L'art du débat 5

RÉSUMÉ

"He may be a man of his word, but she is never

afraid to speak her mind or voice an opinion".
The wealth of English expressions referring to
the act of speaking attests to its importance in
society. Interacting, discussing or arguing are
indeed essential to build all kinds of
relationships between individuals – citizens and
politicians, teachers and students, friends,
lovers and family members. Being able to
choose the best-suited words in order to adapt
to audiences and make one's point clear implies
both sophistication and empathy. Language is
used to convince and persuade, but also to
express feelings, emotions and opinions. The
words people choose show or betray who they
are, for language gives others access to one's
mind and inner world, hence a form of intimacy
between speakers and listeners. As men and
women's common medium to relate to the
world and to one another, language can be a
double-edged thing, though. Using the same
words doesn't always mean speaking the same
language, hence diHculties to communicate
and possible misunderstandings. Finally,
because speaking is also acting, words make
people accountable to others, which involves
respect and trust.

I Powerful speeches
Speaking and debating are essential in
democratic states. Politicians address voters
with speeches and get elected – or not – based
upon what they promised, while citizens express
their discontent with placards, banners and
speeches. Thanks to verbal interaction, ideas are
spread and opinions voiced.

A Convincing political speeches

Whether speakers are addressing audiences or

arguing with other people, their main goal is to
convince or persuade. Interacting with the public
is an essential part of any politician's job, whether
they are in oDce or campaigning. Political
speeches must be convincing.

Politicians will debate with fellow politicians and

citizens and deliver speeches quite regularly.
Some of them, like Churchill, Kennedy or Obama,
are remembered for their ability to engage and
convince people.

Churchill, who was awarded the Nobel Prize of

Literature in 1953, was a skillful speaker with a
unique way with words. In his enthusing 1940
speech, in which he summoned a whole nation to
trust and to stand behind him and Xght the
Germans with his now celebrated statement: "I
have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and
sweat." What better way to win people over than to
show empathy instead of making empty promises
no one is likely to believe? Indeed, Churchill didn't
mince his words to cover up what awaited Britain
and its people. He explained what this war had
been waged for and what it would be like for
everyone on the battleXeld or at home. He used
simple but catchy words to depict truthfully
people's daily real-life experiences and
predicaments in the dark hours to come. Churchill
decided against lying to reassure people, proving
he understood and felt for them, whilst reminding
them that everyone's full commitment to victory
was required, cost what may.

"I would say to the House, as I said to those

who have joined this government: "I have
nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and
sweat."
We have before us an ordeal of the most
grievous kind. We have before us many, many
long months of struggle and of suffering. You
ask, what is our policy? I can say: It is to wage
war, by sea, land and air, with all our might
and with all the strength that God can give us;
to wage war against a monstrous tyranny,
never surpassed in the dark, lamentable
catalogue of human crime. That is our policy.
You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one
word: It is victory, victory at all costs, victory
in spite of all terror, victory, however long and
hard the road may be; for without victory,
there is no survival. Let that be realised; no
survival for the British Empire, no survival for
all that the British Empire has stood for, no
survival for the urge and impulse of the ages,
that mankind will move forward towards its
goal. But I take up my task with buoyancy and
hope. I feel sure that our cause will not be
suffered to fail among men. At this time I feel
entitled to claim the aid of all, and I say,
"come then, let us go forward together with
our united strength."

Winston Churchill
1940

Churchill's power
speech hinges on two
main rhetorical
INTERPRÉTATION
strategies – questions
and repetitions. He forestalls his
government and people's doubts and
interrogations by providing accurate and
adequate answers ("You ask, what is our
policy? I can say: It is to wage war, by
sea, land and air, with all our might and
with all the strength that God can give
us"). This doing, he showed people he
understood them as a stalwart leader is
expected to in times of fear and
uncertainty. Above all things, he kept
repeating the most important words of
his speech, so that they would be
impressed on everyone's minds ("the
British Empire", "wage war"). What
people would bear in mind at diHcult
times was the nation's goal, "victory,
victory at all costs." They would
remember to Xght for their nation to
defeat "a monstrous tyranny" and end
this "lamentable catalogue of human
crime." That's why his speech hit home
and convinced people to take part in the
war effort.

