MARINE NAVIGATION

AND
METEOROLOGY

STUDENTS HANDBOOK 2021

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION ONE- ELEMENTARY SEAMANSHIP

SECTION TWO- BASIC NAVIGATION

SECTION THREE- BASICE MARINE ASTRONOMY/

CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

SECTION FOUR- METEOROLOGY

SECTION FIVE- MARITIME PRACTICES

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SECTION ONE-

ELEMENTARY
SEAMANSHIP

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1.0. MARINE TERMINOLOGIES

Abaft the beam: Said of the bearing of an object which bears between
the beam and the stern (further back than the ship's middle).
Abaft: A relative term used to describe the location of one object in
relation to another, in which the object described is farther aft than the
other. Thus, the mainmast is abaft the foremast (in back of).
Abandon ship: Get away from the ship, as in an emergency.
Abeam: The bearing of an object 90 degrees from ahead (in a line with
the middle of the ship).
Able bodied seaman: The next grade above the beginning grade of
ordinary seaman in the deck crew.
Aboard: In the vessel (on the ship).
Aboveboard: Above decks; without concealment of deceit (out in the
open).
Abreast: Abeam of (alongside of).
Accommodation ladder: The portable steps from the gangway down
to the waterline.
Admiral: Comes from the Arabic "Emir" or "Amir" which means "First
commander" and "Al-bahr which means "the sea". Emir-al-barh evolved
into Admiral.
Adrift: Loose from the moorings (not tied or secured).
Afloat: Floating.
Aft: At, near, or toward the stern (back end).
Aground: Resting on the bottom.
Ahoy: A call used in hailing a vessel or boat (hey!).
Air tank: A metal air-tight tank built into a boat to insure flotation
even when the boat is swamped.
Alee: To the leeward side (away from the wind).
Alive: Alert (pep it up!).
All hands: The entire crew.
All standing: To bring to a sudden stop.
Aloft: Above the upper deck (above).
Alongside: Side to side.
Amidships: In or towards the middle of a ship in regard to length or
breadth (center of).
Anchor: A device or iron so shaped to grip the bottom and holds a
vessel at anchor by the anchor chain.
Anchor bar: Wooden bar with an iron shod, wedge: shaped end, used
in prying the anchor or working the anchor or working the anchor
chain. Also used to engage or disengage the wild-cat.
Anchor chain: Heavy, linked chain secured to an anchor for mooring
or anchoring.
Anchor lights: The riding lights required to be carried by vessels at
anchor.
Anchor watch: The detail on deck at night, when at anchor, to
safeguard the vessel (not necessarily at the anchor; a general watch).
Anchor's aweigh: Said of the anchor when just clear of the bottom

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(leaving or moving).
Anchorage: A place suitable for anchoring.
Ashore: On the shore (on land).
Astern: The bearing of an object 180 degrees from ahead (behind).
Athwartships: At right angles to the fore-and-aft line of the vessel
(sideways-across).
Avast: An order to stop or cease hauling (stop action at once).
Awash: Level with the water (water ready to, or slightly covering
decks).
Awning: A canvas canopy secured over the ship's deck as a protection
from the weather (covering).
Aye, aye, sir: The reply to an officer's order signifying that he is
understood and will be obeyed (I understand).

Bail: To throw water out of a boat; a yoke, as a ladder bail (rung).

Ballast tanks: Double bottoms for carrying water ballast and capable
of being flooded or pumped out at will.
Ballast: Heavy weights packed in the bottom of a boat or ship to give
her stability.
Batten down: To make watertight. Said of hatches and cargo (tie up
or secure).
Beachcomber: A derelict seaman found unemployed on the
waterfront, especially in a foreign country (seaman without a ship).
Beam wind: A wind at right angles to a vessel's course (wind blowing
at the ship's side.)
Bear a hand: To assist or help.
Bear down: To approach (overtake or come up to).
Bearing: The direction of an object (with reference to you, your ship,
another object).
Becalmed: A sailing vessel dead in the water due to lack of wind (not
moving).
Becket: A rope eye for the hook of a block. A rope grommet used in
place of a rowlock. Also, a small piece of rope with an eye in each end
to hold the feet of a sprit to the mast. In general any small rope or
strap used as a handle.
Belay: To make fast as to a pin or cleat. To rescind an order (tie up).
Belaying pin: A wooden or iron pin fitting into a rail upon which to
secure ropes.
Bells: see Ships Time
Belly strap: A rope passed around (center) a boat or other object for
hanging.
Below: Beneath the deck (under).
Bend: The twisting or turning of a rope so as to fasten it to some
object, as a spar or ring.
Berth: A vessel's place at anchor or at a dock. Seaman's assignment.
Between decks: The space between decks. The name of the deck or
decks between the ceiling and main deck.
Bight: Formed by bringing the end of a rope around, near to, or

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across its own part.
Bilge: The curved part of a ship's hull where the side and the flat
bottom meet.
Binnacle: The stand, usually of brass or non-magnetic material in
which the compass rests and which contains the compensating magnets
(compass holder).
Bitter end: The last part of a rope or last link in an anchor chain.
Bitts: A pair of vertical wooden or iron heads on board ship, used for
securing mooring or towing lines. Similar to dock bollards.
Black gang: Member of the engine-room force, which included the
engineers, firemen, oilers, and wipers.
Block and block: Same as two blocks.
Block: An apparatus consisting of an outside shell and a sheave
through which a rope may be passed (pulley).
Boat-fall: A purchase (block and tackle) for hoisting a boat to its
davits.
Bollard: An upright, wooden or iron post to which hawsers or mooring
lines may be secured.
Boom: A spar used for fore and aft sails.
Boom cradle: A rest for a cargo-boom when lowered for securing for
sea.
Boot-topping: The anti-corrosive paint used on and above the
waterline.
Bos'n: Shortening of the old term "boatswain," an unlicensed member
of the crew who supervises the work of the deck men under direction of
the first mate.
Bos'n's chair: The piece of board on which a man working aloft is
swung.
Bos'n's chest: The deck chest in which the bos'n keeps his deck gear.
Bos'n's locker: The locker in which the bos'n keeps his deck gear.
Bow: The forward part of a vessel's sides (front).
Bowsprit: A spar extending forward from the stem.
Boxing the compass: Calling names of the points of the compass in
order.
Break ground: Said of anchor when it lifts clear of the bottom.
Breaker: A small cask for fresh water carried in ship's boats. A sea
(wave) with a curl on the crest.
Bridge: The raised platform extending athwartships, the part of the
ship from which the ship is steered and navigated.
Bright work: Brass work, polished (also varnished wood work in
yachts).
Bulkhead: Transverse or longitudinal partitions separating portions of
the ship ("walls" in a ship).
Bunk: Built-in bed aboard ship.
Bunker: Compartment for the storage of oil or other fuel.
By the board: Overboard (over the side).
By the head: Deeper forward (front end deepest in water).
By the Run: To let go altogether.

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Cabin: The captain's quarters. The enclosed space of decked-over
small boat.
Cable-laid: The same as hawser-laid.
Cable-length: 100 fathoms or 600 feet (6 feet to a fathom).
Cable: A chain or line (rope) bent to the anchor.
Calm: A wind or force less than one knot (knot: 1 nautical mile per
hour).
Camel: A wooden float placed between a vessel and a dock acting as a
fender.
Capstan-bar: A wooden bar which may be shipped in the capstan head
for heaving around by hand (to heave up anchor or heavy objects by
manpower).
Capstan: The vertical barrel device used to heave in cable or lines.
Captain of the Head: A guy who gets Head (toilet) cleaning detail.
Cardinal points: The four principal points of the compass: North, East,
South and West.
Cast off: To let go.
Caulk: To fill in the seams with cotton or oakum.
Chafe: To wear the surface of a rope by rubbing against a solid object.
Chafing gear: A guard of canvas or rope put around spars, mooring
lines, or rigging to prevent them from wearing out by rubbing against
something.
Chain locker: A compartment forward where the chain cable is
stowed.
Charley Noble: The galley smoke-pipe (cook's stove pipe), named
after The English sea captain who was noted for the scrupulous
cleanliness and shine of the brass aboard his ship.
Check: To ease off gradually (go slower and move carefully).
Chief mate: Another term for first mate.
Chief: The crew's term for the chief engineer.
Chock: A heavy wooden or metal fitting secured on a deck or on a
dock, with jaws, used for the lead or to guide lines or cables.
Choked: The falls foul in a block. The falls may be chocked or jammed
intentionally for a temporary securing (holding).
Cleat: A fitting of wood or metal, with horns, used for securing lines
(tying up).
Clipper bow: A stem curving up and forward in graceful line.
Coaming: The raised frame work around deck openings, and cockpit of
open boats (hatch coaming).
Cockpit: The well of a sailing vessel, especially a small boat, for the
wheel and steerman.
Colors: The national ensign.
Cofferdam: The space between two bulkheads set close together,
especially between fuel tanks (two walls separated to use for drainage
or safety).
Coil: To lay down rope in circular turns.
Coming around: To bring a sailing vessel into the wind and change to
another tack. One who is influenced to a change of opinion.

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Cork fenders: A fender made of granulated cork and covered with
woven tarred stuff.
Cradle: A stowage rest for a ship's boat.
Crossing the line: Crossing the Equator.
Crow's nest: The platform or tub on the mast for the look-out.
Cut-water: The foremost part of the stem, cutting the water as the
vessel forges ahead.

Davit: A curved metal spar for handling a boat or other heavy objects.
Dead ahead: Directly ahead on the extension of the ship's fore and aft
line.
Dead light: Steel disc, that is dogged down over a porthole to secure
against breakage of the glass and to prevent light from showing
through.
Derelict: An abandoned vessel at sea (a danger to navigation).
Dip: A position of a flag when lowered part way in salute (method of
salute between vessels, like planes dipping wings).
Displacement: The weight of the water displaced by a vessel.
Distress signal: A flag display or a sound, light, or radio signal calling
for assistance.
Ditty-bag: A small bag used by seamen for stowing small articles.
Doldrums: The belt on each side of the Equator in which little or no
wind ordinarily blows.
Dolphin: A cluster of piles for mooring.
Double up: To double a vessel's mooring lines.
Dowse: To take in, or lower a sail. To put out a light. To cover with
water.
Draft: The distance from the surface of the water to the ship's keel
(how deep the ship is into the water).
Drag: A sea anchor contrived to keep a vessel's head to the wind and
sea.
Dressing ship: A display of national colors at all mastheads and the
array of signal flags from bow to stern over the masthead (for special
occasions and holidays).
Dry dock: A basin for receiving a vessel for repairs, capable of being
pumped dry (to repair vessel and scrape marine growth from bottom).
Dungarees: Blue working overalls.

Eagle Flies: Pay day

Easy: Carefully (watch what you're doing).
End-for-end: Reversing the position of an object or line.
End seizing: A round seizing at the end of a rope.
Ensign: (1) The national flag. (2) A junior officer.
Even keel: Floating level (no list).

Fake: A single turn of rope when a rope is coiled down.

Fake down: To fake line back and forth on deck.
Fantail: After deck over counter. The part of a rounded stern which

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extends past the rearmost perpendicular.
Fathom: Six feet. Comes from the Dutch word "fadom" which was the
distance between fingertips of outstretched hands.
Fend off: To push off when making a landing.
Fender: Canvas, wood or rope used over the side to protect a vessel
from chafing when alongside another vessel or a dock.
Fid: A tapered wooden pin used to separate the strands when splicing
heavy rope.
Field day: A day for general ship cleaning.
Flemish down: To coil flat down on deck, each fake outside the other,
beginning in the middle and all close together.
Fo'c'sle: A modem version of the old term "forecastle," or bow section
of the ship, where the crew lived.
Fog horn: A sound signal device (not necessarily mechanically
operated).
Fog-bound: Said of a vessel when forced to heave to or lie at anchor
due to fog.
Fore peak: The part of the vessel below decks at the stem.
Forecastle: A compartment where the crew lives.
Forefoot: The heel of the stem where it connects to the keel.
Foul: Jammed, not clear.
Fouled hawse: Said of the anchor chain when moored and the chain
does not lead clear of another chain.
Founder: To sink (out of control).
Freeboard: The distance from the surface of the water to the main
deck or gunwale.
Freeing port: A port in the bulwark for the purpose of freeing the deck
of water.
Freighter: A ship designed to carry all types of general cargo, or "dry
cargo."

G.I.: Anything of Government Issue.

Gantline: A line rove through a single block secured aloft.
Garboard strake: The strake next to the keel (running fore and aft).
Gather way: To attain headway (to get going or pick up speed).
Gear: The general name for ropes, blocks and tackles, tools, etc.
(things).
Gilguy (or gadget): A term used to designate an object for which the
correct name has been forgotten.
Gipsey (gypsey): A drum of a windlass for heaving in line.
Glass: Term used by mariners for a barometer.
Glory hole: Steward's quarters.
Go adrift: Break loose.
Golden Slippers: Tan work shoes issued to U.S. Maritime Service
trainees
Grapnel: A small anchor with several arms used for dragging
purposes.
Grating: A wooden lattice-work covering a hatch or the bottom boards

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of a boat; similarly designed gratings of metal are frequently found on
shipboard.
Graveyard watch: The middle watch.
Green sea: A large body of water taken aboard (ship a sea).
Ground tackle: A term used to cover all of the anchor gear.
Grounding: Running ashore (hitting the bottom).
Gunwale: The upper edge of a vessel or boat's side.

Hail: To address a vessel, to come from, as to hail from some port

(call).
Half-mast: The position of a flag when lowered halfway down.
Halliards or halyards: Ropes used for hoisting gaffs and sails, and
signal flags.
Hand lead: A lead of from 7 to 14 pounds used with the hand lead line
for ascertaining the depth of water in entering or leaving a harbor.
(Line marked to 20 fathoms.)
Hand rail: A steadying rail of a ladder (banister).
Hand rope: Same as "grab rope" (rope).
Hand taut: As tight as can be pulled by hand.
Hand: A member of the ship's company.
Handybilly: A watch tackle (small, handy block and tackle for general
use).
Hang from the yards: Dangle a man from one of the yard arms,
sometimes by the neck, if the man was to be killed, and sometimes by
the toes, if he was merely to be tortured. A severe punishment used
aboard sailing ships long ago. Today, a reprimand.
Hatch: An opening in a ship's deck for passageway or for handling
cargo or stores.
Hawse buckler: An iron plate covering a hawse hole.
Hawse-pipes: A pipe lead-in for anchor chain through ship's bow.
Hawser: A rope used for towing or, mooring.
Hawser-laid: Left-handed rope of nine strands, in the form of three
three-stranded, right-handed ropes.
Head: The ship's water closet (toilet or wash-room). The upper edge of
a quadrilateral sail.
Head room: The height of the decks, below decks.
Heart: The inside center strand of rope.
Heave: To haul or pull on a line; to throw a heaving line.
Heave around: To revolve the drum of a capstan, winch or windlass.
(Pulling with mechanical deck heaving gear).
Heave away: An order to haul away or to heave around a capstan
(pull).
Heave in: To haul in.
Heave short: To heave in until the vessel is riding nearly over her
anchor.
Heave taut: To haul in until the line has a strain upon it.
Heave the lead: The operation of taking a sounding with the hand
lead (to find bottom).

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Heave to: To bring vessel on a course on which she rides easily and
hold her there by the use of the ship's engines (holding a position).
Heaving line: A small line thrown to an approaching vessel, or a dock
as a messenger.
Hemp: Rope made of the fibers of the hemp plant and used for small
stuff or less than 24 thread (1.75 inch circumference). (Rope is
measured by circumference, wire by diameter.)
High, wide and handsome: Sailing ship with a favorable wind, sailing
dry and easily. A person riding the crest of good fortune
Hoist away: An order to haul up.
Holiday: An imperfection, spots left unfinished in cleaning or painting.
Hold: The space below decks utilized for the stowage of cargo and
stores.
Holy stone: The soft sandstone block sailors use to scrub the deck, so-
called, because seamen were on their knees to use it.
Horse latitudes: The latitudes on the outer margins of the trades
where the prevailing winds are light and variable.
House flag: Distinguishing flag of a merchant marine company flown
from the mainmast of merchant ships.
House: To stow or secure in a safe place. A top-mast is housed by
lowering it and securing it to a lowermast.
Hug: To keep close.
Hulk: A worn out vessel.
Hull down: Said of a vessel when, due to its distance on the horizon,
only the masts are visible.
Hurricane: Force of wind over 65 knots.

Ice-bound: Caught in the ice.

Inboard: Towards the center line of a ship (towards the center).
Irish pennant: An untidy loose end of a rope (or rags).

Jack: The flag similar to the union of the national flag.

Jack Tar: Sailors were once called by their first names only, and Jack
was their generic name. Tar came from seamen's custom of
waterproofing clothing using tar.
Jacob's ladder: A ladder of rope with rungs, used over the side.
Jam: To wedge tight.
Jettison: To throw goods overboard.
Jetty: A landing wharf or pier; a dike at a river s mouth.
Jews harp: The ring bolted to the upper end of the shank of an anchor
and to which the bending shackle secures.
Jolly Roger: A pirate's flag carrying the skull and cross-bones.
Jump ship: To leave a ship without authority (deserting).
Jury rig: Makeshift rig (emergency rig).

Keel: The timber or bar forming the backbone of the vessel and
running from the stem to the stempost at the bottom of the ship.
Keel-haul: To tie a rope about a man and, after passing the rope

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under the ship and bringing it up on deck on the opposite side, haul
away, dragging the man down and around the keel of the vessel. As the
bottom of the ship was always covered with sharp barnacles, this was a
severe punishment used aboard sailing ships long ago. Today, a
reprimand.
Keep a sharp look-out: A look-out is stationed in a position to watch
for danger ahead. To be on guard against sudden opposition or danger.
King-spoke: The upper spoke of a steering wheel when the rudder is
amidships, usually marked in some fashion (top spoke of neutral
steering wheel).
Kink: A twist in a rope.
Knock off: To stop, especially to stop work.
Knocked down: The situation of a vessel when listed over by the wind
to such an extent that she does not recover.
Knot: Speed of 1 nautical mile per hour (1.7 land miles per hour).
Knot: A twisting, turning, tying, knitting, or entangling of ropes or
parts of a rope so as to join two ropes together or make a finished end
on a rope, for certain purpose.

Labor: A vessel is said to labor when she works heavily in a seaway

(pounding, panting, hogging and sagging).
Ladder: A metal, wooden or rope stairway.
Lame duck: Term for disabled vessel that had to fall out of a convoy
and thus became easy prey for submarines.
Landlubber: The seaman's term for one who does not go to sea.
Lanyard: A rope made fast to an article for securing it (knife lanyard,
bucket lanyard, etc.), or for setting up rigging.
Lashing: A passing and repassing of a rope so as to confine or fasten
together two or more objects; usuafly in the form of a bunch.
Launch: To place in the water.
Lay aloft: The order to go aloft (go up above).
Lazaretto: A low headroom space below decks used for provisions or
spare parts, or miscellaneous storage.
Lee shore: The land to the leeward of the vessel (wind blows from the
ship to the land).
Leeward: The direction away from the wind.
Liberty: Permission to be absent from the ship for a short period
(authorized absence).
Life-line: A line secured along the deck to lay hold of in heavy
weather; a line thrown on board a wreck by life-saving crew; a knotted
line secured to the span between life-boat davits for the use of the crew
when hoisting and lowering.
Line: A general term for light rope.
Logbook: A book containing the official record of a ship's activities
together with remarks concerning the state of the weather, etc.
Longitudinal: A fore and aft strength member of a ship's structure.
Longshoreman: A laborer who works at loading and discharging
cargo.

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Lookout: The man stationed aloft or in the bows for observing and
reporting objects seen.
Loom: The part of an oar between the blade and handle. The reflection
of a light below the horizon due to certain atmospheric conditions.
Loose: To unfurl.
Lubber line: The black line parallel with ship's keel marked on the
inner surface of the bowl of a compass, indicating the compass
direction of the ship's head.
Lurch: The sudden heave of the ship.
Lyle gun: A gun used in the life-saving services to throw a life line to a
ship in distress or from ship to shore and used when a boat cannot be
launched.

Make colors: Hoisting the ensign at 8 a.m. and down at sunset.

Make the course good: Steering; keeping the ship on the course
given (no lazy steering).
Make the land: Landfall. To reach shore.
Make water: To leak; take in water.
Man ropes: Ropes hung and used for assistance in ascending and
descending.
Manhole: An opening into a tank or compartment designed to admit a
man.
Manila: Rope made from the fibers of the abaca plant.
Marlinspike: Pointed iron implement used in separating the strands of
rope in splicing, marling, etc.
Maroon: To put a person ashore with no means of returning.
Marry: To temporarily sew the ends of two ropes together for
rendering through a block. Also to grip together parts of a fall to
prevent running out. To marry strands to prepare for splicing.
Mast step: The frame on the keelson of boat (does not apply on ships)
to which the heel of a mast is fitted.
Master: A term for the captain, a holdover from the days when the
captain was literally, and legally, the "master" of the ship and crew. His
word was law.
Masthead light: The white running light carried by steam vessel
underway on the foremast or in the forepart of the vessel.
Masthead: The top part of the mast.
Mess gear: Equipment used for serving meals.
Messenger: A light line used for hauling over a heavier rope or cable.
Messman: A member of the steward's department who served meals
to officers and crew.
Mole: A breakwater used as a landing pier.
Monkey fist: A knot worked into the end of a heaving line (for weight).
Monkey island: A flying bridge on top of a pilothouse or chart house.
Mooring: Securing to a dock or to a buoy, or anchoring with two
anchors.
Mother Carey's chickens: Small birds that foretell bad weather and
bad luck.

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Mousing: Small stuff seized across a hook to prevent it from
unshipping (once hooked, mousing keeps the hook on).
Mud scow: A large, flat: bottomed boat used to carry the mud from a
dredge.
Mushroom anchor: An anchor without stock and shaped like a
mushroom.

Nantucket sleigh ride: A term for what frequently happened to

Nantucket whalers when they left the whaling ship in a small boat to go
after a whale. If they harpooned the whale without mortally wounding
it, the animal took off with the whaleboat in tow.
Neptune: The mythical god of the sea.
Net tonnage: The cubical space available for carrying cargo and
passengers.
Netting: A rope network.
Not under command: Said of a vessel when unable to maneuver.
Not under control: Same as not under command.

Oakum: Material used for caulking the seams of vessels and made
from the loose fibers of old hemp rope.
Off and on: Standing toward the land and off again alternately.
Officer of the watch: The officer in charge of the watch.
Oil bag: A bag filled with oil and triced over the side for making a slick
in a rough sea (to keep seas from breaking).
Oilskin: Waterproof clothing.
Old man: The captain of the ship.
On report: In trouble.
On soundings: Said of a vessel when the depth of water can be
measured by the lead (within the 100 fathom curve).
Ordinary seaman: The beginning grade for members of the deck
department. The next step is able bodied seaman.
Out of trim: Not properly trimmed or ballasted (not on even keel;
listing).
Outboard: Towards the sides of the vessel (with reference to the
centerline).
Over-all: The extreme deck fore and aft measurement of a vessel.
Overhang: The projection of the stern beyond the sternpost and of the
bow beyond the stem.
Overhaul: Get gear in condition for use; to separate the blocks of a
tackle to lengthen the fall (ready for use again).
Overtaking: Said of a vessel when she is passing or overtaking
another vessel.

Pad eye: A metal eye permanently secured to a deck or bulkhead (for

mooring any blocks and tackle).
Painter: A short piece of rope secured in the bow of a small boat used
for making her fast.
Palm and needle: A seaman's sewing outfit for heavy work.

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Part: To break.
Pass a line: To reeve and secure a line.
Pass a stopper: To reeve and secure a stopper (hold a strain on a line
while transferring it).
Pass down the line: Relay to all others in order (a signal repeated
from one ship to the next astern in column).
Pass the word: To repeat an order for information to the crew.
Pay off: To turn the bow away from the wind; to pay the crew.
Pay out: To slack out a line made fast on board (let it out slowly).
Pay: To fill the seams of a vessel with pitch.
Pier head jump: Making a ship just as it is about to sail.
Pile: A pointed spar driven into the bottom and projecting above the
water; when driven at the corners of a dock, they are termed fender
piles.
Pilot boat: A power or sailing boat used by pilots (men who have local
knowledge of navigation hazards of ports).
Pin: The metal axle of a block upon which the sheave revolves.
Pitch: A tar substance obtained from the pine tree and used in paying
the seams of a vessel. Motion of vessel.
Pitting: Areas of corrosion.
Planking: Broad planks used to cover a wooden vessel's sides, or
covering the deck beams.
Plait: To braid; used with small stuff.
Play: Freedom of movement.
Plimsoll mark: A figure marked on the side of merchant vessels to
indicate allowed loading depths. Named after Samuel Plimsoll, English
Member of Parliament and maritime reformer.
Plug: A wooden wedge fitting into a drainage hole in the bottom of a
boat for the purpose of draining the boat when she is out of water.
Point: To taper the end of a rope; one of the 32 divisions of the
compass card. To head close to the wind.
Poop deck: A partial deck at the stern above the main deck, derived
from the Latin "puppio" for the sacred deck where the "pupi" or doll
images of the deities were kept.
Pooped: An opening in a ship's side, such as an air port, or cargo port.
Port side: The left side of a vessel when looking forward.
Port: The left side of the ship.
Posh: elegant, luxurious. Originally an acronym for Port Over
Starboard Home. Created by British travelers to India or Australia,
describing the preferred accommodations aboard ship, which lessened
effects of the tropical sun on the cabins during the voyage.
Pouring oil on troubled waters: Heavy-weather practice of pouring
oil on the sea so as to form a film on the surface, thus preventing the
seas from breaking. To smooth out some difficulty.
Pratique: A permit by the port doctor for an incoming vessel, being
clear of contagious disease, to have the liberty of the port.
Preventer: A rope used for additional support or for additional
securing, e.g., preventer stay.

14
Pricker: Small marlinespike.
Privileged vessel: One which has the right of way.
Prolonged blast: A blast of from 4 to 6 seconds' duration.
Prow: The part of the bow above the water.
Punt: A rectangular flat- bottomed boat used by vessels for painting
the ship's side and general use around the ship's water: line, fitted with
oar-locks on each side and usually propelled by sculling.
Purchase: A tackle (blocks and falls).
Put to sea: To leave port.

Quarantine: Restricted or prohibited intercourse due to contagious

disease.
Quarter: That portion of a vessel's side near the stern.
Quartering sea: A sea on the quarter (coming from a side of the
stern).
Quarters bill: A vessel's station bill showing duties of crew.
Quarters: Living compartments.
Quay: A cargo-discharging wharf.

Rake: The angle of a vessel's masts from the vertical.

