' 320 live 14,270,280
mobile 13, 270, 281
Machine in aisle 108 push back 109,270,283
Meat carcasses 19,28 standards 265
Mechanization 6 static 11-12,270,281
Membrane separators 71-2 Refrigeration (C.A. stores) 66
Microprocessors 84, 229, 232 Regional distribution centres (RDCs) 2,
Mixed unit loads 98 29,33-6,295
Modified atmosphere 57 Regulations and standards, see individual
Monopropylene glycol 136 specialist chapters
Montreal Protocol 213 Repetitive strain injury (RSI) 302, 309
Multi-compartment vehicles 51 Respiration rates 68, 69
Roadways 317-18
Nitrogen flushing 59, 75
Non-condensible gas purgers 144 Scissor-lift tables 325
'Not-in-kind' (NIK) refrigerants 120, 125 Secondary distribution 2
334 INDEX
Silicone oil 136 Traffic

'Smart' conveyors 106-7 circulation 316
'Smart' systems 100-1 control 318
Stacker cranes 15 flow 6
see also Machine in aisle Transcritical refrigeration 130
Stacking materials 22
Standby power generation 261 Ultra low oxygen 57
Stock records and control 25, 26 Underfloor heating 173-7,260
Stocktaking 27 Unmanned plant rooms 229
Store leakage (CA) 65 Uninteruptible power supply (UPS)
Supervisory control and data acquisition 262
(SCADA) packages 243, 246 Unit loads 110, 113,266
Tail lifts 49, 324 Vapour barriers 164

Temperature glide 118 Vapour compression refrigeration 214
Thawing 29 Vapour seals 161-3
Thermal bowing 164 Variable speed compressors 141,231
Thermographic scanning 191 Vehicle sockets 258-9
Third party operations 2, 39
Total equivalent warming impact Waste heat 222
(TEWI) 118, 234 Water as a refrigerant 128

M. Young (Auth.), Clive v. J. Dellino (Eds.) - Cold and Chilled Storage Technology-Springer US (1997)

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M. Young (Auth.), Clive v. J. Dellino (Eds.) - Cold and Chilled Storage Technology-Springer US (1997)

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Cold and Chilled Storage Technology

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CLIVE V.J. DELLINO

London· Weinheim . New York· Tokyo· Melbourne· Madras

1 The cold storage chain 1

3 Automated cold stores 93

Vertical and deep-lane handling 112

5 Store insulation 147

5.3 Insulation materials 151

6 Cold store doors 192

6.5 Controls 201

7 Refrigeration plant 211

8 Electrical installations 238

Standby power 261

9 Racking systems 264

10 Mechanical handling 295

11 Vehicle movement and loading bay design 315

Hydraulic scissor-lift tables 325

David Bishop David Bishop Instruments Ltd, Station Road,

delay the movement, or positioning, of vehicles that serve it in the areas

Temperature-controlled storage and distribution have become an increas-

1.2 Bulk stores and associated services

developed. Refrigeration systems were, in the main, developed from those

ments that will allow it to accommodate the ever-changing demands placed

Regulations and standards

to 10m. Handling costs and building costs, as well as increased demand

Block stacking. It is generally acknowledged that a system of block

Figure 1.1 Block stack.

Hand-stacking of carcass meat. It is possible to stack carcass meat by hand

Figure 1.2 In-store stows.

Figure 1.3 Special frames.

Figure 1.4 A standard layout with a 6 x 6 pallet module.

Static racks. Racks consist of a steel framework which is built to support

--+t+ - ---+-+-+-1 1---·-

r-- I-- -I--

~ --I-- --I-- I--

Recently, developments in the field of mobile racking have proved that

Rack entry module. A rack entry module (REM) system consists of a

Figure 1.6 REM system.

warehouse, as described for the REM system installation above. A variety

Quality standards. The pallet base is undoubtedly the most important

Strapping material. The usual type of strapping material used in securing

It is quite usual to find fresh product being frozen either in low-

Figure 1.9 Frame for freezing of hanging carcass meat.

frozen. It should be noted that the frames should be capable of being

Palletainers. It is current practice throughout the world to place vegeta-

Figure 1.10 Palletainer of cardboard, wooden slats and corner posts.

Product inside a palletainer should always be covered to prevent dehy-

Control of stacking materials. The stacking materials form a significant

Fork-lift truck handling equipment (see also Chapter 10)

Pedestrian trucks. A truck operated by a man standing on or walking with

corrugations, which are an integral part of the design of modern refriger-

Counterbalanced trucks. A counterbalanced FLT is a truck where the

Location system. For the efficient working of a cold store, it is necessary

Stock records. The purpose of stock records is to maintain accurate

system. Whichever method is used, it is essential that information on prod-

Stock control. It is generally recognized that in the warehousing industry

ducts quite difficult. Stocktaking should, therefore, be carried out in short

Packaging. Packaging of frozen product is mainly associated with frozen

undertaken, particularly in the field of carcass lamb which is cut up into

1.3 Distribution depots

point of sale were frequently on the same premises. Major producers

Recent developments in food distribution of all types has also been

Another development which arises from the adoption of RDCs, dedi-