Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 46–54

www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Performance and exhaust emissions of a gasoline engine

using artificial neural network
Cenk Sayin a, H. Metin Ertunc b, Murat Hosoz c, Ibrahim Kilicaslan c, Mustafa Canakci c,*

a
Department of Mechanical Education, Marmara University, 34722 Istanbul, Turkey
b
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Kocaeli University, 41040 Kocaeli, Turkey
c
Department of Mechanical Education, Kocaeli University, 41380 Kocaeli, Turkey

Received 11 August 2005; accepted 9 May 2006

Available online 7 July 2006

Abstract

This study deals with artificial neural network (ANN) modelling of a gasoline engine to predict the brake specific fuel consumption,
brake thermal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature and exhaust emissions of the engine. To acquire data for training and testing the pro-
posed ANN, a four-cylinder, four-stroke test engine was fuelled with gasoline having various octane numbers (91, 93, 95 and 95.3), and
operated at different engine speeds and torques. Using some of the experimental data for training, an ANN model based on standard
back-propagation algorithm for the engine was developed. Then, the performance of the ANN predictions were measured by comparing
the predictions with the experimental results which were not used in the training process. It was observed that the ANN model can pre-
dict the engine performance, exhaust emissions and exhaust gas temperature quite well with correlation coefficients in the range of 0.983–
0.996, mean relative errors in the range of 1.41–6.66% and very low root mean square errors. This study shows that, as an alternative to
classical modelling techniques, the ANN approach can be used to accurately predict the performance and emissions of internal combus-
tion engines.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Artificial neural network; Gasoline engine; Octane number; Exhaust emissions

1. Introduction The ON of a fuel required by an engine is determined

Since the invent of the internal combustion engine in
the late 19th century, a great number of research studies
have been conducted to improve the engine performance,
decrease the engine fuel consumption and reduce the
unwanted exhaust emissions. Gasoline is the main fuel
for the SI engine, and the octane number (ON) is one of
the most important parameters determining the quality of
gasoline. The ON of a gasoline is a measure of its resistance
to detonation. The effects of ON on exhaust emissions,
engine performance and detonation have been investigated
by several researchers [1–6].
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 262 3032285; fax: +90 262 3032203.
E-mail addresses: canakci@kou.edu.tr, mustafacanakci@hotmail.com
(M. Canakci).
according to the engine design and compression ratio.
The weather, driving conditions, and mechanical condi-
tions of the engine are some factors that can influence this
requirement. Diminished cooling efficiency, problems in
fuel systems, ignition troubles and failure of emission con-
trols can also change ON requirements [7–9].
Manufacturers and application engineers usually want
to know the performance of an engine using gasoline with
various ONs for the entire range of operating conditions.
This requirement can be met either by conducting a com-
prehensive testing study or modelling the engine operation.
Testing the engine under the all possible operating condi-
tions and fuel cases are both time consuming and expen-
sive. On the other hand, developing an accurate model
for the operation of a gasoline engine is too difficult due
to the complex processes involved. As an alternative, the