Ratline: A short length of small rope "ratline stuff" running horizontally
across shrouds, for a ladder step.
Reef: To reduce the area of a sail by making fast the reef points (used
in rough weather).
Reeve: To pass the end of a rope through any lead such as a sheave or
fair: lead.
Registry: The ship's certificate determining the ownership and
nationality of the vessel. Relieving tackle: A tackle of double and single
blocks rove with an endless line and used to relieve the strain on the
steering engine in heavy weather or emergency.
Ride: To lie at anchor; to ride out; to safely weather a storm whether
at anchor or underway.
Rig: A general description of a vessel's upper: works; to fit out.
Rigging: A term applied to ship’s ropes generally.
Right: To return to a normal position, as a vessel righting after heeling
over.
Ringbolt: A bolt fitted with a ring through its eye, used for securing,
running, rigging, etc.
Rips: A disturbance of surface water by conflicting current or by winds.
Rise and shine: A call to turn out of bunks.
Roaring forties: That geographical belt located approximately in 40
degrees south latitude in which are encountered the prevailing or
stormy westerlies.
Rudder post: That part of a rudder by which it is pivoted to the
sternpost.
Run down: To collide with a vessel head on.
Rustbucket: Sailors' term for an old ship that needed a lot of paint
and repairs.

15
Sailing free: Sailing other than close; hauled or into the wind (wind
astern).
Salty character: A nautical guy, often a negative connotation.
Salvage: To save a vessel or cargo from total loss after an accident;
recompense for having saved a ship or cargo from danger.
Scale: To climb up. A formation of rust over iron or steel plating.
School: A large body of fish.
Scuppers: Openings in the side of a ship to carry off water from the
waterways or from the drains.
Scuttle: To sink a vessel by boring holes in her bottom or by opening
sea valves.
Scuttle butt: The container of fresh water for drinking purpose used
by the crew; formerly it consisted of a cask.
Scuttle butt story: An unauthoritative story (a tall story).
Sea anchor: A drag (drogue) thrown over to keep a vessel to the wind
and sea.
Sea chest: A sailor's trunk; the intake between the ship's side and a
sea valve.
Sea dog: An old sailor.
Sea going: Capable of going to sea.
Sea lawyer: A seaman who is prone to argue, especially against
recognized authority (big mouth).
Sea painter: A line leading from forward on the ship and secured to a
forward inboard thwart of the boat in such a way as to permit quick
release.
Seaworthy: Capable of putting to sea and able to meet sea conditions.
Secure for sea: Prepare for going to sea, extra lashing on all movable
objects.
Secure: To make fast; safe; the completion of a drill or exercise on
board ship.
Seize: To bind with small rope.
Semaphore: Flag signaling with the arms.
Set the course: To give the steersman the desired course to be
steered.
Set up rigging: To take in the slack and secure the standing rigging.
Settle: To lower, sink deeper.
Shackle: A U-shaped piece of iron or steel with eyes in the end closed
by a shackle pin.
Shaft alley: Covered tunnels within a ship through which the tail
shafts pass.
Shake a leg: An order to make haste.
Shakedown cruise: A cruise of a new ship for the purpose of testing
out all machinery, etc. Shank: The main piece of the anchor having the
arms at the bottom and the Jew's harp at the top.
Shanghaied: The practice of obtaining a crew by means of force.
Crews were hard to get for long voyages, and when the unwilling
shipmate regained consciousness, he found himself bound for some
remote port, such as Shanghai. One who is forced to do something

16
against his will.
Shape a course: To ascertain the proper course to be steered to make
the desired point or port. Shark's mouth: The opening in an awning
around the mast.
Sheave: The wheel of the block over which the fall of the block is rove.
Sheer: A sudden change. The longitudinal dip of the vessel's main
deck.
Sheet: The rope used to spread the clew of head sails and to control
the boom of boom sails.
Shell: The casing of a block within which the sheave revolves.
Ship: To enlist; to send on board cargo; to put in place; to take on
board.
Ships time: Ships time was counted by the half hour, starting at
midnight. A half hour after twelve was one bell; one o'clock, two bells;
and so on until four o'clock, which was eight bells. The counting then
started over again, with 4:30 being one bell.
Short stay: When the scope of chain is slightly greater than the depth
of water.
Shorthanded: Without sufficient crew.
Shot: A short length of chain, usually 15 fathoms (90 feet). (Method of
measuring chain.)
Shove in your oar: To break into a conversation.
Shrouds: Side stays from the masthead to the rail..
Side lights: The red and green running lights, carried on the port and
starboard sides respectively, of vessels under-way.
Sing out: To call out.
Sister hooks: Two iron flatsided hooks reversed to one another.
Skids: Beams sometimes fitted over the decks for the stowage of
heavy boats or cargo.
Skipper: The captain.
Sky pilot: A chaplain.
Skylight: A covering, either permanent or removable, to admit air and
light below decks.
Slack: The part of a rope hanging loose; the opposite of taut.
Slack water: The condition of the tide when there is no horizontal
motion.
Slip: To let go by unshackling, as a cable.
Slop chest: Stock of merchandise, such as clothing, tobacco, etc.,
maintained aboard merchant ships for sale to the crew
Slush: White-lead and tallow used on standing rigging.
Smart: Snappy, seamanlike; a smart ship is an efficient one.
Smothering lines: Pipe lines to a compartment for smothering a fire
by steam or by a chemical.
Snatch: block: A single block fitted so that the shell or hook hinges to
permit the bight of a rope to be passed through.
Snub: To check suddenly.
Sny: A small toggle used on a flag.
Sound: To measure the depth of the water with a lead. Also said of a

17
whale when it dives to the bottom.
Sound out a person: To obtain his reaction to something.
Southwester: An oil-skin hat with broad rear brim.
Span: A wire rope or line between davit heads.
Spanner: A tool for coupling hoses.
Sparks: The radio operator.
Speak: To communicate with a vessel in sight.
Spill: To empty the wind out of a sail.
Splice: The joining of two ends of a rope or ropes by so intertwining
the strands, as but slightly to increase the diameter of the rope.
Spring line: Usually of the best wire hawsers; one of the first lines
sent out in mooring. "Springs in and springs out" a vessel.
Squall: A sudden and violent gust of wind.
Squeegee: A deck dryer composed of a flat piece of wood shod with
rubber, and a handle. Stanchions: Wooden or metal uprights used as
supports (posts).
Stack: The ship's funnel or smokestack.
Stand by: A preparatory order (wait: be ready).
Standard compass: The magnetic compass used by the navigator as
a standard.
Standing part: That part of a line or fall which is secured.
Standing rigging: That part of the ship's rigging which is permanently
secured and not movable, such as stay, shrouds, etc.
Starboard The right side of the ship.
Station bill: The posted bill showing stations of the crew at maneuvers
and emergency drills.
Staunch: Still, seaworthy, able.
Stay: A rope of hemp, wire or iron leading forward or aft for supporting
a mast.
Steady: An order to hold a vessel on the course she is heading.
Steerage way: The slowest speed at which a vessel steers.
Steering wheel: The wheel operating the steering gear and by which
the vessel is steered.
Stem the tide: Stemming the tide or sea means to head the vessel's
bow directly into the current or waves. Overcome adverse
circumstances.
Stem: The timber at the extreme forward part of a boat secured to the
forward end of the keel.
Stern anchor: An anchor carried at the stern.
Stern board: Progress backwards.
Stern: The after part of the vessel (back of).
Stevedore: A professional cargo loader and unloader.
Stopper: A short length of rope secured at one end, and used in
securing or checking a running rope, e.g., deck stopper, boat fall
stopper, etc.
Storeroom: The space provided for stowage of provisions or other
materials.
Storm warning: An announced warning of an approach of a storm.

18
Stove: Broken in.
Stow: To put in place.
Stowaway: A person illegally aboard and in hiding.
Strake: A continuous planking or plating fitted out to and from stem to
stern of a vessel's side.
Strand: A number of yarns, twisted together and which in turn may be
twisted into rope; a rope is stranded when a strain is broken; rope may
be designated by the number of strands composing. Rope is commonly
three-stranded. A vessel run ashore is said to be stranded.
Strap: A ring of rope made by splicing the ends, and used for slinging
weights, holding the parts of a block together, etc. A rope, wire or iron
binding, encircling a block and with a thimble seized into it for taking a
hook. Small straps used to attach a handybilly to the hauling part of a
line.
Strongback: A light spar set fore and aft on a boat, serving as a
spread for the boat cover.
Surge: To ease a line to prevent it from parting or pulling, meanwhile
holding the strain.
Swab: A mop.
Swamp: Sink by filling with water.
Swell: A large wave.
Swing ship: The evolution of swinging a ship's head through several
headings to obtain compass errors for the purpose of making a
deviation table.
Swinging over: Swing of the boom from one side of the ship to the
other when the tack is changed.

Taffrail log: The log mounted on the taffrail and consisting of a

rotator, a log line and recording device (to measure distance run
through the water).
Tail shaft: The after section of the propeller shaft.
Take a turn: To pass a turn around a belaying pin or cleat.
Take in: To lower and furl the sails.
Taking on more than you can carry: Loaded with more cargo than a
ship can safely navigate with. Drunk.
Tanker: A ship designed to carry various types of liquid cargo, from oil
and gasoline to molasses, water, and vegetable oil.
Tarpaulin: Heavy canvas used as a covering.
Taut: With no slack; strict as to discipline.
That's high: An order to stop hoisting.
Thimble: An iron ring with a groove on the outside for a rope grommet
or splice.
Three sheets to the wind: Sailing with three sheet ropes running
free, thus making the ship barely able to keep headway and control.
Drunk.
Throwing a Fish: Saluting
Thwart: The athwartships seats in a boat on which oars-men sit.
Thwartships: At right angles to the fore and aft line (across the ship).

19
Toggle: A small piece of wood or bar of iron inserted in a knot to
render it more secure, or to make it more readily unfastened or slipped.

Top-heavy: Too heavy aloft.

Tow: To pull through water; vessels towed.
Track: The path of the vessel.
Trades: The practically steady winds blowing toward the equator, N.E.
in the northern and SE. in the southern hemisphere.
Trice: To lash up.
Tricing line: A line used for suspending articles.
Trick: The period of time during which the wheelsman remains at the
wheel.
Trim: The angle to the horizontal at which a vessel rides.
Trip: To let go.
Tripping line: A line used for capsizing the sea anchor and hauling it
in.
Truck: The flat circular piece secured on the top of the mast.
Tug boat: A small vessel fitted for towing.
Turn in all standing: Go to bed without undressing.
Turn to: An order to commence ship's work.
Turn turtle: To capsize.
Turn-buckle: A metal appliance consisting of a thread and screw
capable of being set up or slacked back and used for setting up on
rigging.
Two blocks: When the two blocks of a tackle have been drawn as
close together as possible.

Umbrella: The cone-shaped shield at the top of the smokestack.

Unbend: To untie.
Under below: A warning from aloft (heads up).
Undermanned: Insufficient number of crew; shorthanded.
Undertow: A subsurface current in a surf.
Underway: Said of a vessel when not at anchor, nor made fast to the
shore, or aground.
Unship: To take apart or to remove from its place.
Unwatched: Said of a lighthouse not tended.
Up anchor: Hoist or haul in the anchor.

Vast: An order to cease (stop).

Veer: To slack off or move off; also said of a change of direction of
wind, when the wind shifts to a different direction.
Ventilator cowl: The swiveled opening at the top of a ventilator.
Ventilator: A wooden or metal pipe used to supply or to exhaust air.

Waist: The portion of the deck between the forecastle and quarterdeck
of a sailing vessel.
Wake: A vessel's track through the water.
Waste: Cotton yarn used for cleaning purposes.

20
Watch cap: A canvas cover secured over a funnel when not in use.
Sailor's headwear, woolen type, capable of covering the ears in cold
weather.
Watch officer: An officer taking his turn as officer of the watch.
Water breaker: A small cask carried in ship's boats for drinking
purposes.
Water's edge: The surface of the water.
Water-logged: Filled with water but afloat.
Waterline: The line painted on the side of the vessel at the water's
edge to indicate the proper trim.
Watertight: Capable of keeping out water.
Waterway: The gutter at the sides of a ship's deck to carry off water.
Weather eye: To keep a weather eye is to be on the alert (heads up).
Weather side: The windward side (from where the wind is blowing).
Weigh: Lift anchor off the bottom.
Well enough: An order meaning sufficient (enough).
Where away: A call requesting direction in answer to the report of a
lookout that an object has been sighted.
Whipping: A method of preventing the ends of a line from unlaying or
fraying by turns of small stuff, stout twine or seizing wire with the ends
tucked.
White cap: The white froth on the crests of waves.
Wide berth: At a considerable distance.
Wildcat: A sprocket wheel on the windlass for taking links of the chain
cable.
Winch: An engine for handling drafts of cargo secured on deck and
fitted with drums on a horizontal axle.
Windlass: An anchor engine used for heaving in the chain cable and
anchor.
Wiper: A general handyman in the engine room.

Yaw: To steer wildly or out of line of course.

21
2.0. SIGNALING AND COMMUNICATIONS

2.1. International Marine Signal Flags

International Marine flags are international signals used by ships at sea.

They can be used to spell out short messages, or more commonly, used
individually or in combination they have special meanings. Strung end
to end and hung bow to stern from the rigging they are used to dress
the ship for ceremonial and festive occasions.

They are 2 Means of Communicating with Flags:

 Semaphore Flag Signaling System

 Alphabet Flags (International Code Flags)

2.2. Semaphore Flag Signaling System

The Semaphore flag signaling system is an alphabet signaling system

based on the waving of a pair of hand-held flags in a particular pattern.

The flags are usually square, red and yellow, divided diagonally with
the red portion in the upper hoist.

The Semaphore signaling system uses the position of the flags relative
to a person to denote the letter. The flags are usually square, red and
yellow, divided diagonally with the red portion in the upper lift.

The flags are held, arms extended, in various positions representing

each of the letters of the alphabet. The pattern resembles a clock face
divided into eight positions: up, down, out, high, low, for each of the
left and right hands (LH and RH) six letters require the hand to be
brought across the body so that both flags are on the same side.

One way to visualize the semaphore alphabet is in terms of circles:

first circle: A, B, C, D, E, F, G;
second circle: H, I, K, L, M, N (omitting J);
third circle: O, P, Q, R, S;
fourth circle: T, U, Y and 'annul';
22
fifth circle: 'numeric', J (or 'alphabetic'), V;
sixth circle: W, X;
seventh circle: Z

2.3. International Code Flags

Signal flags are used to communicate messages, at times because radio

silence is required. Here are their names and meanings, both
International and/or specific to the Navy, as well as meanings when
used in a shipping.

A; B; C; D; E; F;

G; H; I; J; K; L;

M; N; O; P; Q; R;

S; T; U; V; W; X;

23
3.0. TYPES OF MERCHANT SHIP, SHIP’S DIMENTION

Shipping is concerned with the transport of cargo between seaports by

ships. “Shipping” is a term that is open to interpretation. For some,
“shipping” means ships and seaborne businesses. For others, “shipping”
refers to any mode of transport that moves goods between two
geographical points. Trends in the shipping business are moving
towards the concept of economies of scale in operations, the
development of network-based management, and the adoption of
technology to improve efficiency and effectiveness. The varied
interpretations of shipping imply that the shipping business has become
increasingly dynamic and complex. Shipping is one of the world’s most
internationalized industries.

The shipping business involves the physical transport of cargoes from

an area of supply to an area of demand, together with the activities
required to support and facilitate such transport. A transport system
involves three key components that:

1. Fixed infrastructure such as Ports or Terminals;

2. Vehicles such as Ships or barges using the fixed infrastructure to
move cargoes;
3. organizational systems necessary to ensure that the vehicles and the
fixed infrastructure are used effectively and efficiently.

1.1.1. Types of Merchant Ship

24
I. Dry Cargo Ships

Dry cargo ships are used to carry solid dry goods that have a higher
tolerance to heat and cold, such as metal ores, coal, steel products,
forest products, grain, coal, iron ore, cement, sugar, salt and sand.
These vessels are equipped with on-deck cranes and other mechanism
for loading and unloading of goods.

II. General Cargo Vessels

General cargo ship is a ship with one or more decks, having ability to
carry a variety of commodities in different forms such as boxed,
palletized, refrigerated, and with the possibility to accommodate bulk
materials. General cargo or multi-purpose vessels are designed for
flexibility and carry a huge variety of cargo.

25
III. Container Vessels (Container)

A container ship is a cargo ship that carries all of its load in truck-size
intermodal containers, in a technique called containerization. Container
ships are a common means of commercial intermodal freight transport
and now carry most seagoing non-bulk cargo. Ships intended
exclusively for the carriage of containers and equipped with the
appropriate facilities. Such vessels have cellular holds with cell guides
attached to bulkheads and container foundations.

IV. Reefer Vessels

A reefer ship is a refrigerated cargo ship, typically used to transport

perishable commodities which require temperature-controlled
transportation, such as fruit, meat, fish, vegetables, dairy products and
other items.
26
V. Ro-Ro Vessels

Roll-on/roll-off (RORO or ro-ro) ships are cargo ships designed to carry

wheeled cargo, such as cars, trucks, semi-trailer trucks, trailers, and
railroad cars, that are driven on and off the ship on their own wheels or
using a platform vehicle, such as a self-propelled modular transporter.
This is in contrast to lift-on/lift-off (LoLo) vessels, which use a crane to
load and unload cargo.

RORO vessels have either built-in or shore-based ramps or ferry slips

that allow the cargo to be efficiently rolled on and off the vessel when
in port. While smaller ferries that operate across rivers and other short
distances often have built-in ramps, the term RORO is generally
reserved for large oceangoing vessels. The ramps and doors may be
located in the stern, bow, or sides, or any combination thereof.

VI. Liquid Cargo Ships

A liquid cargo ship (or tank ship or tankship) is a ship designed to

transport or store liquids or gases in bulk. Major types of tankship
include the oil tanker, the chemical tanker, and gas carrier. Tankers

27
also carry commodities such as vegetable oils, molasses and wine. In
the United States Navy and Military Sealift Command, a tanker used to
refuel other ships is called an oiler (or replenishment oiler if it can also
supply dry stores) but many other navies use the terms tanker and
replenishment tanker.
VII. Oil Tankers

An oil tanker, also known as a petroleum tanker, is a ship designed for

the bulk transport of oil or its products. There are two basic types of oil
tankers: crude tankers and product tankers. Crude tankers move large
quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to
refineries. For example, moving crude oil from oil wells in a producing
country to refineries in another country. Product tankers, generally
much smaller, are designed to move refined products from refineries to
points near consuming markets. For example, moving gasoline from
refineries in Europe to consumer markets in Nigeria and other West
African nations.

VIII. Chemical Carriers

28
Chemical tankers are cargo ships constructed or adapted and used for
the carriage of any liquid chemicals in bulk. Chemical tankers are
required to comply with the various safety aspects detailed in Part B of
SOLAS Chapter VIII, but are additionally required to comply with the
mandatory International Bulk Chemical Code (IBC Code).

IX. Liquefied Gas Carrier

A gas carrier (or gas tanker) is a ship designed to transport LPG, LNG,
CNG, or liquefied chemical gases in bulk
Gas carriers are divided into two main groups:
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Carriers, which are designed to
carry mainly butane, propane, butadiene, propylene, vinyl
chloride monomer (VCM) and are able to carry anhydrous
ammonia.
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Carriers, which are designed to carry
liquefied natural gas (which is mostly methane

29
SECTION TWO-

BASIC
NAVIGATION

30
1.0. GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES

1.1. Longitude and Latitude

The earth can be regarded as a spherical object, and since we're
dealing with a 3-dimensional shape we need coordinates of a different
form than the usual x- and y-axes. Though adding extra z-axes would
make sense for submarines, we will most likely be
found on the surface of this sphere while using
another system of coordinates, that covers our
planet with imaginary lines
called meridians and parallels, see figure 1. All
these lines together provide the grid which
enables us to describe any position
in longitudes and latitudes.

The obvious place to divide the Northern and

Southern Hemispheres  was the equator. But
the division of the Eastern and Western
hemispheres was the source of much political
turmoil. Greenwich (Great Britain) won, placing
for example The Netherlands in the Eastern and
Ireland in the Western Hemisphere.

It takes the earth 24 hours for a full rotation of 360°. Thus, every hour
we rotate 15° longitude, see figure 2.

When it is 12:00 UTC (international standard time) - anywhere in the

world - it is 12:00 Local Time in Greenwich and 24:00 Local Time at the
other side of the planet: 180° E or 180° W: the date line. Crossing this
special meridian changes not only the hour but also the date.

The North Pole has a latitude of 90° N and

the South Pole 90° S. The meridians cover
twice this angle up to 180° W or E.
Meridians converge at the poles, whereas
parallels run parallel to each other and
never meet. All meridians and the equator -
the biggest parallel - form great circles,
and the remaining parallels form so-
called small circles. A great circle divides
the earth in two exact halves.

In figure 3 the position of Boston in the

United States is shown using latitude and
longitude in degrees, minutes and seconds:
42° 21' 30" N , 71° 03' 37" W

31
Most sailors will actually notate seconds in metric fractions of minutes:
42° 21,5' N , 71° 03,6' W or
42° 21.5' N , 71° 03.6' W , see the notation style guide

On small scaled charts we want to be accurate within one minute or

one nautical mile. On larger scaled charts the accuracy is more likely to
be within a tenth of a mile (a cable).

If the earth were a perfect sphere with a circumference of roughly

40000 kilometres all great circles - meridians plus the equator - would
have the same length and could be used as a distance unit when
divided into 360 degrees, or 360° x 60' =
21600' minutes. In 1929, the international
community agreed on the definition of 1
international nautical mile as 1852 metres,
which is roughly the average length of one
minute of latitude i.e. one minute of arc
along a line of longitude (a meridian).
Or to put it shortly: 1 nm = 1'

We are now able to describe any position in

latitudes and longitudes. Moreover, we can
state the distance between two of those
positions using nautical miles or minutes. All we need now is a proper
way to define speed. For that, sailors use knots, the number of
nautical miles an hour.

1.2. A little History

Mariners during the 15th century relied on charts called "portolans" to

assist them on their voyages. Portolan comes from the Italian
word portolani , which were medieval pilot books.

The portolans contained maps of coastlines, locations of

harbours, river mouths, and man-made features visible from
the sea.They were a compilation of centuries of seafarer
observations. As sailors' skills improved and the use of
thecompass was more widespread, portolans improved in
accuracy.

Also Columbus  used these portolans on his journeys. Portuguese

chart makers added the meridian line, a point useful for latitude sailing
as well as for navigating solely by compass. A geographic feature could
now be located through the use of its distance in degrees of latitude
from a ship's point of departure. Note that the use of latitude and
longitude was understood since the time of Ptolemy , the second
century CE.

32
 During the fifteenth century Portugal led the European world in sea
exploration. The golden age of discovery for Portugal lasted almost a
century until the Dutch eventually seized their trade routes from them.
As we move to the next chapter of this course we enter the sixteenth
century when the Mercator chart was invented.

1.3. Glossary

 Parallels: Circles parallel to the equator, ranging from 0° to 90° N or

S. Only the equator is a great circle.
 Meridians: half-circles converging at the poles, ranging from 0° to
180° E or W. Each pair of opposing meridians forms a great circle.
 Prime meridian: 0° or the Greenwich meridian which - together with
the date line meridian - divides the Western and Eastern hemispheres.
 Great circle: The intersection of a sphere and a plane that passes
through the sphere's centre.
 Small circle: The intersection of a sphere and a plane that doesn't
pass though the sphere's centre.
 Time zones: By convention 24 zones, each 15° longitude wide. Hence,
noon at Greenwich gives midnight at 180° E.
 GMT, UTC, Zulu: The outdated accronym GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)
is roughly the same as UTC or Zulu, and is also the local time at
Greenwich when daylight saving isn't used. Note that UTC is an atomic
time scale which only approximates GMT, so best to use the modern
term “UTC”. Antonym: Local time elsewhere. For example, local time in
Athens = UTC + 2.
 Date line: The 180° meridian which extends from or is opposite to the
prime meridian. Here, not only the hour changes when crossing the
meridian, but also the date.
 Latitude: Position property defined by the number of degrees north or
south of the equator, varies from 0° to 90°.
 Longitude: Position property defined by the number of degrees east or
west of the prime meridian, varies from 0° to 180°.
 Position: Latitude first and longitude second. For example: Athens in
Greece 37° 58' N , 23° 43' E.
 Nautical mile: One nm is one minute (') on the vertical scale on the
chart. 1' equals 1852 metres. Nautical miles are divided into 10 cables.
 Knots: Nautical miles per hour.

2.0. NAUTICAL CHARTS PROJECTIONS

33
The nautical chart is a 2-dimensional representation of a 3-dimensional
world. And although this results in various distortions, as long as two
requirements are met we can use this image for navigational purposes.

1. The angles between three objects in the chart should be the same
as the angles between the real objects which they represent.
2. A straight course should appear as a straight line in the chart.

To fulfil these demands a nautical chart requires parallels and meridians

that are both straight and parallel. Moreover, the meridians will need to
be perpendicular to the parallels.

2.1. Mercator projection

A well-known method to create such a chart is called the Mercator

projection after Gerard “Mercator” Kremer , a Flemish scholar who
studied in 's Hertogenbosch (the Netherlands) and Leuven (now
Belgium) and who invented his famous projection in 1569.

The Mercator chart was designed for sailors and can be constructed by
wrapping a cylinder around the planet so that it touches the equator.
On this cylinder the surface of the earth is projected and finally the
cylinder is cut open to yield the 2-dimensional chart.

But where the meridians converge on the globe they run parallel in the
projection (see chart below), indicating the distortion. Look, for
example, at a high parallel. The length of such a parallel on the globe is
much smaller than the equator. Yet, on the chart they have exactly the
same length creating a distortion which gets bigger nearer to the poles.
The figure below shows the construction of the Mercator projection.
From this it is clear that only the vertical scales should be used for
measuring distances.

The horizontal scale is only v The vertical scale depicted on the

right demonstrates the distortion. The two little navy coloured markers
have precisely the same size, the upper one measures only 0.64
degrees (= 38.4 nm) while the other measures 1.00 degrees (= 60
nm). So, distances (in degrees or in miles and minutes) should not only
34
 be read on the vertical scale, but also at approximately the same
height.

alid for one latitude in the chart and can therefore only be used for the
coordinates (a point, but not a line).
If you divide the surface of the earth
in eight pieces, and lift one out and
project it, you end up with the figure
below. The result is that both A-A'
and B-B' are now as long as the
bottom of the chart and are “too
long”.
But there are of course other projections in use by sailors. An important
one is the Stereographic projection, which is constructed by
projecting on a flat plane instead of a cylinder. On this chart parallels
appear as slightly curved and also the meridians converge at high
latitudes. So, strictly speaking, a straight course will not appear as a
straight line in the chart, but the parallels remain perpendicular to the
meridians. Most often, distortions are scarcely noticed when this
projection is used to chart a small area. Like the Mercator projection,
the vertical scale represents a meridian and should be used for
measuring distances.