John Fitzgerald Kennedy ran for presidency as

Democratic candidate in 1960. In his acceptance
speech, later entitled "New Frontier", he revisited
the national myth of the Frontier, a metaphorical
boundary that was to be crossed or removed for
the American people to move forward and grow as
a nation. He promised Americans he would allow
them to improve and get many steps closer to
who they want to be as individuals and citizens.
The limit that hindered and divided American
people back in the 1960s was racial segregation,
which he promised he would go out of his way to
terminate.

English French

A double-edged À double tranchant

thing

Placard Une aHche

To have a way Savoir manier les

with words mots

To win someone Rallier

over

To mince one's Mâcher ses mots

words

Predicament Une diHculté

Ordeal Épreuve

Grievous Éprouvant

To hinge on S'appuyer sur

To forestall Contrecarrer

To hit home Aller droit au but/faire

son effet

A boundary Une limite

To hinder Entraver

B Engaging and inspiring

speeches
There are subjects that are best dealt with
resorting to humour and (self-)mockery to
engage people and inspire them to take action.

Nigerian writer Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie

decided to approach feminism from that angle to
explain why "we should all be feminists" in
her 2012 TEDx talk. The following extract from her
speech exempliXes Adichie's eHcient use of
derision and self-irony through a series of short
anecdotes.

"Now fast forward to some years later, I wrote

a novel about a man who among other things
beats his wife and whose story doesn't end
very well. While I was promoting the novel in
Nigeria, a journalist, a nice well-meaning man,
told me he wanted to advise me. And for the
Nigerians here, I'm sure we're all familiar with
how quick our people are to give unsolicited
advice. He told me that people were saying
that my novel was feminist and his advice to
me — and he was shaking his head sadly as
he spoke — was that I should never call
myself a feminist because feminists are
women who are unhappy because they
cannot Xnd husbands. So, I decided to call
myself "a happy feminist."
Then an academic, a Nigerian woman told me
that feminism was not our culture and that
feminism wasn't African, and that I was
calling myself a feminist because I had been
corrupted by "Western books." Which amused
me, because a lot of my early readings were
decidedly un-feminist. I think I must have read
every single Mills & Boon romance published
before I was sixteen. And each time I tried to
read those books called "the feminist
classics" I'd get bored and I really struggled to
Xnish them.
But anyway, since feminism was un-African, I
decided that I would now call myself "a happy
African feminist." At some point I was a happy
African feminist who does not hate men and
who likes lip gloss and who wears high heels
for herself but not for men. Of course, a lot of
these was tongue-in-cheek, but that word
feminist is so heavy with baggage, negative
baggage. You hate men, you hate bras, you
hate African culture, that sort of thing."

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie

2012

Adichie sounds more

like an entertaining
storyteller, which is
INTERPRÉTATION
more engaging than
lecturing people on the stakes of
feminism. Poking fun at herself and her
African background, she comes across
as humbler and more relatable. Her
audience is more likely to identify with
her and listen to what she has to say in
defence of feminism. Part of her
strategy to convince people is to start
from stereotypes about feminism and to
debunk them, namely, to throw light on
what feminism is not, so that her people
may understand what it really is and
aims at. She begins with the wide-spread
assumption that women become
feminists because they are not lucky in
love and therefore resentful – "feminists
are women who are unhappy because
they cannot Xnd husbands." She also
ironically underlines that it is a well-
known fact that feminists can't stand
men, make-up and sexy clothes ("You
hate men, you hate bras, you hate
African culture"), which doesn't fail to
make people laugh at bigots' expense.
The fact that Adichie's examples
correspond to real-life experiences
endows her speech with a truthfulness
that makes it both very engaging and
convincing.

In 1963, Martin Luther King, the paciXst leader of

the Civil rights movement, delivered an iconic
speech called "I have a dream." Through the
description of an idyllic America of equal
opportunities for everyone, regardless of skin
colour, King demands the end of racial
segregation. His plea relies on well-chosen biblical
references and the utopian New Jerusalem held
so dear by the Founding Fathers. King refers
Americans back to the very foundations of their
nation to show Americans that racism and
segregation go against their ancestors' ideals, on
which their nation was founded.