1359-4311/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2006.05.016
 C. Sayin et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 46–54
Nomenclature
a actual output
ANN artificial neural network
b bias
BSFC brake specific fuel-consumption (g (kW h)1)
BTE brake thermal efficiency
cov covariance
E expected value
f activation function
LHV lower heating value (kJ kg1)
MRE mean relative error
m_ f fuel mass flow rate (kg s1)
n engine speed (rpm)
N number of the points in the data set
performance and exhaust emissions of an engine can be
modelled using ANNs. This new modelling technique
can be applied to estimate desired output parameters
when enough experimental data is provided. Therefore,
ANNs allow the modelling of physical phenomena in
complex systems without requiring explicit mathematical
representations.
The ANN approach has been applied to predict the per-
formance of various thermal systems [10–18]. The use of
ANNs for modelling the operation of internal combustion
engines is a more recent progress. This approach was used
to predict the performance and exhaust emissions of diesel
engines [19,20] and the specific fuel consumption and fuel-
air equivalence ratio of a diesel engine [21]. The effects of
valve-timing in a spark ignition engine on the engine per-
formance and fuel economy was also investigated using
ANNs [22].
This study deals with ANN modelling of the perfor-
mance and exhaust emissions of a gasoline engine. In order
to gather data for the proposed ANN model, an engine
was fuelled with 91, 93, 95 and 95.3-ON gasoline fuels
and tested at various engine speeds and torques. The exper-
imental data from totally 96 test runs was used to train and
test the ANN model for predicting the brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC), brake thermal efficiency (BTE), the
emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydro-
carbon (HC), and the exhaust gas temperature of the
engine.
2. Description of the experimental setup and testing
procedure
The experiments were performed on a four-cylinder
four-stroke Fiat DKS 1600 cc gasoline engine which origi-
nally requires fuel with 91-ON. The engine has a cylinder
bore of 84 mm, a stroke of 71.5 mm, a compression ratio
of 9.2:1 and a maximum power output of 55.2 kW [23].
The test engine and instrumentation are shown in Fig. 1.
The engine was equipped with a conic edge orifice meter
47
n sum of the weighted inputs
ON octane number
p predicted output
P number of the elements in the input vector
Pe effective power (kW)
R correlation coefficient
RMSE root mean square error
T engine torque (N m)
Texh exhaust gas temperature (°C)
Tin air inlet temperature (°C)
wi interconnection weight of the input vector xi
xi input vector of a neuron
coupled to an inclined manometer for measuring mass flow
rate of the intake air. A surge tank was used for damping
out the pulsations produced by the engine, thus forming
a steady flow of intake air. The engine speed was continu-
ously monitored using a photoelectric tachometer. The
engine torque was measured with a hydraulic dynamome-
ter having a range of 0–100 N m. The CO and HC emis-
sions were measured using a Bilsa 320 model exhaust gas
analyzer, which was calibrated before each test. The fuel
consumption of the engine was determined by monitoring
the fuel level in the measurement container. The tempera-
tures of the intake air and exhaust gas were measured using
K-type thermocouples. Some features of the instrumenta-
tion are summarized in Table 1, and further details of the
experimental setup can be found in Sayin et al. [24].
The fuels tested in the engine were commercial grade
gasoline fuels with 91, 93, 95 and 95.3-ON. Details of the
fuel properties are given in Table 2. The BSFC, BTE,
exhaust gas temperature, and exhaust emissions such as
CO and HC have been investigated. The tests were per-
formed under steady-state conditions. The fuels were tested
in random order, each test was repeated 3 times and the
results of the three repetitions were averaged. The engine
speed was changed between 1000 and 2400 rpm with inter-
vals of 200 rpm, while the engine torque was kept at 20, 30
and 40 N m for each engine speed. In each test, engine oil
temperature, coolant temperature, fuel consumption, air-
flow rate, and exhaust emissions such as CO, CO2 and
HC were recorded systematically. The value of air-fuel
ratio was kept constant through the experiments, which
was around 14:1. The uncertainty of the air-fuel ratio
was found as ±0.3. The ignition timing during the experi-
ments was kept constant at all test conditions.
3. Experimental results
Test results for the BSFC at various speeds and constant
loads are shown in Fig. 2. The minimum BSFC at 40 N m
constant load was observed as 376 g (kW h)1 for 91-ON
48 C. Sayin et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 46–54

Fig. 1. The schematic layout of the experimental setup.