2.2. Gnomeric projection 

Another projection is the Gnomeric projection on which the meridians

are again converging. But most importantly, the parallels are arcs of a
circle while great circles appear as straight lines. On a sphere the
shortest route between A and B is not a straight line but an arc (part of
a great circle). Though this is also true when you – for example – cross
a little bay, we use for simplification a loxodrome (a handy straight
line on your Mercator chart which does not reflect your shortest route).
On a Gnomeric chart this same loxodrome is an arc, while your shortest
route (a great circle) ends up as a straight line. Hence, the gnomeric
projection is particularly useful when sailing great circles (like when you
dabble in circumnavigation) and is beyond the scope of a coastal
navigation course.

2.3. Organization of the Nautical Chart

 Authority: The publisher responsible for the information in the chart –

“British Admiralty Charts”.
 Title: The title gives a description of the area covered by the chart –
“The Aegean Sea of Greece - Athens to Rhodes”.
 Number: Different chart types of the same area can be distinguished
by the chart's number.

35
 Projection: Most likely the Mercator projection as described above.
Charts covering small areas can be constructed by stereographic
projection.
 Scale: For example: 1:193.000. But since the chart is distorted this
holds only for one specific latitude in the Mercator chart. The scale
indicates how detailed the chart is (here 1 cm on the chart represents
193000 cm on earth).
 Horizontal geodetic datum: The definition of the relationship
between the ellipsoid adopted as the model of the Earth's shape, and
the Earth itself. Though there are hundreds of datums in use, most are
only locally valid.
Yet, the WGS-84 datum is global in scope and positions obtained by
satellite navigation systems are usually referred to this datum.
Therefore, a correction needs to be applied to a WGS-84 GPS position
to agree with charts using other horizontal datums. For example to
correct WGS-84 to the European datum, add 0,06'N , 0,04'E   (style
guide) to the WGS-84 position indicated by the GPS. Fortunately, most
GPS receivers may be set to display positions in several other datums
besides WGS-84 and perform the calculations for you.
 Chart sounding datum: The tidal datum to which soundings and
drying heights on a chart are referred. Often shortened to “chart
datum” when it is clear that reference is not being made to a horizontal
datum. Chart sounding datums are also used as reference for heights
(lighthouses, mountains, bridges). Multiple datums can be used in one
chart: L.A.T. for soundings and M.L. for heights. See chapter 6.
 Soundings & height units: Soundings and heights can be stated in -
for example - metres, feet or fathoms. Today all charts worldwide are
metric, except for USA Hydrographic Office charts, which sometimes
still use feet instead of the international standard.
 Horizontal scale: Natural scale at for example 40° 15,3' S latitude
where the horizontal scale can be used for measuring distances and
where the chart scale is true.
 GPS compatibility: Most charts neither have the precision nor the
resolution to fully use the (differential) GPS positioning potential.
Moreover, still plenty of charts result from surveys done in the 19th
century.
Also, GPS data often requires a correction for a local horizontal chart
datum before it can be used in the chart.
 Corrections & edition: The chart is for example a 2009 edition but is
- when properly corrected - still valid in 2012. Corrections are published
continuously and the changes made should be mentioned in the bottom
left corner of the chart.

2.4. Information in the chart

 Depths reduced to chart datum: A sounding like 35 indicates 3½

metres of water under Lowest Astronomical Tide (when the chart datum
is “L.A.T.”). An underlined sounding like 04 indicates a height of 40 cm

36
 above L.A.T..
Heights above Chart Datum on drying areas are given in metres and
decimetres. The metres figure is underlined.
Depths are given from 0.1 to 20.9  in metres and decimetres, and
from 21 to 31 in metres and half metres. Greater depths are rounded
down to the nearest safest metre (for example, 32.7 metres is rounded
down to 32 metres).

The geographical position of a sounding is the centre of the depth

figure.

 Isobaths: Lines connecting positions with the same depth: depth

contours.
 Heights reduced to chart datum: Heights of for instance,
lighthouses, mountains and cliffs are more often reduced to another
datum such as Mean High Water (M.H.W.) or Mean High Water Spring.
 Tidal information: Details of both the vertical (see chapter 7) and
the horizontal (see chapter 8) movement of the water is often
included in the chart.
 Lighthouses, Buoys & marks: Lights, lateral and cardinal marks,
see chapter 9.
 Seabed qualities: Pebbles, seaweed, rocks, wrecks, pipelines, sand
and other seabed characteristics for anchoring.
 Magnetic variation: The angle between the true North and the
magnetic North varies in place and time. The local variation is indicated
in the compass card , see chapter 3.
 Landmarks: conspicuous positions on the shore: Churches, radio
masts, mountain tops, etc. that can be used for compass bearings and
other means of navigation, these will be put to good use in SECTION
4.

2.5. Coordinates and Positions

A pair of nautical dividers (single handed dividers) is used to obtain

precise coordinates from the chart. This device enables you to take the
distance between that particular position and the closest grid line. You
then place the dividers on the scale with one end on this grid line,
leaving the other end precisely at your coordinate. Do this twice to get
both latitude and longitude at the scale on the edge of the chart.
Below are some examples.

Danger mark
32° 06,3' N  ,  25° 0
7,3' E

37
 Fish farm
32° 04,4' N  ,  24° 5
4,7' E

Anchorage
31° 46,0' N  ,  25° 0
4,0' E

Church
31° 48,4' N  ,  25° 2
5,0' E

Windmill
32° 01,0' N  ,  24° 5
7,8' E

Castle
32° 14,2' N  ,  25° 2
9,6' E

Water tower
31° 54,9' N  ,  24° 5
4,8' E

Radio mast
31° 54,8' N  ,  25° 1
0,0' E

Beacon green
31° 52,0' N  ,  24° 4
4,3' E

Plotting a position in the chart is done by reversing this method.

Some chart symbols come with a little line and circle   indicating the
precise location, like the “Radio mast”, otherwise the center of the
symbol is the precise location.

Another possible notation of 33° 28,5' E is 33° 28′ 30" E, which

however doesn't easily allow for more precision like 33° 28,500' E does.
Also note that in most countries a comma - and not a dot - is used as

38
the decimal separator. So instead of 33° 28.500' E, the consensus
notation for mariners is 33° 28,500' E.

2.5.1. Distances

To measure the distance between, for

instance, these two oil rigs, we will again need our dividers.
Remember, we can only use the vertical scale.

We first take a convenient distance like 10' (10 nautical miles) on the
vertical scale using the middle latitude. Then we start walking with the
dividers from the southern oil rig to northern one. Finally, we adjust the
dividers to measure the small remaining part at its own height, i.e. its
own latitude .
The image shows that the total distance is 37 nautical miles.

2.5.2. Courses
So, now we can measure distances and both plot and read out
positions, but we also need directions. For example, we need to find the
course from safe-water buoy A to safe-water buoy B. To accomplish
this we may use parallel rules as shown in this chart below:

39
First you line this instrument up with the two buoys. Then follows the
intriguing part in moving the device to the compass rose without losing
its alignment. Finally, when one of the rules is aligned with the heart of
the compass card, you can read course A –B. In this example: 170°.
Besides the parallel rules there are other types of instruments
available, notably the Breton plotter - also known as a Portland Course
Plotter - which features an adjustable rose.

2.5.3. Selection of Chart Symbols

Danger line in general

Wreck, least depth unknown but usually

deeper than 20 metres

Visible wreck

Wreck of which the mast(s) only are

visible at Chart Datum

Wreck, least depth known obtained by

        sounding only

Wreck, least depth known, swept by wire

        drag or diver

40
 Rock which covers and uncovers, height
   or    above Chart Datum

Rock awash at the level of Chart Datum

Underwater rock of unknown depth,

dangerous to surface navigation

Underwater rock of known depth,

   or    dangerous to surface navigation

Remains of a wreck, or other foul area,

non-dangerous to navigation but to be
avoided by vessels anchoring, trawling
etc.

Depth unknown, but considered to have

a safe clearance to the depth shown

Sounding of doubtful depth; Existence

           
doubtful; Reported, but not confirmed

      Position approximate; Position doubtful

Wind turbine
   or   

Chimney

        Tower; radio/television tower

Monument

Marina - boat harbour

Mosque, minaret

Silo

Tanks

Placeholder examples: Church (Ch)  

Tower (Tr)   Hotel   Cupola (Cu)  
Chimney (Chy).
CAPITALS indicate that the landmark is
conspicious.

Quarrie, mine

41
 Major light; minor light
More on lights in SECTION 9

Limit of safety zone around offshore

installation

Position of tabulated tidal stream data

      with designation “A”;   Tidal levels data
“a”

Green or black buoys (symbols filled

black): G = Green ; B = Black

Single coloured buoys other than green

and black: Y = Yellow ; R = Red

Multiple colours in horizontal bands, the

colour sequence is from top to bottom

Multiple colours in vertical or diagonal

stripes, the darker colour is given
first. W = White
More on buoys in SECTION 9

Lighted marks on multicoloured charts,

GPS displays and chart plotters. A yellow
coloured lobe indicates a White light!
Also note that beacons (here the
rightmost symbol with the green light)
has an upright G, instead of an oblique G
 

42
  

2.6. Glossary

 Mercator projection: Most coastal nautical charts are constructed

with this method. Angles are true and distances can be measured using
the vertical scale.
 Stereographic projection: Used for chart covering small areas. Like
the Mercator projection use the vertical scale to measure distances.
 Gnomeric projection: Used for vast areas. Great circles appear as
straight lines on the chart.
 Great circle navigation: The shortest course on earth between two
positions is a great circle; for circumnavigating and ocean crossings.
 Loxodrome: A line which makes the same angle with all meridians.
Theoretically not the shortest route, but a handy straight line on a
Mercator chart.
 Horizontal geodetic datum: Defines the relationship between the
ellipsoid adopted as the model of the Earth's shape, and the Earth
itself. Coordinates which refer to, for instance, AIA  should be
corrected before plotting them in a chart based on another horizontal
datum. If your GPS receiver consistently disagrees with known
positions by a constant amount and direction, then check that you have
set it to display the correct horizontal datum.
 Chart sounding datum: The tidal datum (fictitious plane) to which
soundings, heights, elevations and drying heights on a chart are
referred.
 Vertical scale: Distances in nautical miles or minutes (') should be
measured at the same latitude on the vertical scale.
 Corrections: Each chart is liable to corrections which are published by
either a national body or the publisher of the nautical chart.

3.0. MARINE COMPASS

43
3.1. Origin

In China compasses have been in use since the Han dynasty (2nd

century BCE to 2nd century CE) when they were referred to as “south-
pointers”. However at first these magnets were only used for geomancy
much like in the art of Feng Shui.

Eventually, during the Sung dynasty (1000 CE) many trading ships
were then able to sail as far as Saudi Arabia using compasses for
marine navigation. Between 1405 and 1433, Emperor Chu Ti's Treasure
Fleet of the Dragon Throne ruled the entire South Pacific and the Indian
Ocean, a territory that ranges from Korea and Japan to the Eastern
coast of Africa.

At this time Western mariners were still rather ignorant of the

navigational use of the magnet. Petrus Perigrinus van Maricourt wrote
a first treatise on the magnet itself: “De Magnete” (1269). And though
its nautical use was already mentioned in 1187 by the English monk
Alexander Neckham, the use onboard only came about around the 13th
and 14th century in the Mediterranean Sea.

Much later, in 1545, Pedro de Medina (Sevilla 1493-1567) wrote the

Spanish standard work “Arte de Navegar” on marine compass
navigation. This masterpiece was first translated in Dutch (1580) and
was -O Irony- used by Jacob van Heemskerk when the Dutch
destroyed the Spanish fleet near Gibraltar in 1607. The drawback was
of course Van Heemskerk's own death during this victory.

3.2. Magnetic Variation

In the fin-de-siècle of the sixteenth century mariners believed that the
magnetic north pole coincided with the geographic north pole. Any
suggestion otherwise had been denied by Pedro de Medina

Magnetic observations made by explorers in subsequent decades

showed however that these suggestions were true. But it took until the
early nineteenth century, to pinpoint the magnetic north pole
44
somewhere in Arctic Canada (78° N , 104° W). From then on the angle
between the true North and the Magnetic North could be precisely
corrected for. This correction angle is called magnetic variation or
declination.

It is believed that the Earth's magnetic field is produced by electrical

currents that originate in the hot, liquid, outer core of the rotating
Earth. The flow of electric currents in this core is continually changing,
so the magnetic field produced by those currents also changes. This
means that at the surface of the Earth, both the strength and direction
of the magnetic field will vary over the years. This gradual change is
called the secular variation of the magnetic field. Therefore, variation
changes not only with the location of a vessel on the earth but also
varies in time.

The correction for magnetic variation for your location is shown on the
nearest! Nautical. In this example we find a variation of 4° 15' W in
2009, with an indicated annual correction of 0° 08' E. Hence, in 2011
this variation is estimated to be 3° 59', almost 4° West. This means
that if we sail 90° on the chart (the true course), the compass would
read 94°.

Another example: let's say the compass rose gives a variation of 2° 50'
E in 2007, with a correction of 0° 04' E per year. In 2009 this variation
is estimated to be 2° 58', almost 3° East. Now, if we sail 90° on the
chart, the compass would read 87°.

3.2.1. Correcting for Variation

These overlayed compass roses show the difference between true north
and magnetic north when the magnetic variation is 10° West.

45
From the image we find: tc = cc + var
in which “cc” and “tc” stand for “compass course” and “true course”,
respectively.

To convert a true course into a compass course we need first assign

a “-” to a Western and a “+” to a Eastern variation. Note that this
makes sense! because of the clockwise direction of the compass rose.
Here, the inner circle is turned 10° anticlockwise, hence -10° .
Now, use the same but re-written equation:
cc = tc - var
235° = 225° - (-10°)
So, to sail a true course of 225°, the helmsman has to steer a compass
course of 235°.

To convert a compass course into a true course we can use the

original equation. If we have steered a compass course of 200°, we
have to plot a true course of 203° in the chart if the variation is 3° East
 or a true course of 190° if the variation is 10° West .

3.3. Magnetic Deviation

Magnetic deviation is the second correctable error. The deviation error
is caused by magnetic forces within your particular boat. Pieces of
metal, such as an engine or an anchor, can cause magnetic forces. And
also stereo and other electric equipment or wiring, if too close to the
compass, introduce errors in compass heading.

Furthermore, the deviation changes with the ship's heading, resulting in

a deviation table as shown below. The vertical axis states the correction
in degrees West or East, where East is again positive.

The horizontal axis states the ship's heading in degrees divided by ten.
Thus, when you sail a compass course of 220°, the deviation is 4° W.
(Note, that on most modern sailing yachts the deviation is usually not
larger than 3°).

When a compass is newly installed it often shows larger deviations than

this and needs compensation by carefully placing small magnets around
the compass. It is the remaining error that is shown in your deviation
table.

46
 You can check your table every now and then by placing your boat in
the line of a pair of leading lights and turning her 360 degrees.

3.4. Correcting for Both Deviation and Variation

Converting a compass course into a true course, we can still use

our equation but we need to add the correction for deviation:
cc + var + dev = tc

 Example 1: The compass course is 330°, the deviation is +3° (table)

and the variation is +3° (chart);
330° cc + 3° var + 3° dev = ?° tc
giving a true course of 336° which we can plot in our chart
 Example 2: The compass course is 220°, the deviation is -4° (table)
and the variation is still +3° (chart).
220° cc + 3° var + -4° dev = ?° tc
giving a true course of 219°.
 Example 3: The compass course is still 220°, therefore the deviation is
still -4° (table) but let's use a variation of -10° this time.
220° cc + -10° var + -4° dev = ?° tc
giving a true course of 206°.

Converting a true course into a compass course is a little less

straight forward, but it is still done with the same equation.

 Example 4: The true course from the chart is 305° and the variation is
+3° (chart), yet we don't know the deviation;
?° cc + 3° var + ?° dev = 305° tc
Luckily, we can rewrite this so this reads:
cc + dev = 305° tc - + 3° var = 302°
In plain English: the difference between the true course and the
variation (305 - + 3) = 302 should also be the summation of the
compass course and the deviation. So, we can tell our helms person to
steer 300°, since with a cc of 300° we have a deviation of +2° (As can
be deduced from the deviation table above).
 Example 5: The true course from the chart is 150° and we have a
Western variation of 7 degrees (-7°). We will use the rewritten equation
to get:
150° tc - - 7° var = cc + dev = 157°
From the deviation table we find a compass course of 160° with a
deviation of -3°.
Voilà!

47
 3.5. Magnetic course
   
The magnetic course (mc) is the heading after magnetic variation has
been considered, but without compensation for magnetic deviation. This
means that we are dealing with the rewritten equation from above:
tc - var = cc + dev = mc.

Magnetic courses are used for three reasons:

1. To convert a true course into a compass course like we saw in the

last paragraph.
2. On vessels with more than one steering compass, also more
deviation tables are in use; hence only a magnetic or true course
is plotted in the chart.
3. Bearings taken with a handheld compass often don't require a
correction for deviation, and are therefore useful to plot in the
chart as magnetic courses.

Note, that the actual course lines the navigator draws in the chart are
always true courses! These can subsequently be labeled with the true
course or the corresponding magnetic or compass course if appropriate.
In the next chapter we will be plotting courses in the chart.

To summarise, we have three types of “north” (true, magnetic and

compass north) like we have three types of courses: tc, mc and cc. All
these are related by deviation and variation.

Glossary

 Maps with isogonic lines :

World - overview 2000
World - detailed 2000
World - detailed 2005
World - animated in timeVariation: The angle between the
magnetic north pole and the geographic north pole. Also called the
magnetic declination .
 Secular variation: The change of magnetic declination in time with
respect to both strength and direction of its magnetic field.

48
 West (-) , East (+): Western variations or deviations are designated
with a negative sign by convention due to the compass card's clockwise
direction.
 Deviation: The error in compass heading caused by electric magnetic
currents and or metal objects.
 Deviation table: A table containing deviations in degrees versus the
ship's heading (compass course) in degrees. Usually plotted in a graph.
 True course: Course plotted in the chart i.e. course over the ground or
“course made good”. The course corrected for compass errors.
 Compass course: The course (ship's heading) without the correction
for compass errors.
 cc + var + dev = tc: This equation shows the connection between the
compass course, its errors and the true course. It can also be read as:
tc - var = cc + dev.

4.0. PLOTTING AND PILOTING

             
49
 4.1. Lines of Position (LOP)

The modern chart shows us positions of many recognizable aids to

navigation like churches and lighthouses, which facilitate the approach
to a coastal area. This concept originated from a chart by Waghenaer  
and proved a milestone in the development of European cartography.
This work was called “Spieghel der Zeevaerdt”  and included coastal
profiles and tidal information much like the modern chart. It enables us
to find the angle between the North and for example an offshore
platform, as seen from our position.

    
True courses                        
Compass courses

Taking a bearing on this oil rig with a compass provides us with a

compass course. This course first needs correction for both variation
and - via ship's heading - deviation  before plotting a Line of
Position (LOP) in the chart as a true course.
Our position is somewhere along this line.

4.2. Ranges
A precise way to obtain a LOP, and without a compass, is to locate two
aids to navigation in line. The map of Laura Island on the right shows
four examples of ranges, each consisting of two aids to navigation.

Please, note that:

 More distance between the two landmarks enhances accuracy.

50
 And less distance between the vessel and the closest aid to navigation
also enhances accuracy.

One of these four ranges consists of two lights that are intentionally
placed to provide a LOP. These pairs of lights are called range
lights or leading lights. In this case they indicate the approach
towards the marina and mark the channel between the dangerous rocks
along a true course of 50° . When looking towards any leading lights,
the nearest one will be lower.

Therefore, in the middle of the channel both lights will appear vertically
above each other.

Even when there are no man-made structures available, a range can be

found by using natural features such as coastlines and islets. The
example on the left shows a yacht that will avoid the dangerous wreck
as long as the islets don't overlap.
 

4.3. Position Fix

If two LOPs intersect we can construct a position fix: the ship's
position on the earth. 

Often however, a triangle occurs when a third LOP is added in the

construction. This indicates that there are errors involved in at least
one of the bearings taken. In practice, we should consider each LOP as
the average bearing in a wider sector of for instance 10° .

51
The optimum angular spread is 90° (two objects) or 120° (three
objects). Moreover, bearings on distant objects bring about more
uncertainty in our position fix as the sector widens. Finally, if moving
fast you should not put any time between the bearings.

The next example features a nocturnal landfall on Willemsen Island -

you are welcome to visit, but mind the rocks. The position fix is plotted
by taking bearings at two light-vessels as their lights appear over
the horizon . The variation is -1° and the ship's compass heading is
190°. Since we use our steering compass  for our bearings, we can
use the same deviation table. That means a deviation of -4° with
which we can calculate (cc + var + dev = tc) the true courses.

Construction 

Compass bearing on
Will. N is 72°
True course is 67°
Plot LOP with time &
true course

Compass bearing on
Will. S is 173°
True course is 168°
Plot LOP with time &
true course

Draw an ellipse where

the LOPs intersect
Notate time and “Fix”

52
 alongside
Position is 32° 04,2' N ,
24° 46,7' E

Without a third LOP - forming the dreaded triangle - there is the false
suggestion of accuracy. Yet, instrument errors, erroneous identification
of an aid to navigation, sloppy plotting, etc. can and will cause
navigation errors. Therefore, if close to e.g. rocks, you should assume
to be at the worst possible position (i.e. closest to the navigational
hazard).

The lines plotted in the chart are always true courses and these

are labeled with true courses by default; the “T” is optional. If labeled
with the corresponding magnetic course or compass course add an
“M” or “C”, respectively.

4.4. Estimated Position

It is sometimes impossible to obtain more than one LOP at a time. To
determine the ship's position with one aid to navigation we can use
a running fix. However if a running fix is not possible, we can
determine an estimated position.

An estimated position is based upon whatever incomplete navigational

information is available, such as a single LOP, a series of depth
measurements correlated to charted depths, or a visual observation of
the surroundings.

In the example on the right we see an estimated position constructed

using a single LOP and the ship's dead reckoning position (DR) .
This is done by drawing a line from the DR position at the time of the
LOP perpendicular to the LOP. An EP is denoted by a square instead of
an ellipse.

Do not rely on an EP as much as a fix. The scale of reliability, from

best to worst:

 Fix

53
 Running fix
 Estimated position
 DR position

4.5. Dead Reckoning

Dead reckoning  is a technique to determine a ship's approximate

position by applying to the last established charted position a vector or
series of vectors representing true courses and speed.

This means that if we have an earlier fix, we plot from that position our
course and “distance travelled since then” and deduce our current
position.

09:30 We start off with a Fix and plot a DR

position for 15 minutes later.

09:45 Our estimation about our speed and

course was correct, so we don't have
to charge the DR position.

10:00 and so on…

S = Speed through water (not over ground)  

C = Course through water (not over ground)
       T = True course (default) 
       M = Magnetic course for handheld
compass (no deviation correction) 
       C = Compass course for steering
compass (deviation correction)
Mark with an arrow, a semi-circle (circular
arc) and “DR”.

Dead reckoning is crucial since it provides an approximate position in

the future. Each time a fix or running fix is plotted, a vector
representing the ordered course and speed originate from it.

The direction of this course line represents the ship's course, and

the length represents the distance one would expect the ship to travel
in a given time. This extrapolation is used as a safety precaution: a
predicted DR position that will place the ship in water 1 metre deep
should raise an eyebrow…

In the example above the true courses are plotted in the chart, and to
assist the helmsman these course lines are labelled with the
corresponding compass courses. 

54
 4.6. Guidelines for Dead Reckoning:

 Plot a new course line from each new fix or running fix (single LOP).
 Never draw a new course line from an EP.
 Plot a DR position every time course or speed changes.
 Plot a corrected DR position if the predicted course line proofed wrong,
and continue from there.

4.6.1. Running Fix

Under some circumstances, such as low visibility, only one line of
position can be obtained at a time. In this event, a line of position
obtained at an earlier time may be advanced to the time of the later
LOP. These two LOPs should not be parallel to each other; remember
that the optimal angular spread is 90°.
The position obtained is termed a running fix because the ship has
“run” a certain distance during the time interval between the two LOPs.

09:16 We obtain a  
single LOP on
LANBY 1   
and plot a
corresponding
(same time)
dead reckoning
position. The
estimated
position is
constructed by
drawing the
shortest line
between the
DR and the
LOP:
perpendicular.

09:26 No LOPs at all.

We tack and
plot a DR
position.

09:34 We obtain a
LOP on LANBY
2. To use the
first LOP we
advance it
over a
construction

55
 line between
the two
corresponding
DR positions.
We use both
its direction &
distance.

To use the LOP obtained at an earlier time, we must advance it to the

time of the second LOP. This is done by using the dead reckoning plot.
First, we measure the distance between the two DR positions and draw
a construction line, which is parallel to a line connecting the two DR
positions.

Note that if there are no intervening course changes between the two
DR positions, it's easiest just to use the course line itself as the
construction line.

Now, using the parallel rulers we advance the first LOP along this
construction line over the distance we measured. Et voilá, the
intersection is our RFix.

If there is an intervening course change, it appears to make our

problem harder. Not so! The only DR positions that matter are the two
corresponding with the LOPs. 

4.6.2. Doubled Angle Fix

The Doubled angle on the bow fix resembles a running fix though

only one navigation aid is used.
In the example on the right the initial angle
α = 30° , β = 60°
(30°) on the bow is doubled (60°) yielding an
δ = 120° , γ = 30°
isosceles triangle . The distance travelled
Isosceles    d1 = d2
between the bearings is the same as the
distance from the visible wreck.

 Start with the visible wreck having a bearing of less than 45° off the
bow (α), note the log distance.
 Proceed along the course until the angle on the bow is doubled (β),
read the log: d1 is 10 nm.
 Use the log distance to find the position on the second LOP. It is an
isosceles triangle, so d2 is also 10 nm.
 Label it with an ellipse and "RFix" but realize it is less precise than a
running fix that involves two navigation aids.

4.6.3. Four-Point Fix

56
 If the first angle on the bow is 45°, a special situation occurs: The Four
point fix, so called since 45 degrees equals 4
points on the compass (1 point = 11,25° ). α = 45° , β = 90°
δ = 90° , γ = 45°
 Start with a bearing with 45° on the bow (α), Isosceles    d1 =
note the log. d2
 Proceed along the course till the angle on the
bow is 90° (β), read the log: d1 is 4 nm
 Use the log distance to find the position on the second LOP. Isosceles,
so d2 is also 4 nm.
 Label it with an ellipse and "RFix".