English French

To resort to Avoir recours à

(Self-)mockery L'autodérision

To lecture someone Chapitrer/sermonner

The stakes of Les enjeux de

Poke fun at Se moquer de

To debunk Déboulonner

Widespread Largement répandu

Resentful Rancunier

Bra Un soutien-gorge

C A queen's speech: the example

of Elizabeth I
In her Tilbury speech to the English people,
Elizabeth I demonstrates that, despite being a
female, she is as mighty as a king might be.

In 1588, England defeated Spain in a war opposing

the two countries over religious rivalry. Indeed, the
Catholic Spanish monarch interpreted Queen
Elizabeth I's Act of Supremacy, through which she
dismissed papal authority, as a provocation and a
threat to his territories in the Netherlands, where
Protestantism was gaining momentum. That's
why Spain waged war on England in 1585.

Tudor England was ruled by a powerful woman

whose main weakness lied in her gender.
Although considered by her people as the rightful
heir to the throne, Elizabeth was not taken as
seriously as if she had been a king. Indeed,
women were regarded as weaker than men
because their bodies were not sealed, unlike
men's, and were therefore more vulnerable to sin. 

In her speech, she uses just the right amount of

so-called female empathy and male bravery,
claiming not to "desire to live to distrust my
faithful and loving people" and pledging "to live
and die amongst you all; to lay down for my God,
and for my kingdom, and my people, my honour
and my blood, even in the dust." Most importantly,
she is well aware of not being welcome at the
helm of an army of men on the battleXeld:

"I know I have the body but of a weak and

feeble woman; but I have the heart and
stomach of a king, and of a king of England
too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain,
or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade
the borders of my realm: to which rather than
any dishonour shall grow by me, I myself will
take up arms, I myself will be your general,
judge, and rewarder of every one of your
virtues in the Xeld."

Queen Elizabeth I

In this passage, she

boldly dismisses
gender as irrelevant to
INTERPRÉTATION
assess a monarch's
strength and ability to lead her country
to victory. What matters is to have the
courage and determination of a
monarch, which Queen Elizabeth I didn't
lack. Her speech sounds very modern,
even to 21st century audiences, which is
why it is often quoted or used in
historical drama. As early as 1588, she
unwittingly initiated a debate about
women's abilities to be heads of states,
seeing as they were allegedly too
sensitive and emotional – "weak and
feeble" – to tackle political, economic
and military issues of national
importance. Elizabeth is proof a woman
can rule over a country with as much
power and authority as a man.

English French

To gain Prendre de l'ampleur

momentum

Sealed Fermé hermétiquement

Mighty Puissant

To pledge Promettre
solennellement

At the helm of À la tête de

Allegedly Prétendument

II Pleading
More often than not, debates and arguments are
started by people voicing clashing opinions or
defending causes. They are pleading for what
they think is fair. 

Whether women should be given more rights and

power was at the heart of the suffragettes' Xght
for the vote in the early 20th century. These
women's struggle set both genders against each
other, giving way to violent confrontations and
hectoring in public spheres. Activists were
threatened and jailed by men whose goal and
mission were to stop them. They reasoned with
them to get them to understand that women didn't
need the vote, because they were neither able nor
destined to make political decisions. 

Sarah Gavron's 2015 movie Suffragette focuses

on a working-class young female who joined the
Xght for women's suffrage. In a speciXc scene,
after she was caught demonstrating and put in
custody, she argues with a police oHcer,
explaining her reasons for Xghting and why she
will never relent. He tries to dismiss her
arguments as ludicrous with threats, proving that
men too can grow emotional in their own way
when corralled. The following dialogue between
Gavron's heroine, Maud Watts, and the helpless
police oHcer, testiXes to the gap between
women's legitimate claims and men's fears of
being overridden by those they had managed to
subjugate for so long.