Table 1 Table 2
Characteristics of the instrumentation Properties of the gasoline fuels with different ONs used in the tests [25]
Measured Instrument Range Uncertainty Octane number 91 93 95 95.3
variable Density at 0.738 0.741 0.745 0.765
Temperature Type K 0–500 °C 2 °C 15 °C (g cm3)
thermocouple Reid vapor 59.34 59.72 60.03 60.03
Air mass Orifice-inclined 0–20 mm H2O 0.5 mm H2O pressure (kPa)
flow rate manometer Distillation 198.9 201.0 209.0 210.0
Fuel mass Measurement 0–1000 cc 10 cc temperature
flow rate container (99% vol.) (°C)
Engine speed Digital tachometer 10–100,000 rpm ±2% Tetra alkyl 0.104 0.222 0.340 0.0005
Engine torque Hydraulic 0–100 N m ±2% lead (gPb l1)
dynamometer Lower heating 43 932 43 642 43 304 43 961
CO emission Exhaust gas analyzer 0–100% ±2% value (kJ kg1)
HC emission Exhaust gas analyzer 0–9999 ppm ±3%

1
gasoline, 388, 394 and 397 g (kW h) for 93, 95 and 95.3-
ON gasoline, respectively, for 1800 rpm. It can be seen that
the trend of the BSFC in the case of 91-ON is lower than
the others. Starting at the minimum BSFC point, increas-
ing or decreasing speed at constant load increases BSFC
due to primarily the reduced engine volumetric efficiency.
If an excessively high octane rating gasoline is used, the
ignition delay becomes longer and the speed of the flame
becomes shorter. This phenomenon causes a reduction in
the maximum pressure and output power, thereby increas-
ing the fuel consumption per output power. The obtained
test results confirmed this statement.
As shown in the equation below, the BTE is related to
the effective power (Pe), fuel mass flow rate (m_ f ) and lower
heating value (LHV) of the fuel
Pe
BTE ¼ ð1Þ
m_ f LHV
The maximum BTE was obtained for gasoline with 91-
ON as shown in Fig. 2. According to the engine require-
ment, using gasoline with correct ON will diminish fuel
consumption for constant effective power, thus causing
an increase in BTE.
One of the most important emissions from IC engines is
CO. The level of CO emission in the exhaust of an IC
engine varies with the fuel-air ratio. For fuel-rich mixtures,
high CO concentrations in the exhaust emissions are
observed. Since SI engines often operate close to stoichio-
metric fuel-air ratio at part load and fuel rich at full load,
CO emission in the exhaust must be controlled. On the
other hand, for fuel-lean mixtures, CO concentrations in
the exhaust vary slightly with air-fuel ratio.
 C. Sayin et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 46–54 49

900 0.16
at 20 Nm constant load 91
850 91 93
BSFC (g/kWh)
93 0.14
800 95
95

BTE
95.3
750 95.3 0.12

700
0.10
650 at 20 Nm constant load
600 0.08
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
Engine rpm Engine rpm

750 at 30 Nm constant load 0.16

91
700
91 0.14 93
BSFC (g/kWh)

650 93 95
600

BTE
95 0.12 95.3
550 95.3
500 0.10
450 at 30 Nm constant load
400 0.08
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
Engine rpm Engine rpm

650 0.24
600
at 40 Nm constant load
0.22
BSFC (g/kWh)

91
550
93 0.20
500 91
BTE

95 0.18
450 95.3 93
400 0.16 95
0.14 95.3
350 at 40 Nm constant load
300 0.12
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
Engine rpm Engine rpm

Fig. 2. Experimental results of BSFC and BTE at different engine loads.