4.6.4. Special Angle Fix

The Special angle fix requires the mariner to know some special pairs
of angles (a : b) that give the distance travelled between bearings as
equal to the distance abeam .
In the example on the right α = 21° and β =
32° are used. Now, the log distance equals α = 21° , β = 32°
the shortest distance between wreck and d1 = d2
course line (6 nm).

A few practical pairs:

16 : 22      21 : 32
25 : 41      32 : 59
37 : 72      40 : 79

Remember: the greater the angular spread the better. Hence, of these
three fixes the four point fix is the most precise one.

4.6.5. Isosceles Triangle Fixes

I. Distance of the Horizon

On a flat world there would be no difference between the visible and
sensible horizon. However, on
Earth the visible horizon
appears several arc minutes
below the sensible
horizon due to two opposing
effects:

57
 the curvature of the earth's surface;
 atmospheric refraction.

Atmospheric refraction bends light rays pas sing along the earth's sur
face toward the earth. Therefore, the geo metrical horizon  appears
elevated, for ming the visible horizon.

The distance of the visible horizon is a (semi-empirical) function of Eye

Height:

II. Horizon Distances

 

Dipping range

If an object is observed to be just rising above or just dipping below the

visible horizon, its distance can be readily calculated using a simple
formula. 

The object's elevation (the height of a light above chart

datum ) can be found in the chart or other nautical
publication such as the 'List of Lights'. Note that in some
charts elevation is referred to a different datum than soundings . Click
on the image on the right to view a magnificent lighthouse.

The formula contains the two distances from the visible horizon and can
be simplified by the equation: 2.08 x (√Elevation + √Eye height) .
Many nautical publications contain a table called "distances of the
horizon" which can be used instead of the equation.

Use the dipping range to plot a Distance LOP  in the chart: a circle
equal in radius to the measured distance, which is plotted about the

58
 navigation aid. Finally, take a bearing on the object to get a second LOP
and a position fix.
Enter Eye height
(metres):
Enter Elevation
(metres):

Distance is (nm): 

Vertical Sextant Angle

Similarly, a distance LOP can be obtained by using a sextant to
measure the angle (arc) between for instance the light  and chart
datum of a lighthouse or any other structure of known elevation. Once
the angle is corrected for index error the distance can be found in a
table called: "Distances by Vertical Sextant Angle", which is based on
the following equation.

 The angle in minutes total, thus 1° 12' = 72' total, and corrected for
index error.
 Elevation in metres .
 Water height in metres above or below chart datum of object.
 Distance or Range in nautical miles.
 Ascertain whether the base of the object is beyond the horizon
 Corrected angle should be greater than 20'.

Though tables can be used for quick reference, this function is valid for
objects higher than usually tabulated . An example with a lighthouse
of 80 metres:

 Measured angle is 1° 19', index error is +6': angle = 73'.

 Let's assume water height at 3 metres above Mean Level datum.
 Range = 1.854*(80-3/73) = 1.96 nm.

The range can be used as a danger bearing.

Together with a compass bearing one object with known elevation

59
results in a position fix. If more than one vertical sextant angle is
combined the optimum angular spread should be maintained.
Enter Angle (minutes
total ):
Enter Elevation
(metres):

Distance is (nm): 

Often, the correction for water height can be left out. Though, realizing
that the horizon is closer than one might think , another correction is
sometimes needed. In the Mediterranean Sea for example we can see
mountain tops with bases lying well beyond the horizon. Mutatis
mutandis, the structures, which they bear have bases beyond the
horizon as well.

This is the equation for finding the distance of an object of known

elevation located beyond the horizon. In the denominator of this
equation a compensating factor is included by which the measured
angle should be reduced.

Enter Eye Height

(metres):
Enter Angle (minutes
total ):
Enter Elevation
(metres):

Distance is (nm): 

4.7. Estimation of Distance

The most obvious way to estimate distances is of
course by using the distance between our eyes. If we
sight over our thumb first with one eye then with the

60
other, the thumb moves across the background, perhaps first crossing
a tower second crossing a bridge.

The chart might tell that these structures are 300 m apart.
Use the ratio of: distance between eye and outstretched arm/distance
between pupils: usually 10 .

The objects are 3 kilometres away.

Other physical relationships are useful for quick reference. For example,
one finger width held at arm's length covers about 2° arc, measured
horizontally or vertically.

Two fingers cover 4°. Three fingers cover 6° and give rise to the three
finger rule:

"An object that is three fingers high is about 10 times as far away as it
is high."

4.7.1.  Estimation with Horizon

The image on the right shows us that it is possible to estimate the

height of any object that crosses the horizon as seen from our own
point of view.

This picture of the 'Pigeon Rocks' near Beirut harbour was taken from a
crow's nest at a height of 34 metres.
The distance of the visible horizon (12 nm) is far
larger than 34 metres . Therefore, we can - without any other
information - estimate that these rocks have a height of 34 metres as
well.

Factum: All tops crossing the horizon and with bases at sea level
are on eye level .

Furthermore, if we see these rocks over a vertical angle of for example

7°  = 0.1225 rad., then the range is 34/0.1225 = 277 metres.
Finally, plot both range and bearing in the chart to construct an EP, et
Voilà!

4.7.2. Fix by Depth Soundings

A series of depth soundings - in this example every 10 minutes - can
greatly improve your position fix:

61
 correct your soundings for tide, etc. ;
 copy the DR course line on a transparent sheet;
 write the depths adjacent according to the times of the soundings;
 move the sheet over the chart to find its best location.

Due to leeway, currents or other factors the two course lines need not
be parallel to or of same length as each other.

4.8. Guidelines for Advancing a LOP:

 The distance: equal to the distance between the two corresponding DR

positions.
 The direction: equal to the direction between the two corresponding DR
positions.
 Draw the advanced LOP with a dotted line and mark with both times.
 Label the Running Fix with an ellipse and "RFix" without underlining.

4.8.1. Danger Bearing

Like the dead reckoning positioning, the danger bearing is an important
tool to keep the ship out of harm's way

62
  

First, the navigator identifies the limits of safe, navigable water and
determines a bearing to for instance a major light.
This bearing is marked as “No More Than” (NMT) or “No Less Than”
(NLT), depending on which side is safe. Hatching is included on the
side that is hazardous, along with its compass bearing.

In the example on the right a true course of 325° is plotted (5°

variation ), marked with the magnetic course of 320°, practical for
a handheld compass that requires no deviation correction. 
Were we see that light at 350° magnetic - which is definitely “More
Than” - the rocks and wreck would be between us and the major light.
A possible cause could be a (tidal) stream from east to west.

When a distance  is used instead of a direction, a danger range is

plotted much the same way as the danger bearing.

4.8.2. Turn Bearing

The Turn bearing - like the danger bearing - is constructed in the chart
in advance. It should be used as a means of anticipation for sailing out
of safe waters (again like the danger bearing and dead reckoning). The
turn bearing is taken on an appropriate aid to navigation and is marked
“TB”. As you pass the object its bearing will slowly change. When it
reaches the turn bearing turn the vessel on her new course.
This type of bearing is also used for selecting an anchorage position or
diving position.

4.8.3. Snellius construction  

Willebrord Snellius  - a 16th century mathematician from Leiden, the
Netherlands - became famous for inventing the loxodrome and his
method of triangulation.

The Snellius construction was first used to obtain the length of the

63
 meridian by measuring the distance between two Dutch cities . He
took angles from and to church towers of villages in between to reach
his objective. Nowadays we use the Snellius method to derive our
position from three bearings without the use of LOPs, and while leaving
out deviation and variation, which simplifies things. Also, since only
relative angles are needed a sextant can be used to measure navigation
aids at greater distances. Closer in a compass can be used.

The construction:

 See figure 1: Compass bearings are 320° on A;   360° on B;   050° on

object C.
 The angle between A and B = 40°.
 The angle between B and C = 50°.
 Draw lines from A to B and from B to C.
 Add the two light-blue perpendicular bisectors of lines AB and BC.
 Draw at object A a construction line 40° inland of line AB.
 Draw at object C a second construction line 50° inland of line CB.

 See figure 2: At object A: draw a line perpendicular to the construction

line.
 At object C: draw another line perpendicular to the construction line.
 The two intersections with the light-blue lines indicate the centres of
two circles.
 Finally, draw the first circle using A and B and the second circle using B
and C.
 The off shore intersection of the two circle gives us our position fix.

64
The advantage: deviation and variation can be left out since the angles
(here 40° and 50°) are relative ones. Moreover, a sextant can be used
to obtain angles between objects at greater distances, that with a
compass would be less precise.

4.8.4. International Notation

International notation conventions for plotting in the chart

Fix LOP

LOP
Running Fix
advanced

Estimated Course &

Position Speed
   
Dead Set &
Reckoning Drift

Electronic
   
Fix (GPS)

Electronic
   
Fix (Radar)

Note, that a few countries use an alternative symbol 

65
 Plotting should be done with a soft pencil. Moreover, avoid drawing
lines through the chart symbols. This is to prevent damage to the chart
when you have to erase the construction.

Glossary

 Line of Position (LOP): The locus of points along which a ship's

position must lie. A minimum of two LOPs are necessary to establish a
fix. It is standard practice to use at least three LOPs when obtaining a
fix, to guard against the possibility of and, in some cases, remove
ambiguity.
 Transit fix: The method of lining up charted objects to obtain an LOP.
 Leading lights or Range lights: A pair of lights or day marks
deliberately placed to mark a narrow channel.
 Position fix: The intersection of various LOPs.
 Cross bearing: The use of LOPs of several navigational aids to obtain
a position fix. Remember to use an optimal angular spread.
 Running fix: The use of an advanced LOP. Make sure to use only the
corresponding DR positions. Also don't use the EP for advancing the
first LOP.
 Dead reckoning: Determining a position by plotting courses and
speeds from a known position. It is also used to predict when lights
become visible or to determine the set and rate of a current.
 Estimated position: Combine a corresponding DR position with a
single LOP to get an EP position.
 Snellius construction: Another way to combine three compass
bearings to obtain a position fix. The advantage over a cross bearing is
that both magnetic variation and deviation don't need to be taken into
account.
 Course: (C) The direction in which a vessel is steered or is intended to
be steered (direction through the water).
 Speed: (S) The speed of the boat through the water.
 Set: (SET) The direction in which the current is flowing (see chapters
6,7 and 8).
 Drift: (DFT) The speed (in knots) of the current (see chapters 6,7 and
8).
 Default heading is True course (M = magnetic , C = compass).
 Default time is 24 hour clock ship time else UTC.

5.0. PILOTING AND NAVIGATION

66
5.1. Navigation Plotting Tools

There are just a few basic tools needed for navigation, yet there are
many, many options available”not to mention the unlimited number of
gizmos and gadgets that do this or that job in special circumstances.

The basics are a pair of dividers, parallel rulers, a simple ruler, and a
protractor. Beyond that we venture into the realm of luxury, which is
never far from the realm of clutter.

Below are a few notes on the basic tools. You can click the small
pictures for more details on the individual tools.

5.1.1. Dividers

Dividers are used to measure the distance between two points, and also
to help align parallel rulers or plotters. There are several styles. We
carry only the one we recommend which is a type of speed bow called
the ultra-light dividers. They are imported from Denmark.

A bow is a tool that will hold its point separation once set,
and it is set by a rotating knob in the center of the tool as
opposed to conventional dividers which are just pulled open
or squeezed closed. A "speed" bow is one that you can pull
open or close by hand without having to use the center knob.
In other words, you can override the fine control of the
center knob by firmly pulling or pushing on the legs themselves.

This particular model has become the dividers of choice for the vast
majority of professional navigators worldwide because of its ease of use
and accuracy. This was also helped by the fact that it was imported by
Weems and Plath which have a worldwide distribution network in nav
tools and it sells for a very good price. Before this model appeared
some fifteen years ago, quality speed bows were in the 30-dollar range
and were awkward to use. This one is light weight, and easy to use.

This one includes a pack of leads, so you can change its operation from
dividers to drawing compass to draw arcs used in distance off
measurements.

5.1.2. Parallel Rulers

This is a tool that lets you draw one-line parallel

to another, some distance away from it. To use it,
67
align one edge of the rulers with the base line, and then holding down
that side of the tool, move the other side to the location of the new
line. If the new location cannot be reached in one step, then you "walk"
the rulers across the page to the destination holding one ruler down
while you move the other.

It takes a bit of practice to manipulate these without

slipping, but after some practice it is quite easy.
There are numerous styles and sizes of these. We
recommend clear plastic, 15 inches long.

An alternative to parallel rulers is a rolling tool

called a parallel plotter, or more specifically, the Weems parallel plotter,
named after its inventor. These are designed to roll without sliding,
which they generally do fairly well, with little practice. Unfortunately,
rolling plotters do not work well near the edges of charts, or over folds
in the chart. We carry both tools underway and use the Weems plotter
whenever possible, but immediately switch to parallel rulers if need be.

5.1.3. Ruler and Protractor

Navigation plotting is much like any graphical or

drafting work. We often need a ruler and,
whenever angles are involved frequently in navigation, for courses,
bearings, and vector plotting we need a protractor.

A protractor is a tool that lets us draw angles of a specific size, or draw

a line in a given direction.  The square protractor we offer is especially
convenient for plotting celestial lines of position, and having the full
360° often reduces the chances of plotting errors if we are very tired
underway.

The 4" x 15" ruler we offer can be used with either the parallel plotter
or the parallel rules to extend a line, or it can be used as a stand-alone
device to do the job of both parallel plotter and protractor. Some
mariners prefer this one-tool solution to plotting, others are willing to
carry an extra tool to expedite individual tasks.

With the the "Navigator's Tool Pack" you can practice with each of
these tools to see which meets your needs best.

68
 Parallel rulers and plotter are, of course, rulers in their own right, but
we have enough need for longer lines and other special applications to
justify having a separate ruler in the nav station. Same with the
protractor.

3.1.3. Tools Needed for Specific Courses

Generally, we would say that if you are going navigating, you will need
all of these. You could choose only one method of drawing parallel lines
(rulers or plotter), rather than both as suggested here, but other than
that choice, each of the other tools serve an important role in some
aspect of navigation plotting. Note that this, however, covers all types
of navigation: coastal, celestial, weather work, and radar work. No
other tools are needed.

Navigator's Tool Pack

    Overview

 Line Of Position (LOP): The locus of points along which a ship's

position must lie. A minimum of two LOP's are necessary to establish a
fix. It is standard practice to use at least three LOP's when obtaining a
fix, to guard against the possibility of and, in some cases, remove
ambiguity.

69
 Range or Distance LOP: Obtained by using a stadimeter, sextant or
radar. A circle equal in radius to the measured distance is plotted about
the navigation aid; the ship must be somewhere on this circle.
 Running fix: A position determined by crossing lines of position
obtained at different times and advanced or retired to a common time.
 Dead reckoning: Determining a position by plotting courses and
speeds from a known position. It is also used to predict when lights
become visible or to determine the set and drift of a current. DR
positions are drawn in advance to prevent sailing into danger. A DR
position will be plotted:
o every hour on the hour;
o at the time of every course change or speed change;
o for the time at which a (running) fix is obtained, also a new
course line will be plotted;
o for the time at which a single LOP is obtained;
o and never draw a new course line from an EP position!
 Estimated position: The most probable position of a craft determined
from incomplete data or data of questionable accuracy. Such a position
might be determined by applying a correction to the dead reckoning
position, as for estimated current; by plotting a line of soundings; or by
plotting a LOP of questionable accuracy.
 Double angle on the bow: A method of obtaining a running fix by
measuring the distance a vessel travels on a steady course while the
relative bearing (right or left) of a fixed object doubles. The distance
from the object at the time of the second bearing is equal to the run
between bearings, neglecting drift.
 Four point fix: A special case of doubling the angle on the bow, in
which the first bearing is 45° right or left of the bow. Due to angular
spread this is the most precise isosceles fix.
 Special angle fix: A construction using special pairs of relative angles
that give the distance travelled between bearings as equal to the
navigation aids' range abeam.
 Distance from horizon: The distance measured along the line of sight
from a position above the surface of the earth to the visible horizon.
 Sensible horizon: The circle of the celestial sphere formed by the
intersection of the celestial sphere and a plane through the eye of the
observer, and perpendicular to the zenith-nadir line.
 Visible horizon: The line where Earth and sky appear to meet. If there
were no terrestrial refraction, visible and geometrical horizons would
coincide. Also called : apparent horizon.
 Geometrical horizon: Originally, the celestial horizon; now more
commonly the intersection of the celestial sphere and an infinite
number of straight lines tangent to the earth's surface and radiating
from the eye of the observer.
 Dipping range or Geographic range: The maximum distance at
which the curvature of the earth and terrestrial refraction permit an aid
to navigation to be seen from a particular height of eye (without regard
to the luminous intensity of the light).

70
 Elevation: The height of the light above its chart datum in contrast to
the height of the structure itself.
 Chart Datum: Officially: Chart Sounding Datum: An arbitrary
reference plane to which both heights of tides and water depths are
expressed on a chart. In the same chart heights can be related to other
datums than depths.
 Vertical sextant angle: The method of using the subtended angle of a
vertical object to find its range.
 Index error: In a marine sextant the index error is primarily due to
lack of parallelism of the index mirror and the horizon glass at zero
reading. A positive index error is subtracted and a negative index error
is added.
 Estimation with horizon: Estimation of heights using the horizon: All
tops crossing the horizon and with bases at sea level are on eye level.
 Estimation with depth effect: .
 Estimated position with soundings:

6.0. TIDES AND TIDAL PREDICTION

6.1. Overview

Most often the chart presents succinct tide tables for certain positions.
These positions are marked with the “square”. The table below shows
us an example for two different positions. The first refers to Cowes
(UK), the second to a position south of Cowes.

Heights above LAT

 Position Mean HW Mean LW
SpringNeapSpringNeap
1,5 0,4 71
 Cowes 1,7 m 0,2 m
m m
4,3 1,2
5,2 m 0,4 m
m m
 This data only provides us with average high and low waters heights.
Moreover, it is merely valid at spring or neap tides. To use it we need
to first find out how many hours we are from high water. Secondly, we
need to know if it is spring or neap or sometime in between at that
particular moment. We shall use this table to solve two types of
problems. Finding height of tide at a particular location at a particular
time:

 To get over a shoal.

 To pass under a bridge.

Almanacs and many other nautical publications contain predictions of

the times of high and low tides at many major standard ports . Also
listed are differences in times of tides from these ports for additional
secondary ports . To work with this succinct data we need two extra
tools:

  To interpolate between high and low

water heights we use the Rule of
Twelve. We assume the tidal curve to
be a perfect sinusoid with a period of 12
hours. The height changes over the full
range in the six hours between HW and
LW.

During first hour after heigh water (HW)

the water drops 1/12th of the full range.

o During the second hour an

additional 2/12th.
o During the third hour an additional 3/12th.
o During the fourth hour an additional 3/12th.
o During the fifth hour an additional 2/12th.
o During the sixth hour an additional 1/12th.

Hence, two hours after the HW the water has fallen 3/12 of the full
range.

 To interpolate between spring and neap tides we use the Rule of

Seven. Since the change from spring range to neap range can be

72
 assumed linear (instead of sinusoid), each day the range changes with
1/7th of difference between the spring and neap ranges.
Hence, the daily change in range is (spring range - neap range)/7.

6.2. Shoal Problem:

Our shoal near Cowes has a charted depth of 1 meter and we would
like to cross it at about 15:00 hours with our yacht (draft 1,5 m).

From any nautical almanac we find that HW occurs at 03:18 15:53 and

LW occurs at 09:45 22:03 at a standard port nearby. We also find that
at our location HW occurs one hour later and that spring tide is due in
two days. Hence, we have a HW around 17:00.

 Via the rule of seven we find out that today the range is:

spring range - 2 x ( (spring range - neap range)/7 )
<=> 4,8 - 2 x ( ( 4,8 - 3,1)/7 ) <=>4,8 - 2 x 0,25 = 4,3 m.
 We also need today's HW height:
which is Spring HW - 2 days x ( (5,2 -4,3)/7 ) = 5,0 m .
 Via the rule of twelve we find out that at two hours before high water  
the height is:
5,0 - 3/12 x 4,3 = height at 15:00 hours = 3,9 m.

So, after three interpolations we derive the water height at 1500 hours.
Considering the charted depth leads to an observed depth of 4,9
meters, enough for our draft of 1,5 meters.

6.3. Bridge Problem:

An overhanging rock, power lines or bridges have their clearances

charted with respect to another chart datum than LAT. Normally, 'high
water' or 'MHW spring' are used as reference planes.

An example:
Above our shoal hangs the 'Cowes bridge'. At 15:00 hours we would
like to pass this bridge, which has a charted height of 20 meters to HW.
Our mast is 23 meters high. In the example above we found that the
water height was 1,1 meters below HW level at that time. Obviously,
we will have to wait!
So, at what time will we be able to pass under this bridge?
The water height must be 3 meters lower than HW level (5,0 m). That
is almost 9/12 of the range (4,3 m) indicating four hours after HW .
Conclusion, we will have to wait at least six hours in total.

6.4. Information from

Tide Tables

73
Instead of mere averages, a tide table provides us each day with the
times of high and low water for a particular place. Basically, it is same
table like the one we found in the chart, but is extended for every day
in a year. By using this method, we get more accurate water heights
since it involves less interpolation. The example shows us a part of a
very detailed tide table, which even includes heights for every hour.

6.5. Information from Tidal Curves

In most tables the tides can also be characterized by a tidal curve. This
method substitutes the rule of twelve providing more accurate heights.
The left side contains the water height information with the lowest
heights to the left where also the chart datum is indicated. The low
water height will be marked at the bottom and the high water height
will be marked at the top.

The area under the curve will be marked with the time information.
To find the water height at a specific time we need to know first how
many hours before or after the HW this is. Then

74
 Often this is done when the curve is not sinusoid and the rule of twelve
is rendered useless.

Overview

 Tide: The vertical rise and fall of the surface of a body of water caused
primarily by the differences in gravitational attraction of the moon, and
to a lesser extent the sun, upon different parts of the earth when the
positions of the moon and sun change with respect to the earth.
 Spring Tide: The tidal effect of the sun and the moon acting in concert
twice a month, when the sun, earth and moon are all in a straight line
(full moon or new moon). The range of tide is larger than average.
 Neap Tide: This opposite effect occurs when the moon is at right
angles to the earth-sun line (first or last quarter). The range of tide is
smaller than average.
 Range: The vertical difference between the high and low tide water
levels during one tidal cycle.
 Tidal Day: 24 hours and 50 minutes. The moon orbits the earth once
earth month, and the earth rotates (in the same direction as the
moon's orbit) on its axis once every 24 hours.
 Tidal Cycle: A successive high and low tide.
 Semi-diurnal Tide: The most common tidal pattern, featuring two
highs and two lows each day, with minimal variation in the height of
successive high or low waters.
 Diurnal Tide: Only a single high and a single low during each tidal
day; successive high and low waters do not vary by a great deal. Gulf
of Mexico, Java Sea and in the Tonkin Gulf.
 Mixed Tide: Characterized by wide variation in heights of successive
high and low waters, and by longer tide cycles than those of the
semidiurnal cycle. U.S. Pacific coast and many Pacific islands.
 Chart Datum or Tidal reference planes: These fictitious planes are
used as the sounding datum for the tidal heights.
 Drying Height: Clearance in meters (or feet in old charts) above the
chart datum.
 Charted Depth: Clearance in meters (or feet in old charts) below the
chart datum.
 Observed Depth: Height of tide + charted depth: the actual depth in
meters.
 Height of light: The height of light above the bottom of its structure.
 Elevation: The height of the light above the chart datum.
 Rule of Twelve: Assuming a tidal curve to be a perfect sinusoid with a
period of 12 hours. The height changes over the full range in the six

75
 hours between HW and LW with the following fractions during each
respective hour: 1/12  2/12  3/12  3/12  2/12  1/12.
 Rule of Seven: The change from spring range to neap range can be
assumed linear, each day the range changes with 1/7th of difference
between the spring and neap ranges. Hence, the daily change in range
= (spring range - neap range)/7.

7.0. CURRENTS AND OCEANS 

7.1. Overview

Currents reflect the horizontal movement of water whereas tides reflect

vertical movements. These currents influence the ship's position and
are therefore important to understand.
The horizontal movement is primarily caused by the gravitational pull of
celestial bodies. But also other factors are in play:

76
 differences in water temperatures caused by heating and cooling due to
the earth's atmosphere;
 differences in salinity caused by rain, evaporation and estuaries;
 wind induced friction;
 the Coriolis force which is a consequence of the earth's rotation.

Prominent features in the map of the major oceanic surface

currents include the subtropical gyres centered on 30 degrees latitude
in each of the major ocean basins.

The earth's rotation (origin of the Coriolis force) and the change in wind
direction with latitude (from the east in the tropics and from the west at
mid-latitudes) cause the circulation of the gyres to be clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere.

The well-known Gulf Stream in the Atlantic and its counterpart in the
Pacific, the Kuroshio Current, are strong currents  that carry heat
northward from the tropics. The deep oceanic currents (not shown)
are caused primarily by water density differences and in general return
the (now colder) water back towards the tropics.

To predict the behavior of major ocean currents several references are

available.

7.2. Sailing Directions Planning Guides

The Sailing Directions Planning Guides contain some information on

normal locations and strengths of ocean currents. Nevertheless,
the Pilot Charts are by far the best reference for predicting the
direction and speed of these currents.

On these charts, arrows indicate the direction of the prevailing current;

a number printed above the arrow indicates the average speed. Since

77
 this information is based upon historical averages, it won't predict the
actual ocean current encountered with 100% accuracy.

Ocean surface currents need not be considered in coastal areas.

Usually, when close to the continental shelf, the horizontal movement
of water is defined by two terms:

 tidal stream or tidal current: gravitational

 current: grafitational, rivers, wind

In order to predict tidal stream one needs to use tide tables in

conjunction with a tidal atlas, or a chart diamond.
Tidal streams are described by drift/rate and set, in which drift/rate is
the speed and set is the direction of the current.

7.3. Tidal Atlases

Tidal stream atlases show the tidal currents for each hour of the tidal
cycle. They comprise a total of 13 tidal charts ranging from 6 hr before
HW till 6 hr after HW .

So, these charts are relative to the time of HW and to use them we
must know the absolute time of HW.
 

Though several layouts can be used, usually the direction of the tidal
stream is shown by arrows, which are heavier where the tidal streams
are stronger.

Figures against the arrows give the mean neap and spring drift
or rate in tenths of knots.
For example,   indicates a mean neap drift of 2.1 knots and a mean
spring drift of 4.6 knots.

8.0. AIDS TO NAVIGATION

Aids to navigation are special structures like lighthouses, lightships,
beacons, buoys, etc that are used to enhance safety by providing more
opportunities to obtain LOPs.