"INSPECTOR STEED.
You women clean yourselves up well. Couldn't
Xnd a scrap of dynamite on any of you. 
MAUD WATTS.
Then, why am I here? 
INSPECTOR STEED.
You'll be charged for illegal meetings afore
nothing else. You know there was a
housekeeper on her way back when the bomb
went off? She forgot her gloves. If she was
two minutes later, what would that have done
for your cause. Violence doesn't discern. It
takes the innocent and the guilty. What gives
you the right to put that woman's life at risk?
MAUD WATTS.
What gave you the right to stand in the middle
of a riot, watch women beaten and do
nothing?! You're a hypocrite. 
INSPECTOR STEED.
I apply the law
MAUD WATTS.
The law means nothing to me. I've had no say
in my life making the law. 
INSPECTOR STEED.
That's an excuse, it's all you have!
MAUD WATTS.
We break windows, we burn things. Cause
war's the only language men listen to! Cause
you've beaten us and betrayed us and there's
nothing else left!
INSPECTOR STEED.
And there's nothing left but to stop you.
MAUD WATTS.
What you gonna do? Lock us all up? We're in
every home, we're half the human race, you
can't stop us all.
INSPECTOR STEED.
You might lose your life before this is over.
MAUD WATTS.
We will win."

Sarah Gavron
Suffragette - 2015

When inspector Steed

accuses Maud and the
other suffragettes of
INTERPRÉTATION
violence and terrorism,
Maud astutely underlines that women
are resorting to violence in reaction to
men's brutal response to what they
demand: "Cause war's the only language
men listen to! Cause you've beaten us
and betrayed us and there's nothing else
left!" Not only are they claiming to be
their equals, but they are showing them
too, using their means and weapons to
solve problems against them. What men
don't seem to understand is dialogue
and arguments. Indeed, the inspector
doesn't have any to defend men's refusal
to grant "half the human race" the right
to vote. All he can do is threaten and
blackmail, whereas Maud puts forward
arguments that can hardly be dismissed.
Violence is not just men's lawful
privilege, it can also be women's only
weapon to be heard, all the more so
since the law is not on their side. She
uses every single argument he puts
forward against him, thus skillfully
discrediting him.

Playwrights and novelists use dialogues between

warring characters to present audiences with
different possible approaches to a speciXc topic
or issue and enable them to form their own
opinions. Dialogues allow nuanced views and
promote both tolerance and open-mindedness,
which is why they are an eHcient tool to teach
people how to relate to others. One may think of
Plato's dialogues, in which Socrates makes
individual Athenians realise they are prejudiced or
biased and therefore unable to think for
themselves. 

Atticus Finch in To Kill a Mockingbird, the most

popular of Xctional lawyers, teaches his daughter
Scout quite a few essential life lessons, among
which the importance of free and critical thinking.
Harper Lee uses these father-daughter dialogues
throughout the novel to educate readers as well.

"Atticus, do you defend niggers?"

"Don't say 'niggers' Scout."
"I didn't say it. Jacob did. That's why I had to
Xght him!"
"Scout, I don't want you Xghting."
"I had to Atticus, he..."
"I don't care what the reasons are, I forbid you
to Xght."
"Yes."
"Anyway, I'm simply defending a Negro. Tom
Robinson. And Scout, there are some things
that you are not old enough to understand,
just yet. There's been some talk downtown, to
the effect that I shouldn't be defending this
man."
"If you shouldn't be defending this man, then
why are you doing it?"
"For a number of reasons. The main one is, if I
didn't, I couldn't hold my head up in town. I
couldn't even tell you or Jim not to do
something again. You're gonna hear some
ugly talk about this at school, but I want you
to promise me one thing. That you won't get
into Xght over it, no matter what they say to
you."

Harper Lee
To Kill a Mockingbird - 1960

A lawyer of few words,

Atticus talks to Scout
just as he would plead
INTERPRÉTATION
in a courtroom, using a
language that is as simple as it is clear
to tell his daughter to avoid violence by
all means and to think for herself instead
of listening to gossip. He also implicitly
alludes to the fact that defending Tom
Robinson is a matter of personal ethics
and self-respect. This resonates with
Finch's concluding plea, in which he
explains that the defendant is not guilty,
but wrongly accused to alleviate the
victim's feeling of guilt for having fallen
in love with a black man. Defending
Robinson, Atticus is also hopelessly
pleading for is a fairer society in which
both black and white people would be
free. He is not only speaking up for the
man, he is defending his own idea of