The CO emissions from the engine were presented in
Fig. 3. The results indicate that CO values for 95.3-ON gas-
oline were lower than 91, 93 and 95-ON fuels. This is prob-
ably resulted from the tetra alkyl, which is one of the most
important parameters in the formation of the exhaust emis-
sion. As shown in Table 2, the amount of tetra alkyl in the
95.3-ON gasoline is lower compared with 91, 93 and 95-
ON gasoline fuels. At maximum constant load and speed
(40 N m and 2400 rpm), the minimum CO was found
0.43% for 95.3-ON gasoline and 0.54%, 0.58% and 0.59%
for 91, 93 and 95-ON fuels, respectively. The values of
CO in all working conditions decrease with increasing
rpm, which is the result of improved combustion process.
The increase in load could probably augment the volumet-
ric efficiency and boost the turbulence in combustion cham-
ber, thereby ensuring more homogenous mixture and better
combustion.
The unburned HC in the exhaust of an IC engine is
another kind of emissions, which must be controlled. These
emissions have several different sources. Most of the HC is
caused by an unburned fuel-air mixture, while the other
source is the engine lubricant and incomplete combustion.
Similar to the CO emission, one of the most important
variables affecting the HC emission in the exhaust is air-
fuel ratio. In a cold engine, fuel vaporization is slow and
the fuel flow is increased to provide an easily combustible
fuel-rich mixture in the cylinder during the engine warm
up. This causes an increased HC emission. At part-load
and warm engine conditions, the engine produces lower
HC emissions because of the leaner mixtures. The engine
speed and spark timing are also important since they affect
not only the quality of combustion but also the combustion
process. In the case of short combustion process at high
speeds, the amount of unburned HC will also decrease.
The changes in HC emissions as a function of engine
speed for three constant loads are also shown in Fig. 3.
The HC concentrations decrease moderately with increas-
ing speed and load, which were in a similar trend with
CO. The experimental results indicate that HC values of
95.3-ON gasoline are lower than the other fuels. Probably,
50 C. Sayin et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 46–54

2.0 1000
at 20 Nm constant at 20 Nm constant load
1.8 900
1.6 800

HC (ppm)
CO (%)

700
1.4
600
1.2 91 91
500
1.0 93 93
400 95
0.8 95
300 95.3
95.3
0.6 200
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
Engine rpm Engine rpm

1.8 at 30 Nm constant load 600 at 30 Nm constant load

1.6 500
1.4
400

HC (ppm)
CO (%)

1.2
300
1.0 91 91
0.8 93 200 93
0.6 95 100 95
0.4 95.3 95.3
0
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
Engine rpm Engine rpm

1.4 500
at 40 Nm constant load at 40 Nm constant load
1.2 400
HC (ppm)
CO (%)

1.0 300

0.8 91 200 91
93 93
0.6 95 100 95
95.3 95.3
0.4 0
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
Engine rpm Engine rpm

Fig. 3. Experimental results of CO and HC at different engine loads.

this is caused by the lower amount of tetra alkyl lead con-
tained in 95.3-ON gasoline compared with 91, 93 and 95.3-
ON fuels. As expected, minimum HC was found 82 ppm
for 95.3-ON gasoline and 93, 112 and 114 ppm for 91, 93
and 95-ON fuels, respectively, at maximum constant load
and speed (40 N m and 2400 rpm).
4. Artificial neural networks
An ANN consists of massively interconnected process-
ing nodes known as neurons [26]. Each neuron accepts a
weighted set of inputs and responds with an output. Such
a neuron first forms the sum of the weighted inputs given
by [27]
X
P ceased. Then, this trained network can be used for simulat-
n¼ wi xi þ b
i¼1
where P and wi are the number of the elements and the
interconnection weight of the input vector xi, respectively,
and b is the bias for the neuron. The knowledge is stored in
an ANN as a set of connection weights and biases. The
sum of the weighted inputs with a bias is processed through
an activation function, represented by f, and the output
that it computes is
!
XP
f ðnÞ ¼ f wi xi þ b ð3Þ
i¼1
ANNs can be trained to reach from a particular input to
a specific target output using a suitable learning method
until the network output matches the target. The error
between the output of the network and the desired output
is minimized by modifying the weights and biases. When
the error falls below a determined value or the maximum
number of epochs are exceeded, the training process is
ð2Þ ing the system outputs for the inputs which have not been
introduced before.
The performance of the ANN-based prediction is evalu-
ated by a regression analysis between the network outputs,
i.e. predicted parameters, and the corresponding targets,
 C. Sayin et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 46–54 51