78
 8.1. Lights and Buoys
 
These lights and marks are prescribed across the world by the
International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA). In 1977
this IALA endorsed two maritime buoyage systems putting an end to
the 30 odd systems existing at that time. Region A - IALA A covers all
of Europe and most of the rest of the world, whereas region B - IALA
B covers only the Americas, Japan, the Philippines and Korea.
Fortunately, the differences between these two systems are few. The
most striking difference is the direction of buoyage.

All marks within the IALA system are distinguished by:

 Shape
 Colour
 Topmark
 Light

8.1.1. Light Identification

During daytime, the identification of aids to navigation is accomplished

by observing: location, shape, colour scheme, auxiliary
features (sound signals, RACON , RC , etc) or markings (name,
number, etc).

During the night, we use the features of the aid to navigation's light to

both identify it and ascertain its purpose. There are three features to
describe the light:

 Colour: Either white, red, green or yellow. If no colour is stated in the

chart, default is white.
 Period: The time in seconds needed for one complete cycle of
changes.     The arrow indicates the 10 second
period of this flashing light “Fl(3) 10s”.
 Phase characteristic: The particular pattern of changes within one
complete cycle (hence, within one period). Below are the most common
types:

 Fixed   F
   This light shines with an unblinking and
steady intensity and is always on. In this example a yellow fixed
light is shown.
 Flashing   Fl:
   The duration of the light is always less than
the duration of the darkness. The frequency does not exceed 30
times per minute.

79
  Quick Flashing   Q:
   Again, the duration of quick flash is less
than the darkness. The frequency is at least 60 times per minute.
 Very Quick Flashing   VQ:
   Also here, the duration of very quick flash is
less than the darkness. The frequency is at least 100 times per
minute.
 Interrupted Quick Flashing   IQ:
   Like Quick Flashing with one moment of
darkness in one period.
 Isophase   Iso:
   This Light has equal duration between light
and darkness. A period consists of both a light and a dark
interval. Also called Equal Interval (E Int).
 Group Flashing   Gp Fl(x+x):
   This is actually a combination of two
patterns in one period. In this example the first 2 flashes followed
by the pattern of 3 flashes result in: Gp Fl(2+3).
 Occulting   Occ:
   Occulting is the opposite of flashing, the
light is more on then off.
 Alternating   AL:
   An alternating light changes colour. This
special purpose light is typically used for special applications
requiring the exercise of great caution. In this example ALT.WG is
shown, alternating between green and white.
 Morse U   Mo (U):
   This light shows two flashes and a
longflash, which is equivalent to the letter “U” in Morse code.
 Long-Flashing   LFl:
   This light has one long flash in a period. A
long flash is at least 2 seconds long.

Let's look at some examples using colour, period and phase

characteristics. The arrows mark the periods:

   Fl (4) 8s
   Oc (2+3) 10s
   Iso G 4s

All lighted aids to navigation are either major or minor lights, where

major lights are used for key navigational points along sea-coasts,
channels and harbour and river entrances. These lights are normally
placed in lightships, lighthouses and other permanently installed
structures, providing both high intensity and high reliability of the
lights. Major lights are then subdivided in primary lights (very strong,
long range lights used for the purpose of making landfalls or coastal

80
 passages) and secondary lights (shorter range lights found for
example at harbour and river entrances).

Important details of (especially) primary lights can be found in a

reference called the Light List where information (about pedestals
etc.) can be found which is not included in the chart. 

Minor lights on the other hand are likely to be found within harbours,
along channels and rivers. These have a low to moderate intensity and
sometimes mark isolated dangers.

8.1.2. Navigation Buoys

There are Six types of Navigation buoys:

 Lateral
 Cardinal
 Isolated danger
 Safe water
 New wreck
 Special

8.1.2.1. Lateral Buoys and Marks

The location of lateral buoys defines the borders of channels and
indicates the direction. Under IALA A red buoys mark the port side of
the channel when returning from sea, whereas under IALA B green
buoys mark the port side of the channel when sailing towards land. Red
buoys have even numbers and red lights; green buoys have odd
numbers and green lights. Lateral lights can have any calm phase
characteristic except FL (2+1).

Generally, when two channels meet, one will be designated the

preferred channel (i.e. most important channel). The buoy depicted on
the right indicates the preferred channel to starboard  under IALA A.
The light phase characteristic is R FL (2+1):   
 

81
 The buoy depicted on the left indicates the preferred channel
to port  under IALA A. These buoys are marked with the names and
numbers of both channels. The light phase characteristic is G FL (2+1):
 
For an example of lateral buoys used to mark a (preferred) channel,
see direction of buoyage below.

8.1.2.2. Cardinal Buoys

The four cardinal buoys indicate the safe side of a danger with an
approximate bearing. For example, the West cardinal buoy has safe
water on its West and the danger on its East side. Notice the
“clockwise” resemblance of the light phase characteristics. The top
marks consist of two black triangles placed in accordance with the
black/yellow scheme of the buoy. When a new obstacle (not yet shown
on charts) needs to be marked, two cardinal buoys - for instance a
South buoy and an East buoy - will be used to indicate this “uncharted”
danger. The cardinal system is identical in both the IALA A and IALA B
buoyage systems. 

8.1.2.3. Marks indicating isolated dangers

This type of buoy indicates the position of an isolated

danger, contrary to cardinal buoys which indicate a direction away from

82
 the danger. Body: black with red horizontal band(s); Topmark: 2 black
spheres. The light (when present) consists of a white flash: Fl(2). 
 

8.1.2.4. Marks indicating safe water

Notice that whereas most horizontal

striping spells “danger”, this safe water buoy is vertically striped. These
marks are for example seaward of all other buoys (lateral and cardinal)
and can be used to make landfall. Body: red and white vertical stripes;
Topmark (if any): single red sphere. Lights are typically calm and
white: Morse A, Iso, Occ or LFl 10s. 

8.1.2.5. Marks for New Wrecks

After the sinking of the “Tricolor” in the Pas de Calais (Dover Straits)
in 2002, several other vessels hit the wreck despite standard radio
warnings, three guard ships and a lighted buoy. This incident spawned
a new type of buoy, the emergency wreck marking buoy, which is
placed as close as possible to a new dangerous wreck. 

The emergency wreck marking buoy will remain in position until: a) the
wreck is well known and has been promulgated in nautical publications;
b) the wreck has been fully surveyed and exact details such as position
and least depth above the wreck are known; and c) a permanent form
of marking of the wreck has been carried out. 

The buoy has the following characteristics:

 A pillar or spar buoy, with size dependant on location.

 Coloured in equal number and dimensions of blue and yellow vertical
stripes (minimum of 4 stripes and maximum of 8 stripes).
 Fitted with an alternating blue and yellow flashing light with a nominal
range of 4 nautical miles where the blue and yellow 1 second flashes
are alternated with an interval of 0.5 seconds. 
B1.0s + 0.5s + Y1.0s + 0.5s = 3.0s   
 If multiple buoys are deployed then the lights will be synchronized.

83
 A racon Morse Code “D” and/or AIS transponder can be used.
 The top mark, if fitted, is a standing/upright yellow cross .

It is important to realize - especially for the colour-blind - that this new

buoy breaches the useful and crucial convention: vertical stripes equal
safety, horizontal stripes equal danger.

8.1.2.6. Special Buoys and Marks

I have saved these buoys for last since they lack an actual navigational
goal. Most of the time these yellow buoys indicate pipelines or areas
used for special purposes. 
I have drawn the five official IALA shapes, from left to
right: conical, spar, cylindrical, pillar and spherical. 

8.2. Chart Symbols

The seafaring nations of the world - members of the International
Hydrographic Organization - agreed in 1982 on an universal set of
chart symbols, abbreviations, colours, etc to be used in the nautical
chart, in order to obtain uniformity.

On regular charts a white, red, yellow or green lights will be indicated

by  , and on GPS displays and modern multi-coloured charts in
specific colours:  , with the yellow coloured lobe indicating a
white light. 
The precise position of a chart symbol is its center, or is indicated with
a line and circle  , the “position circle”.

Two distinct types of sea mark are drawn differently in the

chart:

 beacons - fixed to the seabed; drawn upright;

 buoys - consisting of a floating object that is usually anchored to a
specific location on the sea floor; drawn at an oblique angle and with
oblique numbering, descriptions of colours and light characteristics.

Major floating light (light-vessel, major light-

float, LANBY)

Light-vessel

84
Major light; minor light

Green or black buoys (symbols filled

black): G = Green ; B = Black

Green or black beacon (symbol filled black).

Note the upright G, instead of an oblique G

Single coloured buoys other than green and

black: Y = Yellow ; R = Red

Coloured beacon other than green and black,

the symbol is again filled black so only the
shape of the topmark is of navigational
significance.

Multiple colours in horizontal bands, the colour

sequence is from top to bottom

Multiple colours in vertical or diagonal stripes,

the darker colour is given first. W = White

Spar buoy (here a safe water mark)

Lighted marks on multi-coloured charts, GPS

displays and chart plotters.

Lighted red beacon on standard charts.

Red beacon and green buoy with topmark,

colour, radar reflector and designation. Red
buoys and marks are given even numbers,
green buoys and marks are given odd numbers.

Wave-actuated bell buoy to the left, and to the

right a Light buoy, with a horn giving a single
blast every 15 seconds, in conjunction with a
wave-actuated whistle. Other sounds include
“Gong”, “Siren”, “Diaphone” (Dia). 
The fog signal symbol   may be omitted when a
description of the signal is given.

85
 Leading beacons - Leading line (firm line is
the track to be followed)

Leading lights (≠ : any two objects in line

under each other). Bearing given in degrees
and minutes. The lights are synchronized. The
red light has a shorter nominal range (the
distance from which the light can be seen): 10
nautical miles.

All-round light with obscured sector

Sector light on multi-coloured charts. 

The elevation is 21 metres (height of the light
structure above chart datum). 
The nominal range of the white light is 18
nautical miles. The range of the green and red
light is 12 nautical miles.

Main light visible all-round with red subsidiary

light seen over danger. The fixed red light has
an elevation of 55 metres and a nominal range
of 12 nautical miles. The flashing light is white,
with three flashes in a period of 10 seconds.
The elevation is higher than the red light: 62
metres and the range of the white light is 25
nautical miles.

Symbol showing direction of buoyage (where

not obvious)

Symbol showing direction of buoyage (where

not obvious), on multi-coloured charts (red and
green circles coloured as appropriate), here
IALA A

Full example of a light description in the chart: 

Fl(3)WRG.15s21m15-11M 
Class of light: group flashing repeating a group of three flashes; 
Colours: white, red, green, exhibiting the different colours in defined
sectors; 

86
Period: the time taken to exhibit one full sequence of 3 flashes and
eclipses: 15 seconds; 
Elevation of light : 21 metres; 
Nominal range(s): white 15 M, green 11 M, red between 15 and 11
M, where “M” stands for nautical miles.

8.3. Lateral Marks - Direction of Buoyage

Lateral marks are generally for well-defined channels and there are two
international Buoyage Regions - A and B - where these Lateral marks
differ. Where in force, the IALA System applies to all fixed and floating
marks except landfall lights, leading lights and marks, sectored lights
and major floating lights.

The standard buoy shapes are cylindrical (can)   , conical   ,

spherical   , pillar   and spar   , but variations may occur, for
example: minor light-floats  . In the illustrations below, only the
standard buoy shapes are used. 
In the case of fixed beacons   - lit or unlit - only the shape of the
topmark is of navigational significance.

IALA
Regi
on A

Europ
e
Africa
New
Zeala
nd
Austr
alia
China
India
Russi
a
Indon
esia
Turke
y
Middl
e
East
Etc.

87
 IALA
Regio
nB

Ameri
cas
Philip
pines
Japan
Korea
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

8.4. Visibility of Lights

It is important to know at what distance we may (begin to) see a

certain light, and when we can expect to lose sight of it, especially
when making landfall. Several practical ranges are used to the describe
the visibility of lights in navigation:

 The meteorological range is based on the current atmospheric

conditions. The table below shows that the atmosphere immensely
influences the visibility of light travelling through it.

Meteorological Optical Range Table

Code Distance       Code Distance

Weather Weather
No. (m) No. (nm)

Dense Less than

 0  5 Haze 1.0 - 2.0
fog 50

 1 Thick fog 50 - 200  6 Light haze 2.0 - 5.5

 2 Moderate 200 - 500  7 Clear 5.5 - 11.0

 3 Light fog 500 -  8 Very clear 11.0 -

88
 1000 27.0

1000 - Exceptionally
 4 Thin fog  9 Over 27.0
2000 clear

 The geographic range is based on the elevation of the light. A higher

light means that its horizon is farther away, see distance of horizon. 
Moreover, if the observer's height of eye is higher than sea level the
light can been seen beyond its geographic range, the dipping range.
However, on sailing yachts this potential is limited.
 The nominal range of a light is based on its candlepower, and is
typically the range mentioned in the chart. The nominal range is the
maximum distance at which a light can be seen in weather conditions
where visibility is 10 nm.

So, a minor light - perched on a 70m high cliff - with a geographic

range of 20 nm  will not be detectable by the human eye at a distance
of 6 nm

1. if the nominal range is just 5 nm.

2. if the meteorological range is just 5 nm due to a light haze.

Because of the limiting factor of the geographic range, most major

lights will never be seen from a sailing yacht 20 nm away. Yet, it is
sometimes possible to take a bearing on the loom of the light: its
reflection against the clouds.

Different coloured lights with equal candlepower have different ranges.

White light is the most visible followed by yellow, green and then red.
Therefore, at extreme ranges an “AL WG” can resemble a “Fl W”.

The range of a lit buoy is never indicated - with the exception of a

LANBY - but on a clear night the maximum range is 3 nm, yet often
considerably less.
There are 2 visual clues to determine your distance from a buoy: at
about 0.5 nm, the light will rise up from the horizon, and at about
200m, the light will reflect in the surface.

Buoy Buoy Buoy

89
 at less
at less at less
than
than 3 than
0.5
nm 200m
nm

Glossary

 Navigation aid: An onboard instrument, device, chart, method, etc.,

intended to assist in the navigation.
 Aid to navigation: A device or structure external to the ship, designed
to assist in determination of position, to define a safe course, or to
warn of dangers or obstructions.
 Mark, seamark, navigation mark: An artificial or natural object of
easily recognizable shape or colour, or both, situated in such a position
that it may be identified on a chart. A fixed artificial navigation mark is
often called a Beacon.
 Light characteristics: The sequence and length of light and dark
periods and the colour or colours by which a navigational light is
identified.
 Topmark: One of more objects of characteristic shape placed on top of
a buoy or beacon to aid in its identification.
 Lateral Mark: An aid to navigation intended to mark the sides of a
channel or waterway.
 Cardinal Marks: An IALA aid to navigation intended to show the
location of a danger to navigation based on its position relative to the
danger using the “cardinal point”: north, east, south, west.
 Isolated danger Marks: An IALA aid to navigation marking a danger
with clear water all around it; it has a double ball topmark and is black
with at least one red band. If lighted its characteristic is Fl(2).
 Sector light: A light having sectors of different colours or the same
colour in specific sectors separated by dark sectors.
 Light sector: As defined by bearings from seaward, the sector in which
a navigational light is visible or in which it has a distinctive colour
difference from that of adjoining sectors, or in which it is obscured.
 Lighthouse: A distinctive structure exhibiting a major navigation light.
 Light List: A publication giving detailed information regarding lighted
navigational aids and fog signals.
 Landfall: The first sighting (even by radar) of land when approached
from seaward.
 Range: Two or more objects in line. Such objects are said to be in
range. An observer having them in range is said to be on the range.
Two beacons are frequently located for the specific purpose of forming
a range to indicate a safe route or the centerline of a channel.
 Leading line: On a nautical chart, a straight line, drawn through
leading marks. A ship moving along such line will clear certain dangers
or remain in the best channel.

90
 Range lights, leading lights: Two or more lights at different
elevations so situated to form a range (leading line) when brought into
transit. The one nearest to the observer is the from light and the one
farthest from the observer is the rear light. The front light is at a lower
elevation than the rear light.
 Lights in line: Two or more lights so situated that when observed in
transit they define a position: the limit of an area, an alignment used
for anchoring, etc. Not to be confused with range lights, which mark a
direction to be followed.
 Light-float : A buoy having a boat-shaped body. Light-floats are
nearly always unmanned and are used instead of smaller lighted buoys
in waters where strong currents are experienced.
 Primary (sea-coast) light: A light established for purpose of making
landfall or coastwise past from headland to headland.
 Secondary light: A major light, other than a primary (sea-coast) light,
established at harbour entrances and other locations where high
intensity and reliability are required.
 Major light: A light of high intensity and reliability exhibited from a
fixed structure (lighthouse) or on marine site (except range lights).
Major lights include primary sea-coast and secondary lights.
 Minor light: An automatic unmanned light on a fixed structure usually
showing low to moderate intensity. Minor lights are established in
harbours, along channels, along rivers, and in isolated dangers.
 Visual range: The extreme distance at which an object of light can be
seen.
 Geographic range: The extreme distance limited by the curvature of
the earth and both the heights of the object and the observer.
 Bobbing a light: Quickly lowering the height of eye and raising it
again when a navigational light is first sighted to determine if the
observer is at the geographic range of the light.
 Luminous range: The extreme distance limited only by the intensity
of the light, clearness of the atmosphere and the sensitiveness of the
observer's eye.
 Luminous range diagram: A diagram used to convert the nominal
range of a light to its luminous range under existing conditions.
 Charted or Nominal Range: The nominal range is indicated in the
chart next to the light or can be found in the Light List. This is the
maximum distance at which a light may be seen at night based upon
intensity and 10 nautical miles of visibility.
 Meteorological Range: The nominal range is indicated in the chart
next to the light or can be found in the Light List. This is the maximum
distance at which a light may be seen at night based upon intensity and
10 nautical miles of visibility.

91
9.0. DISTANCE OF HORIZON

AD = h is the height of eye above the earth.

DO = BO = CO = r (radius of the earth).
Factum: any angle between a tangent line to a circle and the
radius of the circle is a right angle.
Since we have a right triangle ABO where AB = d,
AO = h+r and BO = r,
we can find a formula for d in terms of h:
(AO)2 = AB2+BO2
(h+r)2 = d2+r2
d = sqrt[(h+r)2-r2)],
where r is approx. 3.440.1 nm

An example: Let the eye height (h) be 4 meters (= 0.0022 nm); find
the distance in nm of the geometrical horizon.
d = sqrt[(0.0022 + 3.440.1)2 - 3.440.12)]   ;   d = sqrt[11834303 -
11834288]
d = sqrt[15.146]   ;   d = 3.89 nm (geometrical)

The distance of the visible horizon as found in the table is greater

(4.2 nm) due to atmospheric refraction.
The semi-empirical function used is:
d = sqrt[ (2x3440.1xh) / (1852xρo) ], where ρo accounts for refraction
(0.8279).

Running fixes

The sum of angles in a triangle is 180°

Draw a triangle ABC, then draw a

line DAE parallel to line BC. Now,
angles α and β in the triangle equal
angles DAB and EAC, respectively. Therefore,
the sum of angles in the triangle is 180° : a
straight line.

“Doubling the angle” yields two equal angles

So, α + δ + γ = 180°
α + 180 - β + γ = 180° α = 30° , β = 60°
2α = β thus γ = 30°
α + 180 - 2α + γ = 180°

92
 180° - α + γ = 180°
-α + γ = 0
γ = α

Two equal angles render an triangle isosceles

In the triangle on the right, α = γ and β = 2α.

By constructing the bisector h of angle β we
create two little triangles in which x=y.
Therefore, d1=d2.

Sextant angles

Vertical sextant angle

The triangle OBL (see fig. below) can be described in terms of H, α and
Distance:

Distance = H/tan(α)
The angle in rad. (0-2π) and both height and distance in metres.

 From rad. to degrees: α = A * π/180, 'A' being the same angle in

degrees.
 To describe angle A in minutes total, then A*60 = a, thus α = (a/60) *
(π/180). So, α = a/3438, 'a' being the angle in arc minutes.
 FACTUM: tan(x) = x, if angle x is small.

Resulting in (with π = 3.14): Distance (m)= H * 3438/a

 Furthermore, distance in nm. = distance in meters/1852.

Voilà, la very practical equation:

Distance = 1.856 * H/a

It contains just two approximations, both of neglitible influence. First,

we left out the tan function and second we used 3.14 forπ.
Please realize that a smaller angle improves the approximation of
the tan. Yet, as an opposing effect the instrument error of a smaller
sextant angle increases.

All in all, the factor 1.856 is not a typo, and just by chance near to the
nautical mile: 1.852 kilometres. If you are still reading, you are very
brave person and might perhaps agree that it originates from: (60 *
180)/(π * 1852).

93
So far we considered a perfect triangle (OBL) and forgot that life isn't
always perfect. Height h is usually quite small, but distance SB
sometimes is not. This leads to an extra premise, which is seldom
mentioned by other navigation textbooks:
Angle OLS should be bigger than 15°.

The arc of the equatorial westward through 360° and measured from
the celestial meridian of the Greenwich to the hour circle of the body.

The angle at the celestial pole measured westward from 0° to 360°

from the observer’s meridian to the celestial meridian of the body.

SECTION 3

94
NAUTICAL
ASTONOMY/CELESTIAL
NAVIGATION

1. 0. THE BASICS OF CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

1.1. Introduction

95
Celestial navigation, also called astronomical navigation, is the art and
science of finding one's own geographic position through astronomical
observations, mostly by measuring altitudes of celestial bodies – Sun,
Moon, planets, or stars.

An observer watching the night sky without knowing anything about

geography and astronomy might spontaneously get the impression of
being on a horizontal plane located at the center of a huge hollow
sphere with the celestial bodies attached to its inner surface. This naive
concept of a spherical universe has probably been in existence since
the beginning of mankind. Later, astronomers of the antiquity (Ptolemy
et al.) developed it to a high degree of perfection.

Still today, spherical astronomy is fundamental to celestial navigation

since the navigator, like the astronomers of old, measures apparent
positions of bodies in the sky without knowing their actual positions in
space.

The apparent position of a body in the sky is defined by the horizon

system of coordinates which is an example of a spherical
coordinate system. In this system, an imaginary (!) observer is
located at the center of the celestial sphere, a hollow sphere of
infinite diameter, which is divided into two hemispheres by the plane of
the celestial (or geocentric) horizon (Fig. 1-1).

The center of the celestial sphere coincides with the center of the Earth
which is also assumed to be a sphere. The first coordinate of the
observed body is its geocentric altitude, H. H is the vertical angle
between the plane of the celestial horizon and a straight line extending
from the center of the celestial sphere to the body. H is measured from
0° through +90° above the horizon and from 0° through -90° below
the horizon.

The geocentric zenith distance, z, is the corresponding angular

distance between the body and the zenith, an imaginary point
vertically overhead. The zenith distance is measured from 0° through
180°. H and z are complementary angles (H + z = 90°). The point
opposite to the zenith on the celestial sphere is called nadir (H = -90°,
z = 180°). H and z are also arcs of the vertical circle going through
zenith, nadir, and the observed body. The second coordinate of the
body, the geocentric true azimuth, AzN, is the horizontal direction of
the body with respect to the geographic north point on the celestial
horizon, measured clockwise from 0°(N) through 360°.
The geographic north point is the point where the vertical half circle
going from the zenith through the celestial north pole to the nadir
intersects the horizon (see chapter 3). The third coordinate of the body,
its distance from the center of the celestial sphere, is not measured.

96
In reality, the observer is not located on the plane of the celestial
horizon but on or above the surface of the Earth .
The imaginary horizontal plane passing through the observer's eye is
called sensible (or astronomical) horizon (Fig.
1-2).

The latter merges into the geoidal horizon, a plane tangent to the
Earth at the observer's position, when the observer's
97
eye is at sea level. The planes of celestial, geoidal, and sensible horizon
are parallel to each other and perpendicular
to the local direction of gravity which defines the positions of zenith
and nadir on the celestial sphere.

Since sensible and geoidal horizon are relatively close to each other
(compared with the radius of the Earth), they can
be considered as identical under most practical conditions. None of the
above fictitious horizons coincides with the visible horizon, the line
where the Earth's surface and the sky appear to meet.

Usually, the trigonometric calculations of celestial navigation are based

on the geocentric altitudes (or geocentric zenith distances) of bodies.
Since it is not possible to measure the geocentric altitude of a body
directly, it has to be derived from its altitude with respect to the visible
or sensible horizon (altitude corrections, chapter 2).

The altitude of a body with respect to the visible sea horizon is usually
measured with a marine sextant. Measuring altitudes with respect to
the (invisible) sensible horizon requires an instrument with an artificial
horizon, e. g., a
theodolite or a bubble sextant (chapter 2). An artificial horizon is a
device that indicates a plane perpendicular to the local direction of
gravity, for example by means of a spirit level or a pendulum.

Geocentric altitude and zenith distance of a celestial body are

determined by the distance between the terrestrial observer and the
geographic position of the body, GP. GP is the point where a
straight line extending from the center of the Earth, C, to the celestial
body intersects the Earth's surface (Fig. 1-3).

A body is in the zenith (H = 90°, z = 0°) when GP is identical with the

observer's position. A terrestrial (surfacebound) observer moving away
from GP will experience that the geocentric zenith distanze of the body

98
varies in direct proportion with the distance (measured along the
surface) between himself and GP.

The geocentric altitude of the body decreases accordingly. The body is

on the celestial horizon (H = 0°, z = 90°) when the observer is one
quarter of the circumference of the Earth away from GP. As soon as the
observer moves farther away from GP, the body disappears below the
horizon.

At a given instant, there is an infinite number of terrestrial positions

from which the same altitude of a body is measured (unless the body is
in the zenith). These positions are equidistant from GP and form a
circle of equal altitude on the Earth's surface (Fig. 1-4).

II.0.ALTITUDE MEASUREMENT

99
In principle, altitudes and zenith distances are equally suitable for
navigational calculations. Traditionally, most formulas are based upon
altitudes since these are easily measured using the visible sea horizon
as a natural reference line. Direct measurement of the zenith distance
requires an instrument with an artificial horizon, e. g., a pendulum or
spirit level indicating the local direction of gravity (perpendicular to the
plane of the sensible horizon) since a visible reference point in the sky
does not exist.

II.1. Instruments Altitude

II.1.1. Marine sextant

A marine sextant consists of a system of two mirrors and a telescope

mounted on a sector-shaped metal frame (usually brass or aluminium
alloy). Sextants with a plastic frame are also available. A schematic
illustration of the optical components is given in Fig. 2-1. The horizon
glass is a half-silvered mirror whose plane is perpendicular to the plane
of the frame. The index mirror, the plane of which is also perpendicular
to the frame, is mounted on the socalled index arm rotatable on a pivot
perpendicular to the frame. The optical axis of the telescope is parallel
to the frame and passes obliquely through the horizon glass.

During an observation, the instrument frame is held upright, and the

visible sea horizon is sighted through the telescope and horizon glass. A
light ray originating from the observed body is first reflected by the
index mirror and then by the back surface of the horizon glass before
entering the telescope. By slowly rotating the index mirror on the pivot
the superimposed image of the body is aligned with the image of the
horizon line.

The corresponding altitude, which is twice the angle formed by the

planes of horizon glass and index mirror, can be read from the
graduated limb, the lower, arc-shaped part of the sextant frame (Fig.
2-
2). Detailed information on design, usage, and maintenance of sextants
is given in [3] (see appendix).

100
Fig. 2-2

On land, where the horizon is too irregular to be used as a reference

line, altitudes have to be measured by means of instruments with an
artificial horizon.

A bubble attachment is a special sextant telescope containing an

internal artificial horizon in the form of a small spirit level the bubble
of which (replacing the visible horizon) is superimposed on the image of
the celestial body.

101
Bubble attachments are expensive (almost the price of a sextant) and
not very accurate because they require the sextant to be held
absolutely still during an observation, which is rather difficult to
manage. A sextant equipped with a bubble attachment is referred to as
a bubble sextant. Special bubble sextants were used for air navigation
before electronic navigation systems became standard equipment.

On land, a pan filled with water or, preferably, a more viscous liquid, e.
g., glycerol, can be utilized as an external artificial horizon. As a
result of gravity, the surface of the liquid forms a perfectly horizontal
mirror unless distorted by movements or wind. The vertical angular
distance between a body and its mirror image, measured with a marine
sextant, is twice the altitude of the body. This very accurate method is
the perfect choice for exercising celestial navigation in a backyard. Fig.
2-3 shows a professional form of an external artificial horizon. It
consists of a horizontal mirror (polished black glass) attached to a
metal frame which is supported by three leg screws. Prior to an
observation, the screws have to be adjusted with the aid of one or two
detachable high-precision spirit levels until the mirror is exactly
horizontal in every direction.

Fig. 2-3

102
Fig. 2-4

II.1.2. Theodolite

A theodolite (Fig. 2-4) is basically a telescopic sight which can be

rotated about a vertical and a horizontal axis. The angle of elevation
(altitude) is read from the graduated vertical circle, the horizontal
direction is read from the horizontal circle. The specimen shown above
has vernier scales and is accurate to approx. 1'. 2-2

The vertical axis of the instrument is aligned with the direction of

gravity by means of a spirit level (artificial horizon) before starting the
observations. Theodolites are primarily used for surveying, but they are
excellent navigation instruments as well. Some models can resolve
angles smaller than 0.1' which is not achieved even with the best
marine sextants.

A theodolite is mounted on a tripod which has to rest on solid ground.

Therefore, it is restricted to land navigation. Mechanical theodolites
traditionally measure zenith distances. Electronic models can optionally
measure altitudes. Most mechanical theodolites measure angles in
gradians instead of degrees (100 gradians = 90°).

When viewing the Sun through an optical instrument, a proper shade

glass must be used, otherwise the retina might suffer permanent
damage! The sextant shown in Fig. 2-2 has two sets of shade glasses
(gray filters) attached to the frame which can be inserted into the
respective optical path. Detachable shade glasses are available for most
103
theodolites.

II.2. Altitude Corrections

Any altitude measured with a sextant or theodolite contains errors.

Altitude corrections are necessary to eliminate systematic altitude
errors and to reduce the topo centric altitude of a body to the
geocentric altitude (chapter 1). Altitude corrections do not remove
random observation errors.

II.2.1. Index Error (IE)

A sextant or theodolite may display a constant error (index error, IE)

which has to be subtracted from every reading before the latter can be
used for further calculations. The error is positive if the angle displayed
by the instrument is greater than the actual angle and negative if the
displayed angle is smaller.

Errors which vary with the displayed angle require the use of an
individual correction table if the error cannot be eliminated by
overhauling the instrument.

1st correction: H1 = Hs−IE

The sextant altitude, Hs, is the altitude as indicated by the sextant

before any corrections have been applied.
When using an external artificial horizon, H1 (not Hs!) has to be divided
by two.

A theodolite measuring the zenith distance, z, requires the following

formula to obtain H1:

H1 = 90 ° − ( z−IE)

II.3. Dip of Horizon

If the Earth's surface were an infinite plane, visible and sensible horizon
would be identical. In reality, the visible sea horizon appears several
arcminutes below the sensible horizon which is the result of two
contrary effects, the curvature of the Earth's surface and atmospheric
refraction.

The geometrical horizon is a flat cone formed by an infinite number

of straight lines tangent to the Earth and converging at the observer's
eye. Since atmospheric refraction bends light rays passing along the
Earth's surface toward the Earth, all points on the geometric horizon
appear to be elevated, and thus form the visible horizon. Visible and
geometrical horizon would be the same if the

104
Earth had no atmosphere (Fig. 2-5).

The vertical angular distance of the sensible horizon from the visible
horizon is called dip (of horizon) and is a function of the height of
eye, HE, the vertical distance of the observer's eye from the sea
surface (the distance between sensible and geoidal horizon):

Dip [' ] ≈ 1.76⋅HE [m] ≈ 0.97⋅HE [ ft ]

The above formula is empirical and includes the effects of the curvature
of the Earth's surface and of atmospheric refraction*. The influence of
the height of eye should not be underestimated. Increasing HE from 2
m to 4 m, for example, causes the dip to change by approx. 1
arcminute.

*At sea, the dip of horizon can be obtained directly by measuring the
angular distance between the visible horizon in front of the observer
and behind the observer through the zenith. Subtracting 180° from the
angle thus measured and dividing the resulting angle by two yields the
dip of horizon.

This very accurate method cannot be accomplished with a sextant but

requires a special instrument (prismatic reflecting circle) which is able
to measure angles greater than 180°.

The correction for the dip of horizon has to be omitted (Dip = 0)

if any kind of an artificial horizon is used since the latter is
solely controlled by gravity and thus indicates the plane of the
sensible horizon (perpendicular to the vector of gravity).
2nd correction: H2 = H1−Dip

The altitude obtained after applying corrections for index error and dip
is also referred to as apparent altitude, Ha.

Ha = H2

II.4. Atmospheric Refraction

105
A light ray coming from a celestial body is slightly deflected toward the
Earth when passing obliquely through the
atmosphere.

This phenomenon is called refraction, and occurs always when light

enters matter of different density at
an angle smaller than 90°. Since the eye is not able to detect the
curvature of the light ray, the body appears to be on
a straight line tangent to the light ray at the observer's eye, and thus
appears to be higher in the sky. R is the vertical
angular distance between apparent and true position of the body
measured at the observer's eye (Fig. 2-6).

Atmospheric refraction is a function of Ha (= H2). Atmospheric

standard refraction, R0, is zero at 90° altitude and increases
progressively to approx. 34' as the apparent altitude approaches 0°:

There are several formulas to calculate R0. Smart's formula yields very
accurate results from 15° through 90°
apparent altitude [2,9]:

The constants used here are not exactly those given by Smart but have
been slightly modified to match the results (within ±10-4 ʼ) obtained
with Saastamoinen's highly accurate formula (see below) under the
following conditions:

106
T = 283.15 K, p = 1010 hPa, relative air humidity = 75%. For the
purpose of marine navigation, Smart's formula can be used with
apparent altitudes down to as low as 7° where the error reaches
approx. -0.1ʼ. Below 7°, the error increases rapidly and results become
useless.

For altitudes between 0° and 15°, the following formula is suggested

[10]. H2 is measured in degrees:

3. 0. Geographic Position and Time

3.1. Geographic and Astronomical Terms

In celestial navigation, the Earth is regarded as a sphere. This is an

approximation only, but the errors caused by the flattening of the Earth
are usually negligible (see chapter 9).

A circle on the surface of the Earth whose plane passes through the
Earth's center is referred to as a great circle. In contrast, a small
circle is a circle on the surface of the Earth the plane of which does
not pass through the Earth's center.

The equator is the only great circle the plane of which is perpendicular
to the polar axis, the rotation axis of the Earth. Further, the equator is
the only parallel of latitude being a great circle. All other parallels of
latitude are small circles whose planes are parallel to the plane of the
equator. A meridian is a great circle going through the geographic
poles, the two points where the polar axis intersects the Earth's
surface.

The upper branch of a meridian is the half from pole to pole passing
through a given point, for example the observer's position. The lower
branch is the opposite half. The meridian passing through the
observer's position is called local meridian. The Greenwich
meridian, the meridian passing through the center of the transit
instrument at the Royal Greenwich Observatory, was adopted as the
prime meridian at the International Meridian Conference in 1884.
Its upper branch (0°) is the reference for measuring longitudes (0°...
+180° to the east and 0°...–180° to the west), its lower branch
(}180°) is the basis for the International Date Line

107
Each point of the Earth's surface has an imaginary counterpart on the
surface of the celestial sphere obtained by central projection. The
projected image of the observer's position, for example, is the zenith.

Accordingly, there are two celestial poles, the celestial equator,

celestial meridians, etc. The local celestial meridian is also a vertical
circle, i. e., a great circle on the celestial sphere passing through the
observer's zenith and nadir.

Passing through the celestial poles, the local celestial meridian marks
the north point and the south point on the horizon. The vertical circle
perpendicular to the local meridian, called prime vertical, marks the
west point and east point on the horizon.

3.2. The Equatorial System of Coordinates

The geographic position of a celestial body, GP, is defined by the

equatorial system of coordinates, a spherical
coordinate system the origin of which is at the center of the Earth (Fig.
3-2).

108
The Greenwich hour angle of a body, GHA, is the angular distance of
the upper branch of the meridian passing through GP from the upper
branch of the Greenwich meridian (Lon = 0°), measured westward
from 0° through 360°.

The meridian going through GP (as well as its projection on the celestial
sphere) is called hour circle. The Declination of a body, Dec, is the
angular distance of GP from the plane of the equator, measured
northward through +90° or southward through –90°. GHA and Dec are
geocentric coordinates (measured at the center of the Earth).

Although widely used, the term “geographic position “is misleading

when applied to a celestial body since it actually describes a geocentric
position in this case (see chapter 9). GHA and Dec are equivalent to
geocentric longitude and latitude of a position with the exception
that longitudes are measured westward from the Greenwich
meridian through −180° and eastward through +180°.

Since the Greenwich meridian rotates with the Earth from west to east,
whereas each hour circle remains linked with the almost stationary
position of the respective body in the sky, the Greenwich hour angles of
all celestial bodies increase by approximately. 15° per hour (360° in 24
hours).

In contrast to stars (15° 2.46' /h), the GHAs of Sun, Moon, and planets
increase at slightly different (and variable) rates. This is caused by the
revolution of the planets (including the Earth) around the Sun and by
the revolution of the Moon around the Earth, resulting in additional
apparent motions of these bodies in the sky. For several applications it
is useful to measure the angular distance between the hour circle of a
celestial body and the hour circle of a reference point in the sky instead
of the Greenwich meridian because the angle thus obtained is
independent of the Earth's rotation.

The sidereal hour angle, SHA, of a given body is the angular distance
of its hour circle (upper branch) from the hour circle (upper branch) of
the first point of Aries (also called vernal equinox, see below),
measured westward from 0° through 360°. Thus, the GHA of a body is
the sum of its sidereal hour angle and the GHA of the first point of
Aries, GHAAries:

Fig. 3-3 illustrates the various hour angles on the plane of the equator
as seen from the celestial north pole (time
diagram).

109
Declinations are not affected by the rotation of the Earth. The
declinations of Sun and planets change primarily due to the obliquity
of the ecliptic, the inclination of the Earth's equator to the ecliptic.

The latter is the orbital plane of the Earth and forms a great circle on
the celestial sphere. The declination of the Sun, for example, varies
periodically between ca. +23.5° (summer solstice) and ca. -23.5°
(winter solstice) as shown in Fig. 3-4.

The two points on the celestial sphere where the great circles of ecliptic
and celestial equator intersect are called equinoxes. The term equinox
is also used for the instants at which the apparent Sun, moving
eastward along the ecliptic during the course of a year, crosses the
celestial equator, approximately on March 21 and on September 23.
There is a vernal equinox (first point of Aries, vernal point) and an
autumnal equinox.

The former is the reference point for measuring sidereal hour angles
(Fig. 3-5). At the instant of an equinox (Dec ≈ 0°)*, day and night
have roughly (!) the same length (12 h each), regardless of the
observer's position (Lat. Aequae noctes = equal nights).

*To be more precise, the equinoxes are defined as the instants at which
the ecliptic longitude (λ) of the apparent Sun is either 0° (vernal
equinox) or 180° (autumnal equinox) [10]. The actual declination of the
Sun at such an instant may slightly differ from 0° since the Earth is not
always exactly on the mean orbital plane
(perturbations).

110
The declinations of the planets and the Moon are also influenced by the
inclinations of their own orbits to the ecliptic. The plane of the Moon's
orbit, for example, is inclined to the ecliptic by approx. 5° and makes a
tumbling movement with a period of 18.6 years (Saros cycle). As a
result, the declination of the Moon varies between approx. -28.5° and
+28.5° at the beginning and at the end of the Saros cycle, and
between approx. -18.5° and +18.5° in the middle of the Saros cycle.
Further, sidereal hour angles and declinations of all bodies change lowly
due to the influence of the precession of the Earth's polar axis.

Precession is a slow, tumbling movement of the polar axis along the

surface of an imaginary double cone. One revolution lasts about 26000
years (Platonic year). As a result, the equinoxes move westward along
the celestial equator at a rate of approx. 50'' per year. Thus, the
sidereal hour angle of each star decreases at about the same rate. In
addition, there is a small elliptical oscillation of the polar axis with a
period of 18.6 years (compare with the Saros cycle), called nutation,
which causes the equinoxes to travel along the celestial equator at a
periodically changing rate.

Thus we have to distinguish between the fictitious mean equinox of

date and the true (current) equinox of date (see time
measurement). Accordingly, the declination of each body oscillates
(nutation in obliquity).

The same applies to the rate of change of the sidereal hour angle and
right ascension of each body (see below). Even stars are not fixed in
space but move individually, resulting in a slow drift of their respective
declination and right ascension (proper motion). Finally, the apparent
positions of bodies are influenced by other factors, e. g., the finite
speed of light (light time, aberration), and annual parallax, the
latter being caused by the Earth orbiting around the Sun [16]. The
accurate prediction of geographic positions of celestial bodies requires
complicated algorithms.
The calculation of low-precision ephemerides of the Sun (sufficient for
marine navigation) is described in a later chapter.

111
3.3. Time Measurement in Navigation and Astronomy

Since the Greenwich hour angle of any celestial body changes

rapidly, many tasks of celestial navigation require accurate time
measurement, and the instant of each observation should be
measured to the second if possible. This is usually done by means
of a chronometer and a stopwatch.

The effects of time errors are discussed in a later chapter. On the other
hand, the Earth's rotation with respect to celestial bodies provides an
important basis for astronomical time measurement. Coordinates
tabulated in the Nautical Almanac refer to Universal Time, UT. UT
has replaced Greenwich Mean Time, GMT, the traditional basis for
civil time keeping. Conceptually, UT (like GMT) is the hour angle of the
fictitious mean Sun, expressed in hours (24h = 360°) with respect to
the lower
branch of the Greenwich meridian (mean solar time, Fig. 3-6).

112
3.4. NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY IN SUMMARY
For example, if we know we are three miles from a flagpole, we could
be anywhere on a circle with a three-mile radius and the flagpole as its
center. If we knew the bearing of the flagpole (the compass direction,
such as 135 degrees or Southeast), we could fix our exact position on
the circle. Or if we knew bearings from two objects spaced a
reasonable distance apart, we could draw straight lines on a map or
chart along those bearings from each, and where the lines crossed,
there we are.

This is fairly easy to do on land or on the coast, where we can find our
position from known landmarks on charts and maps. On the open
ocean, it's a different story, as there are no landmarks. We can't take
a bearing from an object as distant as the sun or a planet, because the
compass is too clumsy an instrument. It measures in degrees, while a
sextant measures in degrees, minutes, and seconds (there are 3600
seconds in a degree). [The sextant does not give us a bearing, or
azimuth, to a celestial body, but gives us information that helps us find
the azimuth].

The stars pretty much stay in the same place - that's why they were
known as the "fixed stars" throughout history, except they rise and set;
the sun, moon, and planets move, but predictably, and so with the aid
of almanacs that tell us precisely where each body is at every second of
every minute of every hour of every day of the year, and the practice of
"sight reduction" (see Practice), we can take a position from two or
preferably three stars, or planets, or the sun and moon when both are
visible, or the sun at different times of the day, and where the lines of
position cross is where we are.

3.5. Celestial Knowledge Before Practice

Before going on to Practice as a Navigation officer, this is what you

need to know:

3.5.1. Sight Reduction: What You Will Need

You will need a sextant, a watch, a current-year Nautical Almanac (or

see Omar Reis's Almanac)  and the Tables of your choice, probably HO
249 or HO 229  - marine or air sight reduction
tables. (Click on Publications in the left menu; on that
page, use the drop down menu to find the sight
reduction tables). 

113
For shooting stars, a Star-Finder would also help; you can buy the
2102-D, a kind of modern planispheric astrolabe,  and there are some
online, such as - once again, and what would we do without him? -
Omar Reis'sStarfinder. (See Products on the Resources page if you
want to purchase almanacs, tables, or  Star-Finders.

.3.5.2. What You Are Doing:

With the modern "intercept" method, you will be comparing the position
you think you might be in (from dead reckoning on a boat, or other
data on land) with what you actually observe. Your observed altitude
(steps 1-3 below)  is compared to a calculated altitude  (steps 4-
5) - calculated to be what altitude you would get if you were actually at
the position you chose as your assumed position. Therefore, you
must both observe an actual altitude with the sextant; and figure, on
worksheets and with the Tables, what the altitude would be if seen
from the assumed position. 

Remember:  Noon (meridian) sun sights and Polaris sights do not

require the Tables to solve the Navigational Triangle. See Theory.

NOTE: Your sextant must be corrected first. The sextant is a precision

instrument, but like a bathroom scale can be off, either up or down. 
See  "Sextant Error,"

    THE STEPS:

1. Setting up: deciding what celestial body you are going to
"shoot" and when. This is especially important in star sights, as
you only have the short time between civil and nautical twilight
when the horizon is still visible, while some stars are bright enough
to be seen. Civil and nautical twilight time are found in the
Almanac for various latitudes.  Find stars with Reis's online Star-
Finder. Or purchase the 2102-D Star Finder from Starpath. To find
nautical and civil twilight, use the Navy's one-year data
page. Don't forget to check  the "type of table" you want (also has
sun and moon rise and set).

2. Shooting the body and noting the exact time. (Your watch must
be corrected if it is fast or slow on Universal Time - Greenwich
Mean time - and corrected for your longitude east or west of the
Greenwich meridian. You will be using UT (GMT) when you enter
the Almanac. Check your watch against the Navy's Master Clock.

3. Correcting your sextant shot for various corrections such as

your height of eye above the horizon, your sextant's index error,
altitude corrections etc. Some of these corrections are in the
Almanac; the others depend on you and your instrument. These
are found in tutorials; see, for example, Chapter 2 of Henning

114
Umland's. (Chapter 2 is a PDF file available after clicking on
Introduction and scrolling down). THIS WILL GIVE YOU YOUR
OBSERVED ALTITUDE.

4. Entering the Nautical Almanac for the body's data at that precise

time. The Almanac gives data for each hour of every day, with
extra pages where you can find the minutes and seconds. There
are some corrections to be made here. (Print Almanacs are
available from the Products places on the Resources page), notably
the "v" and "d" corrections. If you purchase
one,make sure the Almanac looks like one of
these (I have a commercial edition that is
slightly different, but still with a blue cover). In
six marine stores out of six, when I asked for
the Nautical  Almanac this year, I was handed
Reed's or worse, Eldridge's (mostly tide tables!). Neither of those
has all the information you need. These are the American versions;
the orange is the hardcover government edition.

5. Entering the Tables for sight reduction with the a) Local Hour

Angle, (found by correcting the body's Greenwich Hour Angle from
the Almanac for your particular assumed longitude), b) your
assumed latitude  (see Find your latitude and longitude if doing
this on land), and c) body's declination  (from the Almanac) to find
the calculated height of the body if you were where you assumed
yourself to be. (The sight reduction tables for  Air Navigation - HO
249 and the Marine Navigation - HO 229 tables have been
removed from the web. I will continue to search for online
versions).  Hour angles are defined on the Astronomy page. THIS
WILL GIVE YOU YOUR CALCULATED ALTITUDE as well as the true
bearing of the body.

6. Comparing the altitude you got - the OBSERVED ALTITUDE -

with the CALCULATED ALTITUDE from the tables and deciding
whether you are closer or farther away than the calculated
position. (If the calculated altitude is greater, you are farther away
from the assumed position; if it is less than the corrected sextant
altitude, you are closer; the difference between the two is the
number of nautical miles by which you need to change your
assumed position).

7. Plotting the line of position. Two or more give you your fix -
where you are.  (see Ed Falk's plotting sheet page).               

115
SECTION FOUR-
METEOROLOGY

116
 1. 0. METEOROLOGY, WEATHER, & CLIMATE
1.1. Introduction
Meteorology is the study of phenomena of the atmosphere – includes
the dynamics, physics, and chemistry of the atmosphere. (from the
Greek meteōros – ‘lofty’)
More commonly thought of as restricted to the dynamics and
thermodynamics of the atmosphere as it affects human life
Weather
The state of the atmosphere; mainly with respect to its effects upon
human activities. Short term variability of the atmosphere (time scales
of minutes to months).
Popularly thought of in terms of: temperature, wind, humidity,
precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, and visibility.
A category of individual/combined atmospheric phenomena which
describe the conditions at the time of an observation.
Climate
Long term statistical description of the atmospheric conditions,
averaged over a specified period of time - usually decades.

1.2. Reason for studying Meteorology

 General warning
Warning of severe weather
 Agriculture
Timing of planting, harvesting, etc to avoid bad weather, hazards to
livestock
 Transport & services
Shipping, aviation, road gritting, flood warnings, etc
 Commerce
Should a supermarket order BBQs and icecream, or umbrellas?
November 14, 1854: A sudden storm devastated a joint British-French
fleet near Balaklava in the Black Sea.
French astronomer Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier (1811-1877)
demonstrated that telegraphed observations could have given the ships
a day to prepare.

117
In England, Capt. Robert FitzRoy (1805-1865) started the
Meteorological Office as a small department of the board of trade. On
September 3rd 1860, 15 stations began reporting 8am observations.
February 5,1861 started issuing storm warnings to ports.

1.3. What to Know About Weather

 Temperature
 Wind speed
 Wind direction
 Clouds
-Type, extent, altitude
 Precipitation?
-Type, amount, location
 Visibility
-Fog, haze
 Humidity
 Trends in all of these Timing of significant changes
 Occurrence of extreme events

1.4. How Far Could Weather Be Predicted

Ideally:
as far ahead as possible!
In practice
3-5 days is the limit of reasonable quantitative forecasts.
Medium-range forecasts (5-10) days are made, but limited to
large-scale pressure field and winds, NOT detailed conditions

118
1.5. Methods of Forecasting
1.5.1. Persistence Method
This method is based on assumption that tomorrow is likely going to be
the same as today.

Please note that this Persistence Method Works well when conditions
change only slowly. Also surprisingly effective for general forecasts of
periods >10 days, for which most other – more advanced – methods
lose all their skill. Several weeks of hot sunny weather often followed
by several more.

1.5.2. Statistical Methods

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 I. Simple Statistics: Climatology
Given a long record of past weather on every day of the year, forecast
most frequently observed weather for day of interest.
Works well, provided the general conditions are similar to the ‘usual’ or
most common conditions for the time of year. Requires long records –
many years – to provide reasonable statistics
II. Analog method
Given a long record of the sequence of weather conditions, look for a
past sequence that resembles the last few days to weeks, and forecast
whatever followed it.
Difficult to use effectively because of difficulty in finding a close match
between current and past conditions. Again, requires records going
back many years.
III. Trends
Estimate the speed at which features – fronts, pressure centres, etc –
are moving. Allows estimation of time of arrival.
Requires measurements over a wide area.
Applied over a period of a few hours this method is called NowCasting.
Very effective use of rainfall radar imagery

120
 IV. Physical Understanding
An extensive set of measurements over a wide area, coupled with an
understanding of the physical processes allows general conditions to
be assessed and forecasts to be made for a wide area a day or two
ahead

a. Physical Processes
Thermal – atmospheric dynamics are ultimately driven by temperature
gradients arising from uneven solar heating. Pressure gradient forces –
immediate cause of horizontal motions
Moisture – effect of water vapour content on air density, and release of
latent heat has a major impact on convection

b. Numerical Weather Prediction

Physical processes are reduced to a (simplified) set of equations that
describe changes of physical quantities in time & space. These are
initialized with latest observations and stepped forward in time to
produce a forecast.
Requires:
 an extensive set of simultaneous measurements over a wide area
(synoptic observations) to initialize it
 Fast, powerful computer
 Adequate representation of the physical processes

121
SECTION FIVE-

MARITIME
PRACTICES

122
1.0. SHIP REGISTRATION AND FLAGGING

1.1. Overview

Definition: Ship registration is the process by which a ship is

documented and authorised by some country; it is usual to say that the
ship sails under the flag of the country of registration (the registration,
not the actual cloth flag, is the essential issue).

International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a

country, called its state. A ship's flag state exercises regulatory control
over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship's
equipment and crew, and issue safety and pollution prevention
documents. The organization which actually registers the ship is known
as its registry. Registries may be governmental or private agencies. In
some cases, such as the United States' Alternative Compliance
Program, the registry can assign a third party to administer inspections.
A registry that is open only to ships of its own nation is known as a
traditional or national registry. Registries that are open to foreign-
owned ships are known as open registries, and some of these are
classified as flags of convenience.

The principle that there be a "genuine link" between a ship's owners

and its flag state dates back to 1958, when Article 5(1) of the Geneva
Convention on the High Seas also required that "the state must
effectively exercise its jurisdiction and control in administrative,
technical and social matters over ships flying its flag."The principle was
repeated in Article 91 of the 1982 treaty called the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea and often referred to as UNCLOS. In
1986, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
attempted to solidify the genuine link concept in the United Nations
Convention for Registration of Ships.

1.2. Purpose of Ship Registration

Any ship over 100 GT (Gross Tonnage) irrespective of whether it is a

cargo vessel, fishing vessel or passenger vessel, has to be registered
and linked to a particular state/flag. Registration grants the ship
physical and legal protection of that flag state which may be applied to
vital areas such as safety of cargo and life of those on board the ship.