i.e. experimental values. The criterions used for measuring

the network performance are the correlation coefficient,
mean relative error and root mean square error. The corre-
lation coefficient assesses the strength of the relationship
between the predicted and experimental results, and it is
defined as [28]
covða; pÞ
Rða; pÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð4Þ
covða; aÞcovðp; pÞ
where cov(a, p) is covariance between a and p sets that refer
to the actual output and predicted output sets, respectively,
and given by [28]
covða; pÞ ¼ E½ða  la Þðp  lp Þ ð5Þ
where E is the expected value, la is the mean value of a set
and lp is the mean value of p set. Likewise, cov(a, a) and
cov(p, p) are the auto covariances of a and p sets, corre-
spondingly, and given by
2
covða; aÞ ¼ E½ða  la Þ  ð6Þ
2
covðp; pÞ ¼ E½ðp  lp Þ  ð7Þ
Fig. 4. The structure of the artificial neural network for the gasoline
The correlation coefficient ranges between 1 and +1. R engine.
values closer to +1 indicate a stronger positive linear rela-
tionship, while R values closer to 1 indicate a stronger and error with different ANN configurations, the network
negative relationship. was decided to consist of one hidden layer with fifteen neu-
The mean relative error, which shows the mean ratio rons. Furthermore, the activation function in the hidden
between the error and the experimental values, is deter- layer was chosen as tangent sigmoid function.
mined from Then, the five output parameters were predicted using a
N  
1 X  ðai  pi Þ three-layer feed-forward ANN. Utilizing standard back-
MRE ð%Þ ¼ 100 ð8Þ propagation algorithm [26,29], the input vectors and the
N i¼1  ai 
corresponding target vectors from the training set were
where N is the number of the points in the data set. used for training the network. The training procedure
Finally, the root mean square error is obtained from adjusted the weighting coefficients using Levenberg-Mar-
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi quardt algorithm [26,29]. The output of the network was
u
u1 X N
compared to the desired output at each presentation, and
RMSE ¼ t
2
ðai  pi Þ ð9Þ an error was computed. This error was then back propa-
N i¼1
gated to the ANN and used for adjusting the weights such
that the error decreases with each iteration. Consequently,
5. Modelling with the ANN the training procedure approximates a function between
the input and output variables. Then, the input vectors
An ANN model for the gasoline engine was developed from the test data set were presented to the trained network
using the data gathered in steady-state test runs. In the and the output parameters predicted by the network were
model, 70% of the data set was randomly assigned as the compared with the experimental ones for the performance
training set, while the remaining 30% was employed for measurement. The computer code solving the back-propa-
testing the performance of the ANN predictions. gation algorithm and measuring the network performance
The architecture of the ANN for the test engine is sche- was implemented under the MATLAB environment.
matically shown in Fig. 4. The inputs to the ANN are the
lower heating value (LHV) of the tested gasoline, engine 6. Results and discussion
torque (T), engine speed (n), and air inlet temperature
(Tin). Note that the effect of ON on the engine performance The ANN predictions for the output parameters of the
and emissions is represented by the LHV of the fuel. The gasoline engine as a function of the experimental ones are
outputs from the ANN are the BSFC, BTE, CO and HC shown in Fig. 5. In the graphs, the accuracy of the ANN
emissions, and the temperature of the exhaust gas (Texh). predictions was evaluated with the help of a straight line
The performance of an ANN is influenced by the some indicating the perfect prediction and a ±10% error band.
features of the network such as the number of hidden lay- The predicted versus experimental values for the brake
ers and the number of nodes in each hidden layer. By trial specific fuel consumption are indicated in Fig. 5a. The
52 C. Sayin et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 46–54

900
22
R = 0.994
R = 0.992
Predicted BSFC (g/kWh)

800 MRE = 2.24 % 20

Predicted BTE (%)

MRE = 2.97 %
RMSE = 17.05 g/kWh +10 %
700 18 RMSE = 0.51 %
+10%
600 16
-10 %
-10% 14
500
12
400
10

400 500 600 700 800 900 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

Experimental BSFC (g/kWh) Experimental BTE (%)
(a) (b)

1.8
800
R = 0.996
1.6 R = 0.992
700 MRE = 6.66 %

Predicted HC (ppm)
MRE = 3.64 %
Predicted CO (%)

1.4 RMSE = 0.04 % RMSE = 19.66 ppm

600 +10%
+10%
1.2 500 -10%
-10% 400
1.0
300
0.8
200
0.6
100
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Experimental CO (%) Experimental HC (ppm)
(c) (d)

190
R = 0.983
180
MRE = 1.41 % +10%
Predicted Texh (°C)

170 RMSE = 2.96 °C

160

150 -10%
140

130

120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190

Experimental Texh(°C)
(e)

Fig. 5. The ANN predictions for the output parameters vs. experimental values.