By linking a ship to a State, the system of ship registration indicates

that that State has the right to protect that ship in international law and
upon registration, the ship will be assigned an Official Number by the
ship registry which becomes it identification. The registration of a ship
plays an important role in ensuring safety and security of the ship and
significantly contributes towards the protection and preservation of the
marine environment.
123
As per IMO regulations, all ships must be surveyed in order to ensure
that the ships under their register/flag are structurally sound and
subscribes to design and safety standards and issue certificates which
establishes a ship’s seaworthiness.

The Flag State of the vessel is the party responsible for the above
survey and inspection. This is achieved through Ship Classification. The
Convention for Registration of Ships would require that a flag state be
linked to its ships either by having an economic stake in the ownership
of its ships or by providing mariners to crew the ships. To come into
force, the 1986 treaty requires 40 signatories whose combined tonnage
exceeds 25% of the world total. To date, only 14 countries have signed
the treaty. Ships operated illegally, such as by pirates, or narco
submarines, are not normally registered by the operators (although a
registered ship may be captured or used covertly for illegal purposes).

There are two kinds of ship registration:

 National (Closed) Registry

 Open Registry/ Flag of convenience (FOC)

1.3. National (Closed) Registry

National or closed registries typically require that a ship be owned and

constructed by national interests, and at least partially crewed by its
citizens. Open registries do not have such requirements; some offer on-
line registration, sometimes guaranteeing completion in less than a
day.

1.4. Open Registry/ Flag of Convenience

The term flag of convenience describes the business practice of

registering a merchant ship in a sovereign state different from that of
the ship's owners, and flying that state's civil ensign on the ship. Ships
are registered under flags of convenience to reduce operating costs or
avoid the regulations of the owner's country. The closely-related term
open registry is used to describe an organization that will register ships
owned by foreign entities.

The term "flag of convenience" has been in use since the 1950s and
refers to the civil ensign a ship flies to indicate its country of
registration or flag state. A ship operates under the laws of its flag
state, and these laws are used if the ship is involved in an admiralty
case.

The modern practice of flagging ships in foreign countries began in the

1920s in the United States, when ship-owners frustrated by increased
regulations and rising labor costs began to register their ships to

124
Panama. The use of flags of convenience steadily increased, and in
1968, Liberia grew to surpass the United Kingdom as the world's
largest shipping register. As of 2009, more than half of the world’s
merchant ships are registered under flags of convenience, and the
Panamanian, Liberian, and Marshallese flags of convenience account for
almost 40% of the entire world fleet, in terms of deadweight tonnage.

Flag-of-convenience registries are often criticized. As of 2009, thirteen

flag states have been found by international shipping organizations to
have substandard regulations. A basis for many criticisms is that the
flag-of-convenience system allows ship-owners to be legally anonymous
and difficult to prosecute in civil and criminal actions.

Ships with flags of convenience have been found engaging in crime and
terrorism, frequently offer substandard working conditions, and
negatively impact the environment, primarily through illegal,
unreported and unregulated fishing. As of 2009, ships of thirteen flags
of convenience are targeted for special enforcement by countries that
they visit. Supporters of the practice, however, point to economic and
regulatory advantages, and increased freedom in choosing employees
from an international labor pool.

1.4.1. Background and Origin of Flag of Convenience (FOC)

International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a

country. This country in which a ship is registered is called its flag
state, and the flag state gives the ship the right to fly its civil ensign. A
ship's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is
required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship's equipment and crew,
and issue safety and pollution prevention documents. A ship operates
under the laws of its flag state, and these laws are used if the ship is
involved in an admiralty case. The organization which actually registers
the ship is known as its registry. Registries may be governmental or
private agencies. In some cases, such as the United States' Alternative
Compliance Program, the registry can assign a third party to administer
inspections.

The reasons for choosing an open register are varied and include tax
avoidance, the ability to avoid national labor and environmental
regulations, and the ability to hire crews from lower-wage countries.
National or closed registries typically require a ship be owned and
constructed by national interests, and at least partially crewed by its
citizens. Conversely, open registries frequently offer on-line registration
with few questions asked. The use of flags of convenience lowers
registration and maintenance costs, which in turn reduces overall
transportation costs.

125
The environmental disaster caused by the 1978 sinking of the
MV Amoco Cadiz, which flew the Liberian flag of convenience, spurred
the creation of a new type of maritime enforcement. Resulting from
"strong political and public outcry" over the Cadiz sinking, fourteen
European nations signed the 1982 "Paris Memorandum of
Understanding on Port State Control" or Paris MOU. Under port state
control, ships in international trade became subject to inspection by the
states they visit.

In addition to shipboard living and working conditions, these

inspections cover items concerning the safety of life at sea and the
prevention of pollution by ships. In cases when a port state inspection
uncovers problems with a ship, the port state may take actions
including detaining the ship.[

The principle that there be a "genuine link" between a ship's owners

and its flag state dates back to 1958, when Article 5(1) of the Geneva
Convention on the High Seas also required that "the state must
effectively exercise its jurisdiction and control in administrative,
technical and social matters over ships flying its flag." The principle was
repeated in Article 91 of the 1982 treaty called the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea and often referred to as UNCLOS. In
1986, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
attempted to solidify the genuine link concept in the United Nations
Convention for Registration of Ships. The Convention for Registration of
Ships would require that a flag state be linked to its ships either by
having an economic stake in the ownership of its ships or by providing
mariners to crew the ships.

In addition to sidestepping the Seamen's Act, Panamanian-flagged

ships in this early period paid sailors on the Japanese wage scale, which
was much lower than that of western merchant powers.

1.4.2. Timeline of Open Registry/Flag of convenience (FOC)

126
The Liberian open registry was the brainchild of Edward Stettinius, who
had been Franklin D. Roosevelt's Secretary of State during World War
II. Stettinius created a corporate structure that included The Liberia
Corporation, a joint-venture with the government of Liberia. The
corporation was structured so that one-fourth of its revenue would go
to the Liberian government, another 10% went to fund social programs
in Liberia, and the remainder returned to Stettinius' corporation. The
Liberian registry was created at a time when Panama's registry was
becoming less attractive for several reasons including its unpopularity
with the U.S.

On 11 March 1949, Greek shipping magnate Stavros Niarchos

registered the first ship under the Liberian flag of convenience, the
World Peace. When Stettinius died in 1949, ownership of the registry
passed to the International Bank of Washington, led by General George
Olmsted. Within 18 years, Liberia grew to surpass the United Kingdom
as the world's largest register.

Due to Liberia's 1989 and 1999 civil wars, its registry eventually fell
second to Panama's flag of convenience, but maritime funds continued
to supply 70% of its total government revenue. After the civil war of
1990, Liberia joined with the Republic of the Marshall Islands to develop
a new maritime and corporate program.

127
After taking over the Liberian government, Americo-Liberian warlord
Charles Taylor signed a new registry contract with the Liberian
International Ship and Corporate Registry, commonly known as LISCR.
LISCR was one of the few legal sources of income for Taylor's regime..

As of 2009, the Panamanian, Liberian, and Marshallese flags of

convenience account for almost 40% of the entire world fleet, in terms
of deadweight tonnage. That same year, the top ten flags of
convenience registered 55% of the world's deadweight tonnage,
including 61% of bulk carriers and 56% of oil tankers.

1.4.3. Extent of useof Open Registry/ Flag of convenience

Fig: Top 11 flags of convenience account for almost 55% of the entire world fleet.

The International Transport Workers' Federation (ITF) maintains a list

of 32 registries it considers to be FOC registries. In developing the list,
the ITF considers "ability and willingness of the flag state to enforce
international minimum social standards on its vessels," the "degree of
ratification and enforcement of ILO Conventions and
Recommendations," and "safety and environmental record."

As of 2010 the list includes Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas,

Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Bolivia, Burma, Cambodia, the Cayman
Island, Comoros, Cyprus, Equatorial Guinea, Georgia, Gibraltar,
Honduras, Jamaica, Lebanon, Liberia, Malta, the Marshall Islands,
Mauritius, Mongolia, Netherlands Antilles, North Korea, Panama, Sao
Tome and Príncipe, St Vincent, Sri Lanka, Tonga,

As of 2009, Panama, Liberia and the Marshall Islands are the world’s
three largest registries in terms of deadweight tonnage (DWT). These
three organizations registered 11,636 ships of 1,000 DWT and above,
for a total of 468,405,000 DWT: more than 39% of the world's
shipbourne carrying capacity. Panama dominates the scene with over
8,065 ships accounting for almost 23% of the world's DWT. Of the
three, the Marshall Islands (with 1,265 registered ships) had the
greatest rate of DWT increase in 2009, increasing its tonnage by almost
15%.

128
The Bahamian flag ranks sixth worldwide, behind the Hong Kong and
Greek registries, but is similar in size to the Marshallese flag of
convenience, with about 200 more ships but a carrying capacity about
6,000,000 DWT lower. Malta, at the ninth position worldwide, had
about 100 more ships than the Bahamas, with a capacity of
50,666,000 DWT, representing 4% of the world fleet with 12% growth
that year.

At the eleventh position, Cyprus registered 1,016 ships in 2009, 2.6%

of world tonnage. The remaining top 11 flags of convenience are
Antigua and Barbuda (#20), Bermuda (#22), Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines (#26), and the French International Ship Register (FIS) at
number #27. Bermuda and the FIS have fewer than 200 ships apiece,
but they are large: the average Bermudan ship is 67,310 DWT and the
average FIS ship is at 42,524 DWT. (By way of reference, the average
capacity of ships in the U.S. and U.K. registers is 1,851 DWT and
9,517 DWT respectively.)

The registries of Antigua and Barbuda and Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines both have over 1,000 ships with average capacity of
10,423 DWT and 7,334 DWT respectively.The 21 other flags of
convenience listed by the ITF each account for less than 1% of the
world's DWT. As of 2008, more than half of the world’s merchant ships
(measured by tonnage) are registered under flags of convenience.

1.4.4. Criticism against use of Open Registry/ Flag of

convenience (FOC)

There are a number of common threads found in criticisms of the flag

of convenience system. One is that these flag states have insufficient
regulations and that those regulations they do have are poorly
enforced. Another is that, in many cases, the flag state cannot identify
a shipowner, much less hold the owner civilly or criminally responsible
for a ship's actions. As a result of this lack of flag state control, flags of
convenience are criticized on grounds of providing an environment for
conducting criminal activities, supporting terrorism, providing poor
working conditions for seafarers, and having an adverse effect on the
environment.

I. Concealed ownership

Ship-owners often establish shell corporations to be the legal owners of

their ships. To distinguish between the actual shipowner and the shell
corporations, the terms beneficial owner or ultimate owner are often
used. Webster's defines a beneficial owner as "one who enjoys the
benefit of a property of which another is the legal owner." A ship's
beneficial owner is legally and financially responsible for the ship and its
activities.

129
The 2004 Report of the UN Secretary General’s Consultative Group on
Flag State Implementation reported that "It is very easy, and
comparatively inexpensive, to establish a complex web of corporate
entities to provide very effective cover to the identities of beneficial
owners who do not want to be known." According to a 2003 report by
the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development report
entitled "Ownership and Control of Ships", these corporate structures
are often multi-layered, spread across numerous jurisdictions, and
make the beneficial owner "almost impenetrable" to law enforcement
officials and taxation. The report concludes that "regardless of the
reasons why the cloak of anonymity is made available, if it is provided
it will also assist those who may wish to remain hidden because they
engage in illegal or criminal activities, including terrorists."

The OECD report concludes that the use of bearer shares is "perhaps
the single most important (and perhaps the most widely used)
mechanism" to protect the anonymity of a ship's beneficial owner.
Physically possessing a bearer share accords ownership of the
corporation. There is no requirement for reporting the transfer of
bearer shares, and not every jurisdiction requires that their serial
numbers even be recorded.

Two similar techniques to provide anonymity for a ship's beneficial

owner are "nominee shareholders" and "nominee directors." In some
jurisdictions that require shareholder identities to be reported, a
loophole is created where the beneficial owner may appoint a nominee
to be the shareholder, and that nominee cannot legally be compelled to
reveal the identity of the beneficial owner. All corporations are required
to have at least one director;however, many jurisdictions allow this to
be a nominee director. A nominee director's name would appear on all
corporate paperwork in place of the beneficial owners, and like nominee
shareholders, few jurisdictions can compel a nominee director to
divulge the identity of beneficial owners.

Crime

Arms smuggling, the ability to conceal large sums of money, trafficking

in goods and people and other illegal activities can also thrive in the
unregulated havens which the flag of convenience system provides.
Flag of convenience ships have long been linked to crime on the high
seas. For example, in 1982, Honduras shut down its open registry
operations because it had enabled "illegal traffic of all kinds and had
given Honduras a bad name." Ships registered by the Cambodia
Shipping Corporation (CSC) were found smuggling drugs and cigarettes
in Europe, breaking the Iraq oil embargo, and engaging in human
trafficking and prostitution in Europe and Asia.

130
In response to these activities, in 2000, Ahamd Yahya of the
Cambodian Ministry of Public Works and Transport told industry
publication Fairplay "We don't know or care who owns the ships or
whether they're doing 'white' or 'black' business ... it is not our
concern." Less than two years later, French forces seized the
Cambodian-flagged, Greek-owned MV Winner for cocaine smuggling.
Shortly after the seizure, Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen closed the
registry to foreign ships, and Cambodia canceled its contract with CSC
shortly thereafter.

The North Korean flag of convenience has also garnered significant

scrutiny. In 2003, the North Korean freighter Pong-su reflagged to
Tuvalu in the middle of a voyage shortly before being seized by
Australian authorities for smuggling heroin into that country. That year
thirteen nations began monitoring vessels under the North Korean flag
for "illicit cargos, like drugs, missiles or nuclear weapon fuel

Terrorism

The OECD report states that the possibility of terrorists using ships is
"obvious" and "potentially devastating" and goes on to list ways in
which ships could be used. One clear use would be to move personnel,
equipment, and weapons around the world. Another would be to
transport bombs, such as a "container set to explode near a city." Also,
ships could be used as a weapon in their own right, for example an oil
tanker or liquefied natural gas carrier rigged as a floating bomb. Finally,
the OECD discussed the possibility of criminal and terrorist
organizations using ships engaging in legal or illegal trade as a source
of revenue to fund criminal activities.

In 2002 in the United States, DemocraticsenatorJohn Breaux of

Louisiana proposed a bill to prevent U.S. ship-owners from using
foreign flags as a counter-terrorism measure.

II. Working conditions

These floating sweatshops are the building blocks of the notorious

"Flag-of-Convenience" (FOC) system. It exists for one reason and one
reason only: to allow companies to avoid paying taxes and escape the
minimum health, safety and environmental standards of their home
countries.

In the accompanying material of the ILO's Maritime Labour Convention

of 2006, the International Labour Organization estimated that at that
time there were approximately 1,200,000 working seafarers across the
world. This document goes on to say that when working aboard ships
flagged to states that do not "exercise effective jurisdiction and control"
over their ships that "seafarers often have to work under unacceptable

131
conditions, to the detriment of their well-being, health and safety and
the safety of the ships on which they work."

The International Transport Workers' Federation goes further, stating

that flags of convenience "provide a means of avoiding labor regulation
in the country of ownership, and become a vehicle for paying low
wages and forcing long hours of work and unsafe working conditions.
Since FOC ships have no real nationality, they are beyond the reach of
any single national seafarers' trade union." They also say that these
ships have low safety standards and no construction requirements, that
they "do not enforce safety standards, minimum social standards or
trade union rights for seafarers", that they frequently fail to pay their
crews, have poor safety records, and engage in practices such as
abandoning crewmen in distant ports.

III. Environmental effects

The practice of flags of convenience, where owners register vessels in

countries other than their own in order to avoid binding regulations or
controls, is a serious menace to today’s maritime world.While flag of
convenience ships have been involved with some of the highest-profile
oil spills in history (such as the Maltese-flagged MV Erika, the
Bahamian-flagged MV Prestige, the Marshallese-flagged Deepwater
Horizon, and the Liberian-flagged MV Amoco Cadizand MV Sea
Empress) the most common environmental criticism they face regards
illegal fishing. These critics of the flag of convenience system argue that
many of the FOC flag states lack the resources or the will to properly
monitor and control those vessels.

The Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) contends that illegal,

unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) vessels use flags of
convenience to avoid fisheries regulations and controls. Flags of
convenience help reduce the operating costs associated with illegal
fishing methods, and help illegal operators avoid prosecution and hide
beneficial ownership. As a result, flags of convenience perpetuate IUU
fishing which has extensive environmental, social and economic
impacts, particularly in developing countries. The EJF is campaigning to
end the granting of flags of convenience to fishing vessels as an
effective measure to combat IUU fishing.

IV. Non Ratification of Maritime Conventions

International regulations for the maritime industry are promulgated by

agencies of the United Nations, particularly the International Maritime
Organization and International Labour Organization. Flag states adopt
these regulations for their ships by ratifying individual treaties. One
common criticism against flag of convenience countries is that they

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allow ship-owners to avoid these regulations by not ratifying important
treaties or by failing to enforce them.

Maritime International Secretariat Services (MARISEC) issues a yearly

report entitled the Flag State Performance Table in association with
industry groups the Baltic and International Maritime Council, the
International Association of Dry Cargo Shipowners, the International
Chamber of Shipping, the International Shipping Federation, and the
International Association of Independent Tanker Owners. The 2009
report identified the six "core" conventions representing a minimum
level of maritime regulation, from the viewpoint of ship-owners, as
SOLAS, MARPOL, LL 66, STCW, ILO 147, and CLC/FUND92. Five of
these six core conventions are not ratified by several flag of
convenience countries.

The SOLAS and LL 66 conventions focus on shipboard safety issues.

SOLAS is an acronym for Safety of Life at Sea, or formally
"International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 as
amended, including the 1988 Protocol, the International Safety
Management Code (ISM) and the International Ship and Port Facility
Security Code (ISPS)".

Originally ratified in response to the sinking of the RMS Titanic, SOLAS

sets regulations on lifeboats, emergency equipment and safety
procedures, including continuous radio watches. It has been updated to
include regulations on ship construction, fire protection systems, life-
saving appliances, radio communications, safety of navigation,
management for the safe operation of ships, and other safety and
security concerns. As of 2009, the Bolivian, Honduran, Lebanese, and
Sri Lankan flags of convenience have not ratified the SOLAS treaty. LL
66 is an industry designation for the "International Convention on Load
Lines, 1966, including the 1988 Protocol". This convention sets
standards for minimum buoyancy, hull stress, and ship's fittings, as
well as establishing navigational zones where extra precautions must
be taken. As of 2009, the Bahamian, Bolivian, Georgian, Honduran, and
Sri Lankan flags of convenience have not ratified the LL 66 treaty.

ILO147 is shorthand for the "International Labour Organization

Merchant Shipping (Minimum Standards) Convention 1976, including
the 1996 Protocol". This convention sets safety and competency
standards, regulates work hours, manning, conditions of employment
as well as shipboard living arrangements. As of 2009, the
Antigua/Barbudan, Bolivian, Cambodian, North Korean, Georgian,
Honduran, Jamaican, Mongolian, Vincentian, and Sri Lankan flags of
convenience have not ratified the ILO147 treaty.

MARPOL, CLC, and FUND are treaties related to pollution. MARPOL

refers to the "International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution

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from Ships,1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978, including Annexes
I – VI". This treaty regulates pollution by ships, including oil and air
pollution, shipboard sewage and garbage. As of 2009, the Bahamian,
Bolivian, Cambodian, North Korean, Georgian, Honduran, Lebanese,
Maltese, and Sri Lankan flags of convenience have not ratified the
MARPOL treaty.CLC and FUND92 refer to the "International Convention
on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1992" and the "International
Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for
Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1992". These two related
conventions provide mechanisms to ensure remuneration for victims of
oil spills. As of 2009, the Bolivian, North Korean, Honduran, Lebanese,
and, Mongolian flags of convenience have not ratified the CLC and
FUND treaties.

V. Port State Targeting

In 1978, a number of European countries agreed in The Hague to audit
labour conditions on board vessels vis-a-vis the rules of the
International Labour Organization. To this end, in 1982 the "Paris
Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control" (Paris MOU) was
established, setting port state control standards for what is now
twenty-six European countries and Canada.Several other regional
Memoranda Of Understanding have been established based on the Paris
model, including the "Memorandum of Understanding on Port State
Control in the Asia-Pacific Region", typically referred to as the "Tokyo
MOU", and organizations for the Black Sea, the Caribbean, the Indian
Ocean, the Mediterranean, and Latin America. The Tokyo and Paris
organizations generate, based on deficiencies and detentions, black-,
white-, and grey-lists of flag states.

The US Coast Guard, which handles port state control inspections in the
US, maintains a similar target list for underperforming flag states. As of
2009, fourteen of the thirty-one flags of convenience listed by the ITF
are targeted for special enforcement by the countries of the Paris and
Tokyo MOUs or U.S. Coast Guard: Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas,
Belize, Bolivia, Cambodia, the Cayman Islands, North Korea, Georgia,
Honduras, Lebanon, Malta, Mongolia, Panama, and Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines.

VI. Wages
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, in its 2009
Report on Maritime Trade, states that shipowners often register their
ships under a foreign flag in order to employ "seafarers from
developing countries with lower wages." The Philippines and the
People's Republic of China supply a large percentage of maritime labor
in general, and major flags of convenience in particular. In 2009, the
flag-states employing the highest number of Expatriate-Filipino
seafarers were Panama, the Bahamas, Liberia and the Marshall Islands.
That year, more than 150,000 Filipino sailors were employed by these
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four flags of convenience. In a 2006 study by the United States
Maritime Administration (MARAD), sailors from the People's Republic of
China comprised over 40% of the crews on surveyed ships flying the
Panamanian flag, and around 10% of those flying the Liberian flag. The
MARAD report referred to both China and the Philippines as "low cost"
crewing sources.

The seafaring industry is often divided into two employment groups:

licensed mariners including deck officers and marine engineers, and
mariners that are not required to have licenses, such as able seamen
and cooks. The latter group is collectively known as unlicensed
mariners or ratings. Differences in wages can be seen in both groups,
between "high cost" crewing sources such as the United States, and
"low cost" sources such as China and The Philippines.For unlicensed
mariners, 2009 statistics from the American Bureau of Labor Statistics
give median earnings for able and ordinary seamen as US$35,810,
varying from $21,640 (at the 10th percentile) to $55,360 (at the 90th
percentile). This can be compared with 2006 statistics from the
International Labour Organization, giving average yearly earnings for
Filipino and Chinese able seamen around $2,000 to $3,000 per year
(PHP9,900 per month and CNY3,071 per year). Among licensed
mariners, American chief engineers earned a median $63,630, varying
from $35,030 to $109,310 while their Filipino counterparts averaged
$5,500 per year (PHP21,342 per month).

2.0. SHIP-BOARD ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

2.1. Overview

A shipboard organization is similar to the government structure we

have in our countries.
Vessels have a world of their own. They are like mini kingdoms having
a very small population with each person holding specific duties. The
duties vary depending on the crew’s rank.

A normal seagoing merchant vessel is run by 20 strong men on

average. They are divided into three departments namely Deck, Engine
and Catering. These departments have various tasks during drills,
emergencies and security duties. Knowing the importance of shipboard
organizational plan gives you an overview on the way a vessel
functions.

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To better understand how the chain of command flows on board, one
must look at the vessel’s organizational chart. This chart shows various
departments running the ship including their department heads. Each of
the crew functions based on their ranks outlined in their job description.
Shipboard organization makes it easy for everyone to identify the
degree of responsibility of every person on board.

2.2. Variations

On every ship, the overall command goes to the Master. Under him are
the three departments: Deck, Engineering and Steward or Catering.
The chart shown below best describes this hierarchy.However, there
are companies in which the Catering department is under the umbrella
of Chief Officer.Not only that, there are shipboard organizational
structures which considers the Cadet as part of the officers. Others
however puts him in the lowest rank just below the Ordinary Seaman or
Wipers.

There are no wrong answers here as each company has different policy.
As long as the crew runs the ship safely and complies with various rules
and regulations, this should not be a problem.

2.3. Ship’s Crewing and Departments

The ship’s crews are the personnel who sail on board a ship and are
responsible for its operation, primarily when the ship is at sea (with
some responsibility when at port). For the purpose of ship operation
and traditionally, the crew of a commercial ship is divided into three
departments:

 Deck department
 Engine department
 Catering (steward’s) department.
2.3.1. Captain and His Responsibilities

On top of every shipboard organization is the Master. He is the overall

commander having absolute authority on board.This absolute authority
means he has the overriding decision against the desires of the
company and charterers. Of course, his judgement is always based on
the safety of the vessel her crew and cargo.

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 The Captain or Master is the ship's highest responsible officer, acting on
behalf of the ship's owner/operator or manager. The Captain/Master is
legally responsible for the day-to-day management of the ship. It is
his/her responsibility to ensure that all the departments perform legally
to the ship's the owner /operator or manager's requirements. The ship
has several deck officers that assist the master.

Master also usually has pilots' advice while the ship is navigating in
restricted waters, such as narrow or shallow channels. Also, each
shipboard department has a designated head who reports to the
master.

Interchangeably, he is also called the Captain of the ship. Even when

there are superintendents, ship owners and inspectors on board, he still
has absolute command.These visitors can not interfere with the ship’s
operation without the permission from the Captain.When there are
accidents, incidents or deficiencies, the Master will be deemed
responsible for it unless he can prove it otherwise.

2.3.2. Deck Department and Its Functions

The Deck department is the unit responsible for navigation, watch

keeping, maintenance of ship’s hull, cargo hold preparation, loading
and unloading of cargoes.Additionally, they are also responsible for
keeping the lifesaving and firefighting equipment in good order.

Mooring, un-mooring, anchoring and ballasting operations fall under the

care of the deck department.Generally, the deck crew conducts surface
maintenance of the deck including its fittings and equipment.The deck
department is headed by a Chief Officer.

The composition of the deck department are as follows:

I. Chief Officer

The Chief Officer, also called Chief Mate or First Mate, is the head of
the deck department. He is second-in-command after the ship's
master. The Chief Officer's primary responsibilities are the vessel's
cargo operations, stability, and supervising the deck crew. The Chief
Officer is responsible for the safety and security of the ship, as well as
the welfare of the crew on board.

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 The Chief Officer typically stands the 4-8 hours of a navigation watch.
Additional duties include ensuring good maintenance of the ship's hull,
cargo gears, accommodations, the lifesaving and firefighting
appliances. The Chief Officer also trains the crew and cadets on various
aspects like safety, firefighting, search and rescue and various other
contingencies.
II. Second Officer

The Second Officer, also called Second Mate, is usually in charge of ship
navigation with a position below Chief Officer and above Third Officer.
He/she is the third-in-command, after the Master and Chief Officer. The
second officer typically stands to watch from 1200 to 1600 at noon and
again from 0000 to 0400 in the nights.

III. Third Officer

The third officer also called 3rd Mate primarily charged with the safety
of the ship and crew. The Third officer generally serves as the ship's
chief safety officer. The Third Officer is the next licensed position on
board the vessel, as fourth-in-command.