ANN predictions for the BSFC yield a mean relative BTE, the ANN yields a correlation coefficient of 0.992, a
error of 2.24%, a root mean square error of 17.05 MRE of 2.97% and a RMSE of 0.51%.
g (kW h)1 and a correlation coefficient of 0.994. These A plot of the predicted versus experimental CO emis-
values show that the ANN predicts the BSFC quite well sions is presented in Fig. 5c. Although the amount of the
despite wide ranges of operating conditions. It is clear that combustion air supplied to the engine exceeds the theoret-
the performance of the ANN would have been even better ical amount in all test runs, some CO always appears in the
if a higher number of test runs had been performed to pro- exhaust emissions. The CO emission is caused by the fac-
vide a larger amount of experimental data for the network tors such as incomplete mixing and insufficient time for
training. complete combustion. In predicting CO emissions, the
The ANN-predicted versus experimental values for the ANN results in a correlation coefficient of 0.992, a MRE
brake thermal efficiency are reported in Fig. 5b. For the of 3.64% and a RMSE of 0.04%.
 C. Sayin et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 46–54
Fig. 6. Comparisons of the ANN predictions and experimental results for various test patterns.
The ANN predictions for the HC emission versus the
experimental one are shown in Fig. 5d. Since the combus-
tion process involves a series of complex and fast chemical
reactions, the exhaust emissions from the internal combus-
tion engines usually contain some unburned hydrocarbons.
Besides polluting the environment, excessive HC emissions
increase operating costs of the engines. For the HC emis-
sion, the ANN yields a correlation coefficient of 0.996, a
MRE of 6.66% and a RMSE of 19.66 ppm.
The ANN-predicted versus experimental values for the
exhaust gas temperature are indicated in Fig. 5e. The
exhaust gas temperature is a measure of the energy loss
accompanying the exhaust gas. Increasing the engine load
and speed improve the turbulence and volumetric efficiency
and promote a more homogenous mixture in the combus-
tion chamber, thus causing an increase in the exhaust gas
temperature. The ANN predictions for the exhaust gas tem-
perature yield a correlation coefficient of 0.983, a MRE of
1.41% and a RMSE of 2.96 °C.
Comparisons of the ANN predictions and experimental
results for the BSFC, BTE, Texh and for the emissions of
CO and HC are alternatively presented in Fig. 6. It is seen
that the test patterns consist of the results of 29 tests.
Although data from these tests were not introduced to
the ANN during the training process, the ANN excellently
predicts the five output parameters for the entire range of
the experiments.
7. Conclusions
The ANN approach has been applied to a gasoline
engine for predicting the brake specific fuel consumption,
53
brake thermal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature, and
emissions of CO and HC. The experimental data for train-
ing and testing the ANN model was acquired from totally
96 steady-state test runs. The developed ANN was a three-
layer one utilizing the lower heating value of the gasoline,
engine speed, engine torque and air inlet temperature as
the input parameters. The ANN predictions for the perfor-
mance and exhaust emissions of the tested gasoline engine
yielded a good statistical performance with correlation
coefficients in the range of 0.983–0.996, MREs in the range
of 1.41-6.66% and quite low RMSE values.
Comparisons of the ANN predictions and the experi-
mental results demonstrate that engines using gasoline with
various ONs can accurately be modelled using ANNs.
Consequently, with the use of ANNs, the performance
and exhaust emissions of the internal combustion engines
can easily be determined by performing only a limited
number of tests instead of a detailed experimental study,
thus saving both engineering effort and funds.
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