IV. Bosun (Boatswain)

The Bosun is the head of the unlicensed deck department. With direct
supervision from the Chief Officer, his main duty is keeping a good
maintenance of the ship’s hull. The Bosun’s job revolves around the
deck area. After getting the job order of the day from Chief Mate, he
usually delegates the tasks to the deck crew. He then switches to
supervision mode while performing some work that he can manage
himself.

The Bosun works closely with the Chief Officer. We mentioned that
Chief Officer is also the garbage manager and disciplinarian. Well, that
job is designated to the Boatswain too. Though the Chief Mate is the
head of deck maintenance, the hands and feet that actually does the
nitty-gritty stuffs are the deck crew headed by the Bosun.

V. Pump Man

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 You can find the rank of a Pump Man in tanker ships. Sometimes, his
salary is equivalent to that of a Bosun. On other companies, his wage is
a bit higher by USD100.00 to USD300.00.A Pump Man assists the Chief
Officer during loading, discharging and crude oil washing. Additionally,
his duty also involves assisting in ballasting, de-ballasting, inerting,
purging, gas-freeing and tank washing.

His responsibilities revolve around the deck area with the cooperation
from Bosun and other deck crew.However, he’s mainly focused on the
maintenance of cargo equipment, PV valves, IG valves, deck seal, tank
gauging equipment and connecting/ disconnecting of cargo hoses.

VI. Able-bodies Seaman (AB)

The ABs are usually the ones steering the vessel during pilotage. They
are either watch keepers or day workers. As watch keepers, they are
partnered with the deck officers respectively.They are the ones doing
all the maintenance jobs on deck like chipping, buffing, painting,
washing and greasing. Headed by the Bosun, they do the nitty-gritty
jobs like climbing and entry into enclosed spaces.
During cargo operations, they too are involved in the deck area as eyes
and ears for the deck officers. Their duties include checking the cargo
lines for leaks, tendering the mooring lines and watching the
gangway.An Able-bodied Seaman’s salary is about.

VII. Ordinary Seaman (OS)

An Ordinary Seaman is the entry-level rank in the deck department. His

duty is very much like the ABs. However, they require much
supervision especially the new ones. Hence, they are partnered with an
experienced AB.Ordinary seaman are not allowed to steer the ship even
if they have the necessary certificates. They are also not permitted to
perform working aloft and tank entries.

Their main duty is assisting the ABs while learning about the job so
they can be ready to get a promotion.

VIII. Deck Cadet

On some shipboard organization, the Deck Cadet is positioned just

before the Third Officer. However, some organizational charts place him
at the bottom of every department either deck or engine.A Deck

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Cadet’s duties depend on the culture of the ship. On some vessels, he
spends his time mostly on deck doing maintenance together with the
ratings.

Meanwhile, some ships assign deck cadets only on the bridge. Still a
few follows the program laid out in their Training Record Book. The
main duty of a Cadet is training. He must learn the different jobs on
board. He can achieve this through immersion. Therefore, his training
supervisor assigns him together with the officers. Additionally, he also
sends him to the Pump Man and Bosun to get an overview of the
various jobs on deck.

2.3.3. Engine Department and Its Functions

Engineering department is the term used referring to the crew working

below deck or inside the engine room. The engineers on board ships are
also called technical officers. They are responsible for keeping the
machinery maintained and operational. Today, ships are complex
systems that combine a lot of technology within a small space. This
includes not only the engines and the propulsion system but also, for
example, the electrical power supply, devices for loading and
discharging, garbage incineration, and freshwater generators.

Additionally, more and more environmental protection technologies,

fuel treatment systems, and cargo conditioning devices are used
onboard ships. The upkeep of all these are in the hands of engine
department staff. Their work also includes inspection, maintenance and
repair of all machineries. These include the main engine which is the
heart of the ship.

Additionally, they are also in charge of power generators, air-

conditioning plants, sewage system, water distillation units, lighting and
electrical fixture and cooling units.

The Engine Department is categorized into two: the licensed members

called the marine engineers and the unlicensed crew called engine
ratings.

The composition of the Engine department are as follows:

I. Chief Engineer

The Chief Engineer on a commercial vessel is the official title of

someone qualified to manage and oversee the engine department. The
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qualification for this position is colloquially called a "chief's ticket." The
Chief Engineer is responsible for all operations and maintenance of all
engineering equipment throughout the ship.

II. Second Engineer

The Second Engineer is the officer responsible for supervising the daily
maintenance and operation of the engineering systems. He or she
reports directly to the Chief Engineer. The Second Engineer is second in
command in the engine department after the ship's Chief Engineer. The
person holding this position is typically the busiest engineer onboard
the ship, due to the supervisory role this engineer plays and the
operations duties performed. Operational duties include responsibility
for the refrigeration systems, main engines, and any other equipment
not assigned to the third or fourth engineers

III. The Third Engineer

The 3rd Engineer is junior to the second engineer in the engine

department and is usually in charge of boilers, fuel, auxiliary engines,
condensate, and feed systems. This engineer is typically in charge of
bunkering if the officer holds a valid certificate for fuel transfer
operations.

IV. Fourth Engineer

The Fourth Engineer is junior to the third engineer in the engine

department. The most junior marine engineer of the ship is usually
responsible for electrical, sewage treatment, lube oil, bilge, and oily
water separation systems. Depending on usage, this person usually
stands a watch. Moreover, the fourth engineer may assist the third
officer in maintaining the lifeboats' proper operation.

V. Electrician or Electro-Technical Officer (ETO)

The Electrician is one of the most vital technical ranks on board. Since a
ship is mostly run by automation, an ETO plays a major role in keeping
them running at all times. In the vessel’s organizational hierarchy, the
electrician reports directly to the Chief Engineer. He normally does not
have a watch but is a day worker and can be called any time. He also
works in the deck department especially with the Chief Officer.
An ETO’s job includes UMS tests schedules, alarms tests (fire, smoke,
heat), battery checks and refrigeration and air-conditioning units. But
that’s not all. Nearly all sorts of electronics and electrical problems even

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 those found inside the bridge is a job for electrician. Sometimes called
the Electrical Engineer.

VI. Fitter

A Fitter’s job on board is well, fitting a ship. But that’s too broad and
too narrow at the same time. Fitters are highly skilled workers and are
usually found inside the engine workshop. They are strong and adept in
using various of measuring tools. Their expertise includes riveting,
grinding, welding, drilling and the use of lathe machine. They are very
good at assembling, disassembling, reassembling and building new
parts of a machine which are damaged.

Fitters are under the direct supervision of Second Engineer which

means that’s where he gets his jobs. Some of their works include
repairs of piping systems, plumbing, fitting and hot works. They also
help out the engineers maintaining their machineries.

VII. Motorman/ Oiler

A Motorman or Oiler’s job includes inspection and maintenance of

pumps, motors, turbines and condensers on board. His care for these
equipment involves greasing, lubricating, de-rusting and painting if
necessary. He keeps a record of his tasks and is directly responsible to
the Second Engineer. Like the rest of the deck ratings, he also helps
make the engine room clean and in good order. On some ships, his
responsibility includes sounding of bilges and bunker tanks.

Both the Oiler and Motorman take part during bunkering operations

VIII. Wiper

The Wiper is the Ordinary Seaman’s counterpart in the engine room.

His job is that mainly of support to those ranks above him. In most
occasions, he is in charge of the general cleanliness of the engine room,
engine work shop and engine control room. He can be seen assisting
the engineers cleaning the purifiers, dismantling motors and doing
routine maintenance.

Wipers are expected to study and learn the jobs of Oilers, Motormen
and Fitters. With enough knowledge and experience, he can be
promoted to those levels.

IX. Engine Cadet

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Like the Deck Cadet, an Engine Cadet’s duty is mainly to learn the
different jobs in the Engine department. His training scheme is directly
supervised by the Second Engineer. Because of the various jobs in the
engine room, he is normally paired to the Engineers, electrician and
even with the ratings.

Cadets are expected to absorb the learning he encounter in his work.

He is a trainee to become an engineer even though his rank is placed
below the engine department’s organizational diagram.

2.3.4. Steward's Department and Its Functions

In most merchant vessels, the Steward department comprises the

smallest number of crew in the shipboard organization. But that doesn’t
mean they’re less important. In fact, the Steward Department is the
“backbone” of the organizational structure. Let’s take at look at what
they do. Sometimes, they are also called the Galley Catering
Department. Their main job is to prepare meals for the crew. Not just
ordinary meals but the delicious and healthy ones.

The Mess room is the only place where all the crew are usually
gathered. A tasty meal after a hard day’s job often gets the crew
inspired for the next day.

The composition of the Stewards department are as follows:

I. Chief Steward

A chief steward is the highest ranking member of the galley

department. He directs and supervises the planning and preparation of
meals. Moreover, he is responsible for cost control and requisition of
provisions. He directs and assigns personnel that does functions such
as preparing meals, cleaning and maintaining officers' quarters, and
managing the stores. The Chief Steward also does other activities such
as overtime and cost control records and may require or purchase
stores and equipment. Other additional duties may include taking part
in cooking activities. The Chief Steward is assisted by a chief cook and
his/her assistant cooks, mess men and assistant stewards.
.
II. Chief Cook

Some ships employ only a chief steward or chief cook but the same
person performs both the job of the cook and steward. This scheme is
usually part of cost cutting strategy especially on merchant ships
where the crew is only small.A Chief Cook’s job is to prepare and cook
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the meals for the crew. He maintains the cleanliness and orderliness
inside the galley and the provision room.

His duty also overlaps with the Chief Steward. He also bakes bread
and cakes for the crew.

III. Mess Man

While the Officers and Engineers are busy with their work, the Mess
Man is the guy in charge of cleaning their cabins.His area of expertise
is inside the Mess hall where he keeps it clean and orderly. Before
meals, he sets the table by preparing the plates, utensils, chairs and
ensures that the ketchup is not empty.

He is also in charge of washing the dishes and filling the fridge with
milk, juice, yogurt, bread and other beverages that the crew needs.

2.4. Shipboard Organizational Chart

To better understand how the chain of command flows on board, one

must look at the vessel’s organizational chart. This chart shows various
departments running the ship including their department heads.

Each of the crew functions based on their ranks outlined in their job
description. Shipboard organization makes it easy for everyone to
identify the degree of responsibility of every person on board.

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Fig. A typical organogram of a Ship’s
Command

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III.0. THE PILLARS OF INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING

Since its founding in 1948, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO)

has played a key part in the structuring of policy and procedure across the
global maritime industry. Alongside its sister-agency, the International
Labour Organisation (ILO), a number of crucial, internationally recognised
agreements have been enforced.

With the key goals of improving safety to ships, their operation and lives
that sail upon them, in addition to improving the protection of the marine
environment from pollution caused by routine operations and accidental
damage, four key Conventions have been put in place to mandate
requirements and standards surrounding safety procedures, pollution
prevention practices, seafarer training and qualification, and labour laws of
the maritime industry.

Below details each of the four pillars of maritime law and the
important role each one plays.

3.1. SOLAS – Safety of Life at Sea

3.1.1. Overview

With one of the industry’s main concerns being the safety of crew and
personnel on board vessels, SOLAS – Safety of Life at Sea – is generally
regarded as the most important of all international Conventions.The
international SOLAS Convention sets minimum safety requirements for the
construction, equipment, and operation of merchant ships. The 14 chapters
currently included in the SOLAS Convention consist of a range of codes and
regulations which specify the minimum safety standards for the area
mentioned above.

The SOLAS Convention does not apply to all ships. Only vessels travelling
international waters (excluding warships, cargo ships of less than 500 GT,
non-propelled ships, wooden ships, non-commercial pleasure yachts and
fishing vessels) will be held accountable to the standards enforced by
SOLAS.All signatory flag states must ensure all ships registered under their
flag comply with the standards set out under SOLAS. Certificates are issued
to a ship to confirm that these standards have been met.

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3.1.2. Brief History of SOLAS
Originally actioned in 1914 in response to the sinking of the RMS Titanic,
recommendations were incorporated into the International Conference on
Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). Among other items, these recommendations
included lifeboats, lifeboat drills and inspections to ensure the lifesaving
equipment and crew knowledge were in place, should the need arise. This
was the first major industry-wide safety Convention. The SOLAS Convention
has witnessed various versions over the years (1929, 1948, 1960). The
latest version was introduced 1974, when a completely new Convention was
adopted. One of the biggest changes meant that any amendments to SOLAS
could now be implemented in a vastly reduced time frame to that previously
enforced; the ‘tacit acceptance procedure’ permitted amendments to be
enforced on a specified date, unless a certain number of objections were
received.

3.1.3. Current Operation

Still maintained by the IMO, today the SOLAS 1974, as amended,

Convention continues to mandate basic safety aspects for ships travelling in
international waters, such as machinery, fire protection, and lifesaving
appliances. The SOLAS Convention is regularly updated and amended to
remain abreast of the changing needs, technologies, and risks of the
maritime industry. An up-to-date, detailed outline of the SOLAS Convention
chapters can be found on the IMO website.

3.2. MARPOL – The International Convention for the Prevention of

Pollution from Ships

3.2.1. Overview

MARPOL – The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from

Ships – is the main international maritime Convention covering the
prevention of environmental pollution by ships. MARPOL covers pollution
prevention from a routine operational and accidental perspective. In addition
to setting standards for the discharge and cleaning processes of operational

147
shipping waste, the MARPOL Convention also sets standards for the stowing,
handling, and transfer of hazardous cargoes.

Unlike SOLAS, the MARPOL Convention applies to vessels of all types flagged
under a State member of the Convention, or that operate within its
jurisdiction, regardless of where they sail. Signatory flag states are obliged
to incorporate MARPOL requirements into domestic law.

3.2.2. Brief History of MARPOL

MARPOL was brought in to address the issue that large amounts of ocean
are not under the jurisdiction of any one country or government. Due to this,
monitoring for or proactive actions to protect against pollution were the
responsibility of no one body. The Torrey Canyon disaster in 1967 was the
biggest oil spill to date and was the tipping point which put in motion the
development of a Convention to address pollution prevention. Following this
event, the IMO established MARPOL in 1973, putting in place an
international agreement on the prevention of pollution to the marine
environment by ships from operational or accidental causes.

However, the 1973 MARPOL Convention was not enforced, and following a
number of further incidents between 1976-1977, the 1978 MARPOL Protocol
was added to the original MARPOL Convention. The combined Convention
entered into force in 1983.MARPOL initiated changes to ship design and
standard of construction, with the aim of mitigating any potential treat of
spillage, following incidents at sea.

3.2.3. Current Operation of MARPOL

MARPOL remains under the governance of the IMO and has undergone
further amendments over the years. Six technical annexes continue to
specify regulations aimed at preventing and minimising pollution from ships.
One of the most recent updates to come into force was the IMO 2020.

Under Annex VI, regulation 14 of the MARPOL Convention, the IMO set a
limit for the Sulphur content in fuel oil used on board ships.

The new limit of 0.50wt% will significantly reduce the amount of Sulphur
oxide produced by ships, resulting in far-reaching health and environmental
benefits.

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The new regulation applies to all ships of member states, regardless of size,
operation, or destination. An up-to-date, detailed outline of the MARPOL
Convention Annexes can be found on the IMO website.

3.3. STCW – Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping

3.3.1. Overview

The STCW – Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for

Seafarers – sets minimum qualification standards for personnel and crew of
all levels on board a ship, including masters, officers and watch personnel.

Similar to the other pillars, the main purpose of the international Convention
is to promote safety at sea, alongside the protection of the marine
environment. STCW is helping to further achieve these goals through a
common agreement which ensures similar programmes of training with
equal standards are carried out by all seafarers of equal role and rank
globally. The STCW Convention requires that training leading to the issue of
certification is provided by an approved source.

The STCW standards apply to all ships greater than 24 meters in length and
apply to all crew members. Certificates, minimum sea-time, and refresher
courses are required for some roles. Unlike other Conventions, the STCW
applies to ships of non-Party States when visiting ports of States which are
parties to the Convention.

3.3.2. Brief History

In 1978, the STCW Convention established basic requirements of training,

certification and watch keeping for all seafarers on an international level.
Prior to this, any such standards were set by individual governments. With
each country abiding by national requirements, standards of training,
expected knowledge, and experience varied widely throughout the world.
Major amendments were made to the STCW in 1995 and again in 2010, to
address concerns with the existing Convention and incorporate updates to
meet modern day training requirements.

3.3.3. Current Operation

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Like the SOLAS and MARPOL Conventions, STCW remains governed by the
IMO.

The STCW Convention is made up of the STCW Code and Chapters. The
Code is split into Part A and Part B. Part A provides mandatory standards
regarding the STCW Convention and its annex, while Part B details
recommended guidance. The Annex is comprised of 8 Chapters, which are
divided into Regulations. An up-to-date account of the STCW Convention
Annexes can be found on the IMO website.

3.4. MLC – Maritime Labour Convention

3.4.1. Overview

The MLC – Maritime Labour Convention – sets out minimum standards for
seafarers working on a ship. The comprehensive Convention provides an
internationally recognised, single source of regulation and guidance.

Under the MLC, seafarers will have minimum working and living rights
covering:

Contracts of Employment

 Pay
 Manning Levels
 Hours of Rest
 Leave Entitlement
 Repatriation
 Compensation for Ship Loss or Foundering
 Career and Skills Development

In addition to standards stipulating minimum age and medical certification,

under the MLC, seafarers will need to be trained and qualified to perform
onboard duties (training must conform to IMO standards) and receive
personal safety training. The MLC also ensures seafarers have access to
satisfactory accommodation, recreational and medical facilities, when living
on onboard.

The MLC requires that seafarers’ work environments on ships must undergo
regular risk assessments in order to mitigate workplace accidents. A system
for reporting accidents and occupational ailments must also be in place
under the MLC.
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The MLC does not cover seafarers serving on ships operating across inland
or sheltered waters, fishing vessels, or warships and auxiliary vessels.

3.4.2. Brief History

MLC was established in 2006 by the International Labour Organisation (ILO).

The aim of the Convention was to ensure the rights and needs of the
seafarers are safeguarded and free from opportunities of exploitation. The
Convention did not come into force until 2013.The main reasons behind the
Convention was due to the sheer size and spread of international maritime
trade activities and the number of people employed by the sector.

The ILO state that the MLC “was designed to be applicable globally, easy to
understand, readily updatable and uniformly enforced”.

3.4.3. Current Operation

Today the MLC stands as the fourth pillar of international maritime law,
building on the three other key IMO Conventions (SOLAS, MARPOL and the
STCW), and further promoting and supporting maritime safety and
environmental protection.

The Convention demonstrates how “international cooperation can combine

constructively for the most globalized of industries to concretely address the
challenges to securing decent working and living conditions for seafarers,
while simultaneously helping to ensure fair competition for ship owners,”
says Cleopatra Doumbia-Henry, Director of the International Labour
Standards Department of the ILO

Under the MLC, the national authority of the party has the power to
withdraw a ship’s maritime labour certificate if requirements and conditions
are found to be in breach of MLC standards. Channels are available for
seafarers to open a complaint should they feel the MLC is not followed on
board a vessel.

Although the Convention is not ratified globally, the MLC applies to all ships
entering ports of parties to Convention. Consequences may be faced by any
vessel not complying with the MLC.

3.4.4. Ongoing Compliance Monitoring

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The Four Pillars of Maritime Law play an important role in the levels of safety
and environmental protection seen present across the industry today. These
standards would not be possible without a mutual, global effort to uphold the
Conventions and drive further improvements. To monitor for compliance of
each of the four pillars, Port State Controls (PSCs) of member flags may
inspect a ship from a different flag state (and MOU) if there are clear
grounds for believing that the ship, its crew, equipment or certification do
not comply with the requirements of the SOLAS, MARPOL, STCW and MLC
Conventions.

Ongoing work is completed by the relevant governing bodies, with the

support of the wider maritime industry, to ensure each of the Conventions
remain up to date in addressing current maritime operations, procedures,
technologies, and concerns.

5. 0. BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

4.1. Overview

Bridge resource management is such a vital part of the ship safety that it is
requirement of the STCW convention and the ISM Code. It is a method
which uses all resources available to conduct safe and efficient vessel bridge
functions. These resources include both equipment and personnel. It takes
both traditional skills to operate the equipment as well as managerial skills
to use personnel resources to their potential. In order to best utilize
personnel o board your vessel, you must understand the human factors
involved. These include communications, situational awareness, stress,
fatigue, leadership and decision making, and group dynamics and
integration.

The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has determined that human

factor contributed to 75-80% of all marine casualties. That is why the STCW
has made a requirement that all shipboard officers must demonstrate an
understanding of the concepts which constitute effective Bridge Resource
Management. Note that it is important to establish good vertical

communication including making sure to include unlicensed personnel.

The bridge personnel’s performance is essential to the safety of the vessel.

In order to achieve a sound and efficient bridge organization, defined
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procedures including Master’s standing orders are essential. Procedures shall
be established to ensure duties are clearly defined and assigned to certain
individuals. Effective procedures will minimize the risk that an error by one
person will have disastrous and irreversible consequences. No one should be
assigned more than they can handle, and no duty should be re-assigned
without notifying the watch officer.

A visual lookout should always be maintained. In good visibility, it is good

practice to periodically undertake collision avoidance routines in order to be

fully prepared if difficult situations subsequently arise and reduce

visibility.

To cope with the workload and risks, specific watch conditions should be
established for restricted visibility, heavy traffic, and pilotage conditions. It is
important to make sure that all equipment needed is available and
functioning. If equipment is not functioning, its limitations and errors should
be correctly applied. Pilots are valuable addition to the bridge team; there
must be a good exchange of information between the pilot and the bridge
team so each is aware of the other’s intentions.

In assigning duties, careful consideration should be given to the ergonomic

layout of the bridge. The concept of the zones and responsibility takes this
into consideration and duties are assigned so that personnel are not
interfering with each other but can share critical information. Checklist
should be used but not treated as a substitute to the thorough knowledge of
the ship or procedures. Checklists have many benefits, such as focused
attention at the task at hand, helping to establish priorities, serving as an
aid against failure of human memory, helping to balance the workload, and
eliminating guesswork by instituting standard procedures. The STCW
convention requires that new crew members be given familiarization training
prior to assuming any duties, and Masters and mates have knowledge of
Bridge Teamwork Principles.

4.2. Pilot and Bridge Team Integration

The SCTW convention clearly defines the relationship between the pilot,
Master, and the officer in charge of navigational watch. Despite the duties
and obligations of pilots, it is important to remember that their presence on
board does not relieve the Master or officer in charge of navigational watch
from their duties and obligations for ship safety.

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Because of this, an open low of information on the bridge between the pilot
and the bridge team is essential. The bridge team must be aware of the
difficulties and constraints of the pilotage area and the pilot must be aware
of the characteristics and the particulars of the ship. When a pilot is aboard,
it must become part of cooperation effort working with the bridge team.

4.3. Voyage Planning

Actual formation of the voyage plan begins with appraisal, which is the
process of gathering together all data related to the contemplated voyage, it
should include navigational information, shown on charts and found in
publications; references should also be made to climatic data and
meteorological information.

Having made the most complete appraisal possible, the navigation officer
must submit it to the Master and then prepare a voyage plan, following the
Master’s instructions. The plan should embrace the entire voyage from berth
to berth, and include provisions for execution – waypoints and narrative
descriptions of what to do and when to do it.

Monitoring is necessary to ensure that the plan is followed accurately – it

should include parallel indexing, head marks, and danger bearings. A
complete voyage plan may also be useful documentation for future
reference.

4.4. Situational Awareness and Error Trapping

Situational awareness is an accurate perception of the factors and conditions

that affect the ship and the crew during the specific period of time. When we
lose situational awareness, we increase the potential of human error. The
complexity of operating a modern-day vessel and the interactions within and
outside the bridge team provide the opportunity for errors.

Accidents are rarely caused by a single event – it is usually a sequence of

chain of events that cause an accident. Breaking an error chain, or error
trapping, is essential in preventing accidents. All bridge team members must
be able to identify error chains and be encouraged to take corrective actions
and speak out.

4.5. Communication
It is the exchange of information, thoughts or feelings. The most effective

communication is face-to-face, enabling you to receive visual as well as

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spoken information. Verbal communications include all types of radio- and
telephone communications. It is important to choose the words carefully,
and speak them loudly, clearly and concisely. The least effective
communication is written.

The sender should be conveying the information necessary for the mission
accomplishment and must be pro-active in making receiver understand the
message. The message should consist of correct terminology and be clearly
sent to receiver. The receiver should be acting in the process and give
feedback which can include acknowledgement, repeat, or paraphrasing.
Once the receiver has given feedback, the communication process is
completed when the sender acknowledges it.

4.6. Stress

In understanding the relationship between stress and performance, it is

important to consider the effects of stress on the body. There are three
stages associated with stress, namely the state of alarm, resistance, and
exhaustion. The initial state of alarm takes the body by surprise, and the
ability to cope with the stress is reduced. As the body fights, or resists, the
original source, the symptoms gradually disappear and the body adapts to
the higher level of stress; but the ability to cope with other stress lowers.
Eventually, we are unable to cope with the original stress, and exhaustion
occurs when the body’s resources have been depleted.

No all stress is bad. Studies show that the body performs best when under
moderate stress. Too little stress causes boredom and complacency, while
too much stress diminishes situational awareness and can cause panic. Good
bridge team leaders will not only deal with stress within them but will also
perceive and accommodate stress in other team members. This includes
reducing the individual’s workload, or assigning tasks based on ability and
experience.

4.7. Fatigue

It is defining and weariness or exhaustion from work, over exertion,

inadequate sound sleep or the cumulative effects of poor sleep over several
days. Fatigue slows visual perception, decision making, mental arithmetic,

and impair memory recall. The counter measures include preventive and
operational strategies. Preventive strategies are used before and between

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duty periods; this includes getting the best possible sleep before reporting
on board. However, if you wake spontaneously and cannot go back to sleep
within 15 to 30 minutes, you then get up. Studies also show that the naps
can improve performance – naps before duty period should be limited to 45
minutes while at other times may take more than two hours. The operational
strategies, in turn, would include physical action, conversation on
professional topics, strategic caffeine consumption, balanced nutrition,
staying well hydrated etc.

4.8. Leadership and Group Decision Making

The promotion of bridge resource management is based on the concept of

synergy, described as the situation where the total of the individuals in
cooperation is greater than the sum of the individuals taken by themselves.
The best leaders share the information, communicate openly and encourage
participation; they respect others and are able to share workload.
Maintaining a constructive and positive attitude and keeping a receptive
atmosphere coupled with honesty are necessities of productive leaders.

Decision making is an essential skill for operational team leaders. Team

members participate in the problem solving process by contributing timely
and valuable information to the team leader. To make a positive decision,
information must be gathered and cross-checked.

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